Adaptations

@book{cott1940adaptive4,
    author = "Cott, H. B",
    title = "Adaptive Coloration in Animals",
    year = "1940",
    publisher = "London, Oxford Press, 508 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cott, H. B., 1940, Adaptive Coloration in Animals: London, Oxford Press, 508 p.}"
}

@book{bowman1961morphological1,
    author = "Bowman, R. L",
    title = "Morphological differentiation and adaptation in the Galpagos finches",
    year = "1961",
    publisher = "University of California Publications in Zoology, v. 58, p. 326 pp.; University of California Press, Berkeley",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bowman, R. L., 1961, Morphological differentiation and adaptation in the Galpagos finches: University of California Publications in Zoology, v. 58, p. 326 pp.; University of California Press, Berkeley.}"
}

@inproceedings{crook1962the5,
    author = "Crook, J. H",
    title = "The adaptive significance of pair formation types in weaver birds",
    year = "1962",
    booktitle = "Symposium of the Zoological Society, London, v. 8, p. 57-70",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Crook, J. H., 1962, The adaptive significance of pair formation types in weaver birds: Symposium of the Zoological Society, London, v. 8, p. 57-70.}"
}

Journal Article ADAPTATION AND THE FORM–FUNCTION COMPLEX Get access Walter J. Bock, Walter J. Bock Department of Zoology University of Illinois UrbanaForschungsstelle für Ichthyologie, Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart Germany Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Gerd von Wahlert Gerd von Wahlert Department of Zoology University of Illinois UrbanaForschungsstelle für Ichthyologie, Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart Germany Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 19, Issue 3, 1 September 1965, Pages 269–299, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1965.tb01720.x Published: 01 September 1965 Article history Accepted: 10 April 1965 Published: 01 September 1965

@article{doi101111j155856461965tb01720x,
    author = "Bock, Walter J. and von Wahlert, Gerd",
    title = "ADAPTATION AND THE FORM-FUNCTION COMPLEX",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Journal Article ADAPTATION AND THE FORM–FUNCTION COMPLEX Get access Walter J. Bock, Walter J. Bock Department of Zoology University of Illinois UrbanaForschungsstelle für Ichthyologie, Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart Germany Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Gerd von Wahlert Gerd von Wahlert Department of Zoology University of Illinois UrbanaForschungsstelle für Ichthyologie, Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart Germany Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 19, Issue 3, 1 September 1965, Pages 269–299, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1965.tb01720.x Published: 01 September 1965 Article history Accepted: 10 April 1965 Published: 01 September 1965",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1965.tb01720.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1965.tb01720.x",
    openalex = "W2321138411",
    references = "doi101111j155856461956tb02836x, doi101111j155856461959tb03005x, doi10111911937571, doi101126science13434891501, doi101126science1353507972, doi1023072089399, doi1023072405671, doi1023073798722, doi1023074510986, doi104159harvard9780674865327, doi107312simp93764"
}

@book{williams1966adaptation8,
    author = "Williams, G. C",
    title = "Adaptation and Natural Sciences",
    year = "1966",
    publisher = "Princeton, Princeton University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Williams, G. C., 1966, Adaptation and Natural Sciences: Princeton, Princeton University Press.}"
}

@article{coombs1978theoretical3,
    author = "Coombs, W. P",
    title = "Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 53, p. 393-418",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Coombs, W. P., 1978, Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs: Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 53, p. 393-418.}"
}

@article{collis1979melanophore2,
    author = "Collis, C. S",
    title = "Melanophore potentials of the chromatically intact spinal stoneloach ( Neomacheilus barbatulusL.) following adaptation to varying backgrounds",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Physiology, v. 131, p. 13-21",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Collis, C. S., 1979, Melanophore potentials of the chromatically intact spinal stoneloach ( Neomacheilus barbatulusL.) following adaptation to varying backgrounds: Journal of Comparative Physiology, v. 131, p. 13-21.}"
}

Abstract An adaptationist programme has dominated evolutionary thought in England and the United States during the past 40 years. It is based on faith in the power of natural selection as an optimizing agent. It proceeds by breaking an organism into unitary ‘traits’ and proposing an adaptive story for each considered separately. Trade-offs among competing selective demands exert the only brake upon perfection; non-optimality is thereby rendered as a result of adaptation as well. We criticize this approach and attempt to reassert a competing notion (long popular in continental Europe) that organisms must be analysed as integrated wholes, with Baupläne so constrained by phyletic heritage, pathways of development and general architecture that the constraints themselves become more interesting and more important in delimiting pathways of change than the selective force that may mediate change when it occurs. We fault the adaptationist programme for its failure to distinguish current utility from reasons for origin (male tyrannosaurs may have used their diminutive front legs to titillate female partners, but this will not explain why they got so small); for its unwillingness to consider alternatives to adaptive stories; for its reliance upon plausibility alone as a criterion for accepting speculative tales; and for its failure to consider adequately such competing themes as random fixation of alleles, production of non-adaptive structures by developmental correlation with selected features (allometry, pleiotropy, material compensation, mechanically forced correlation), the separability of adaptation and selection, multiple adaptive peaks, and current utility as an epiphenomenon of non-adaptive structures. We support Darwin’s own pluralistic approach to identifying the agents of evolutionary change.

@article{doi101098rspb19790086,
    author = "Gould, Stephen Jay and Lewontin, Richard C",
    title = "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract An adaptationist programme has dominated evolutionary thought in England and the United States during the past 40 years. It is based on faith in the power of natural selection as an optimizing agent. It proceeds by breaking an organism into unitary ‘traits’ and proposing an adaptive story for each considered separately. Trade-offs among competing selective demands exert the only brake upon perfection; non-optimality is thereby rendered as a result of adaptation as well. We criticize this approach and attempt to reassert a competing notion (long popular in continental Europe) that organisms must be analysed as integrated wholes, with Baupläne so constrained by phyletic heritage, pathways of development and general architecture that the constraints themselves become more interesting and more important in delimiting pathways of change than the selective force that may mediate change when it occurs. We fault the adaptationist programme for its failure to distinguish current utility from reasons for origin (male tyrannosaurs may have used their diminutive front legs to titillate female partners, but this will not explain why they got so small); for its unwillingness to consider alternatives to adaptive stories; for its reliance upon plausibility alone as a criterion for accepting speculative tales; and for its failure to consider adequately such competing themes as random fixation of alleles, production of non-adaptive structures by developmental correlation with selected features (allometry, pleiotropy, material compensation, mechanically forced correlation), the separability of adaptation and selection, multiple adaptive peaks, and current utility as an epiphenomenon of non-adaptive structures. We support Darwin’s own pluralistic approach to identifying the agents of evolutionary change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1979.0086",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1979.0086",
    openalex = "W2066261007",
    references = "doi101002bs3830240103, doi101017s0016672300013094, doi101038023032c0, doi101086410123, doi101111j1469185x1966tb01624x, doi101111j155856461976tb00911x, doi101130mem125p1, doi1023072407154, doi107312rens91062, openalexw114383963, openalexw1602500460"
}

@inproceedings{gould1979the6,
    author = "Gould, S. J. and Lewontin, R. C",
    title = "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm",
    year = "1979",
    booktitle = "a critique of the adaptationist programme: Proceedings of the Royal Society, v. B205, p. 581-598",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gould, S. J., and Lewontin, R. C., 1979, The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme: Proceedings of the Royal Society, v. B205, p. 581-598.}"
}

@book{schmidtnielsen1979animal7,
    author = "Schmidt-Nielsen, K",
    title = "Animal Physiology, Adaptation and Environment",
    year = "1979",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Schmidt-Nielsen, K., 1979, Animal Physiology, Adaptation and Environment: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.}"
}

1. The adaptationist program attempts to determine what selective advantages have contributed to the shaping of the phenotype. 2. Evolutionary change falls far short of being a perfect optimization process. Stochastic processes and other constraints upon selection prevent the achievement of perfect adaptedness. Evolutionists must pay more attention to these constraints than they have in the past. However, as already stressed by Darwin (1859, p. 201) there is no selective premium on perfect adaptation. 3. Even though the adaptationist program has been occasionally misapplied, particularly in an uncontrolled reductionist manner, its heuristic power justifies its continued adoption under appropriate safeguards. The application of the adaptationist program has led to important discoveries in many branches of biology.

@article{doi101086284064,
    author = "Mayr, Ernst",
    title = "How to Carry Out the Adaptationist Program?",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "1. The adaptationist program attempts to determine what selective advantages have contributed to the shaping of the phenotype. 2. Evolutionary change falls far short of being a perfect optimization process. Stochastic processes and other constraints upon selection prevent the achievement of perfect adaptedness. Evolutionists must pay more attention to these constraints than they have in the past. However, as already stressed by Darwin (1859, p. 201) there is no selective premium on perfect adaptation. 3. Even though the adaptationist program has been occasionally misapplied, particularly in an uncontrolled reductionist manner, its heuristic power justifies its continued adoption under appropriate safeguards. The application of the adaptationist program has led to important discoveries in many branches of biology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284064",
    doi = "10.1086/284064",
    openalex = "W2007886868",
    references = "doi101017s0094837300003572, doi101098rspb19790086, doi101111j155856461959tb03005x, doi101111j155856461965tb01720x, doi101126science860134, doi1015159781400820108, doi10230725528056, doi1023072874, doi104159harvard9780674865327, doi105962bhltitle46292, doi105962bhltitle59991, openalexw2971318137"
}

The author challenges the traditional approach to dealing with uncertainty in the management of such renewable resources as fish and wildlife. He argues that scientific understanding will come from the experience of management as an ongoing, adaptive, and experimental process, rather than through basic research or the development of ecological theory. \n\nThe opening chapters review approaches to formulating management objectives as well as models for understanding how policy choices affect the attainment of these objectives. Subsequent chapters present various statistical methods for understanding the dynamics of uncertainty in managed fish and wildlife populations and for seeking optimum harvest policies in the face of uncertainty. The book concludes with a look at prospects for adaptive management of complex systems, emphasizing such human factors involved in decision making as risk aversion and conflicting objectives as well as biophysical factors. Throughout the text dynamic models and Bayesian statistical theory are used as tools for understanding the behavior of managed systems. These tools are illustrated with simple graphs and plots of data from representative cases. \n\nThis text/reference will serve researchers, graduate students, and resource managers who formulate harvest policies and study the dynamics of harvest populations, as well as analysts (modelers, statisticians, and stock assessment experts) who are concerned with the practice of policy design.

@article{doi1023072531565,
    author = "Rutherford, Amy and Walters, Caroline E.",
    title = "Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources.",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Biometrics",
    abstract = "The author challenges the traditional approach to dealing with uncertainty in the management of such renewable resources as fish and wildlife. He argues that scientific understanding will come from the experience of management as an ongoing, adaptive, and experimental process, rather than through basic research or the development of ecological theory. \n\nThe opening chapters review approaches to formulating management objectives as well as models for understanding how policy choices affect the attainment of these objectives. Subsequent chapters present various statistical methods for understanding the dynamics of uncertainty in managed fish and wildlife populations and for seeking optimum harvest policies in the face of uncertainty. The book concludes with a look at prospects for adaptive management of complex systems, emphasizing such human factors involved in decision making as risk aversion and conflicting objectives as well as biophysical factors. Throughout the text dynamic models and Bayesian statistical theory are used as tools for understanding the behavior of managed systems. These tools are illustrated with simple graphs and plots of data from representative cases. \n\nThis text/reference will serve researchers, graduate students, and resource managers who formulate harvest policies and study the dynamics of harvest populations, as well as analysts (modelers, statisticians, and stock assessment experts) who are concerned with the practice of policy design.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2531565",
    doi = "10.2307/2531565",
    openalex = "W2042464037",
    references = "doi101007bf00044132, doi1023071439791"
}

The concept of a universal human nature, based on a species-typical collection of complex psychological adaptations, is defended as valid, despite the existence of substantial genetic variation that makes each human genetically and biochemically unique. These apparently contradictory facts can be reconciled by considering that (a) complex adaptations necessarily require many genes to regulate their development, and (b) sexual recombination makes it improbable that all the necessary genes for a complex adaptation would be together at once in the same individual, if genes coding for complex adaptations varied substantially between individuals. Selection, interacting with sexual recombination, tends to impose relative uniformity at the functional level in complex adaptive designs, suggesting that most heritable psychological differences are not themselves likely to be complex psychological adaptations. Instead, they are mostly evolutionary by-products, such as concomitants of parasite-driven selection for biochemical individuality. An evolutionary approach to psychological variation reconceptualizes traits as either the output of species-typical, adaptively designed development and psychological mechanisms, or as the result of genetic noise creating perturbations in these mechanisms.

@article{doi101111j146764941990tb00907x,
    author = "Tooby, John and Cosmides, Leda",
    title = "On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Personality",
    abstract = "The concept of a universal human nature, based on a species-typical collection of complex psychological adaptations, is defended as valid, despite the existence of substantial genetic variation that makes each human genetically and biochemically unique. These apparently contradictory facts can be reconciled by considering that (a) complex adaptations necessarily require many genes to regulate their development, and (b) sexual recombination makes it improbable that all the necessary genes for a complex adaptation would be together at once in the same individual, if genes coding for complex adaptations varied substantially between individuals. Selection, interacting with sexual recombination, tends to impose relative uniformity at the functional level in complex adaptive designs, suggesting that most heritable psychological differences are not themselves likely to be complex psychological adaptations. Instead, they are mostly evolutionary by-products, such as concomitants of parasite-driven selection for biochemical individuality. An evolutionary approach to psychological variation reconceptualizes traits as either the output of species-typical, adaptively designed development and psychological mechanisms, or as the result of genetic noise creating perturbations in these mechanisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x",
    openalex = "W2145198619",
    references = "doi1010160040580978900394, doi1010160162309589900137, doi101038369716c0, doi1023072803365, doi1023073544435, openalexw1523843460"
}

Genetic algorithms are playing an increasingly important role in studies of complex adaptive systems, ranging from adaptive agents in economic theory to the use of machine learning techniques in the design of complex devices such as aircraft turbines and integrated circuits. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems is the book that initiated this field of study, presenting the theoretical foundations and exploring applications. In its most familiar form, adaptation is a biological process, whereby organisms evolve by rearranging genetic material to survive in environments confronting them. In this now classic work, Holland presents a mathematical model that allows for the nonlinearity of such complex interactions. He demonstrates the model's universality by applying it to economics, physiological psychology, game theory, and artificial intelligence and then outlines the way in which this approach modifies the traditional views of mathematical genetics. Initially applying his concepts to simply defined artificial systems with limited numbers of parameters, Holland goes on to explore their use in the study of a wide range of complex, naturally occuring processes, concentrating on systems having multiple factors that interact in nonlinear ways. Along the way he accounts for major effects of coadaptation and coevolution: the emergence of building blocks, or schemata, that are recombined and passed on to succeeding generations to provide, innovations and improvements. Bradford Books imprint

@book{doi107551mitpress10900010001,
    author = "Holland, John H.",
    title = "Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems",
    year = "1992",
    booktitle = "The MIT Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Genetic algorithms are playing an increasingly important role in studies of complex adaptive systems, ranging from adaptive agents in economic theory to the use of machine learning techniques in the design of complex devices such as aircraft turbines and integrated circuits. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems is the book that initiated this field of study, presenting the theoretical foundations and exploring applications. In its most familiar form, adaptation is a biological process, whereby organisms evolve by rearranging genetic material to survive in environments confronting them. In this now classic work, Holland presents a mathematical model that allows for the nonlinearity of such complex interactions. He demonstrates the model's universality by applying it to economics, physiological psychology, game theory, and artificial intelligence and then outlines the way in which this approach modifies the traditional views of mathematical genetics. Initially applying his concepts to simply defined artificial systems with limited numbers of parameters, Holland goes on to explore their use in the study of a wide range of complex, naturally occuring processes, concentrating on systems having multiple factors that interact in nonlinear ways. Along the way he accounts for major effects of coadaptation and coevolution: the emergence of building blocks, or schemata, that are recombined and passed on to succeeding generations to provide, innovations and improvements. Bradford Books imprint",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/1090.001.0001",
    doi = "10.7551/mitpress/1090.001.0001",
    openalex = "W1497256448"
}

Although researchers have long been aware that the species-typical architecture of the human mind is the product of our evolutionary history, it has only been in the last three decades that advances in such fields as evolutionary biology, cognitive psychology, and paleoanthropology have made the fact of our evolution illuminating. Converging findings from a variety of disciplines are leading to the emergence of a fundamentally new view of the human mind, and with it a new framework for the behavioral and social sciences. First, with the advent of the cognitive revolution, human nature can finally be defined precisely as the set of universal, species-typical information-processing programs that operate beneath the surface of expressed cultural variability. Second, this collection of cognitive programs evolved in the Pleistocene to solve the adaptive problems regularly faced by our hunter-gatherer ancestors - problems such as mate selection, language acquisition, co-operation, and sexual infidelity. Consequently, the traditional view of the mind as a general-purpose computer, tabula rasa, or passive recipient of culture is being replaced by the view that the mind resembles an intricate network of functionally specialized computers, each of which imposes contentful structure on human mental organization and culture. The Adapted Mind explores this new approach - evolutionary psychology - and its implications for a new view of culture.

@book{openalexw1659631989,
    author = "Barkow, Jerome H. and Cosmides, Leda and Tooby, John",
    title = "The Adapted mind: evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture",
    year = "1992",
    abstract = "Although researchers have long been aware that the species-typical architecture of the human mind is the product of our evolutionary history, it has only been in the last three decades that advances in such fields as evolutionary biology, cognitive psychology, and paleoanthropology have made the fact of our evolution illuminating. Converging findings from a variety of disciplines are leading to the emergence of a fundamentally new view of the human mind, and with it a new framework for the behavioral and social sciences. First, with the advent of the cognitive revolution, human nature can finally be defined precisely as the set of universal, species-typical information-processing programs that operate beneath the surface of expressed cultural variability. Second, this collection of cognitive programs evolved in the Pleistocene to solve the adaptive problems regularly faced by our hunter-gatherer ancestors - problems such as mate selection, language acquisition, co-operation, and sexual infidelity. Consequently, the traditional view of the mind as a general-purpose computer, tabula rasa, or passive recipient of culture is being replaced by the view that the mind resembles an intricate network of functionally specialized computers, each of which imposes contentful structure on human mental organization and culture. The Adapted Mind explores this new approach - evolutionary psychology - and its implications for a new view of culture.",
    openalex = "W1659631989"
}

Indigenous groups offer alternative knowledge and perspectives based on their own locally developed practices of resource use. We surveyed the international literature to focus on the role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in monitoring, responding to, and managing ecosystem processes and functions, with special attention to ecological resilience. Case studies revealed that there exists a diversity of local or traditional practices for ecosystem management. These include multiple species management, resource rotation, succession management, landscape patchiness management, and other ways of responding to and managing pulses and ecological surprises. Social mechanisms behind these traditional practices include a number of adaptations for the generation, accumulation, and transmission of knowledge; the use of local institutions to provide leaders/stewards and rules for social regulation; mechanisms for cultural internalization of traditional practices; and the development of appropriate world views and cultural values. Some traditional knowledge and management systems were characterized by the use of local ecological knowledge to interpret and respond to feedbacks from the environment to guide the direction of resource management. These traditional systems had certain similarities to adaptive management with its emphasis on feedback learning, and its treatment of uncertainty and unpredictability intrinsic to all ecosystems.

@article{doi1018901051076120000101251roteka20co2,
    author = "Berkes, Fikret and Colding, Johan and Folke, Carl",
    title = "REDISCOVERY OF TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AS ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Ecological Applications",
    abstract = "Indigenous groups offer alternative knowledge and perspectives based on their own locally developed practices of resource use. We surveyed the international literature to focus on the role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in monitoring, responding to, and managing ecosystem processes and functions, with special attention to ecological resilience. Case studies revealed that there exists a diversity of local or traditional practices for ecosystem management. These include multiple species management, resource rotation, succession management, landscape patchiness management, and other ways of responding to and managing pulses and ecological surprises. Social mechanisms behind these traditional practices include a number of adaptations for the generation, accumulation, and transmission of knowledge; the use of local institutions to provide leaders/stewards and rules for social regulation; mechanisms for cultural internalization of traditional practices; and the development of appropriate world views and cultural values. Some traditional knowledge and management systems were characterized by the use of local ecological knowledge to interpret and respond to feedbacks from the environment to guide the direction of resource management. These traditional systems had certain similarities to adaptive management with its emphasis on feedback learning, and its treatment of uncertainty and unpredictability intrinsic to all ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:roteka]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:roteka]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2161586297",
    references = "doi101093forestscience263435"
}

@article{doi101023a1015862228270,
    author = "Smit, Barry and Skinner, Mark W.",
    title = "Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a typology",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1015862228270",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1015862228270",
    openalex = "W2148838277"
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Emerging recognition of two fundamental errors underpinning past polices for natural resource issues heralds awareness of the need for a worldwide fundamental change in thinking and in practice of environmental management. The first error has been an implicit assumption that ecosystem responses to human use are linear, predictable and controllable. The second has been an assumption that human and natural systems can be treated independently. However, evidence that has been accumulating in diverse regions all over the world suggests that natural and social systems behave in nonlinear ways, exhibit marked thresholds in their dynamics, and that social-ecological systems act as strongly coupled, complex and evolving integrated systems. This article is a summary of a report prepared on behalf of the Environmental Advisory Council to the Swedish Government, as input to the process of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa in 26 August 4 September 2002. We use the concept of resilience--the capacity to buffer change, learn and develop--as a framework for understanding how to sustain and enhance adaptive capacity in a complex world of rapid transformations. Two useful tools for resilience-building in social-ecological systems are structured scenarios and active adaptive management. These tools require and facilitate a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options.

@article{doi10157900447447315437,
    author = "Folke, Carl and Carpenter, Steve and Elmqvist, Thomas and Gunderson, Lance and Holling, C. S. and Walker, Brian",
    title = "Resilience and Sustainable Development: Building Adaptive Capacity in a World of Transformations",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "AMBIO",
    abstract = "Emerging recognition of two fundamental errors underpinning past polices for natural resource issues heralds awareness of the need for a worldwide fundamental change in thinking and in practice of environmental management. The first error has been an implicit assumption that ecosystem responses to human use are linear, predictable and controllable. The second has been an assumption that human and natural systems can be treated independently. However, evidence that has been accumulating in diverse regions all over the world suggests that natural and social systems behave in nonlinear ways, exhibit marked thresholds in their dynamics, and that social-ecological systems act as strongly coupled, complex and evolving integrated systems. This article is a summary of a report prepared on behalf of the Environmental Advisory Council to the Swedish Government, as input to the process of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa in 26 August 4 September 2002. We use the concept of resilience--the capacity to buffer change, learn and develop--as a framework for understanding how to sustain and enhance adaptive capacity in a complex world of rapid transformations. Two useful tools for resilience-building in social-ecological systems are structured scenarios and active adaptive management. These tools require and facilitate a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437",
    doi = "10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437",
    openalex = "W2175360117",
    references = "doi101007s002679900246, doi101007s1002100101015, doi101016s0921800999000099, doi101086285824, doi101093forestscience263435, doi101126science2795352860, doi101146annurevecolsys120213091917, doi1018901051076119980080559nposww20co2, doi1023072531565"
}

Abstract: Future changes in climate pose significant challenges for society, not the least of which is how best to adapt to observed and potential future impacts of these changes to which the world is already committed. Adaptation is a dynamic social process: the ability of societies to adapt is determined, in part, by the ability to act collectively. This article reviews emerging perspectives on collective action and social capital and argues that insights from these areas inform the nature of adaptive capacity and normative prescriptions of policies of adaptation. Specifically, social capital is increasingly understood within economics to have public and private elements, both of which are based on trust, reputation, and reciprocal action. The public‐good aspects of particular forms of social capital are pertinent elements of adaptive capacity in interacting with natural capital and in relation to the performance of institutions that cope with the risks of changes in climate. Case studies are presented of present‐day collective action for coping with extremes in weather in coastal areas in Southeast Asia and of community‐based coastal management in the Caribbean. These cases demonstrate the importance of social capital framing both the public and private institutions of resource management that build resilience in the face of the risks of changes in climate. These cases illustrate, by analogy, the nature of adaptation processes and collective action in adapting to future changes in climate.

@article{doi101111j194482872003tb00220x,
    author = "Adger, W. Neil",
    title = "Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Economic Geography",
    abstract = "Abstract: Future changes in climate pose significant challenges for society, not the least of which is how best to adapt to observed and potential future impacts of these changes to which the world is already committed. Adaptation is a dynamic social process: the ability of societies to adapt is determined, in part, by the ability to act collectively. This article reviews emerging perspectives on collective action and social capital and argues that insights from these areas inform the nature of adaptive capacity and normative prescriptions of policies of adaptation. Specifically, social capital is increasingly understood within economics to have public and private elements, both of which are based on trust, reputation, and reciprocal action. The public‐good aspects of particular forms of social capital are pertinent elements of adaptive capacity in interacting with natural capital and in relation to the performance of institutions that cope with the risks of changes in climate. Case studies are presented of present‐day collective action for coping with extremes in weather in coastal areas in Southeast Asia and of community‐based coastal management in the Caribbean. These cases demonstrate the importance of social capital framing both the public and private institutions of resource management that build resilience in the face of the risks of changes in climate. These cases illustrate, by analogy, the nature of adaptation processes and collective action in adapting to future changes in climate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2003.tb00220.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1944-8287.2003.tb00220.x",
    openalex = "W2153640166",
    references = "doi101016s0305750x01000638, doi101016s0305750x98001363, doi101023a1005627828199, doi101162003355300555475"
}

The world’s climate is changing and will continue to change into the coming century at rates projected to be unprecedented in recent human history. The risks associated with these changes are real but highly uncertain. Societal vulnerability to the risks associated with climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and economic challenges, particularly for those parts of societies dependent on resources that are sensitive to changes in climate. Risks are apparent in agriculture, fisheries and many other components that constitute the livelihood of rural populations in developing countries. In this paper we explore the nature of risk and vulnerability in the context of climate change and review the evidence on present-day adaptation in developing countries and on coordinated international action on future adaptation. We argue that all societies are fundamentally adaptive and there are many situations in the past where societies have adapted to changes in climate and to similar risks. But some sectors are more sensitive and some groups in society more vulnerable to the risks posed by climate change than others. Yet all societies need to enhance their adaptive capacity to face both present and future climate change outside their experienced coping range. The challenges of climate change for development are in the present. Observed climate change, present-day climate variability and future expectations of change are changing the course of development strategies - development agencies and governments are now planning for this adaptation challenge. The primary challenge, therefore, posed at both the scale of local natural resource management and at the scale of international agreements and actions, is to promote adaptive capacity in the context of competing sustainable development objectives.

@article{doi1011911464993403ps060oa,
    author = "Adger, W. Neil and Huq, Saleemul and Brown, Katrina and Conway, Declan and Hulme, Mike",
    title = "Adaptation to climate change in the developing world",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Progress in Development Studies",
    abstract = "The world’s climate is changing and will continue to change into the coming century at rates projected to be unprecedented in recent human history. The risks associated with these changes are real but highly uncertain. Societal vulnerability to the risks associated with climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and economic challenges, particularly for those parts of societies dependent on resources that are sensitive to changes in climate. Risks are apparent in agriculture, fisheries and many other components that constitute the livelihood of rural populations in developing countries. In this paper we explore the nature of risk and vulnerability in the context of climate change and review the evidence on present-day adaptation in developing countries and on coordinated international action on future adaptation. We argue that all societies are fundamentally adaptive and there are many situations in the past where societies have adapted to changes in climate and to similar risks. But some sectors are more sensitive and some groups in society more vulnerable to the risks posed by climate change than others. Yet all societies need to enhance their adaptive capacity to face both present and future climate change outside their experienced coping range. The challenges of climate change for development are in the present. Observed climate change, present-day climate variability and future expectations of change are changing the course of development strategies - development agencies and governments are now planning for this adaptation challenge. The primary challenge, therefore, posed at both the scale of local natural resource management and at the scale of international agreements and actions, is to promote adaptive capacity in the context of competing sustainable development objectives.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1191/1464993403ps060oa",
    doi = "10.1191/1464993403ps060oa",
    openalex = "W2160883209",
    references = "doi101016s0305750x01000638, doi101016s0305750x98001363, openalexw112888852"
}

@article{doi101016jgloenvcha200412006,
    author = "Brooks, Nick and Adger, W. Neil and Kelly, PM",
    title = "The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the national level and the implications for adaptation",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Global Environmental Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.006",
    openalex = "W2008157089",
    references = "doi101002j147786961990tb05660x, doi101016s0305750x98001363, doi101023a1005627828199, doi101126science28954872068, doi101146annurevsoc221129, doi101162003355300555475, doi1023072946642, doi103354cr019193, doi1043249780203714775, openalexw112888852"
}

@article{doi101016jgloenvcha200501002,
    author = "Grothmann, Torsten and Patt, Anthony",
    title = "Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Global Environmental Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.01.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.01.002",
    openalex = "W2006647242",
    references = "doi10100797894010183408, doi101016s0305750x98001363, doi101017cbo9780511609220014, doi101023a1005627828199, doi10103700223514395806, doi101111j153969241988tb01168x, doi101126science18541571124, doi1023071914185, doi1023071952796, doi1023072392045, doi1023072392088, doi102307973677, openalexw112888852"
}

@article{doi101016jgloenvcha200502001,
    author = "Pelling, Mark and High, Chris",
    title = "Understanding adaptation: What can social capital offer assessments of adaptive capacity?",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Global Environmental Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.02.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.02.001",
    openalex = "W2076539908",
    references = "doi101146annurevsoc2411, doi101287orsc2140, doi1023071251846, doi1023072804509, doi104324978131568034710, doi105860choice276637, doi105860choice281843, doi105860choice306408, doi105860choice382454, openalexw1780382453"
}

▪ Abstract We explore the social dimension that enables adaptive ecosystem-based management. The review concentrates on experiences of adaptive governance of social-ecological systems during periods of abrupt change (crisis) and investigates social sources of renewal and reorganization. Such governance connects individuals, organizations, agencies, and institutions at multiple organizational levels. Key persons provide leadership, trust, vision, meaning, and they help transform management organizations toward a learning environment. Adaptive governance systems often self-organize as social networks with teams and actor groups that draw on various knowledge systems and experiences for the development of a common understanding and policies. The emergence of “bridging organizations” seem to lower the costs of collaboration and conflict resolution, and enabling legislation and governmental policies can support self-organization while framing creativity for adaptive comanagement efforts. A resilient social-ecological system may make use of crisis as an opportunity to transform into a more desired state.

@article{doi101146annurevenergy30050504144511,
    author = "Folke, Carl and Hahn, Thomas P. and Olsson, Per and Norberg, Jon",
    title = "ADAPTIVE GOVERNANCE OF SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Annual Review of Environment and Resources",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract We explore the social dimension that enables adaptive ecosystem-based management. The review concentrates on experiences of adaptive governance of social-ecological systems during periods of abrupt change (crisis) and investigates social sources of renewal and reorganization. Such governance connects individuals, organizations, agencies, and institutions at multiple organizational levels. Key persons provide leadership, trust, vision, meaning, and they help transform management organizations toward a learning environment. Adaptive governance systems often self-organize as social networks with teams and actor groups that draw on various knowledge systems and experiences for the development of a common understanding and policies. The emergence of “bridging organizations” seem to lower the costs of collaboration and conflict resolution, and enabling legislation and governmental policies can support self-organization while framing creativity for adaptive comanagement efforts. A resilient social-ecological system may make use of crisis as an opportunity to transform into a more desired state.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511",
    openalex = "W1976759885",
    references = "doi101007s002679900246, doi101007s1002100101015, doi10103835098000, doi101093forestscience263435, doi101126science1059199, doi101146annureves04110173000245, doi1015159780822386421, doi101890040922, doi10230740184705, doi105751es01606110119"
}

@misc{crossref2006adaptations,
    title = "Adaptations",
    year = "2006",
    booktitle = "Particle Swarm Optimization",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470612163.ch10",
    doi = "10.1002/9780470612163.ch10",
    openalex = "W4206027562",
    pages = "129-138"
}

@article{doi101016jgloenvcha200603008,
    author = "Smit, Barry and Wandel, Johanna",
    title = "Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Global Environmental Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008",
    openalex = "W2110559753",
    references = "doi101007s1002100101015, doi101016jgloenvcha200412005, doi101016jgloenvcha200412006, doi101016jgloenvcha200602006, doi101016jgloenvcha200604002, doi101016s0305750x98001363, doi101023a1005627828199, doi101073pnas1231335100, doi101126science1069492, doi10157900447447315437, doi1023071973011, doi1043249780203714775, openalexw112888852, openalexw1731457293"
}

Renowned literary scholar Linda Hutcheon explores the ubiquity of adaptations in all their various media incarnations and challenges their constant critical denigration. Adaptation, Hutcheon argues, has always been a central mode of the story-telling imagination and deserves to be studied in all its breadth and range as both a process (of creation and reception) and a product unto its own. Persuasive and illuminating, A Theory of Adaptation is a bold rethinking of how adaptation works across all media and genres that may put an end to the age-old question of whether the book was better than the movie, or the opera, or the theme park.

@book{doi1043249780203095010,
    author = "Hutcheon, Linda",
    title = "A Theory of Adaptation",
    year = "2006",
    abstract = "Renowned literary scholar Linda Hutcheon explores the ubiquity of adaptations in all their various media incarnations and challenges their constant critical denigration. Adaptation, Hutcheon argues, has always been a central mode of the story-telling imagination and deserves to be studied in all its breadth and range as both a process (of creation and reception) and a product unto its own. Persuasive and illuminating, A Theory of Adaptation is a bold rethinking of how adaptation works across all media and genres that may put an end to the age-old question of whether the book was better than the movie, or the opera, or the theme park.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203095010",
    doi = "10.4324/9780203095010",
    openalex = "W1489148396"
}

Olsson, P., L. H. Gunderson, S. R. Carpenter, P. Ryan, L. Lebel, C. Folke, and C. S. Holling. 2006. Shooting the rapids: navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 11(1): 18. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01595-110118

@article{doi105751es01595110118,
    author = "Olsson, Per and Gunderson, Lance and Carpenter, Steve and Ryan, Paul and Lebel, Louis and Folke, Carl and Holling, C. S.",
    title = "Shooting the Rapids: Navigating Transitions to Adaptive Governance of Social-Ecological Systems",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Ecology and Society",
    abstract = "Olsson, P., L. H. Gunderson, S. R. Carpenter, P. Ryan, L. Lebel, C. Folke, and C. S. Holling. 2006. Shooting the rapids: navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 11(1): 18. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01595-110118",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5751/es-01595-110118",
    doi = "10.5751/es-01595-110118",
    openalex = "W2556968239",
    references = "doi101007s002679900246, doi105751es01606110119"
}

The strong trends in climate change already evident, the likelihood of further changes occurring, and the increasing scale of potential climate impacts give urgency to addressing agricultural adaptation more coherently. There are many potential adaptation options available for marginal change of existing agricultural systems, often variations of existing climate risk management. We show that implementation of these options is likely to have substantial benefits under moderate climate change for some cropping systems. However, there are limits to their effectiveness under more severe climate changes. Hence, more systemic changes in resource allocation need to be considered, such as targeted diversification of production systems and livelihoods. We argue that achieving increased adaptation action will necessitate integration of climate change-related issues with other risk factors, such as climate variability and market risk, and with other policy domains, such as sustainable development. Dealing with the many barriers to effective adaptation will require a comprehensive and dynamic policy approach covering a range of scales and issues, for example, from the understanding by farmers of change in risk profiles to the establishment of efficient markets that facilitate response strategies. Science, too, has to adapt. Multidisciplinary problems require multidisciplinary solutions, i.e., a focus on integrated rather than disciplinary science and a strengthening of the interface with decision makers. A crucial component of this approach is the implementation of adaptation assessment frameworks that are relevant, robust, and easily operated by all stakeholders, practitioners, policymakers, and scientists.

@article{doi101073pnas0701890104,
    author = "Howden, Mark and Soussana, Jean‐François and Tubiello, Francesco N. and Chhetri, Netra and Dunlop, Michael and Meinke, Holger",
    title = "Adapting agriculture to climate change",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The strong trends in climate change already evident, the likelihood of further changes occurring, and the increasing scale of potential climate impacts give urgency to addressing agricultural adaptation more coherently. There are many potential adaptation options available for marginal change of existing agricultural systems, often variations of existing climate risk management. We show that implementation of these options is likely to have substantial benefits under moderate climate change for some cropping systems. However, there are limits to their effectiveness under more severe climate changes. Hence, more systemic changes in resource allocation need to be considered, such as targeted diversification of production systems and livelihoods. We argue that achieving increased adaptation action will necessitate integration of climate change-related issues with other risk factors, such as climate variability and market risk, and with other policy domains, such as sustainable development. Dealing with the many barriers to effective adaptation will require a comprehensive and dynamic policy approach covering a range of scales and issues, for example, from the understanding by farmers of change in risk profiles to the establishment of efficient markets that facilitate response strategies. Science, too, has to adapt. Multidisciplinary problems require multidisciplinary solutions, i.e., a focus on integrated rather than disciplinary science and a strengthening of the interface with decision makers. A crucial component of this approach is the implementation of adaptation assessment frameworks that are relevant, robust, and easily operated by all stakeholders, practitioners, policymakers, and scientists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701890104",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0701890104",
    openalex = "W2003004462",
    references = "doi101073pnas0700609104"
}

Summary The role of phenotypic plasticity in evolution has historically been a contentious issue because of debate over whether plasticity shields genotypes from selection or generates novel opportunities for selection to act. Because plasticity encompasses diverse adaptive and non‐adaptive responses to environmental variation, no single conceptual framework adequately predicts the diverse roles of plasticity in evolutionary change. Different types of phenotypic plasticity can uniquely contribute to adaptive evolution when populations are faced with new or altered environments. Adaptive plasticity should promote establishment and persistence in a new environment, but depending on how close the plastic response is to the new favoured phenotypic optimum dictates whether directional selection will cause adaptive divergence between populations. Further, non‐adaptive plasticity in response to stressful environments can result in a mean phenotypic response being further away from the favoured optimum or alternatively increase the variance around the mean due to the expression of cryptic genetic variation. The expression of cryptic genetic variation can facilitate adaptive evolution if by chance it results in a fitter phenotype. We conclude that adaptive plasticity that places populations close enough to a new phenotypic optimum for directional selection to act is the only plasticity that predictably enhances fitness and is most likely to facilitate adaptive evolution on ecological time‐scales in new environments. However, this type of plasticity is likely to be the product of past selection on variation that may have been initially non‐adaptive. We end with suggestions on how future empirical studies can be designed to better test the importance of different kinds of plasticity to adaptive evolution.

@article{doi101111j13652435200701283x,
    author = "Ghalambor, Cameron K. and McKay, John and Carroll, Scott P. and Reznick, David N.",
    title = "Adaptive versus non‐adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new environments",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Functional Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary The role of phenotypic plasticity in evolution has historically been a contentious issue because of debate over whether plasticity shields genotypes from selection or generates novel opportunities for selection to act. Because plasticity encompasses diverse adaptive and non‐adaptive responses to environmental variation, no single conceptual framework adequately predicts the diverse roles of plasticity in evolutionary change. Different types of phenotypic plasticity can uniquely contribute to adaptive evolution when populations are faced with new or altered environments. Adaptive plasticity should promote establishment and persistence in a new environment, but depending on how close the plastic response is to the new favoured phenotypic optimum dictates whether directional selection will cause adaptive divergence between populations. Further, non‐adaptive plasticity in response to stressful environments can result in a mean phenotypic response being further away from the favoured optimum or alternatively increase the variance around the mean due to the expression of cryptic genetic variation. The expression of cryptic genetic variation can facilitate adaptive evolution if by chance it results in a fitter phenotype. We conclude that adaptive plasticity that places populations close enough to a new phenotypic optimum for directional selection to act is the only plasticity that predictably enhances fitness and is most likely to facilitate adaptive evolution on ecological time‐scales in new environments. However, this type of plasticity is likely to be the product of past selection on variation that may have been initially non‐adaptive. We end with suggestions on how future empirical studies can be designed to better test the importance of different kinds of plasticity to adaptive evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01283.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01283.x",
    openalex = "W2164403987",
    references = "doi10100797814615695655, doi101007bf02763457, doi101007bf02984069, doi101016s0065266008600486, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101038150563a0, doi10103824550, doi101038nrg1041, doi101038scientificamerican117998, doi101086276408, doi101086346135, doi101093genetics16297, doi101093oso97801951223430010001, doi101111j13652435200701283x, doi101111j155856461985tb00391x, doi101111j155856461998tb01823x, doi1015159780691209418, doi1015159781400820108, doi1023072529912, doi105860choice364478, doi105962bhltitle27468"
}

Adaptation is a process of deliberate change in anticipation of or in reaction to external stimuli and stress. The dominant research tradition on adaptation to environmental change primarily takes an actor-centered view, focusing on the agency of social actors to respond to specific environmental stimuli and emphasizing the reduction of vulnerabilities. The resilience approach is systems orientated, takes a more dynamic view, and sees adaptive capacity as a core feature of resilient social-ecological systems. The two approaches converge in identifying necessary components of adaptation. We argue that resilience provides a useful framework to analyze adaptation processes and to identify appropriate policy responses. We distinguish between incremental adjustments and transformative action and demonstrate that the sources of resilience for taking adaptive action are common across scales. These are the inherent system characteristics that absorb perturbations without losing function, networks and social capital that allow autonomous action, and resources that promote institutional learning.

@article{doi101146annurevenergy32051807090348,
    author = "Nelson, Donald R. and Adger, W. Neil and Brown, Katrina",
    title = "Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Annual Review of Environment and Resources",
    abstract = "Adaptation is a process of deliberate change in anticipation of or in reaction to external stimuli and stress. The dominant research tradition on adaptation to environmental change primarily takes an actor-centered view, focusing on the agency of social actors to respond to specific environmental stimuli and emphasizing the reduction of vulnerabilities. The resilience approach is systems orientated, takes a more dynamic view, and sees adaptive capacity as a core feature of resilient social-ecological systems. The two approaches converge in identifying necessary components of adaptation. We argue that resilience provides a useful framework to analyze adaptation processes and to identify appropriate policy responses. We distinguish between incremental adjustments and transformative action and demonstrate that the sources of resilience for taking adaptive action are common across scales. These are the inherent system characteristics that absorb perturbations without losing function, networks and social capital that allow autonomous action, and resources that promote institutional learning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.051807.090348",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.energy.32.051807.090348",
    openalex = "W2168872380",
    references = "doi101016jgloenvcha200412006, doi101016jgloenvcha200602006, doi101016jgloenvcha200603008, doi101016jgloenvcha200604002, doi101017cbo9780511546013, doi101017cbo9780511807763, doi101017cbo9780511817434, doi101146annurevenergy30050504144511, doi101146annurevenergy31042605135621, doi101146annureves04110173000245, doi102134jeq20080015br, doi1023073146384, doi105281zenodo7356334, doi105751es00650090205, doi105751es01606110119, openalexw112888852, openalexw2127846363"
}

Like that early evolutionary theory (though unlike Darwin himself), much work in literary adaptation today thinks only in terms of higher and lower forms, that is, considering adaptations as more or less "faithful" to the "original". In biology, it was only when this sort of evaluative discourse was discarded that new questions could be asked and therefore new answers offered. To that end, a biologist and a literary theorist work to develop the homology between biological and cultural adaptation, between natural and cultural selection: stories, in a manner parallel to genes, replicate; the adaptations of both evolve with changing environments. Their "success" cannot and should not, in either case, be limited to their degree of "fidelity" to anything called a "source" or "original".

@article{doi101353nlh20070038,
    author = "Bortolotti, Gary R. and Hutcheon, Linda",
    title = {On the Origin of Adaptations: Rethinking Fidelity Discourse and "Success"—Biologically},
    year = "2007",
    journal = "New Literary History",
    abstract = {Like that early evolutionary theory (though unlike Darwin himself), much work in literary adaptation today thinks only in terms of higher and lower forms, that is, considering adaptations as more or less "faithful" to the "original". In biology, it was only when this sort of evaluative discourse was discarded that new questions could be asked and therefore new answers offered. To that end, a biologist and a literary theorist work to develop the homology between biological and cultural adaptation, between natural and cultural selection: stories, in a manner parallel to genes, replicate; the adaptations of both evolve with changing environments. Their "success" cannot and should not, in either case, be limited to their degree of "fidelity" to anything called a "source" or "original".},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1353/nlh.2007.0038",
    doi = "10.1353/nlh.2007.0038",
    openalex = "W2077631723",
    references = "doi1010160167268185900174, doi101017cbo9780511755101, doi1023071367778, doi1043249780203095010, doi105860choice370272, doi105860choice432646, openalexw1558678982, openalexw227636185, openalexw2624262714, openalexw2798374369"
}

The objective of this paper is to determine the ability of farmers in Africa to detect climate change, and to ascertain how they have adapted to whatever climate change they believe has occurred. The paper also asks farmers whether they perceive any barriers to adaptation and attempts to determine the characteristics of those farmers who, despite claiming to have witnessed climate change, have not yet responded to it. The study is based on a large-scale survey of agriculturalists in 11 African countries. The survey reveals that significant numbers of farmers believe that temperatures have already increased and that precipitation has declined. Those with the greatest experience of farming are more likely to notice climate change. Further, neighboring farmers tell a consistent story. There are important differences in the propensity of farmers living in different locations to adapt and there may be institutional impediments to adaptation in some countries. Although large numbers of farmers perceive no barriers to adaptation, those that do perceive them tend to cite their poverty and inability to borrow. Few if any farmers mentioned lack of appropriate seed, security of tenure, or market accessibility as problems. Those farmers who perceive climate change but fail to respond may require particular incentives or assistance to do what is ultimately in their own best interests. Although experienced farmers are more likely to perceive climate change, it is educated farmers who are more likely to respond by making at least one adaptation

@book{doi101596181394504308,
    author = "Maddison, David",
    title = "The Perception Of And Adaptation To Climate Change In Africa",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks",
    abstract = "The objective of this paper is to determine the ability of farmers in Africa to detect climate change, and to ascertain how they have adapted to whatever climate change they believe has occurred. The paper also asks farmers whether they perceive any barriers to adaptation and attempts to determine the characteristics of those farmers who, despite claiming to have witnessed climate change, have not yet responded to it. The study is based on a large-scale survey of agriculturalists in 11 African countries. The survey reveals that significant numbers of farmers believe that temperatures have already increased and that precipitation has declined. Those with the greatest experience of farming are more likely to notice climate change. Further, neighboring farmers tell a consistent story. There are important differences in the propensity of farmers living in different locations to adapt and there may be institutional impediments to adaptation in some countries. Although large numbers of farmers perceive no barriers to adaptation, those that do perceive them tend to cite their poverty and inability to borrow. Few if any farmers mentioned lack of appropriate seed, security of tenure, or market accessibility as problems. Those farmers who perceive climate change but fail to respond may require particular incentives or assistance to do what is ultimately in their own best interests. Although experienced farmers are more likely to perceive climate change, it is educated farmers who are more likely to respond by making at least one adaptation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4308",
    doi = "10.1596/1813-9450-4308",
    openalex = "W1543015185"
}

From the apparently simple adaptation of a text into film, theatre or a new literary work, to the more complex appropriation of style or meaning, it is arguable that all texts are somehow connected to a network of existing texts and art forms. Adaptation and Appropriation explores: multiple definitions and practices of adaptation and appropriation the cultural and aesthetic politics behind the impulse to adapt diverse ways in which contemporary literature and film adapt, revise and reimagine other works of art the impact on adaptation and appropriation of theoretical movements, including structuralism, post-structuralism, postcolonialism, postmodernism, feminism and gender studies the appropriation across time and across cultures of specific canonical texts, but also of literary archetypes such as myth or fairy tale. Ranging across genres and harnessing concepts from fields as diverse as musicology and the natural sciences, this volume brings clarity to the complex debates around adaptation and appropriation, offering a much-needed resource for those studying literature, film or culture.

@book{doi1043249780203087633,
    author = "Sanders, Julie",
    title = "Adaptation and Appropriation",
    year = "2007",
    abstract = "From the apparently simple adaptation of a text into film, theatre or a new literary work, to the more complex appropriation of style or meaning, it is arguable that all texts are somehow connected to a network of existing texts and art forms. Adaptation and Appropriation explores: multiple definitions and practices of adaptation and appropriation the cultural and aesthetic politics behind the impulse to adapt diverse ways in which contemporary literature and film adapt, revise and reimagine other works of art the impact on adaptation and appropriation of theoretical movements, including structuralism, post-structuralism, postcolonialism, postmodernism, feminism and gender studies the appropriation across time and across cultures of specific canonical texts, but also of literary archetypes such as myth or fairy tale. Ranging across genres and harnessing concepts from fields as diverse as musicology and the natural sciences, this volume brings clarity to the complex debates around adaptation and appropriation, offering a much-needed resource for those studying literature, film or culture.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203087633",
    doi = "10.4324/9780203087633",
    openalex = "W4213286669"
}

Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability

@book{doi105281zenodo7356334,
    author = "Parry, Martin L. and Canziani, Osvaldo and Palutikof, Jean and van der Linden, Paul and Hanson, Clair",
    title = "Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Centre for Environmental Data Analysis Digital Repository (Centre for Environmental Data Analysis)",
    abstract = "Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7356334",
    doi = "10.5281/zenodo.7356334",
    openalex = "W2126975094"
}

Biological evolution is a fact--but the many conflicting theories of evolution remain controversial even today. In 1966, simple Darwinism, which holds that evolution functions primarily at the level of the individual organism, was threatened by opposing concepts such as group selection, a popular idea stating that evolution acts to select entire species rather than individuals. George Williams's famous argument in favor of the Darwinists struck a powerful blow to those in opposing camps. His Adaptation and Natural Selection, now a classic of science literature, is a thorough and convincing essay in defense of Darwinism; its suggestions for developing effective principles for dealing with the evolution debate and its relevance to many fields outside biology ensure the timelessness of this critical work.

@book{doi1015159781400820108,
    author = "Williams, George C.",
    title = "Adaptation and Natural Selection",
    year = "2008",
    booktitle = "Princeton University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Biological evolution is a fact--but the many conflicting theories of evolution remain controversial even today. In 1966, simple Darwinism, which holds that evolution functions primarily at the level of the individual organism, was threatened by opposing concepts such as group selection, a popular idea stating that evolution acts to select entire species rather than individuals. George Williams's famous argument in favor of the Darwinists struck a powerful blow to those in opposing camps. His Adaptation and Natural Selection, now a classic of science literature, is a thorough and convincing essay in defense of Darwinism; its suggestions for developing effective principles for dealing with the evolution debate and its relevance to many fields outside biology ensure the timelessness of this critical work.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400820108",
    doi = "10.1515/9781400820108",
    openalex = "W2020289104"
}

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 1 Narrative and Characterisation in Classic Adaptations: David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, and Pride and Prejudice Chapter 3 2 Art Cinema, Authorship, and the Impossible Novel: Adaptations of Proust, Woolf, and Joyce Chapter 4 3 Tennessee Williams on Film: Space, Melodrama, and Stardom Chapter 5 4 Feminism, Authorship, and Genre: Adaptations of the Novels of Edna Ferber and Pearl S Buck Chapter 6 5 Revising the Western: Movement and Description in The Last of the Mohicans(1992) and Brokeback Mountain Chapter 7 6 Space, Setting, and Mobility in Old New York: The Heiress, The House of Mirth, and Gangs of New York Chapter 8 Conclusion Chapter 9 Filmography Chapter 10 Bibliography

@article{doi105860choice454266,
    title = "Now a major motion picture: film adaptations of literature and drama",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 1 Narrative and Characterisation in Classic Adaptations: David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, and Pride and Prejudice Chapter 3 2 Art Cinema, Authorship, and the Impossible Novel: Adaptations of Proust, Woolf, and Joyce Chapter 4 3 Tennessee Williams on Film: Space, Melodrama, and Stardom Chapter 5 4 Feminism, Authorship, and Genre: Adaptations of the Novels of Edna Ferber and Pearl S Buck Chapter 6 5 Revising the Western: Movement and Description in The Last of the Mohicans(1992) and Brokeback Mountain Chapter 7 6 Space, Setting, and Mobility in Old New York: The Heiress, The House of Mirth, and Gangs of New York Chapter 8 Conclusion Chapter 9 Filmography Chapter 10 Bibliography",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.45-4266",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.45-4266",
    openalex = "W1537076542"
}

@article{sluys2009on,
    author = "Sluys, By R.",
    title = "On adaptation, the assessment of adaptations, and the value of adaptive arguments in phylogenetic reconstruction",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0469.1988.tb00641.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1439-0469.1988.tb00641.x",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2133302267",
    pages = "12-26",
    volume = "26",
    references = "doi101016s0047248477800158, doi101017s0094837300004310, doi101038scientificamerican0978212, doi101086284064, doi101086414425, doi101098rspb19790086, doi101111j155856461965tb01720x, doi101146annureves09110178000335, doi1015159780691185507, openalexw2145250129"
}

@incollection{crossref2010adaptations,
    title = "Adaptations",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "Behind the Backlash",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvrdf3dw.9",
    doi = "10.2307/j.ctvrdf3dw.9",
    openalex = "W4236754784",
    pages = "140-163"
}

This article presents a systematic framework to identify barriers that may impede the process of adaptation to climate change. The framework targets the process of planned adaptation and focuses on potentially challenging but malleable barriers. Three key sets of components create the architecture for the framework. First, a staged depiction of an idealized, rational approach to adaptation decision-making makes up the process component. Second, a set of interconnected structural elements includes the actors, the larger context in which they function (e.g., governance), and the object on which they act (the system of concern that is exposed to climate change). At each of these stages, we ask (i) what could impede the adaptation process and (ii) how do the actors, context, and system of concern contribute to the barrier. To facilitate the identification of barriers, we provide a series of diagnostic questions. Third, the framework is completed by a simple matrix to help locate points of intervention to overcome a given barrier. It provides a systematic starting point for answering critical questions about how to support climate change adaptation at all levels of decision-making.

@article{doi101073pnas1007887107,
    author = "Moser, Susanne C. and Ekstrom, Julia A.",
    title = "A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "This article presents a systematic framework to identify barriers that may impede the process of adaptation to climate change. The framework targets the process of planned adaptation and focuses on potentially challenging but malleable barriers. Three key sets of components create the architecture for the framework. First, a staged depiction of an idealized, rational approach to adaptation decision-making makes up the process component. Second, a set of interconnected structural elements includes the actors, the larger context in which they function (e.g., governance), and the object on which they act (the system of concern that is exposed to climate change). At each of these stages, we ask (i) what could impede the adaptation process and (ii) how do the actors, context, and system of concern contribute to the barrier. To facilitate the identification of barriers, we provide a series of diagnostic questions. Third, the framework is completed by a simple matrix to help locate points of intervention to overcome a given barrier. It provides a systematic starting point for answering critical questions about how to support climate change adaptation at all levels of decision-making.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007887107",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1007887107",
    openalex = "W2122445336",
    references = "doi10100797894010183408, doi101007s105840089520z, doi1010161048984390900097, doi101016jgloenvcha200501002, doi101017cbo9780511809477, doi101017cbo9781107415379, doi101146annurevenergy32051807090348, doi102134jeq20080015br, doi1023072288362, doi1023072392088, doi1023073323801, doi102307973677, doi105281zenodo7356334"
}

We examine the driving forces behind farm households’ decisions to adapt to climate change, and the impact of adaptation on farm households’ food productivity. We estimate a simultaneous equations model with endogenous switching to account for the heterogeneity in the decision to adapt or not, and for unobservable characteristics of farmers and their farm. Access to credit, extension and information are found to be the main drivers behind adaptation. We find that adaptation increases food productivity, that the farm households that did not adapt would benefit the most from adaptation.

@article{doi101093ajaeaar006,
    author = "Falco, Salvatore Di and Veronesi, Marcella and Yesuf, Mahmud",
    title = "Does Adaptation to Climate Change Provide Food Security? A Micro‐Perspective from Ethiopia",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "American Journal of Agricultural Economics",
    abstract = "We examine the driving forces behind farm households’ decisions to adapt to climate change, and the impact of adaptation on farm households’ food productivity. We estimate a simultaneous equations model with endogenous switching to account for the heterogeneity in the decision to adapt or not, and for unobservable characteristics of farmers and their farm. Access to credit, extension and information are found to be the main drivers behind adaptation. We find that adaptation increases food productivity, that the farm households that did not adapt would benefit the most from adaptation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aar006",
    doi = "10.1093/ajae/aar006",
    openalex = "W2158209261",
    references = "doi101016jgloenvcha200310008"
}

Do invasive plant species have greater phenotypic plasticity than non-invasive species? And, if so, how does this affect their fitness relative to native, non-invasive species? What role might this play in plant invasions? To answer these long-standing questions, we conducted a meta-analysis using data from 75 invasive/non-invasive species pairs. Our analysis shows that invasive species demonstrate significantly higher phenotypic plasticity than non-invasive species. To examine the adaptive benefit of this plasticity, we plotted fitness proxies against measures of plasticity in several growth, morphological and physiological traits to test whether greater plasticity is associated with an improvement in estimated fitness. Invasive species were nearly always more plastic in their response to greater resource availability than non-invasives but this plasticity was only sometimes associated with a fitness benefit. Intriguingly, non-invasive species maintained greater fitness homoeostasis when comparing growth between low and average resource availability. Our finding that invasive species are more plastic in a variety of traits but that non-invasive species respond just as well, if not better, when resources are limiting, has interesting implications for predicting responses to global change.

@article{doi101111j14610248201101596x,
    author = "Davidson, Amy Michelle and Jennions, Michael D. and Nicotra, Adrienne B.",
    title = "Do invasive species show higher phenotypic plasticity than native species and, if so, is it adaptive? A meta-analysis",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Do invasive plant species have greater phenotypic plasticity than non-invasive species? And, if so, how does this affect their fitness relative to native, non-invasive species? What role might this play in plant invasions? To answer these long-standing questions, we conducted a meta-analysis using data from 75 invasive/non-invasive species pairs. Our analysis shows that invasive species demonstrate significantly higher phenotypic plasticity than non-invasive species. To examine the adaptive benefit of this plasticity, we plotted fitness proxies against measures of plasticity in several growth, morphological and physiological traits to test whether greater plasticity is associated with an improvement in estimated fitness. Invasive species were nearly always more plastic in their response to greater resource availability than non-invasives but this plasticity was only sometimes associated with a fitness benefit. Intriguingly, non-invasive species maintained greater fitness homoeostasis when comparing growth between low and average resource availability. Our finding that invasive species are more plastic in a variety of traits but that non-invasive species respond just as well, if not better, when resources are limiting, has interesting implications for predicting responses to global change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01596.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01596.x",
    openalex = "W2155490215",
    references = "doi101016s0065250401320135, doi1010781433831900083, doi101111j13652435200701283x"
}

We reviewed existing and planned adaptation activities of federal, tribal, state, and local governments and the private sector in the United States (U.S.) to understand what types of adaptation activities are underway across different sectors and scales throughout the country. Primary sources of review included material officially submitted for consideration in the upcoming 2013 U.S. National Climate Assessment and supplemental peer-reviewed and grey literature. Although substantial adaptation planning is occurring in various sectors, levels of government, and the private sector, few measures have been implemented and even fewer have been evaluated. Most adaptation actions to date appear to be incremental changes, not the transformational changes that may be needed in certain cases to adapt to significant changes in climate. While there appear to be no one-size-fits-all adaptations, there are similarities in approaches across scales and sectors, including mainstreaming climate considerations into existing policies and plans, and pursuing no- and low-regrets strategies. Despite the positive momentum in recent years, barriers to implementation still impede action in all sectors and across scales. The most significant barriers include lack of funding, policy and institutional constraints, and difficulty in anticipating climate change given the current state of information on change. However, the practice of adaptation can advance through learning by doing, stakeholder engagements (including “listening sessions”), and sharing of best practices. Efforts to advance adaptation across the U.S. and globally will necessitate the reduction or elimination of barriers, the enhancement of information and best practice sharing mechanisms, and the creation of comprehensive adaptation evaluation metrics.

@article{doi101007s1102701294231,
    author = "Bierbaum, Rosina and Smith, Joel B. and Lee, Arthur and Blair, M. and Carter, Lynne and Chapin, F. Stuart and Fleming, Paul and Ruffo, Susan and Stults, Missy and McNeeley, Shannon M. and Wasley, E. and Verduzco, Laura",
    title = "A comprehensive review of climate adaptation in the United States: more than before, but less than needed",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change",
    abstract = "We reviewed existing and planned adaptation activities of federal, tribal, state, and local governments and the private sector in the United States (U.S.) to understand what types of adaptation activities are underway across different sectors and scales throughout the country. Primary sources of review included material officially submitted for consideration in the upcoming 2013 U.S. National Climate Assessment and supplemental peer-reviewed and grey literature. Although substantial adaptation planning is occurring in various sectors, levels of government, and the private sector, few measures have been implemented and even fewer have been evaluated. Most adaptation actions to date appear to be incremental changes, not the transformational changes that may be needed in certain cases to adapt to significant changes in climate. While there appear to be no one-size-fits-all adaptations, there are similarities in approaches across scales and sectors, including mainstreaming climate considerations into existing policies and plans, and pursuing no- and low-regrets strategies. Despite the positive momentum in recent years, barriers to implementation still impede action in all sectors and across scales. The most significant barriers include lack of funding, policy and institutional constraints, and difficulty in anticipating climate change given the current state of information on change. However, the practice of adaptation can advance through learning by doing, stakeholder engagements (including “listening sessions”), and sharing of best practices. Efforts to advance adaptation across the U.S. and globally will necessitate the reduction or elimination of barriers, the enhancement of information and best practice sharing mechanisms, and the creation of comprehensive adaptation evaluation metrics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-012-9423-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s11027-012-9423-1",
    openalex = "W2138583215",
    references = "doi1010292005wr004455, doi101073pnas1007887107, doi105194hess1114172007"
}

All human-environment systems adapt to climate and its natural variation. Adaptation to human-induced change in climate has largely been envisioned as increments of these adaptations intended to avoid disruptions of systems at their current locations. In some places, for some systems, however, vulnerabilities and risks may be so sizeable that they require transformational rather than incremental adaptations. Three classes of transformational adaptations are those that are adopted at a much larger scale, that are truly new to a particular region or resource system, and that transform places and shift locations. We illustrate these with examples drawn from Africa, Europe, and North America. Two conditions set the stage for transformational adaptation to climate change: large vulnerability in certain regions, populations, or resource systems; and severe climate change that overwhelms even robust human use systems. However, anticipatory transformational adaptation may be difficult to implement because of uncertainties about climate change risks and adaptation benefits, the high costs of transformational actions, and institutional and behavioral actions that tend to maintain existing resource systems and policies. Implementing transformational adaptation requires effort to initiate it and then to sustain the effort over time. In initiating transformational adaptation focusing events and multiple stresses are important, combined with local leadership. In sustaining transformational adaptation, it seems likely that supportive social contexts and the availability of acceptable options and resources for actions are key enabling factors. Early steps would include incorporating transformation adaptation into risk management and initiating research to expand the menu of innovative transformational adaptations.

@article{doi101073pnas1115521109,
    author = "Kates, Robert W. and Travis, William R. and Wilbanks, Thomas J.",
    title = "Transformational adaptation when incremental adaptations to climate change are insufficient",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "All human-environment systems adapt to climate and its natural variation. Adaptation to human-induced change in climate has largely been envisioned as increments of these adaptations intended to avoid disruptions of systems at their current locations. In some places, for some systems, however, vulnerabilities and risks may be so sizeable that they require transformational rather than incremental adaptations. Three classes of transformational adaptations are those that are adopted at a much larger scale, that are truly new to a particular region or resource system, and that transform places and shift locations. We illustrate these with examples drawn from Africa, Europe, and North America. Two conditions set the stage for transformational adaptation to climate change: large vulnerability in certain regions, populations, or resource systems; and severe climate change that overwhelms even robust human use systems. However, anticipatory transformational adaptation may be difficult to implement because of uncertainties about climate change risks and adaptation benefits, the high costs of transformational actions, and institutional and behavioral actions that tend to maintain existing resource systems and policies. Implementing transformational adaptation requires effort to initiate it and then to sustain the effort over time. In initiating transformational adaptation focusing events and multiple stresses are important, combined with local leadership. In sustaining transformational adaptation, it seems likely that supportive social contexts and the availability of acceptable options and resources for actions are key enabling factors. Early steps would include incorporating transformation adaptation into risk management and initiating research to expand the menu of innovative transformational adaptations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1115521109",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1115521109",
    openalex = "W2078778096",
    references = "doi101073pnas1007887107, openalexw2127846363"
}

Climate change adaptation has become an important public policy domain, since IPCC scientists published findings in 2007 that showed that the Earth's climate was already changing and that, due to the inertia in the global climate system, it will not be possible to avoid all impacts even with the most drastic of greenhouse gas emissions reductions.

@article{doi101080146493572012677124,
    author = "Davoudi, Simin and Shaw, Keith and Haider, L. Jamila and Quinlan, Allyson and Peterson, Garry and Wilkinson, Cathy and Fünfgeld, Hartmut and McEvoy, Darryn and Porter, Libby and Davoudi, Simin",
    title = "Resilience: A Bridging Concept or a Dead End?“Reframing” Resilience: Challenges for Planning Theory and PracticeInteracting Traps: Resilience Assessment of a Pasture Management System in Northern AfghanistanUrban Resilience: What Does it Mean in Planning Practice?Resilience as a Useful Concept for Climate Change Adaptation?The Politics of Resilience for Planning: A Cautionary Note",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Planning Theory \& Practice",
    abstract = "Climate change adaptation has become an important public policy domain, since IPCC scientists published findings in 2007 that showed that the Earth's climate was already changing and that, due to the inertia in the global climate system, it will not be possible to avoid all impacts even with the most drastic of greenhouse gas emissions reductions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2012.677124",
    doi = "10.1080/14649357.2012.677124",
    openalex = "W2160085528",
    references = "doi101016jgloenvcha200603008, doi101093019924264x0010001"
}

(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The enzyme alanine-glyoxylate aminotransferase 1 (AGT) functions to detoxify glyoxylate before it is converted into harmful oxalate. In mammals, mitochondrial targeting of AGT in carnivorous species versus peroxisomal targeting in herbivores is controlled by two signal peptides that correspond to these respective organelles. Differential expression of the mitochondrial targeting sequence (MTS) is considered an adaptation to diet-specific subcellular localization of glyoxylate precursors. Bats are an excellent group in which to study adaptive changes in dietary enzymes; they show unparalleled mammalian dietary diversification as well as independent origins of carnivory, frugivory, and nectarivory. We studied the AGT gene in bats and other mammals with diverse diets and found that the MTS has been lost in unrelated lineages of frugivorous bats. Conversely, species exhibiting piscivory, carnivory, insectivory, and sanguinivory possessed intact MTSs. Detected positive selection in the AGT of ancestral fruit bats further supports adaptations related to evolutionary changes in diet.

@article{liu2012multiple,
    author = "Liu, Yang and Xu, Huihui and Yuan, Xinpu and Rossiter, Stephen J. and Zhang, Shuyi",
    title = "Multiple Adaptive Losses of Alanine-Glyoxylate Aminotransferase Mitochondrial Targeting in Fruit-Eating Bats",
    year = "2012",
    publisher = "Zenodo",
    abstract = "(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The enzyme alanine-glyoxylate aminotransferase 1 (AGT) functions to detoxify glyoxylate before it is converted into harmful oxalate. In mammals, mitochondrial targeting of AGT in carnivorous species versus peroxisomal targeting in herbivores is controlled by two signal peptides that correspond to these respective organelles. Differential expression of the mitochondrial targeting sequence (MTS) is considered an adaptation to diet-specific subcellular localization of glyoxylate precursors. Bats are an excellent group in which to study adaptive changes in dietary enzymes; they show unparalleled mammalian dietary diversification as well as independent origins of carnivory, frugivory, and nectarivory. We studied the AGT gene in bats and other mammals with diverse diets and found that the MTS has been lost in unrelated lineages of frugivorous bats. Conversely, species exhibiting piscivory, carnivory, insectivory, and sanguinivory possessed intact MTSs. Detected positive selection in the AGT of ancestral fruit bats further supports adaptations related to evolutionary changes in diet.",
    url = "https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.13448986",
    doi = "10.5281/zenodo.13448986"
}

The need to adapt to climate change is now widely recognised as evidence of its impacts on social and natural systems grows and greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated. Yet efforts to adapt to climate change, as reported in the literature over the last decade and in selected case studies, have not led to substantial rates of implementation of adaptation actions despite substantial investments in adaptation science. Moreover, implemented actions have been mostly incremental and focused on proximate causes; there are far fewer reports of more systemic or transformative actions. We found that the nature and effectiveness of responses was strongly influenced by framing. Recent decision-oriented approaches that aim to overcome this situation are framed within a “pathways” metaphor to emphasise the need for robust decision making within adaptive processes in the face of uncertainty and inter-temporal complexity. However, to date, such “adaptation pathways” approaches have mostly focused on contexts with clearly identified decision-makers and unambiguous goals; as a result, they generally assume prevailing governance regimes are conducive for adaptation and hence constrain responses to proximate causes of vulnerability. In this paper, we explore a broader conceptualisation of “adaptation pathways” that draws on ‘pathways thinking’ in the sustainable development domain to consider the implications of path dependency, interactions between adaptation plans, vested interests and global change, and situations where values, interests, or institutions constrain societal responses to change. This re-conceptualisation of adaptation pathways aims to inform decision makers about integrating incremental actions on proximate causes with the transformative aspects of societal change. Case studies illustrate what this might entail. The paper ends with a call for further exploration of theory, methods and procedures to operationalise this broader conceptualisation of adaptation.

@article{doi101016jgloenvcha201312002,
    author = "Wise, Russ and Fazey, Ioan and Stafford‐Smith, Mark and Park, S.E. and Eakin, Hallie and Garderen, E.R.M. Archer Van and Campbell, Bruce",
    title = "Reconceptualising adaptation to climate change as part of pathways of change and response",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Global Environmental Change",
    abstract = "The need to adapt to climate change is now widely recognised as evidence of its impacts on social and natural systems grows and greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated. Yet efforts to adapt to climate change, as reported in the literature over the last decade and in selected case studies, have not led to substantial rates of implementation of adaptation actions despite substantial investments in adaptation science. Moreover, implemented actions have been mostly incremental and focused on proximate causes; there are far fewer reports of more systemic or transformative actions. We found that the nature and effectiveness of responses was strongly influenced by framing. Recent decision-oriented approaches that aim to overcome this situation are framed within a “pathways” metaphor to emphasise the need for robust decision making within adaptive processes in the face of uncertainty and inter-temporal complexity. However, to date, such “adaptation pathways” approaches have mostly focused on contexts with clearly identified decision-makers and unambiguous goals; as a result, they generally assume prevailing governance regimes are conducive for adaptation and hence constrain responses to proximate causes of vulnerability. In this paper, we explore a broader conceptualisation of “adaptation pathways” that draws on ‘pathways thinking’ in the sustainable development domain to consider the implications of path dependency, interactions between adaptation plans, vested interests and global change, and situations where values, interests, or institutions constrain societal responses to change. This re-conceptualisation of adaptation pathways aims to inform decision makers about integrating incremental actions on proximate causes with the transformative aspects of societal change. Case studies illustrate what this might entail. The paper ends with a call for further exploration of theory, methods and procedures to operationalise this broader conceptualisation of adaptation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.12.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.12.002",
    openalex = "W2033471958",
    references = "doi101007s105840089520z, doi101073pnas1007887107"
}

The significant shifts in climate variables projected for the 21st century, coupled with the observed impacts of ongoing extreme weather and climate events, ensures that adaptation to climate change is set to remain a pressing issue for urban areas over the coming decades. This volume of Progress in Planning seeks to contribute to the widening debate about how the transformation of cities to respond to the changing climate is being understood, managed and achieved. We focus particularly on spatial planning, and building the capacity of this key mechanism for responding to the adaptation imperative in urban areas. The core focus is the outcomes of a collaborative research project, EcoCities, undertaken at the University of Manchester's School of Environment and Development. EcoCities drew upon inter-disciplinary research on climate science, environmental planning and urban design working within a socio-technical framework to investigate climate change hazards, vulnerabilities and adaptation responses in the conurbation of Greater Manchester, UK. Emerging transferable learning with potential relevance for adaptation planning in other cities and urban areas is drawn out to inform this rapidly emerging international agenda. Approaches to build adaptive capacity challenge traditional approaches to environmental and spatial planning, and the role of researchers in this process, raising questions over whether appropriate governance structures are in place to develop effective responses. The cross-cutting nature of the adaptation agenda exposes the silo based approaches that drive many organisations. The development of a collaborative, sociotechnical agenda is vital if we are to meet the climate change adaptation challenge in cities.

@article{doi101016jprogress201308001,
    author = "Carter, Jeremy and Cavan, Gina and Connelly, Angela and Guy, Simon and Handley, John and Kaźmierczak, Aleksandra",
    title = "Climate change and the city: Building capacity for urban adaptation",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Progress in Planning",
    abstract = "The significant shifts in climate variables projected for the 21st century, coupled with the observed impacts of ongoing extreme weather and climate events, ensures that adaptation to climate change is set to remain a pressing issue for urban areas over the coming decades. This volume of Progress in Planning seeks to contribute to the widening debate about how the transformation of cities to respond to the changing climate is being understood, managed and achieved. We focus particularly on spatial planning, and building the capacity of this key mechanism for responding to the adaptation imperative in urban areas. The core focus is the outcomes of a collaborative research project, EcoCities, undertaken at the University of Manchester's School of Environment and Development. EcoCities drew upon inter-disciplinary research on climate science, environmental planning and urban design working within a socio-technical framework to investigate climate change hazards, vulnerabilities and adaptation responses in the conurbation of Greater Manchester, UK. Emerging transferable learning with potential relevance for adaptation planning in other cities and urban areas is drawn out to inform this rapidly emerging international agenda. Approaches to build adaptive capacity challenge traditional approaches to environmental and spatial planning, and the role of researchers in this process, raising questions over whether appropriate governance structures are in place to develop effective responses. The cross-cutting nature of the adaptation agenda exposes the silo based approaches that drive many organisations. The development of a collaborative, sociotechnical agenda is vital if we are to meet the climate change adaptation challenge in cities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2013.08.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.progress.2013.08.001",
    openalex = "W2099238871",
    references = "doi101016jgloenvcha200502001, doi101016jgloenvcha201101019"
}

Many studies have recorded phenotypic changes in natural populations and attributed them to climate change. However, controversy and uncertainty has arisen around three levels of inference in such studies. First, it has proven difficult to conclusively distinguish whether phenotypic changes are genetically based or the result of phenotypic plasticity. Second, whether or not the change is adaptive is usually assumed rather than tested. Third, inferences that climate change is the specific causal agent have rarely involved the testing - and exclusion - of other potential drivers. We here review the various ways in which the above inferences have been attempted, and evaluate the strength of support that each approach can provide. This methodological assessment sets the stage for 11 accompanying review articles that attempt comprehensive syntheses of what is currently known - and not known - about responses to climate change in a variety of taxa and in theory. Summarizing and relying on the results of these reviews, we arrive at the conclusion that evidence for genetic adaptation to climate change has been found in some systems, but is still relatively scarce. Most importantly, it is clear that more studies are needed - and these must employ better inferential methods - before general conclusions can be drawn. Overall, we hope that the present paper and special issue provide inspiration for future research and guidelines on best practices for its execution.

@article{doi101111eva12137,
    author = "Merilä, Juha and Hendry, Andrew P.",
    title = "Climate change, adaptation, and phenotypic plasticity: the problem and the evidence",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Evolutionary Applications",
    abstract = "Many studies have recorded phenotypic changes in natural populations and attributed them to climate change. However, controversy and uncertainty has arisen around three levels of inference in such studies. First, it has proven difficult to conclusively distinguish whether phenotypic changes are genetically based or the result of phenotypic plasticity. Second, whether or not the change is adaptive is usually assumed rather than tested. Third, inferences that climate change is the specific causal agent have rarely involved the testing - and exclusion - of other potential drivers. We here review the various ways in which the above inferences have been attempted, and evaluate the strength of support that each approach can provide. This methodological assessment sets the stage for 11 accompanying review articles that attempt comprehensive syntheses of what is currently known - and not known - about responses to climate change in a variety of taxa and in theory. Summarizing and relying on the results of these reviews, we arrive at the conclusion that evidence for genetic adaptation to climate change has been found in some systems, but is still relatively scarce. Most importantly, it is clear that more studies are needed - and these must employ better inferential methods - before general conclusions can be drawn. Overall, we hope that the present paper and special issue provide inspiration for future research and guidelines on best practices for its execution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12137",
    doi = "10.1111/eva.12137",
    openalex = "W2007545512",
    references = "doi101016jtree201206001, doi101016s0169534702024898, doi101111j13652435200701283x, doi101111j1365294x200703428x, doi101111j14209101200701445x, doi101111j155856461976tb00911x"
}

This thesis is one of the first attempts in the context of urban Pakistani local governments that starts with a comprehensive inventory of what is going on in the field of climate change adaptation and what sort of existing information is available in Pakistan. Further, it provides an analysis of what the major sources of resistance to climate change adaptation are, and what strategies could be used in urban Pakistani local governments to lower resistance to taking action on climate change adaptation. In particular, this thesis reflects on the applicability of the learning organisation paradigm to the climate change adaptation agenda, by providing a theoretical underpinning to the organisational learning and learning organisation concepts. Subsequently, it applies a learning perspective to the climate change adaptation debate in the context of urban Pakistani local governments. Further, from a critical analysis of conceptual evidence, this thesis identifies a framing of six key characteristics for climate change adaptation learning and action often attributed to a learning organisation (described in this thesis as “change model for climate adaptation”). The characteristics or elements of the change model presented are categorised as: • Leadership for adaptation; • Vision for adaptation; • Organisational culture for adaptation; • Good governance for adaptation; • Innovation and creativity for adaptation; and • Resources for adaptation Moreover, the thesis uses an actor-based approach to examine the key conceptual ideas noted above in the urban Pakistani local government context. It further assesses the broader applicability of the proposed change model for climate adaptation to local governments (around the globe) where climate change adaptation had been already planned, and to gain insight into the range of adaptation frameworks (strategies, plans) for designing a local level adaptation strategy in the context of urban Pakistani local governments. Finally, this thesis designs a Pakistan-specific strategy for building capacity to adapt to climate change impacts at the urban local government level in Pakistan. It discusses the proposed strategy itself by suggesting various initial practical actions for urban Pakistani local governments to take that would help assist in the implementation of relevant capacity-building.

@article{doi1025439rmt27333300,
    author = "Janjua, Muhammad Saleem",
    title = "Opportunities for climate change adaptation in developing countries - a case of local governments in Pakistan",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library)",
    abstract = "This thesis is one of the first attempts in the context of urban Pakistani local governments that starts with a comprehensive inventory of what is going on in the field of climate change adaptation and what sort of existing information is available in Pakistan. Further, it provides an analysis of what the major sources of resistance to climate change adaptation are, and what strategies could be used in urban Pakistani local governments to lower resistance to taking action on climate change adaptation. In particular, this thesis reflects on the applicability of the learning organisation paradigm to the climate change adaptation agenda, by providing a theoretical underpinning to the organisational learning and learning organisation concepts. Subsequently, it applies a learning perspective to the climate change adaptation debate in the context of urban Pakistani local governments. Further, from a critical analysis of conceptual evidence, this thesis identifies a framing of six key characteristics for climate change adaptation learning and action often attributed to a learning organisation (described in this thesis as “change model for climate adaptation”). The characteristics or elements of the change model presented are categorised as: • Leadership for adaptation; • Vision for adaptation; • Organisational culture for adaptation; • Good governance for adaptation; • Innovation and creativity for adaptation; and • Resources for adaptation Moreover, the thesis uses an actor-based approach to examine the key conceptual ideas noted above in the urban Pakistani local government context. It further assesses the broader applicability of the proposed change model for climate adaptation to local governments (around the globe) where climate change adaptation had been already planned, and to gain insight into the range of adaptation frameworks (strategies, plans) for designing a local level adaptation strategy in the context of urban Pakistani local governments. Finally, this thesis designs a Pakistan-specific strategy for building capacity to adapt to climate change impacts at the urban local government level in Pakistan. It discusses the proposed strategy itself by suggesting various initial practical actions for urban Pakistani local governments to take that would help assist in the implementation of relevant capacity-building.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.25439/rmt.27333300",
    doi = "10.25439/rmt.27333300",
    openalex = "W3140666458",
    references = "sluys2009on"
}

Adaptive governance is an emergent form of environmental governance that is increasingly called upon by scholars and practitioners to coordinate resource management regimes in the face of the complexity and uncertainty associated with rapid environmental change. Although the term "adaptive governance" is not exclusively applied to the governance of social-ecological systems, related research represents a significant outgrowth of literature on resilience, social-ecological systems, and environmental governance. We present a chronology of major scholarship on adaptive governance, synthesizing efforts to define the concept and identifying the array of governance concepts associated with transformation toward adaptive governance. Based on this synthesis, we define adaptive governance as a range of interactions between actors, networks, organizations, and institutions emerging in pursuit of a desired state for social-ecological systems. In addition, we identify and discuss ambiguities in adaptive governance scholarship such as the roles of adaptive management, crisis, and a desired state for governance of social-ecological systems. Finally, we outline a research agenda to examine whether an adaptive governance approach can become institutionalized under current legal frameworks and political contexts. We suggest a further investigation of the relationship between adaptive governance and the principles of good governance; the roles of power and politics in the emergence of adaptive governance; and potential interventions such as legal reform that may catalyze or enhance governance adaptations or transformation toward adaptive governance.

@article{doi105751es06824190356,
    author = "Chaffin, Brian C. and Gosnell, Hannah and Cosens, Barbara",
    title = "A decade of adaptive governance scholarship: synthesis and future directions",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Ecology and Society",
    abstract = {Adaptive governance is an emergent form of environmental governance that is increasingly called upon by scholars and practitioners to coordinate resource management regimes in the face of the complexity and uncertainty associated with rapid environmental change. Although the term "adaptive governance" is not exclusively applied to the governance of social-ecological systems, related research represents a significant outgrowth of literature on resilience, social-ecological systems, and environmental governance. We present a chronology of major scholarship on adaptive governance, synthesizing efforts to define the concept and identifying the array of governance concepts associated with transformation toward adaptive governance. Based on this synthesis, we define adaptive governance as a range of interactions between actors, networks, organizations, and institutions emerging in pursuit of a desired state for social-ecological systems. In addition, we identify and discuss ambiguities in adaptive governance scholarship such as the roles of adaptive management, crisis, and a desired state for governance of social-ecological systems. Finally, we outline a research agenda to examine whether an adaptive governance approach can become institutionalized under current legal frameworks and political contexts. We suggest a further investigation of the relationship between adaptive governance and the principles of good governance; the roles of power and politics in the emergence of adaptive governance; and potential interventions such as legal reform that may catalyze or enhance governance adaptations or transformation toward adaptive governance.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5751/es-06824-190356",
    doi = "10.5751/es-06824-190356",
    openalex = "W2021996732",
    references = "doi101146annurevenergy31042605135621"
}

This essay examines the dominant terms currently in use in studies of Shakespearean rewritings (adaptation and appropriation), reviews their recent critical histories, and considers their theoretical advantages and drawbacks. The essay concludes that at the current moment, both terms are apt and useful and suggests a model for articulating their relationship to one another.

@article{doi1010801745091820151012550,
    author = "Desmet, Christy and Iyengar, Sujata",
    title = "Adaptation, appropriation, or what you will",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Shakespeare",
    abstract = "This essay examines the dominant terms currently in use in studies of Shakespearean rewritings (adaptation and appropriation), reviews their recent critical histories, and considers their theoretical advantages and drawbacks. The essay concludes that at the current moment, both terms are apt and useful and suggests a model for articulating their relationship to one another.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/17450918.2015.1012550",
    doi = "10.1080/17450918.2015.1012550",
    openalex = "W2007324365",
    references = "doi101353nlh20070038"
}

Abstract. Climate change is a global environmental threat to all economic sectors, particularly the agricultural sector. Pakistan is one of the countries negatively affected by climate change due to its high exposure to extreme events and low adaptive capacity. In Pakistan, farmers are the primary stakeholders in agriculture and are more at risk due to climate vulnerability. Based on farm household data from 450 households collected from three districts in three agroecological zones in the Punjab province of Pakistan, this study examines how farmers perceive climate change and how they adapt their farming in response to perceived changes in climate. The results demonstrate that awareness of climate change is widespread throughout the area, and farm households make adjustments to adapt their agriculture in response to climatic change. Overall 58% of the farm households adapted their farming to climate change. Changing crop varieties, changing planting dates, planting of shade trees and changing fertilizers were the main adaptation methods implemented by farm households in the study area. The results from the binary logistic model reveal that education, farm experience, household size, land area, tenancy status, ownership of a tube well, access to market information, information on weather forecasting and agricultural extension services all influence farmers' choices of adaptation measures. The results also indicate that adaptation to climate change is constrained by several factors such as lack of information, lack of money, resource constraints and shortage of irrigation water in the study area. Findings of the study suggest the need for greater investment in farmer education and improved institutional setup for climate change adaptation to improve farmers' wellbeing.

@article{doi105194esd62252015,
    author = "Abid, Muhammad and Scheffran, Jürgen and Schneider, Uwe A. and Ashfaq, Muhammad",
    title = "Farmers' perceptions of and adaptation strategies to climate change and their determinants: the case of Punjab province, Pakistan",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Earth System Dynamics",
    abstract = "Abstract. Climate change is a global environmental threat to all economic sectors, particularly the agricultural sector. Pakistan is one of the countries negatively affected by climate change due to its high exposure to extreme events and low adaptive capacity. In Pakistan, farmers are the primary stakeholders in agriculture and are more at risk due to climate vulnerability. Based on farm household data from 450 households collected from three districts in three agroecological zones in the Punjab province of Pakistan, this study examines how farmers perceive climate change and how they adapt their farming in response to perceived changes in climate. The results demonstrate that awareness of climate change is widespread throughout the area, and farm households make adjustments to adapt their agriculture in response to climatic change. Overall 58\% of the farm households adapted their farming to climate change. Changing crop varieties, changing planting dates, planting of shade trees and changing fertilizers were the main adaptation methods implemented by farm households in the study area. The results from the binary logistic model reveal that education, farm experience, household size, land area, tenancy status, ownership of a tube well, access to market information, information on weather forecasting and agricultural extension services all influence farmers' choices of adaptation measures. The results also indicate that adaptation to climate change is constrained by several factors such as lack of information, lack of money, resource constraints and shortage of irrigation water in the study area. Findings of the study suggest the need for greater investment in farmer education and improved institutional setup for climate change adaptation to improve farmers' wellbeing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-6-225-2015",
    doi = "10.5194/esd-6-225-2015",
    openalex = "W2060226489",
    references = "doi101016jjenvman201210036"
}

This study is an attempt to use group information collected on climate change from farmers in eastern Uttar Pradesh, India to address a key question related to climate change policy: How to encourage farmers to adapt to climate change? First, we investigate farmers’ perception of and adaptation to climate change using content analysis and group information. The findings are then compared with climatic and agriculture information collected through secondary sources. Results suggest that though farmers are aware of long-term changes in climatic factors (temperature and rainfall, for example), they are unable to identify these changes as climate change. Farmers are also aware of risks generated by climate variability and extreme climatic events. However, farmers are not taking concrete steps in dealing with perceived climatic changes, although we find out that farmers are changing their agricultural and farming practices. These included changing sowing and harvesting timing, cultivation of crops of short duration varieties, inter-cropping, changing cropping pattern, investment in irrigation, and agroforestry. Note that these changes may be considered as passive response or adaptation strategies to climate change. Perhaps farmers are implicitly taking initiatives to adapt climate change. Finally, the paper suggests some policy interventions to scale up adaptation to climate change in Indian agriculture.

@article{doi101016jcrm201611002,
    author = "Tripathi, Amarnath and Mishra, Ashok K.",
    title = "Knowledge and passive adaptation to climate change: An example from Indian farmers",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Climate Risk Management",
    abstract = "This study is an attempt to use group information collected on climate change from farmers in eastern Uttar Pradesh, India to address a key question related to climate change policy: How to encourage farmers to adapt to climate change? First, we investigate farmers’ perception of and adaptation to climate change using content analysis and group information. The findings are then compared with climatic and agriculture information collected through secondary sources. Results suggest that though farmers are aware of long-term changes in climatic factors (temperature and rainfall, for example), they are unable to identify these changes as climate change. Farmers are also aware of risks generated by climate variability and extreme climatic events. However, farmers are not taking concrete steps in dealing with perceived climatic changes, although we find out that farmers are changing their agricultural and farming practices. These included changing sowing and harvesting timing, cultivation of crops of short duration varieties, inter-cropping, changing cropping pattern, investment in irrigation, and agroforestry. Note that these changes may be considered as passive response or adaptation strategies to climate change. Perhaps farmers are implicitly taking initiatives to adapt climate change. Finally, the paper suggests some policy interventions to scale up adaptation to climate change in Indian agriculture.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2016.11.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.crm.2016.11.002",
    openalex = "W2552640680",
    references = "doi101016jjenvman201210036"
}

Climate change is set to be particularly disruptive in poor agricultural communities. We assess the factors influencing farmers’ choice of climate change adaptation practices and associated impacts on household food security and poverty in Pakistan using comprehensive data from 950 farmers from its major provinces. A probit model was used to investigate the factors influencing the use of climate-change adaptation practices; the censored least absolute deviation (CLAD) was used to analyze the determinants of the number of adaptation practices used; and a propensity score matching (PSM) approach was employed to evaluate the impact of adaptation practices on food security and poverty levels. Adjustment in sowing time (22% households), use of drought tolerant varieties (15%) and shifting to new crops (25%) were the three major adaptation practices used by farmers in the study area. Results show that younger farmers and farmers with higher levels of education are more likely to use these adaptation practices, as do farmers that are wealthier, farm more land and have joint families. The number of adaptation practices used was found to be positively associated with education, male household heads, land size, household size, extension services, access to credit and wealth. Farmers adopting more adaptation practices had higher food security levels (8–13%) than those who did not, and experienced lower levels of poverty (3–6%). Climate change adaptation practices at farm level can thereby have significant development outcomes in addition to reducing exposure to weather risks.

@article{doi101016jcrm201612001,
    author = "Ali, Akhter and Erenstein, Olaf",
    title = "Assessing farmer use of climate change adaptation practices and impacts on food security and poverty in Pakistan",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Climate Risk Management",
    abstract = "Climate change is set to be particularly disruptive in poor agricultural communities. We assess the factors influencing farmers’ choice of climate change adaptation practices and associated impacts on household food security and poverty in Pakistan using comprehensive data from 950 farmers from its major provinces. A probit model was used to investigate the factors influencing the use of climate-change adaptation practices; the censored least absolute deviation (CLAD) was used to analyze the determinants of the number of adaptation practices used; and a propensity score matching (PSM) approach was employed to evaluate the impact of adaptation practices on food security and poverty levels. Adjustment in sowing time (22\% households), use of drought tolerant varieties (15\%) and shifting to new crops (25\%) were the three major adaptation practices used by farmers in the study area. Results show that younger farmers and farmers with higher levels of education are more likely to use these adaptation practices, as do farmers that are wealthier, farm more land and have joint families. The number of adaptation practices used was found to be positively associated with education, male household heads, land size, household size, extension services, access to credit and wealth. Farmers adopting more adaptation practices had higher food security levels (8–13\%) than those who did not, and experienced lower levels of poverty (3–6\%). Climate change adaptation practices at farm level can thereby have significant development outcomes in addition to reducing exposure to weather risks.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2016.12.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.crm.2016.12.001",
    openalex = "W2567189951",
    references = "doi101016jjenvman201210036"
}

An evolutionary (or “adaptationist”) perspective on adaptation studies offers ways past the “fidelity discourse” that has long vexed adaptation scholars. Biological adaptation forgoes exact fidelity to solve the new problems posed by inevitably changing environments, in a process that is fertile as well as faithful. Artistic adaptation also looks two ways, toward retention or fidelity and toward innovation or fertility. The complex and multiple adaptations and hybridizations of art and nature, of page, stage, screen, and painting in Nabokov’s 1969 novel Ada suggest that the more exactly you know your world, or the world of art, the more you can transform them as you wish. Charlie Kaufman’s 2002 screenplay Adaptation. resembles Ada not only in spotlighting orchids but also in being meta-adaptational, addressing, like Ada, both fidelity within adaptation and the creative fertility to be found in building on prior design but moving beyond fidelity.

@incollection{boyd2017making,
    author = "Boyd, Brian",
    title = "Making Adaptation Studies Adaptive",
    year = "2017",
    booktitle = "The Oxford Handbook of Adaptation Studies",
    abstract = "An evolutionary (or “adaptationist”) perspective on adaptation studies offers ways past the “fidelity discourse” that has long vexed adaptation scholars. Biological adaptation forgoes exact fidelity to solve the new problems posed by inevitably changing environments, in a process that is fertile as well as faithful. Artistic adaptation also looks two ways, toward retention or fidelity and toward innovation or fertility. The complex and multiple adaptations and hybridizations of art and nature, of page, stage, screen, and painting in Nabokov’s 1969 novel Ada suggest that the more exactly you know your world, or the world of art, the more you can transform them as you wish. Charlie Kaufman’s 2002 screenplay Adaptation. resembles Ada not only in spotlighting orchids but also in being meta-adaptational, addressing, like Ada, both fidelity within adaptation and the creative fertility to be found in building on prior design but moving beyond fidelity.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199331000.013.34",
    doi = "10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199331000.013.34",
    openalex = "W2754678831",
    pages = "587-606",
    references = "doi101113expphysiol2012071134, doi101353nlh20070038, doi101353phl20070016"
}

Rhetorical effects in speech and writing have a great strategic importance in achieving the communicative end of being persuasive: they are key in the exertion of power through language. Persuasion occurs by cognitive-affective stimulation, relying on specific psychosomatic perceptual patterns which are used on all levels of speech reception in cultural and political contexts. This makes rhetorically conspicuous texts efficient as stimulus material for empirical research into neurocognitive modeling of how poetic texts are read. Adaptations as revisitations of prior works share with the rhetorical repertoire of repetition similar cognitive-affective properties, because both function via recognition of sameness or similarity. Recent paradigm shifts in adaptation studies have much enlarged the field of research, so Linda Hutcheon's as yet empirically unsupported insight that adaptation is the norm and not the exception in human imagination finds an unexpectedly large field of application. This shift away from the narrow standard paradigm of novels adapted for the screen to a more fundamental aesthetics of adaptation has also helped establish connections between adaptation studies and the experiment-based methodologies of empirical aesthetics and neuroaesthetics with a view to developing cognitive and affective models of the processes underlying the reception of adaptations.

@article{doi101215033353723869311,
    author = "Nicklas, Pascal and Jacobs, Arthur M.",
    title = "Rhetoric, Neurocognitive Poetics, and the Aesthetics of Adaptation",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Poetics Today",
    abstract = "Rhetorical effects in speech and writing have a great strategic importance in achieving the communicative end of being persuasive: they are key in the exertion of power through language. Persuasion occurs by cognitive-affective stimulation, relying on specific psychosomatic perceptual patterns which are used on all levels of speech reception in cultural and political contexts. This makes rhetorically conspicuous texts efficient as stimulus material for empirical research into neurocognitive modeling of how poetic texts are read. Adaptations as revisitations of prior works share with the rhetorical repertoire of repetition similar cognitive-affective properties, because both function via recognition of sameness or similarity. Recent paradigm shifts in adaptation studies have much enlarged the field of research, so Linda Hutcheon's as yet empirically unsupported insight that adaptation is the norm and not the exception in human imagination finds an unexpectedly large field of application. This shift away from the narrow standard paradigm of novels adapted for the screen to a more fundamental aesthetics of adaptation has also helped establish connections between adaptation studies and the experiment-based methodologies of empirical aesthetics and neuroaesthetics with a view to developing cognitive and affective models of the processes underlying the reception of adaptations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1215/03335372-3869311",
    doi = "10.1215/03335372-3869311",
    openalex = "W2645371567",
    references = "doi101353nlh20070038"
}

@article{doi101016jpatcog201803005,
    author = "Li, Yanghao and Wang, Naiyan and Shi, Jianping and Hou, Xiaodi and Liu, Jiaying",
    title = "Adaptive Batch Normalization for practical domain adaptation",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Pattern Recognition",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2018.03.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.patcog.2018.03.005",
    openalex = "W2793888044",
    references = "doi101007978364215561116, doi101007s112630150816y, doi101109cvpr20115995347, doi101109cvpr2016308, doi101109cvpr201690, doi1011453065386, openalexw1576445103, openalexw2187089797, openalexw2752853835"
}

Smallholder farmers are one of the most vulnerable groups to climate change, yet efforts to support farmer adaptation are hindered by the lack of information on how they are experiencing and responding to climate change. More information is needed on how different types of smallholder farmers vary in their perceptions and responses to climate change, and how to tailor adaptation programs to different smallholder farmer contexts. We surveyed 860 smallholder coffee and basic grain (maize/bean) farmers across six Central American landscapes to understand farmer perceptions of climate change and the impacts they are experiencing, how they are changing their agricultural systems in response to climate change, and their adaptation needs. Almost all (95%) of the surveyed smallholder farmers have observed climate change, and most are already experiencing impacts of rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and extreme weather events on crop yields, pest and disease incidence, income generation and, in some cases, food security. For example, 87% of maize farmers and 66% of coffee farmers reported negative impacts of climate change on crop production, and 32% of all smallholder farmers reported food insecurity following extreme weather events. Of the farmers perceiving changes in climate, 46% indicated that they had changed their farming practices in response to climate change, with the most common adaptation measure being the planting of trees. There was significant heterogeneity among farmers in the severity of climate change impacts, their responses to these impacts, and their adaptation needs. This heterogeneity likely reflects the wide diversity of socioeconomic and biophysical contexts across smallholder farms and landscapes. Our study demonstrates that climate change is already having significant adverse impacts on smallholder coffee and basic grain farmers across the Central American region. There is an urgent need for governments, donors and practitioners to ramp up efforts to help smallholder farmers cope with existing climate impacts and build resiliency to future changes. Our results also highlight the importance of tailoring of climate adaptation policies and programs to the diverse socioeconomic conditions, biophysical contexts, and climatic stresses that smallholder farmers face.

@article{doi101186s400660180209x,
    author = "Harvey, Célia A. and Saborío‐Rodríguez, Milagro and Martínez‐Rodríguez, M. Ruth and Viguera, Bárbara and Chain‐Guadarrama, Adina and Vignola, Raffaele and Alpízar, Francisco",
    title = "Climate change impacts and adaptation among smallholder farmers in Central America",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Agriculture \& Food Security",
    abstract = "Smallholder farmers are one of the most vulnerable groups to climate change, yet efforts to support farmer adaptation are hindered by the lack of information on how they are experiencing and responding to climate change. More information is needed on how different types of smallholder farmers vary in their perceptions and responses to climate change, and how to tailor adaptation programs to different smallholder farmer contexts. We surveyed 860 smallholder coffee and basic grain (maize/bean) farmers across six Central American landscapes to understand farmer perceptions of climate change and the impacts they are experiencing, how they are changing their agricultural systems in response to climate change, and their adaptation needs. Almost all (95\%) of the surveyed smallholder farmers have observed climate change, and most are already experiencing impacts of rising temperatures, unpredictable rainfall and extreme weather events on crop yields, pest and disease incidence, income generation and, in some cases, food security. For example, 87\% of maize farmers and 66\% of coffee farmers reported negative impacts of climate change on crop production, and 32\% of all smallholder farmers reported food insecurity following extreme weather events. Of the farmers perceiving changes in climate, 46\% indicated that they had changed their farming practices in response to climate change, with the most common adaptation measure being the planting of trees. There was significant heterogeneity among farmers in the severity of climate change impacts, their responses to these impacts, and their adaptation needs. This heterogeneity likely reflects the wide diversity of socioeconomic and biophysical contexts across smallholder farms and landscapes. Our study demonstrates that climate change is already having significant adverse impacts on smallholder coffee and basic grain farmers across the Central American region. There is an urgent need for governments, donors and practitioners to ramp up efforts to help smallholder farmers cope with existing climate impacts and build resiliency to future changes. Our results also highlight the importance of tailoring of climate adaptation policies and programs to the diverse socioeconomic conditions, biophysical contexts, and climatic stresses that smallholder farmers face.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0209-x",
    doi = "10.1186/s40066-018-0209-x",
    openalex = "W2885935432",
    references = "doi101016jjenvman201210036"
}

Biological evolution is a fact-but the many conflicting theories of evolution remain controversial even today. When Adaptation and Natural Selection was first published in 1966, it struck a powerful blow against those who argued for the concept of group selection-the idea that evolution acts to select entire species rather than individuals. Williams's famous work in favor of simple Darwinism over group selection has become a classic of science literature, valued for its thorough and convincing argument and its relevance to many fields outside of biology. Now with a new foreword by Richard Dawkins, Adaptation and Natural Selection is an essential text for understanding the nature of scientific debate

@book{doi1015159780691185507,
    author = "Williams, George C.",
    title = "Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought",
    year = "2018",
    abstract = "Biological evolution is a fact-but the many conflicting theories of evolution remain controversial even today. When Adaptation and Natural Selection was first published in 1966, it struck a powerful blow against those who argued for the concept of group selection-the idea that evolution acts to select entire species rather than individuals. Williams's famous work in favor of simple Darwinism over group selection has become a classic of science literature, valued for its thorough and convincing argument and its relevance to many fields outside of biology. Now with a new foreword by Richard Dawkins, Adaptation and Natural Selection is an essential text for understanding the nature of scientific debate",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691185507",
    doi = "10.1515/9780691185507",
    openalex = "W1480083809"
}

@incollection{doi10100797830300530621,
    author = "Demory, Pamela",
    title = "Queer/Adaptation: An Introduction",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Palgrave studies in adaptation and visual culture",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05306-2\_1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-05306-2\_1",
    openalex = "W2912950914"
}

We propose a novel unsupervised domain adaptation framework based on domain-specific batch normalization in deep neural networks. We aim to adapt to both domains by specializing batch normalization layers in convolutional neural networks while allowing them to share all other model parameters, which is realized by a two-stage algorithm. In the first stage, we estimate pseudo-labels for the examples in the target domain using an external unsupervised domain adaptation algorithm-for example, MSTN or CPUA-integrating the proposed domain-specific batch normalization. The second stage learns the final models using a multi-task classification loss for the source and target domains. Note that the two domains have separate batch normalization layers in both stages. Our framework can be easily incorporated into the domain adaptation techniques based on deep neural networks with batch normalization layers. We also present that our approach can be extended to the problem with multiple source domains. The proposed algorithm is evaluated on multiple benchmark datasets and achieves the state-of-the-art accuracy in the standard setting and the multi-source domain adaption scenario.

@article{doi101109cvpr201900753,
    author = "Chang, Woong-Gi and You, Tackgeun and Seo, Seonguk and Kwak, Suha and Han, Bohyung",
    title = "Domain-Specific Batch Normalization for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation",
    year = "2019",
    abstract = "We propose a novel unsupervised domain adaptation framework based on domain-specific batch normalization in deep neural networks. We aim to adapt to both domains by specializing batch normalization layers in convolutional neural networks while allowing them to share all other model parameters, which is realized by a two-stage algorithm. In the first stage, we estimate pseudo-labels for the examples in the target domain using an external unsupervised domain adaptation algorithm-for example, MSTN or CPUA-integrating the proposed domain-specific batch normalization. The second stage learns the final models using a multi-task classification loss for the source and target domains. Note that the two domains have separate batch normalization layers in both stages. Our framework can be easily incorporated into the domain adaptation techniques based on deep neural networks with batch normalization layers. We also present that our approach can be extended to the problem with multiple source domains. The proposed algorithm is evaluated on multiple benchmark datasets and achieves the state-of-the-art accuracy in the standard setting and the multi-source domain adaption scenario.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2019.00753",
    doi = "10.1109/cvpr.2019.00753",
    openalex = "W2949813473",
    references = "doi101016jpatcog201803005"
}

Earlier work demonstrates the promise of deep-learning-based approaches for point cloud segmentation; however, these approaches need to be improved to be practically useful. To this end, we introduce a new model SqueezeSegV2. With an improved model structure, SqueezeSetV2 is more robust against dropout noises in LiDAR point cloud and therefore achieves significant accuracy improvement. Training models for point cloud segmentation requires large amounts of labeled data, which is expensive to obtain. To sidestep the cost of data collection and annotation, simulators such as GTA-V can be used to create unlimited amounts of labeled, synthetic data. However, due to domain shift, models trained on synthetic data often do not generalize well to the real world. Existing domain-adaptation methods mainly focus on images and most of them cannot be directly applied to point clouds. We address this problem with a domain-adaptation training pipeline consisting of three major components: 1) learned intensity rendering, 2) geodesic correlation alignment, and 3) progressive domain calibration. When trained on real data, our new model exhibits segmentation accuracy improvements of 6.0-8.6% over the original SqueezeSeg. When training our new model on synthetic data using the proposed domain adaptation pipeline, we nearly double test accuracy on real-world data, from 29.0% to 57.4%. Our source code and synthetic dataset are open sourced. https://github.com/xuanyuzhou98/SqueezeSegV2.

@article{doi101109icra20198793495,
    author = "Wu, BoRui and Zhou, Xuanyu and Zhao, Sicheng and Yue, Xiangyu and Keutzer, Kurt",
    title = "SqueezeSegV2: Improved Model Structure and Unsupervised Domain Adaptation for Road-Object Segmentation from a LiDAR Point Cloud",
    year = "2019",
    abstract = "Earlier work demonstrates the promise of deep-learning-based approaches for point cloud segmentation; however, these approaches need to be improved to be practically useful. To this end, we introduce a new model SqueezeSegV2. With an improved model structure, SqueezeSetV2 is more robust against dropout noises in LiDAR point cloud and therefore achieves significant accuracy improvement. Training models for point cloud segmentation requires large amounts of labeled data, which is expensive to obtain. To sidestep the cost of data collection and annotation, simulators such as GTA-V can be used to create unlimited amounts of labeled, synthetic data. However, due to domain shift, models trained on synthetic data often do not generalize well to the real world. Existing domain-adaptation methods mainly focus on images and most of them cannot be directly applied to point clouds. We address this problem with a domain-adaptation training pipeline consisting of three major components: 1) learned intensity rendering, 2) geodesic correlation alignment, and 3) progressive domain calibration. When trained on real data, our new model exhibits segmentation accuracy improvements of 6.0-8.6\% over the original SqueezeSeg. When training our new model on synthetic data using the proposed domain adaptation pipeline, we nearly double test accuracy on real-world data, from 29.0\% to 57.4\%. Our source code and synthetic dataset are open sourced. https://github.com/xuanyuzhou98/SqueezeSegV2.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/icra.2019.8793495",
    doi = "10.1109/icra.2019.8793495",
    openalex = "W2968557240",
    references = "doi101016jpatcog201803005"
}

There is a clear need for transformative change in the land management and food production sectors to address the global land challenges of climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, combatting land degradation and desertification, and delivering food security (referred to hereafter as "land challenges"). We assess the potential for 40 practices to address these land challenges and find that: Nine options deliver medium to large benefits for all four land challenges. A further two options have no global estimates for adaptation, but have medium to large benefits for all other land challenges. Five options have large mitigation potential (>3 Gt CO 2 eq/year) without adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Five options have moderate mitigation potential, with no adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Sixteen practices have large adaptation potential (>25 million people benefit), without adverse side effects on other land challenges. Most practices can be applied without competing for available land. However, seven options could result in competition for land. A large number of practices do not require dedicated land, including several land management options, all value chain options, and all risk management options. Four options could greatly increase competition for land if applied at a large scale, though the impact is scale and context specific, highlighting the need for safeguards to ensure that expansion of land for mitigation does not impact natural systems and food security. A number of practices, such as increased food productivity, dietary change and reduced food loss and waste, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing-up land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other practices, making them important components of portfolios of practices to address the combined land challenges.

@article{doi101111gcb14878,
    author = "Smith, Pete and Calvin, Katherine and Nkem, Johnson and Campbell, Donovan and Cherubini, Francesco and Grassi, Giacomo and Коротков, В. Н. and Hoang, Anh Le and Lwasa, Shuaib and McElwee, Pamela and Nkonya, Ephraim and Saigusa, Nobuko and Soussana, Jean‐François and Taboada, Miguel Ángel and Manning, Frances and Nampanzira, Dorothy Kalule and Arias‐Navarro, Cristina and Vizzarri, Matteo and House, Joanna I. and Roe, Stephanie and Cowie, Annette and Rounsevell, Mark and Arneth, Almut",
    title = "Which practices co‐deliver food security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and combat land degradation and desertification?",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = {There is a clear need for transformative change in the land management and food production sectors to address the global land challenges of climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, combatting land degradation and desertification, and delivering food security (referred to hereafter as "land challenges"). We assess the potential for 40 practices to address these land challenges and find that: Nine options deliver medium to large benefits for all four land challenges. A further two options have no global estimates for adaptation, but have medium to large benefits for all other land challenges. Five options have large mitigation potential (>3 Gt CO 2 eq/year) without adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Five options have moderate mitigation potential, with no adverse impacts on the other land challenges. Sixteen practices have large adaptation potential (>25 million people benefit), without adverse side effects on other land challenges. Most practices can be applied without competing for available land. However, seven options could result in competition for land. A large number of practices do not require dedicated land, including several land management options, all value chain options, and all risk management options. Four options could greatly increase competition for land if applied at a large scale, though the impact is scale and context specific, highlighting the need for safeguards to ensure that expansion of land for mitigation does not impact natural systems and food security. A number of practices, such as increased food productivity, dietary change and reduced food loss and waste, can reduce demand for land conversion, thereby potentially freeing-up land and creating opportunities for enhanced implementation of other practices, making them important components of portfolios of practices to address the combined land challenges.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14878",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.14878",
    openalex = "W2981648895",
    references = "doi101007s4072501700641, doi101016jjenvman201210036, doi101016jworlddev200507015"
}

Abstract The paper discusses hybrid writing practices which emerge as a consequence of digital coding in electronic media and therefore also transform the materiality of ‘classic’ media. It argues that practices of adaptation have been re-shaped by digital advances that have not been taken into consideration by adaptation studies. The interconnected digital world holds large quantities of available data and it is conceived as an ever-changing space of permanent copy and constant adaptation. It is marked by fluid, textual recombination (e.g., remix, mashup, intermedia trailer, remediation, remake, and fanfiction). The focus in this essay will be on automated writing practices executed through artificial neural networks or deep-learning applications that algorithmically recognize and imitate writing patterns as further typical manifestations of aesthetic practices in an information-rich society. It assesses these algorithmic writing practices as digital art, in relation to modernist, surrealist, and Dadaist avant-garde experimentation with automated writing. In addition, the essay raises the question of the present role and function of adaptation as a genre, and adaptations as texts, as quite separate from adapting as a human cultural technique (Kulturtechnik) in the context of newly defined modalities and cultural literacies. Advocating a wide notion of adaptation, the contribution launches a definition of posthuman adaptation that applies Actor-Network Theory to adaptation studies.

@article{doi101093adaptationapaa013,
    author = "Voigts, Eckart",
    title = "Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, and Posthuman Adaptation: Adapting as Cultural Technique",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Adaptation",
    abstract = "Abstract The paper discusses hybrid writing practices which emerge as a consequence of digital coding in electronic media and therefore also transform the materiality of ‘classic’ media. It argues that practices of adaptation have been re-shaped by digital advances that have not been taken into consideration by adaptation studies. The interconnected digital world holds large quantities of available data and it is conceived as an ever-changing space of permanent copy and constant adaptation. It is marked by fluid, textual recombination (e.g., remix, mashup, intermedia trailer, remediation, remake, and fanfiction). The focus in this essay will be on automated writing practices executed through artificial neural networks or deep-learning applications that algorithmically recognize and imitate writing patterns as further typical manifestations of aesthetic practices in an information-rich society. It assesses these algorithmic writing practices as digital art, in relation to modernist, surrealist, and Dadaist avant-garde experimentation with automated writing. In addition, the essay raises the question of the present role and function of adaptation as a genre, and adaptations as texts, as quite separate from adapting as a human cultural technique (Kulturtechnik) in the context of newly defined modalities and cultural literacies. Advocating a wide notion of adaptation, the contribution launches a definition of posthuman adaptation that applies Actor-Network Theory to adaptation studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/adaptation/apaa013",
    doi = "10.1093/adaptation/apaa013",
    openalex = "W3082267918",
    references = "doi101353nlh20070038"
}

Abstract Asking why adaptation has been seen as more problematic to theorize than other humanities subjects, and why it has been more theoretically problematic in the humanities than in the sciences and social sciences, Theorizing Adaptation seeks to both explicate and redress “the problem of theorizing adaptation” through a metacritical history of theorizing adaptation from the late sixteenth century to the present, a metatheoretical theory of the relationship between theorization and adaptation in the humanities, and analysis of and experimentation with the rhetoric of theorizing adaptation. Adaptation was not always the bad theoretical object that it increasingly became from the late eighteenth century: in earlier centuries, adaptation was celebrated and valued as a means of aesthetic and cultural progress. Tracing the falling fortunes of adaptation under humanities theorization, the history nevertheless locates dissenting voices valorizing adaptation in every period. Adaptation studies can learn from history not only how to theorize adaptation more positively, but also to consider “the problem of theorization” for adaptation. The metatheoretical section finds that theorization and adaptation are rival, overlapping, inimical processes, each seeking to remake culture—and each other—in their images. It is not simply the case that adaptation has to adapt to theorization: rather, theorization needs to adapt to and through adaptation. The final section attends to the rhetoric of theorizing adaptation, analyzing how tiny pieces of rhetoric have constructed adaptation’s relationship to theorization, and turning to figurative rhetoric, or figuration, as a third process that can mediate between adaptation and theorization and refigure their relationship.

@book{doi101093oso97801975111760010001,
    author = "Elliott, Kamilla",
    title = "Theorizing Adaptation",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "Abstract Asking why adaptation has been seen as more problematic to theorize than other humanities subjects, and why it has been more theoretically problematic in the humanities than in the sciences and social sciences, Theorizing Adaptation seeks to both explicate and redress “the problem of theorizing adaptation” through a metacritical history of theorizing adaptation from the late sixteenth century to the present, a metatheoretical theory of the relationship between theorization and adaptation in the humanities, and analysis of and experimentation with the rhetoric of theorizing adaptation. Adaptation was not always the bad theoretical object that it increasingly became from the late eighteenth century: in earlier centuries, adaptation was celebrated and valued as a means of aesthetic and cultural progress. Tracing the falling fortunes of adaptation under humanities theorization, the history nevertheless locates dissenting voices valorizing adaptation in every period. Adaptation studies can learn from history not only how to theorize adaptation more positively, but also to consider “the problem of theorization” for adaptation. The metatheoretical section finds that theorization and adaptation are rival, overlapping, inimical processes, each seeking to remake culture—and each other—in their images. It is not simply the case that adaptation has to adapt to theorization: rather, theorization needs to adapt to and through adaptation. The final section attends to the rhetoric of theorizing adaptation, analyzing how tiny pieces of rhetoric have constructed adaptation’s relationship to theorization, and turning to figurative rhetoric, or figuration, as a third process that can mediate between adaptation and theorization and refigure their relationship.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197511176.001.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780197511176.001.0001",
    openalex = "W4234091203",
    references = "boyd2017making, doi101017cbo9780511804656, doi1010800890549520181395802, doi101353nlh20070038, doi1023071769856, doi1023071772278, doi102307203963, doi10230740136453, doi105840wpr19941213, doi105860choice321461, doi105860choice364895, doi105860choice370239"
}

Abstract Chapter 4 traces the expansion of adaptation studies to new media and new theories in the twenty-first century. By 2006, literary film adaptation studies outnumbered general literature-and-film studies, and Linda Hutcheon authoritatively opened adaptation studies beyond literature and film and beyond dyadic disciplines and theoretical camps into a pluralism of media, disciplines, and theories, although debates between pre–theoretical turn and post–theoretical turn theories have continued. They continue because new theories have not resolved the problems of old theories for adaptation, so that scholars return to older theories to try to redress them. New theories have done a great deal for adaptation, but they have also introduced new theoretical problems: so much so, that the latest debates in adaptation study no longer lie between theoretical progressivism and theoretical return but between theoretical pluralism and theoretical abandonment. Beyond specific theories and differing modes of pluralism, this debate points to theorization’s failure to theorize adaptation more generally.

@incollection{doi101093oso97801975111760030005,
    author = "Elliott, Kamilla",
    title = "Theorizing Adaptation in the Twenty-First Century",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "Abstract Chapter 4 traces the expansion of adaptation studies to new media and new theories in the twenty-first century. By 2006, literary film adaptation studies outnumbered general literature-and-film studies, and Linda Hutcheon authoritatively opened adaptation studies beyond literature and film and beyond dyadic disciplines and theoretical camps into a pluralism of media, disciplines, and theories, although debates between pre–theoretical turn and post–theoretical turn theories have continued. They continue because new theories have not resolved the problems of old theories for adaptation, so that scholars return to older theories to try to redress them. New theories have done a great deal for adaptation, but they have also introduced new theoretical problems: so much so, that the latest debates in adaptation study no longer lie between theoretical progressivism and theoretical return but between theoretical pluralism and theoretical abandonment. Beyond specific theories and differing modes of pluralism, this debate points to theorization’s failure to theorize adaptation more generally.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0005",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0005",
    openalex = "W3036079543",
    references = "boyd2017making, doi101017cbo9780511804656, doi1023071769856, doi1023071772278, doi102307203963, doi10230740136453, doi105840wpr19941213, doi105860choice321461, doi105860choice364895, doi105860choice370239"
}

Abstract “Refiguring Theorization” shifts from macroscopic historical and theoretical metacriticism to microscopic analyses of rhetoric. Theorizing adaptation has unfolded not only at the level of books, chapters, articles, and reviews but also at the level of sentences, phrases, words, and pieces of words. Analyzing relations between parts of speech governed by the laws of grammar makes clear that some problems of theorizing adaptation lie within the systems and structures of rhetoric itself. A microscopic study of rhetoric takes larger discourses to pieces not only to understand their workings but also as a prelude to constructing new discourses of theorizing adaptation. Rhetoric’s conjoined persuasive and aesthetic functions render it particularly resonant for pondering the relationship between theoretical discourses and aesthetic practices, with potential for refiguring that relationship. Figurative rhetoric (or figuration) is central to this endeavor, providing a variegated, adaptive rhetoric with potential to forge new ways of thinking, speaking, and writing about adaptation, theorization, and their relationship to each other.

@incollection{doi101093oso97801975111760030010,
    author = "Elliott, Kamilla",
    title = "The Rhetoric of Theorizing Adaptation",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "Abstract “Refiguring Theorization” shifts from macroscopic historical and theoretical metacriticism to microscopic analyses of rhetoric. Theorizing adaptation has unfolded not only at the level of books, chapters, articles, and reviews but also at the level of sentences, phrases, words, and pieces of words. Analyzing relations between parts of speech governed by the laws of grammar makes clear that some problems of theorizing adaptation lie within the systems and structures of rhetoric itself. A microscopic study of rhetoric takes larger discourses to pieces not only to understand their workings but also as a prelude to constructing new discourses of theorizing adaptation. Rhetoric’s conjoined persuasive and aesthetic functions render it particularly resonant for pondering the relationship between theoretical discourses and aesthetic practices, with potential for refiguring that relationship. Figurative rhetoric (or figuration) is central to this endeavor, providing a variegated, adaptive rhetoric with potential to forge new ways of thinking, speaking, and writing about adaptation, theorization, and their relationship to each other.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0010",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0010",
    openalex = "W3036182364",
    references = "boyd2017making, doi101017cbo9780511804656, doi1023071769856, doi1023071772278, doi102307203963, doi10230740136453, doi105840wpr19941213, doi105860choice321461, doi105860choice364895, doi105860choice370239"
}

Abstract Chapter 9 considers how particular rhetorical figures have informed and can further inform particular theoretical problems within adaptation studies: for example, how figures of similarity can redress transtheoretical hierarchies valorizing difference over similarity, how synaesthesia can refigure medium specificity theory, and how figures of contiguity can theorize adaptation’s part/whole relations. It argues that figuration, as a relational rhetorical process, navigates far more complexly and variably between adaptation studies’ paired terms (adapted/adapting, entities/environments, repetition/variation) than theories have done, offering alternatives to aesthetic and cultural hierarchies, radical political revolutions of them, formalist and structuralist categoricity, poststructuralist deconstruction, and postmodern pastiche and pluralism. This chapter does not constrain figures such as antimetathesis, antimetabole, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, and synaesthesia to particular theoretical principles but probes them to generate adaptive concepts and methodologies by which to refigure adaptation studies. Whether we believe that there is a pre-existing reality that representation expresses or that representation is constructed, or a combination of the two—whether our interests lie in aesthetics, semiotics, narratology, history, culture, politics, industry, or anything else—figuration can revivify and refigure all theoretical and disciplinary purviews and create new ways of dialoguing between them. The chapter concludes with a discussion of metalepsis and the mysteries of adaptation and how the shift from analogical to digital technologies affects adaptation’s preferred figure of analogy.

@incollection{doi101093oso97801975111760030011,
    author = "Elliott, Kamilla",
    title = "Refiguring Adaptation Studies",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "Abstract Chapter 9 considers how particular rhetorical figures have informed and can further inform particular theoretical problems within adaptation studies: for example, how figures of similarity can redress transtheoretical hierarchies valorizing difference over similarity, how synaesthesia can refigure medium specificity theory, and how figures of contiguity can theorize adaptation’s part/whole relations. It argues that figuration, as a relational rhetorical process, navigates far more complexly and variably between adaptation studies’ paired terms (adapted/adapting, entities/environments, repetition/variation) than theories have done, offering alternatives to aesthetic and cultural hierarchies, radical political revolutions of them, formalist and structuralist categoricity, poststructuralist deconstruction, and postmodern pastiche and pluralism. This chapter does not constrain figures such as antimetathesis, antimetabole, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, and synaesthesia to particular theoretical principles but probes them to generate adaptive concepts and methodologies by which to refigure adaptation studies. Whether we believe that there is a pre-existing reality that representation expresses or that representation is constructed, or a combination of the two—whether our interests lie in aesthetics, semiotics, narratology, history, culture, politics, industry, or anything else—figuration can revivify and refigure all theoretical and disciplinary purviews and create new ways of dialoguing between them. The chapter concludes with a discussion of metalepsis and the mysteries of adaptation and how the shift from analogical to digital technologies affects adaptation’s preferred figure of analogy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0011",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780197511176.003.0011",
    openalex = "W3036208461",
    references = "boyd2017making, doi101017cbo9780511804656, doi1023071769856, doi1023071772278, doi102307203963, doi10230740136453, doi105840wpr19941213, doi105860choice321461, doi105860choice364895, doi105860choice370239"
}

Large-scale labeled training datasets have enabled deep neural networks to excel across a wide range of benchmark vision tasks. However, in many applications, it is prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to obtain large quantities of labeled data. To cope with limited labeled training data, many have attempted to directly apply models trained on a large-scale labeled source domain to another sparsely labeled or unlabeled target domain. Unfortunately, direct transfer across domains often performs poorly due to the presence of domain shift or dataset bias. Domain adaptation (DA) is a machine learning paradigm that aims to learn a model from a source domain that can perform well on a different (but related) target domain. In this article, we review the latest single-source deep unsupervised DA methods focused on visual tasks and discuss new perspectives for future research. We begin with the definitions of different DA strategies and the descriptions of existing benchmark datasets. We then summarize and compare different categories of single-source unsupervised DA methods, including discrepancy-based methods, adversarial discriminative methods, adversarial generative methods, and self-supervision-based methods. Finally, we discuss future research directions with challenges and possible solutions.

@article{doi101109tnnls20203028503,
    author = "Zhao, Sicheng and Yue, Xiangyu and Zhang, Shanghang and Li, Bo and Zhao, Han and Wu, BoRui and Krishna, Ravi and Gonzalez, Joseph E. and Sangiovanni‐Vincentelli, Alberto and Seshia, Sanjit A. and Keutzer, Kurt",
    title = "A Review of Single-Source Deep Unsupervised Visual Domain Adaptation",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems",
    abstract = "Large-scale labeled training datasets have enabled deep neural networks to excel across a wide range of benchmark vision tasks. However, in many applications, it is prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to obtain large quantities of labeled data. To cope with limited labeled training data, many have attempted to directly apply models trained on a large-scale labeled source domain to another sparsely labeled or unlabeled target domain. Unfortunately, direct transfer across domains often performs poorly due to the presence of domain shift or dataset bias. Domain adaptation (DA) is a machine learning paradigm that aims to learn a model from a source domain that can perform well on a different (but related) target domain. In this article, we review the latest single-source deep unsupervised DA methods focused on visual tasks and discuss new perspectives for future research. We begin with the definitions of different DA strategies and the descriptions of existing benchmark datasets. We then summarize and compare different categories of single-source unsupervised DA methods, including discrepancy-based methods, adversarial discriminative methods, adversarial generative methods, and self-supervision-based methods. Finally, we discuss future research directions with challenges and possible solutions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/tnnls.2020.3028503",
    doi = "10.1109/tnnls.2020.3028503",
    openalex = "W3094277917",
    references = "doi101016jpatcog201803005"
}

@incollection{crossref2021adaptations,
    title = "Adaptations",
    year = "2021",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3\_300036",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3\_300036",
    openalex = "W4254981542",
    pages = "64-64"
}

@misc{crossref2022adaptations,
    title = "Adaptations",
    year = "2022",
    booktitle = "The Fashion Design Toolkit",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350101593.ch-017",
    doi = "10.5040/9781350101593.ch-017",
    openalex = "W4226163584",
    pages = "206-217"
}

Abstract Arguments that ‘it is time for adaptation studies to take an x turn’ have proliferated in the inevitably methodologically eclectic field of adaptation studies. However, there are still methodologies with which adaptation studies has not yet engaged in detail, and which could be enriched by certain existing adaptation studies conventions. One such approach is ecocriticism: analyses of how various cultural practices reflect and inform human attitudes and behaviours towards the non human world around us. This article outlines how the study of adaptation has thus far engaged with ecocritical issues, and indicates how existing adaptation studies protocols offer useful tools to extend the ecocritical project in a diachronic and intercultural manner.

@article{doi101093adaptationapad001,
    author = "Geal, Robert",
    title = "Towards an Ecocritical Adaptation Studies",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Adaptation",
    abstract = "Abstract Arguments that ‘it is time for adaptation studies to take an x turn’ have proliferated in the inevitably methodologically eclectic field of adaptation studies. However, there are still methodologies with which adaptation studies has not yet engaged in detail, and which could be enriched by certain existing adaptation studies conventions. One such approach is ecocriticism: analyses of how various cultural practices reflect and inform human attitudes and behaviours towards the non human world around us. This article outlines how the study of adaptation has thus far engaged with ecocritical issues, and indicates how existing adaptation studies protocols offer useful tools to extend the ecocritical project in a diachronic and intercultural manner.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/adaptation/apad001",
    doi = "10.1093/adaptation/apad001",
    openalex = "W4320723549",
    references = "doi101353nlh20070038"
}

Abstract This article takes up and responds to the recent ecological turn in adaptation studies, exploring the discipline’s widespread interest in the overlap between the notion of adaptation in evolutionary biology and the notion of adaptation in literature, film, and media studies. It argues that in order to develop a historically and ecocritically alert approach to adaptation studies, it is necessary to unpack what is at stake in using biological terms and paradigms to study adaptation in art. Firstly, it offers a survey of several studies that have explored the overlap between adaptation in nature and adaptation in culture, arguing that these have been overly influenced by the notions of neo-Darwinism that were popularized by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (1976). Secondly, it offers a rereading of the film that has become a primary case study among theorists who have reached for biological metaphors to explain cultural change: Adaptation (2002). It argues that whereas scholars have often tended to use Adaptation as a springboard from which to launch an exploration of the purported homology between adaptation in nature and adaptation in art, in fact, the film’s evolutionary themes are clearly historicizable, tied to a set of values coordinated around ideas of heteronormative reproductivity, dissemination, and growth. Examining those values helps to demonstrate how the film’s evolutionary themes are deployed as part of its representational strategies, thereby challenging the idea that they might be unproblematically used to describe the overlap between adaptation in biology and adaptation in art.

@article{doi101093adaptationapae015,
    author = "Elliott, Tomas",
    title = "‘A movie about flowers?’ Notes on the ecological turn in adaptation studies",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Adaptation",
    abstract = "Abstract This article takes up and responds to the recent ecological turn in adaptation studies, exploring the discipline’s widespread interest in the overlap between the notion of adaptation in evolutionary biology and the notion of adaptation in literature, film, and media studies. It argues that in order to develop a historically and ecocritically alert approach to adaptation studies, it is necessary to unpack what is at stake in using biological terms and paradigms to study adaptation in art. Firstly, it offers a survey of several studies that have explored the overlap between adaptation in nature and adaptation in culture, arguing that these have been overly influenced by the notions of neo-Darwinism that were popularized by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene (1976). Secondly, it offers a rereading of the film that has become a primary case study among theorists who have reached for biological metaphors to explain cultural change: Adaptation (2002). It argues that whereas scholars have often tended to use Adaptation as a springboard from which to launch an exploration of the purported homology between adaptation in nature and adaptation in art, in fact, the film’s evolutionary themes are clearly historicizable, tied to a set of values coordinated around ideas of heteronormative reproductivity, dissemination, and growth. Examining those values helps to demonstrate how the film’s evolutionary themes are deployed as part of its representational strategies, thereby challenging the idea that they might be unproblematically used to describe the overlap between adaptation in biology and adaptation in art.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/adaptation/apae015",
    doi = "10.1093/adaptation/apae015",
    openalex = "W4400460480",
    references = "doi101093oso97801975111760010001"
}

The article examines several controlling metaphors of contemporary adaptation studies that allow us to elaborate on the in-betweenness of any text appropriated by different media (cinema, theatre, video games, popular music). I will highlight four metaphors — the palimpsest (R. Stam, L. Hutcheon), the heterocosm (Hutcheon), the network (D. Lanier, K. Newell), and the least established—“а flesh ly dialogue” (D. Richard). The article explains why the metaphors of heterocosm and the network, existing separately, might be replaced by the “adaptation universe” (with its network structure). Unpacking the place of each metaphor in the history of ideas on adaptations (retellings, reworkings, “repetitions with variations”), I will demonstrate how they become starting points for the analysis of texts. While pa limpsests allow us to focus on the work of memory and imagination, the adaptation universe offers a new understanding of complex interactions between texts, authors, and audiences. The “fleshly dialogue” shifts the focus from memory, imagination, or interactions to immediate perception. Audiences and texts (films, performances, games), in their contacts, produce the in-between spaces of intensified perceptions, which help stories not only to mean but to feel differently.

@article{doi1055959msu0130007592025480314,
    author = "Rybina, Polina",
    title = "LITERATURE ON THE SCREEN: THE CONTROLLING METAPHORS IN CONTEMPORARY ADAPTATION THEORY",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Lomonosov Journal of Philology",
    abstract = "The article examines several controlling metaphors of contemporary adaptation studies that allow us to elaborate on the in-betweenness of any text appropriated by different media (cinema, theatre, video games, popular music). I will highlight four metaphors — the palimpsest (R. Stam, L. Hutcheon), the heterocosm (Hutcheon), the network (D. Lanier, K. Newell), and the least established—“а flesh ly dialogue” (D. Richard). The article explains why the metaphors of heterocosm and the network, existing separately, might be replaced by the “adaptation universe” (with its network structure). Unpacking the place of each metaphor in the history of ideas on adaptations (retellings, reworkings, “repetitions with variations”), I will demonstrate how they become starting points for the analysis of texts. While pa limpsests allow us to focus on the work of memory and imagination, the adaptation universe offers a new understanding of complex interactions between texts, authors, and audiences. The “fleshly dialogue” shifts the focus from memory, imagination, or interactions to immediate perception. Audiences and texts (films, performances, games), in their contacts, produce the in-between spaces of intensified perceptions, which help stories not only to mean but to feel differently.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.55959/msu0130-0075-9-2025-48-03-14",
    doi = "10.55959/msu0130-0075-9-2025-48-03-14",
    openalex = "W4412385897",
    references = "doi101093oso97801975111760010001"
}

Penaeid shrimp are economically important in global aquaculture. Rising demand has expanded shrimp farming and supported coastal economies. Low-salinity (hyposalinity) stress is a major constraint that impairs physiology and reduces growth, survival, and productivity. This review explores the adaptive mechanisms employed by penaeid shrimp in response to salinity stress and the consequent challenges faced by the aquaculture sector. Penaeid shrimp exhibit adaptive responses to salinity stress through a variety of physiological and molecular mechanisms, including ion regulation, osmoregulation, antioxidant defense, and the activation of signaling pathways. While these mechanisms are critical, they necessitate further in-depth investigation. This review synthesizes recent advancements in the understanding of penaeid shrimp adaptation to salinity stress, encompassing salinity signal perception, the activation of calcium and phospholipid signaling, signal transduction, and the regulation of gene expression. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the physiological and molecular responses of penaeid shrimp to salinity stress. The paper also discusses the potential implications of these findings for the aquaculture industry, particularly for improving climate-change resilience under increasingly frequent and unpredictable salinity fluctuations.

@article{doi101007s44154026002954,
    author = "Huang, Sheng and Zhou, Falin and Jiang, Shigui and Li, Erchao and Li, Yundong",
    title = "Molecular and physiological adaptations to low-salinity stress in penaeid shrimp: a focus on Litopenaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Stress biology",
    abstract = "Penaeid shrimp are economically important in global aquaculture. Rising demand has expanded shrimp farming and supported coastal economies. Low-salinity (hyposalinity) stress is a major constraint that impairs physiology and reduces growth, survival, and productivity. This review explores the adaptive mechanisms employed by penaeid shrimp in response to salinity stress and the consequent challenges faced by the aquaculture sector. Penaeid shrimp exhibit adaptive responses to salinity stress through a variety of physiological and molecular mechanisms, including ion regulation, osmoregulation, antioxidant defense, and the activation of signaling pathways. While these mechanisms are critical, they necessitate further in-depth investigation. This review synthesizes recent advancements in the understanding of penaeid shrimp adaptation to salinity stress, encompassing salinity signal perception, the activation of calcium and phospholipid signaling, signal transduction, and the regulation of gene expression. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the physiological and molecular responses of penaeid shrimp to salinity stress. The paper also discusses the potential implications of these findings for the aquaculture industry, particularly for improving climate-change resilience under increasingly frequent and unpredictable salinity fluctuations.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/8898971/",
    doi = "10.1007/s44154-026-00295-4",
    pmcid = "8898971",
    pmid = "42043638"
}

@incollection{crossrefNoneadaptations,
    title = "ADAPTATIONS",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "The Governor General’s Literary Awards of Canada",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv80cd79.11",
    doi = "10.2307/j.ctv80cd79.11",
    openalex = "W4255374309",
    pages = "309-326"
}