Age determination

@article{crossref1942determination,
    title = "DETERMINATION OF AGE",
    year = "1942",
    journal = "Medical Journal of Australia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1942.tb90314.x",
    doi = "10.5694/j.1326-5377.1942.tb90314.x",
    number = "13",
    openalex = "W4237192133",
    pages = "302-303",
    volume = "2"
}

@article{elder1946age,
    author = "Elder, William H.",
    title = "Age and Sex Criteria and Weights of Canada Geese",
    year = "1946",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3796071",
    doi = "10.2307/3796071",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2320888382",
    pages = "93",
    volume = "10"
}

@article{doi1023073796086,
    author = "Hanson, Harold C.",
    title = "Methods of Determining Age in Canada Geese and Other Waterfowl",
    year = "1949",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3796086",
    doi = "10.2307/3796086",
    openalex = "W2329562385"
}

This Canada goose study is based on data from three primary sources: data collected at Horseshoe Lake, Alexander County, Illinois; surveys by the authors on the distribution, habitat, and behavior of the population elsewhere in the Mississippi flyway; and banding records of the Jack Miner Bird Sanctuary, Kingsville, Ontario. Data from other sources have been used as indicated in the text.

@article{doi1021900jinhsv25184,
    author = "Hanson, Harold C. and Smith, Robert H.",
    title = "Canada Geese of the Mississippi Flyway with Special Reference to an Illinois Flock",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Illinois Natural History Survey bulletin/Bulletin - Illinois Natural History Survey",
    abstract = "This Canada goose study is based on data from three primary sources: data collected at Horseshoe Lake, Alexander County, Illinois; surveys by the authors on the distribution, habitat, and behavior of the population elsewhere in the Mississippi flyway; and banding records of the Jack Miner Bird Sanctuary, Kingsville, Ontario. Data from other sources have been used as indicated in the text.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.21900/j.inhs.v25.184",
    doi = "10.21900/j.inhs.v25.184",
    openalex = "W2328290940",
    references = "doi1023071948614, doi1023073795515, doi1023074509515, doi1023074509851, doi105281zenodo16185672, doi105962bhltitle15199, doi105962bhltitle49838, doi105962bhltitle53909, doi105962bhltitle64010, doi105962p226727"
}

This study of the breeding h-abits of the Canada goose (Branta cana,densis) was initiated in thle sprilng of 1944 by the writer and Carlton Beckhart; the writer continued the work from the spring of 1946 to the fall of 1948. Most of the data were obtained on Bright Land Farm near Barrington, Cook County, Illinois, for the period 1944 to 1946, from a flock of 2 50 birds, of which approximately 25 per cent were full-winged and the remainder wing-clipped or pinioned. Some data were gathcred from sources other than Bright Land Fann during the study. Emphasis was placed on tne breeding behavior of a goose once mated and then separated from its mate because of death or other reasons.

@article{doi1023072421856,
    author = "Kossack, Charles W.",
    title = "Breeding Habits of Canada Geese Under Refuge Conditions",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "The American Midland Naturalist",
    abstract = "This study of the breeding h-abits of the Canada goose (Branta cana,densis) was initiated in thle sprilng of 1944 by the writer and Carlton Beckhart; the writer continued the work from the spring of 1946 to the fall of 1948. Most of the data were obtained on Bright Land Farm near Barrington, Cook County, Illinois, for the period 1944 to 1946, from a flock of 2 50 birds, of which approximately 25 per cent were full-winged and the remainder wing-clipped or pinioned. Some data were gathcred from sources other than Bright Land Fann during the study. Emphasis was placed on tne breeding behavior of a goose once mated and then separated from its mate because of death or other reasons.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2421856",
    doi = "10.2307/2421856",
    openalex = "W2321252972",
    references = "doi1023073536286, doi1023073795551, doi1023073795556, doi1023073796037, doi1023073796140, openalexw2301677333"
}

SEVERAL factors combine to make the social habits of geese among the most interesting and complex in bird life: the slowness with which individuals become sexually mature and the resultant age stratification in the population (juveniles, yearlings, nonbreeding adults, and breeding adults); their high degree of gregariousness except during the breeding season; their strong sense of territory or "property rights" (Richdale, 1951); and the persistence and the strong cohesion of the family group from one breeding season to the beginning of the next.In the course of field studies of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis interior) at Horseshoe Lake, Ilhnois, in 1944 and 1945, a number of observations was made on the social behavior of these geese, particularly of family groups.Some of these observations were based on banded birds of known age and sex, but no real problem was involved when unbanded birds were observed at close range, as it was seldom difficult to distinguish the members of a family group--the juveniles from older birds by their appearance and color of their plumage, body contour, size, and behavior; the adult males from the adult females by their stance, size, and behavior.The observations recorded here are not extensive, but they may offer a new insight into the relationships between goose families.The concept presented needs further testing and clarification, and it is hoped that other workers on geese will deem it worthy of further investigation with marked birds.Probably under most conditions of nesting in the wild, Canada Goose families seen in the autumn and winter represent pairs and their young of the year, but as so often occurs in nature, important exceptions exist.In Utah and southern Idaho where Canada Geese nest

@article{doi1023074081052,
    author = "Hanson, Harold C.",
    title = "Inter-Family Dominance in Canada Geese",
    year = "1953",
    journal = "The Auk",
    abstract = {SEVERAL factors combine to make the social habits of geese among the most interesting and complex in bird life: the slowness with which individuals become sexually mature and the resultant age stratification in the population (juveniles, yearlings, nonbreeding adults, and breeding adults); their high degree of gregariousness except during the breeding season; their strong sense of territory or "property rights" (Richdale, 1951); and the persistence and the strong cohesion of the family group from one breeding season to the beginning of the next.In the course of field studies of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis interior) at Horseshoe Lake, Ilhnois, in 1944 and 1945, a number of observations was made on the social behavior of these geese, particularly of family groups.Some of these observations were based on banded birds of known age and sex, but no real problem was involved when unbanded birds were observed at close range, as it was seldom difficult to distinguish the members of a family group--the juveniles from older birds by their appearance and color of their plumage, body contour, size, and behavior; the adult males from the adult females by their stance, size, and behavior.The observations recorded here are not extensive, but they may offer a new insight into the relationships between goose families.The concept presented needs further testing and clarification, and it is hoped that other workers on geese will deem it worthy of further investigation with marked birds.Probably under most conditions of nesting in the wild, Canada Goose families seen in the autumn and winter represent pairs and their young of the year, but as so often occurs in nature, important exceptions exist.In Utah and southern Idaho where Canada Geese nest},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4081052",
    doi = "10.2307/4081052",
    openalex = "W2334055833",
    references = "doi1021900jinhsv25184, elder1946age"
}

Published studies of productivity of the Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffiti) include those made in Utah (Williams and Marshall, 1937, 1938), in Wyoming (Craighead and Craighead, 1949), and in California (Dow, 1943; Naylor, 1953; Miller and Collins, 1953; Naylor and Hunt, 1954). Although these studies have made it possible for waterfowl managers to estimate productivity of goose populations with some confidence, they have been incomplete in one or more respects. In most cases the studies have been based on samples of the breeding population in areas where the nonbreeding element was not definitely known, thus making it impossible to estimate the productivity of the total population with certainty. Because of the difficulty of determining gosling mortality, productivity has been estimated from the number of young hatched rather than from the number of young reaching harvestable age. Also, the extent of renesting and its compensatory effect has not been considered.

@article{doi1023073797153,
    author = "Geis, Mary Barraclough",
    title = "Productivity of Canada Geese in the Flathead Valley, Montana",
    year = "1956",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Published studies of productivity of the Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffiti) include those made in Utah (Williams and Marshall, 1937, 1938), in Wyoming (Craighead and Craighead, 1949), and in California (Dow, 1943; Naylor, 1953; Miller and Collins, 1953; Naylor and Hunt, 1954). Although these studies have made it possible for waterfowl managers to estimate productivity of goose populations with some confidence, they have been incomplete in one or more respects. In most cases the studies have been based on samples of the breeding population in areas where the nonbreeding element was not definitely known, thus making it impossible to estimate the productivity of the total population with certainty. Because of the difficulty of determining gosling mortality, productivity has been estimated from the number of young hatched rather than from the number of young reaching harvestable age. Also, the extent of renesting and its compensatory effect has not been considered.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3797153",
    doi = "10.2307/3797153",
    openalex = "W2333663368"
}

@article{craighead1964breeding,
    author = "Craighead, John J. and Stockstad, Dwight S.",
    title = "Breeding Age of Canada Geese",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3797937",
    doi = "10.2307/3797937",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2315365598",
    pages = "57",
    volume = "28",
    references = "doi1021900jinhsv25184, doi1023072421856, doi1023073796086, doi1023073796979, doi1023073797153, doi105962bhltitle15145, elder1946age, openalexw3039249584"
}

A 3-year study (1961-64) of a sedentary flock of Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) is reported. A detailed study of full-winged birds was possible because each was individually colormarked and of known age and sex. Most pairs nested in elevated wash tubs which provided protection from predators during the laying period. Courtship, density of nests, and territorial requirements are discussed. Ten percent of yearling males nested. Females became productive in their second year with one-third of them nesting. Ninety percent or more of males 2 years and older and females 3 years and older paired. Polygamy was not uncommon. Nesting territories were selected by the females and defended primarily by the males. Females had an affinity for their nest sites in subsequent years. The rate of laying was one egg each 11/2 days. There was a direct relationship between age of females and initiation of laying; older females nested first. Eggs of maxima were similar to those of other subspecies. Egg size was related to age of females; 5-year-old birds laid the largest eggs. Down appeared most often with the fourth egg. Clutches of successful tub-nesting females averaged 5.5 eggs while successful ground-nesting females averaged 4.6 eggs. Older females laid larger clutches and hatched a larger percentage of their eggs than did younger females. The duration of breeding season was influenced primarily by renesting. Females incubated 28 days; males anticipated hatching. Females incubated dead eggs 1.5 times normal length. Goslings were held in the tubs about 24 hours after hatching and became imprinted to their parents. Broods were called from the tubs by their parents, and the nesting territory was abandoned as the new family swam away. Loss of production in tub nests was primarily because of desertions and in ground nests because of destructions. Renests were of two types: continuation nests, which were located an average of 96 yards from destroyed nests, and true renests, which were located an average of 243 yards away. Clutch sizes were the same in original and renests but were smaller in continuation nests. The average renesting interval was 13 days and was directly related to the number of eggs in the original nest. Seventy-three percent of incubated eggs hatched, 5 percent were infertile, and 22 percent died during incubation. Broods retained their identity for about 7 days, then gradually formed creches of increasing size. Creches were accompanied by both productive pairs and nonbreeding females. Gosling mortality averaged 32 percent. Resident geese were almost as wild as migrants during the fall but were quite tame during the postmolting period. Canada geese are prized game birds of considerable trophy value. They are widely distributed over the North American continent and hunted in some way almost 10 months of each year. Much has been learned about goose management on the wintering grounds, but because of the remoteness of most of their nesting area and the bird's wide dispersal within that area, far less is known about their breeding biology and nesting behavior. Previous behavior studies have dealt with pinioned or confined birds, and most nesting studies have been concerned with gross aspects of population productivity. The purpose of this study was to learn facts about the nesting biology and behavior of full-winged, unconfined, nonmigratory Canada geese. The objective was to determine whether these birds were suitable for restocking purposes and productive enough to warrant annual harvests. The study was conducted over a 3-year period from 1961 to 1964 at the Trimble Wildlife Area, Trimble, Clinton County, Missouri. The area, developed in 1950-51 with Federal Aid funds, is located in northwest Missouri between Kansas City and St. Joseph. Its 1,200 acres include a reservoir of 160 acres and 10 adjacent marshes totaling 175 acres. About 680 acres of upland are available for cultivation. The primary objective of management is to provide suitable habitat for ducks, nesting geese, and fish, with the ultimate goal of providing public recreation. In January, 1952, 24 pinioned Canada geese, now identified as B. c. maxima, were 'A Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project, Surveys and Investigations Projects, Missouri 13-4.

@article{doi1023073798552,
    author = "Brakhage, George K.",
    title = "Biology and Behavior of Tub-Nesting Canada Geese",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "A 3-year study (1961-64) of a sedentary flock of Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) is reported. A detailed study of full-winged birds was possible because each was individually colormarked and of known age and sex. Most pairs nested in elevated wash tubs which provided protection from predators during the laying period. Courtship, density of nests, and territorial requirements are discussed. Ten percent of yearling males nested. Females became productive in their second year with one-third of them nesting. Ninety percent or more of males 2 years and older and females 3 years and older paired. Polygamy was not uncommon. Nesting territories were selected by the females and defended primarily by the males. Females had an affinity for their nest sites in subsequent years. The rate of laying was one egg each 11/2 days. There was a direct relationship between age of females and initiation of laying; older females nested first. Eggs of maxima were similar to those of other subspecies. Egg size was related to age of females; 5-year-old birds laid the largest eggs. Down appeared most often with the fourth egg. Clutches of successful tub-nesting females averaged 5.5 eggs while successful ground-nesting females averaged 4.6 eggs. Older females laid larger clutches and hatched a larger percentage of their eggs than did younger females. The duration of breeding season was influenced primarily by renesting. Females incubated 28 days; males anticipated hatching. Females incubated dead eggs 1.5 times normal length. Goslings were held in the tubs about 24 hours after hatching and became imprinted to their parents. Broods were called from the tubs by their parents, and the nesting territory was abandoned as the new family swam away. Loss of production in tub nests was primarily because of desertions and in ground nests because of destructions. Renests were of two types: continuation nests, which were located an average of 96 yards from destroyed nests, and true renests, which were located an average of 243 yards away. Clutch sizes were the same in original and renests but were smaller in continuation nests. The average renesting interval was 13 days and was directly related to the number of eggs in the original nest. Seventy-three percent of incubated eggs hatched, 5 percent were infertile, and 22 percent died during incubation. Broods retained their identity for about 7 days, then gradually formed creches of increasing size. Creches were accompanied by both productive pairs and nonbreeding females. Gosling mortality averaged 32 percent. Resident geese were almost as wild as migrants during the fall but were quite tame during the postmolting period. Canada geese are prized game birds of considerable trophy value. They are widely distributed over the North American continent and hunted in some way almost 10 months of each year. Much has been learned about goose management on the wintering grounds, but because of the remoteness of most of their nesting area and the bird's wide dispersal within that area, far less is known about their breeding biology and nesting behavior. Previous behavior studies have dealt with pinioned or confined birds, and most nesting studies have been concerned with gross aspects of population productivity. The purpose of this study was to learn facts about the nesting biology and behavior of full-winged, unconfined, nonmigratory Canada geese. The objective was to determine whether these birds were suitable for restocking purposes and productive enough to warrant annual harvests. The study was conducted over a 3-year period from 1961 to 1964 at the Trimble Wildlife Area, Trimble, Clinton County, Missouri. The area, developed in 1950-51 with Federal Aid funds, is located in northwest Missouri between Kansas City and St. Joseph. Its 1,200 acres include a reservoir of 160 acres and 10 adjacent marshes totaling 175 acres. About 680 acres of upland are available for cultivation. The primary objective of management is to provide suitable habitat for ducks, nesting geese, and fish, with the ultimate goal of providing public recreation. In January, 1952, 24 pinioned Canada geese, now identified as B. c. maxima, were 'A Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project, Surveys and Investigations Projects, Missouri 13-4.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3798552",
    doi = "10.2307/3798552",
    openalex = "W2315159592",
    references = "craighead1964breeding, doi10108000063655709475864, doi101126science1303368133, doi1023072423253, doi1023073536286, doi1023073795551, doi1023073795643, doi1023073796582, doi1023073797153, doi1023074078077, doi1023074082315, elder1946age, openalexw2160199231"
}

The Canada geese (hutchinsii-parvipes complex of Branta canadensis) which nest in arctic Canada east of 1040 W have developed a complex system which enables the population to survive and expand its range under the changing ecological conditions of its present breeding grounds. The popu- lation has an irregular migration pattern, dependent in part on the presence of green vegetation at fa- vored stopover points. Sight records of neckbanded geese indicate that birds from one nesting locality spread throughout the migration range and mix freely with birds from other nesting areas. This popu- lation probably pairs in spring, with the peak of sexual activity occurring during the later stages of northward migration, when geese from many nesting localities are mixed together. Measurements of 17 mated pairs indicate that mating is assortative; the male of the pair was always larger than the fe- male even though large females were available in the population. In samples taken at McConnell River and Southampton Island, Northwest Territories, significant differences were found between the means and variances of morphological characters measured, yet the ranges of observed variation were very similar. Most habitat presently occupied by Canada geese in eastern arctic Canada is of very recent geologic origin, and the climate is undergoing long-term amelioration. Length of the summer season is critical in limiting the survival of geese. Because larger geese probably are less successful than smaller geese in producing young in short summers, but more productive in long seasons, populations living in more severe climate should contain a higher proportion of small geese. It is proposed that the transfer of individuals between local nesting areas, coupled with selective mating and individual variation, are mechanisms which may improve the average survival of Canada geese in a variable and fluctuating en- vironment.

@article{doi1023073798746,
    author = "MacInnes, Charles D.",
    title = "Population Behavior of Eastern Arctic Canada Geese",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "The Canada geese (hutchinsii-parvipes complex of Branta canadensis) which nest in arctic Canada east of 1040 W have developed a complex system which enables the population to survive and expand its range under the changing ecological conditions of its present breeding grounds. The popu- lation has an irregular migration pattern, dependent in part on the presence of green vegetation at fa- vored stopover points. Sight records of neckbanded geese indicate that birds from one nesting locality spread throughout the migration range and mix freely with birds from other nesting areas. This popu- lation probably pairs in spring, with the peak of sexual activity occurring during the later stages of northward migration, when geese from many nesting localities are mixed together. Measurements of 17 mated pairs indicate that mating is assortative; the male of the pair was always larger than the fe- male even though large females were available in the population. In samples taken at McConnell River and Southampton Island, Northwest Territories, significant differences were found between the means and variances of morphological characters measured, yet the ranges of observed variation were very similar. Most habitat presently occupied by Canada geese in eastern arctic Canada is of very recent geologic origin, and the climate is undergoing long-term amelioration. Length of the summer season is critical in limiting the survival of geese. Because larger geese probably are less successful than smaller geese in producing young in short summers, but more productive in long seasons, populations living in more severe climate should contain a higher proportion of small geese. It is proposed that the transfer of individuals between local nesting areas, coupled with selective mating and individual variation, are mechanisms which may improve the average survival of Canada geese in a variable and fluctuating en- vironment.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3798746",
    doi = "10.2307/3798746",
    openalex = "W2313773782",
    references = "doi1021900jinhsv25184, doi1023073796979"
}

The Nature Conservancy is expected to advisethe Red Deer Commission on the scientific aspects of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) management. Although work on the management of red deer has been in progress since 1957 on the Isle of Rhum National Nature Reserve (Lowe 196 1; Eggeling 1964), it was essential to develop methods for assessing the relevance of the results to deer populations elsewhere in Scotland (Mitchell 1965). Accurate determination of age is an important prerequisite for comparing the growth, breeding performance and survival of different deer populations. Changes in body characteristics with age can 6ften be used for the exact determination of age of short-lived animals. But for those with a long life span, the time required to collect the relevant age characteristics may be a serious restriction. Similarly, the characteristics of one population may differ from those of another, and it is reasonable to expect less accuracy with increasing age. Although annular tissues and structures have been long known in woody plants and fish, it is only in recent years that progress has been made in the quest for similar tissues among mammals. Dental tissues have attracted most attention, and whereas. the earlier studies concerned growth layers in dentine, e.g. in red deer (Eidmann 1933), Alaskan fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus (L.)) (Scheffer 1950), elephant seals (Mirounga leonina L.) (Laws 1952, 1953), harp seals (Phoca groenlandica Erxleben) (Fisher & Mackenzie 1954), bottle-nose dolphins (Tursiops truncutas (Montague)) (Sergeant 1959) and Alasklan black bears (Ursinus americanus (Pallas)) (Rausch 1961 in Mosby 1963), later work has indicated the wider potentiality of dental cement. Dentine grows internally, progressively filling the pulp cavity, but cement continues to grow n -the root surface, apparently at a constant rate, throughout life. Hence annual cement increments are relatively constant, but dentine increments tend to get smaller, and, more difficult to count, with age. The linear relationship between cement thickness and age found in human teeth (Gustafson 1950 in Miles 1961) has been suggested as a possible method of forensic age assessment. Encouraging results using annular cement layers for age determination have been published for moose (Alces alces (L.)) (Sergeant & Pimlott 1959), harbour seals (Phoca vitulina L.) (Mansfield& Fisher 1960), grey seals. (Halichoerus grypus Fabricius) (Hewer 1960, 1964), Barren Ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus (L.)) (McEwan 1963), beavers (Castor canadensis Kuhl) (Van Nostrand & Stephenson 1964), griizly bears (Ursus arctos L.) (Mundy & Fuller 1964) and white-tailed deer -(Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) (Ransom 1966; Gilbert 1966). In an earlier note (Mitchell 1963) I showed how growth layers in the dental cement of red deer could be exposed by sectioning the thick cement pad under the crown on molar

@article{doi1023072912,
    author = "Mitchell, B. R.",
    title = "Growth Layers in Dental Cement for Determining the Age of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L.)",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    abstract = "The Nature Conservancy is expected to advisethe Red Deer Commission on the scientific aspects of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) management. Although work on the management of red deer has been in progress since 1957 on the Isle of Rhum National Nature Reserve (Lowe 196 1; Eggeling 1964), it was essential to develop methods for assessing the relevance of the results to deer populations elsewhere in Scotland (Mitchell 1965). Accurate determination of age is an important prerequisite for comparing the growth, breeding performance and survival of different deer populations. Changes in body characteristics with age can 6ften be used for the exact determination of age of short-lived animals. But for those with a long life span, the time required to collect the relevant age characteristics may be a serious restriction. Similarly, the characteristics of one population may differ from those of another, and it is reasonable to expect less accuracy with increasing age. Although annular tissues and structures have been long known in woody plants and fish, it is only in recent years that progress has been made in the quest for similar tissues among mammals. Dental tissues have attracted most attention, and whereas. the earlier studies concerned growth layers in dentine, e.g. in red deer (Eidmann 1933), Alaskan fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus (L.)) (Scheffer 1950), elephant seals (Mirounga leonina L.) (Laws 1952, 1953), harp seals (Phoca groenlandica Erxleben) (Fisher \& Mackenzie 1954), bottle-nose dolphins (Tursiops truncutas (Montague)) (Sergeant 1959) and Alasklan black bears (Ursinus americanus (Pallas)) (Rausch 1961 in Mosby 1963), later work has indicated the wider potentiality of dental cement. Dentine grows internally, progressively filling the pulp cavity, but cement continues to grow n -the root surface, apparently at a constant rate, throughout life. Hence annual cement increments are relatively constant, but dentine increments tend to get smaller, and, more difficult to count, with age. The linear relationship between cement thickness and age found in human teeth (Gustafson 1950 in Miles 1961) has been suggested as a possible method of forensic age assessment. Encouraging results using annular cement layers for age determination have been published for moose (Alces alces (L.)) (Sergeant \& Pimlott 1959), harbour seals (Phoca vitulina L.) (Mansfield\& Fisher 1960), grey seals. (Halichoerus grypus Fabricius) (Hewer 1960, 1964), Barren Ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus (L.)) (McEwan 1963), beavers (Castor canadensis Kuhl) (Van Nostrand \& Stephenson 1964), griizly bears (Ursus arctos L.) (Mundy \& Fuller 1964) and white-tailed deer -(Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) (Ransom 1966; Gilbert 1966). In an earlier note (Mitchell 1963) I showed how growth layers in the dental cement of red deer could be exposed by sectioning the thick cement pad under the crown on molar",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2912",
    doi = "10.2307/2912",
    openalex = "W2327196146"
}

The validity of group counts, cannon-net catches, and hunter-bag checks for estimating productivity of lesser snow geese (Anser caerulesc8f1S caerulescens) and small Canada geese (Branta canademis hutcllinsii-parvipes complex) was studied at Sand Lake National WildJife Refuge during the falls of 1965 and 1966. Age ratios of snow geese obtained from net-trapped samples were signifi­ cantly higher (P < 0.01) than from group counts at the same site. Immature snow geese were shot in a significantly greater (P < 0.01) proportion than they existed in the population as determined by group counts. Cannon-net catches and hunter-bag checks of snow and Canada geese yielded age ratios which were biased because of behavioral characteristics of the geese. Immatures of both species were less wary of trap equipment and immature snow geese were more vulnerable to the gun than adults. It was believed that age ratios from group counts of snow geese were more representative of the population than those from net catches and hunter-bag checks. Sex ratios of net·trapped geese showed a preponder­ ance of males for adult Canada and adult and immature snow geese, whereas females were predominant in the immature SCb'lllent of Canada geese. Hunter selectivity of blue- or white-phase snow geese was not observed at Sand Lake Refuge. Differential vulnerability to hunting between snow and Canada geese resulted from differences in feeding-flight behavior. Knowledge of the proportion of imma­ tures in the population of a species follow­ ing the nesting season is useful in setting annual hunting regulations. At present, goose age-ratio data are gathered primarily on fall migration areas and on wintering grounds. Even though these data are ob­ tained after the hunting regulations for that year have been set, they have value in sub­ sequent years because geese are long-lived birds and do not breed until at least their

@article{doi1023073799330,
    author = "Higgins, Kenneth F. and Linder, Raymond L. and Springer, Paul F.",
    title = "A Comparison of Methods Used to Obtain Age Ratios of Snow and Canada Geese",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "The validity of group counts, cannon-net catches, and hunter-bag checks for estimating productivity of lesser snow geese (Anser caerulesc8f1S caerulescens) and small Canada geese (Branta canademis hutcllinsii-parvipes complex) was studied at Sand Lake National WildJife Refuge during the falls of 1965 and 1966. Age ratios of snow geese obtained from net-trapped samples were signifi­ cantly higher (P < 0.01) than from group counts at the same site. Immature snow geese were shot in a significantly greater (P < 0.01) proportion than they existed in the population as determined by group counts. Cannon-net catches and hunter-bag checks of snow and Canada geese yielded age ratios which were biased because of behavioral characteristics of the geese. Immatures of both species were less wary of trap equipment and immature snow geese were more vulnerable to the gun than adults. It was believed that age ratios from group counts of snow geese were more representative of the population than those from net catches and hunter-bag checks. Sex ratios of net·trapped geese showed a preponder­ ance of males for adult Canada and adult and immature snow geese, whereas females were predominant in the immature SCb'lllent of Canada geese. Hunter selectivity of blue- or white-phase snow geese was not observed at Sand Lake Refuge. Differential vulnerability to hunting between snow and Canada geese resulted from differences in feeding-flight behavior. Knowledge of the proportion of imma­ tures in the population of a species follow­ ing the nesting season is useful in setting annual hunting regulations. At present, goose age-ratio data are gathered primarily on fall migration areas and on wintering grounds. Even though these data are ob­ tained after the hunting regulations for that year have been set, they have value in sub­ sequent years because geese are long-lived birds and do not breed until at least their",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3799330",
    doi = "10.2307/3799330",
    openalex = "W2090721642",
    references = "higgins1969aging, openalexw3039249584"
}

Seventy-seven Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) were marked with transmitters, nasal disks, and dye to allow recording of their locations and observation of their behavior during winter. Marked geese included all or parts of 10 families, 2 pairs, and 35 yearlings. Behavior was not substantially affected by marking. Families remained intact all winter and reassembled if separation occurred. Of 26 yearlings whose social status was identified, 19 were singles, 4 were members of families, 2 were a sibling pair, and 1 was paired. Two single yearlings were closely associated in locations and movements. Bonds among adult and immature survivors in families disrupted by mortality did not appear to be affected. Yearlings in families were probably more loosely attached to the parents than were immatures. Our knowledge of the gregarious social life of Canada geese has been a mixture of facts and folklore, especially with regard to yearlings and family behavior and unity. Data on daily winter activities of the same individuals of different social status have been lacking. The study of daily sociobehavioral interrelationships and movements of the same individuals of many wild species was made possible by the development of radio-telemetry (Slater 1963, 1965). The purpose of this paper is to report results from a study of the social structure of Canada geese during winter using radio-te-

@article{doi1023073799830,
    author = "Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Social Classes of Canada Geese in Winter",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Seventy-seven Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) were marked with transmitters, nasal disks, and dye to allow recording of their locations and observation of their behavior during winter. Marked geese included all or parts of 10 families, 2 pairs, and 35 yearlings. Behavior was not substantially affected by marking. Families remained intact all winter and reassembled if separation occurred. Of 26 yearlings whose social status was identified, 19 were singles, 4 were members of families, 2 were a sibling pair, and 1 was paired. Two single yearlings were closely associated in locations and movements. Bonds among adult and immature survivors in families disrupted by mortality did not appear to be affected. Yearlings in families were probably more loosely attached to the parents than were immatures. Our knowledge of the gregarious social life of Canada geese has been a mixture of facts and folklore, especially with regard to yearlings and family behavior and unity. Data on daily winter activities of the same individuals of different social status have been lacking. The study of daily sociobehavioral interrelationships and movements of the same individuals of many wild species was made possible by the development of radio-telemetry (Slater 1963, 1965). The purpose of this paper is to report results from a study of the social structure of Canada geese during winter using radio-te-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3799830",
    doi = "10.2307/3799830",
    openalex = "W2322617433",
    references = "doi1023072421856, doi1023073796979, doi1023073797153"
}

Observation of a large wintering flock of Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) revealed the existence of relatively exclusive subflocks which consistently utilized specific areas for roosting and maintained recognizable patterns of flight direction. Roost and feed-field locations of radio-marked geese showed that consistent patterns were a result of habitual use of areas by families whereas single geese were more variable. Habitual patterns are apparently motivated by fear of unfamiliar situations and function to enable family members to reunite after separation occurs, to aid efficient use of food, and to minimize the amount and intensity of aggressive conflicts within a flock. Roost and flight pat- terns of singles varied because of their following nature and submissive rank position within the flock. It is suggested that some subflocks represent a continued association of geese from the same local nest- ing area rather than just local stratification after migration. Subflock formation in some cases could af- fect local (or even total) harvest and interpretation of banding and other sampling data in the study of goose populations.

@article{doi1023073799831,
    author = "Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Roost Sites and Flight Patterns of Canada Geese in Winter",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Observation of a large wintering flock of Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) revealed the existence of relatively exclusive subflocks which consistently utilized specific areas for roosting and maintained recognizable patterns of flight direction. Roost and feed-field locations of radio-marked geese showed that consistent patterns were a result of habitual use of areas by families whereas single geese were more variable. Habitual patterns are apparently motivated by fear of unfamiliar situations and function to enable family members to reunite after separation occurs, to aid efficient use of food, and to minimize the amount and intensity of aggressive conflicts within a flock. Roost and flight pat- terns of singles varied because of their following nature and submissive rank position within the flock. It is suggested that some subflocks represent a continued association of geese from the same local nest- ing area rather than just local stratification after migration. Subflock formation in some cases could af- fect local (or even total) harvest and interpretation of banding and other sampling data in the study of goose populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3799831",
    doi = "10.2307/3799831",
    openalex = "W2322823009",
    references = "openalexw3039249584"
}

CANADA Geese (Branta canadentsis) are highly traditional in their use of circumscribed nesting, migration, and winter localities (Hanson and Smith, 1950; Martin, 1964; Sherwood, 1966), patterns of movement and roosting in local areas (Raveling, 1969a), and timing of daily activities (Raveling, 1967: 135-157). This regularity is accompanied by facilitation behaviors (Crawford, 1939) serving mood transference and induction of reaction by contagion. Particularly prominent in Anserini are movements of the head and often the neck, which have been previously described as social signals communicating the intention to fly (Heinroth, 1911; and many subsequent papers). Purposes of this paper are to document the variation of preflight intention movements of Canada Geese as related to social status (i.e. family, single, age, sex) and thereby to discuss more fully the probable functions of behavioral and morphological patterns associated with coordination of flight. Results are based on observations of a large winter flock and from quantification of the activities of radioand color-marked individuals and families of known social status.

@article{doi1023074083454,
    author = "Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Preflight and Flight Behavior of Canada Geese",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "The Auk",
    abstract = "CANADA Geese (Branta canadentsis) are highly traditional in their use of circumscribed nesting, migration, and winter localities (Hanson and Smith, 1950; Martin, 1964; Sherwood, 1966), patterns of movement and roosting in local areas (Raveling, 1969a), and timing of daily activities (Raveling, 1967: 135-157). This regularity is accompanied by facilitation behaviors (Crawford, 1939) serving mood transference and induction of reaction by contagion. Particularly prominent in Anserini are movements of the head and often the neck, which have been previously described as social signals communicating the intention to fly (Heinroth, 1911; and many subsequent papers). Purposes of this paper are to document the variation of preflight intention movements of Canada Geese as related to social status (i.e. family, single, age, sex) and thereby to discuss more fully the probable functions of behavioral and morphological patterns associated with coordination of flight. Results are based on observations of a large winter flock and from quantification of the activities of radioand color-marked individuals and families of known social status.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4083454",
    doi = "10.2307/4083454",
    openalex = "W2313174376",
    references = "doi1021900jinhsv25184"
}

@article{higgins1969aging,
    author = "Higgins, Kenneth F. and Schoonover, Lyle J.",
    title = "Aging Small Canada Geese by Neck Plumage",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3799675",
    doi = "10.2307/3799675",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2046489244",
    pages = "212",
    volume = "33",
    references = "doi1023073796086, doi1023073798173, doi105962bhltitle15145, elder1946age"
}

Abstract The dominance relationships and associated agonistic postures of Canada geese were studied during the winters 1963-64 and 1964-65 by observation of the behavior of radio-and color-marked families and individuals living in a large, wild flock in southern Illinois. Part I I. Behavior was not significantly altered by color-marking and attachment of trausmitters. 2. Hostile encounters occurred during almost all activities. They varied widely in frequency and intensity and were especially associated with feeding. 3. Success in hostile encounters was directly related to family size, i.e., large family> smaller family > pair > single. 4. Unified action by all members of a family occurred in 8.5 percent of victories and T5 percent of defeats. 5. All members of a family shared equal dominance status but the success of a family in the rank order was most dependent upon the gander. 6. Only once in 26 fights between unmarked family ganders did the gander of the largest family lose. 7. Dominance position of family individuals decreased immediately upon separation and increased upon reunification of family members. 8. Large families were engaged in significantly more conflicts per unit time than were singles, pairs, and small families. 9. Exceptions to the usual dominance hierarchy occurred after pairs were newly formed. The gander of a newly formed pair could dominate family ganders. 10. Intrafamily aggression was rare and of low intensity. 11. Fights rarely occurred; threats and chases were common. 12. In some instances, rank orders based upon individual recognition could exist. However, stable rank orders in most large flocks appear to be based on recognition of different postures and levels of intensity of threat. 13. The dominance order of geese yields benefit in terms of food and space acquisition and freedom from defeat in aggressive encounters for the pairs and their young in direct relation to those most successful at raising a brood. Part II 1. Postures associated with attack or fleeing or simultaneous tendencies to do both are described. These include actual fleeing or attack, Submissive attitude, Erect, Head-pumping, Rolling, Bent-neck, and Forward postures. 2. The Submissive attitude is exhibited mostly by single geese and probably results from the conflicting tendency to approach (but not attack) and flee from other geese at the same time. This posture functions to identify single geese, allow approach, habituation, and ultimately pair formation, and inhibits violent attack. 3. The Erect posture may take either the form of intention movements of escape or attack and represents an ambivalent motivation between these two tendencies. 4. Head-pumping contains alternating intention movements of attacking and fleeing and represents almost a perfect balance between these two tendencies but is of higher intensity and ritualization than the Erect position. 5. Rolling is a complex portion of the Triumph Ceremony but also serves as the most intense threat of Canada geese and is highly ritualized. The spatial relationships of a gander to his mate and family appear most important in motivating Rolling. Intrusion of another high ranking gander or family on those boundaries may result in violent attack. 6. Erect, Head-pumping, and Rolling serve as three different intensity threats which are recognized by other geese and serve to maintain and establish the rank order of geese without undue fighting. 7. Bent-neck and Forward postures may occasionally represent conflicting attack and flee tendencies but often appear to represent a conflict of attack and remain doing another activity such as feeding or preening. These postures serve to maintain and reinforce a rank order but are probably not very important in initial establishment of rank.

@article{doi101163156853970x00394,
    author = "Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Dominance Relationships and Agonistic Behavior of Canada Geese in Winter",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Behaviour",
    abstract = "Abstract The dominance relationships and associated agonistic postures of Canada geese were studied during the winters 1963-64 and 1964-65 by observation of the behavior of radio-and color-marked families and individuals living in a large, wild flock in southern Illinois. Part I I. Behavior was not significantly altered by color-marking and attachment of trausmitters. 2. Hostile encounters occurred during almost all activities. They varied widely in frequency and intensity and were especially associated with feeding. 3. Success in hostile encounters was directly related to family size, i.e., large family> smaller family > pair > single. 4. Unified action by all members of a family occurred in 8.5 percent of victories and T5 percent of defeats. 5. All members of a family shared equal dominance status but the success of a family in the rank order was most dependent upon the gander. 6. Only once in 26 fights between unmarked family ganders did the gander of the largest family lose. 7. Dominance position of family individuals decreased immediately upon separation and increased upon reunification of family members. 8. Large families were engaged in significantly more conflicts per unit time than were singles, pairs, and small families. 9. Exceptions to the usual dominance hierarchy occurred after pairs were newly formed. The gander of a newly formed pair could dominate family ganders. 10. Intrafamily aggression was rare and of low intensity. 11. Fights rarely occurred; threats and chases were common. 12. In some instances, rank orders based upon individual recognition could exist. However, stable rank orders in most large flocks appear to be based on recognition of different postures and levels of intensity of threat. 13. The dominance order of geese yields benefit in terms of food and space acquisition and freedom from defeat in aggressive encounters for the pairs and their young in direct relation to those most successful at raising a brood. Part II 1. Postures associated with attack or fleeing or simultaneous tendencies to do both are described. These include actual fleeing or attack, Submissive attitude, Erect, Head-pumping, Rolling, Bent-neck, and Forward postures. 2. The Submissive attitude is exhibited mostly by single geese and probably results from the conflicting tendency to approach (but not attack) and flee from other geese at the same time. This posture functions to identify single geese, allow approach, habituation, and ultimately pair formation, and inhibits violent attack. 3. The Erect posture may take either the form of intention movements of escape or attack and represents an ambivalent motivation between these two tendencies. 4. Head-pumping contains alternating intention movements of attacking and fleeing and represents almost a perfect balance between these two tendencies but is of higher intensity and ritualization than the Erect position. 5. Rolling is a complex portion of the Triumph Ceremony but also serves as the most intense threat of Canada geese and is highly ritualized. The spatial relationships of a gander to his mate and family appear most important in motivating Rolling. Intrusion of another high ranking gander or family on those boundaries may result in violent attack. 6. Erect, Head-pumping, and Rolling serve as three different intensity threats which are recognized by other geese and serve to maintain and establish the rank order of geese without undue fighting. 7. Bent-neck and Forward postures may occasionally represent conflicting attack and flee tendencies but often appear to represent a conflict of attack and remain doing another activity such as feeding or preening. These postures serve to maintain and reinforce a rank order but are probably not very important in initial establishment of rank.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1163/156853970x00394",
    doi = "10.1163/156853970x00394",
    openalex = "W1980861722"
}

@article{doi101111j136529071972tb00160x,
    author = "Morris, P. A.",
    title = "A review of mammalian age determination methods",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Mammal Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.1972.tb00160.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2907.1972.tb00160.x",
    openalex = "W2165438214",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051080103, doi101016b978008009823450015x, doi101016c2013012497x, doi101086394476, doi101086395888, doi1010970000044119590900000030, doi101111j136520281966tb00878x, doi1014219jadaarchive19500132, doi1023071425, doi1023071935638, doi1023073798365, openalexw3208450409"
}

Charles D. MacInnes, Rolph A. Davis,, Bernard C. Lieff, Allan J. Pakulak, Reproductive Efficiency of McConnell River Small Canada Geese, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 686-707

@article{doi1023073800036,
    author = "MacInnes, Charles D. and Davis, Rolph A. and Jones, Rene N. and Lieff, Bernard C. and Pakulak, Allan J.",
    title = "Reproductive Efficiency of McConnell River Small Canada Geese",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Charles D. MacInnes, Rolph A. Davis,, Bernard C. Lieff, Allan J. Pakulak, Reproductive Efficiency of McConnell River Small Canada Geese, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 686-707",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3800036",
    doi = "10.2307/3800036",
    openalex = "W2313084198"
}

Canada geese (Branta canadensis) utilizing the marshes of southwestern Lake Erie were observed in 1969-70 to ascertain their local movements, flight patterns, area of use, and relationship to the Tennessee Valley population of Canada geese. Geese (n = 989) were color-marked with 7.6-cm (3-inch) vinylite collars according to sex, age, individual, and biweekly period between 15 October and 31 December in 1969 and 1 October and 31 December in 1970. Peak populations of 19,600 geese by mid-October and 21,500 by early November occurred in 1969 and 1970, respectively. Three subflocks were identified on the basis of roosting and feeding locations and corresponded to the three trapping sites where they were marked. Movements of 35 family groups to previously unused areas were inversely proportional to family size. Nearly 40 percent of geese marked in 1969 were seen on the study area in 1970, and 75 percent frequented the same areas. The goose population on the area is increasing more rapidly than is possible by natural reproduction alone. Evidence suggests both a shifting of geese onto the area as well as maintenance of subflock integrity by area and time. A significant, direct relationship existed between roost departure time and both temperature and percent sky cover but not between roost departure time and wind speed. A highly significant, direct relationship existed between numbers of geese killed and both temperature and barometric pressure, but the amount of sky cover and wind did not influence kill. Fall departure of collared geese from the area was gradual in both years, though slower in 1970. Evidence for temporary movement across Lake Erie to Canada, which affected censuses, is presented. Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama, was the principal wintering area of collared birds, which also wintered in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina as well as Ohio. Wintering locations were known for 12 birds for both years. Only 5 of the 12 wintered at the same location both years. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(2):275-289 This study was undertaken to ascertain local movements and flight patterns of Canada goose concentrations near southwestern Lake Erie, to learn the factors influencing movements and use of activity areas, to examine dispersal from the area of concentration, and to investigate the relationship of these geese to the Tennessee Valley population. The study encompassed the period July 1969-July 1971; field work took place from late September until early January. Canada geese were uncommon in the Lake Erie marshes until about 1950. Fall populations slowly increased to a peak of about 1,000 birds by the late 1950's. Establishment of the 1,052.6-hectare (2,600-acre) Crane Creek State Wildlife Area in 1951 by the Division of Wildlife, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, and, particularly, the 1,943-hectare (4,800-acre) Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge in 1961 contributed to the population increase. Most important to the sudden increase in peak fall goose populations, however, was the project cooperatively initiated at the Wildlife Area and the Refuge (adjacent facilities) to reestablish local nesting of giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) in the Lake Erie marsh region. One hundred pairs of pinioned adults were placed in a 16.2-hectare (401A contribution of The Ohio Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (supported by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, The Ohio Division of Wildlife, The Ohio State University, and The Wildlife Management Institute) and Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project, Ohio W-104-R-14. 2 Present address: Wetlands Management Office, P.O.B. 48, Madison, South Dakota 57042. J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (2):1974 275 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.129 on Mon, 18 Apr 2016 06:46:33 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 276 MOVEMENTS OF COLOR-MARKED GEESE Koerner et al.

@article{doi1023073800734,
    author = "Koerner, John W. and Bookhout, Theodore A. and Bednarik, Karl E.",
    title = "Movements of Canada Geese Color-Marked Near Southwestern Lake Erie",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Canada geese (Branta canadensis) utilizing the marshes of southwestern Lake Erie were observed in 1969-70 to ascertain their local movements, flight patterns, area of use, and relationship to the Tennessee Valley population of Canada geese. Geese (n = 989) were color-marked with 7.6-cm (3-inch) vinylite collars according to sex, age, individual, and biweekly period between 15 October and 31 December in 1969 and 1 October and 31 December in 1970. Peak populations of 19,600 geese by mid-October and 21,500 by early November occurred in 1969 and 1970, respectively. Three subflocks were identified on the basis of roosting and feeding locations and corresponded to the three trapping sites where they were marked. Movements of 35 family groups to previously unused areas were inversely proportional to family size. Nearly 40 percent of geese marked in 1969 were seen on the study area in 1970, and 75 percent frequented the same areas. The goose population on the area is increasing more rapidly than is possible by natural reproduction alone. Evidence suggests both a shifting of geese onto the area as well as maintenance of subflock integrity by area and time. A significant, direct relationship existed between roost departure time and both temperature and percent sky cover but not between roost departure time and wind speed. A highly significant, direct relationship existed between numbers of geese killed and both temperature and barometric pressure, but the amount of sky cover and wind did not influence kill. Fall departure of collared geese from the area was gradual in both years, though slower in 1970. Evidence for temporary movement across Lake Erie to Canada, which affected censuses, is presented. Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama, was the principal wintering area of collared birds, which also wintered in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina as well as Ohio. Wintering locations were known for 12 birds for both years. Only 5 of the 12 wintered at the same location both years. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(2):275-289 This study was undertaken to ascertain local movements and flight patterns of Canada goose concentrations near southwestern Lake Erie, to learn the factors influencing movements and use of activity areas, to examine dispersal from the area of concentration, and to investigate the relationship of these geese to the Tennessee Valley population. The study encompassed the period July 1969-July 1971; field work took place from late September until early January. Canada geese were uncommon in the Lake Erie marshes until about 1950. Fall populations slowly increased to a peak of about 1,000 birds by the late 1950's. Establishment of the 1,052.6-hectare (2,600-acre) Crane Creek State Wildlife Area in 1951 by the Division of Wildlife, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, and, particularly, the 1,943-hectare (4,800-acre) Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge in 1961 contributed to the population increase. Most important to the sudden increase in peak fall goose populations, however, was the project cooperatively initiated at the Wildlife Area and the Refuge (adjacent facilities) to reestablish local nesting of giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) in the Lake Erie marsh region. One hundred pairs of pinioned adults were placed in a 16.2-hectare (401A contribution of The Ohio Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (supported by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, The Ohio Division of Wildlife, The Ohio State University, and The Wildlife Management Institute) and Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project, Ohio W-104-R-14. 2 Present address: Wetlands Management Office, P.O.B. 48, Madison, South Dakota 57042. J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (2):1974 275 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.129 on Mon, 18 Apr 2016 06:46:33 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 276 MOVEMENTS OF COLOR-MARKED GEESE Koerner et al.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3800734",
    doi = "10.2307/3800734",
    openalex = "W2313497006",
    references = "openalexw3039249584"
}

We studied the relation between nutrient reserves and reproductive performance of female Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) in 1971 and 1972 at the McConnell River (6050'N, 9425'W), Northwest Territories, Canada.We determined the potential clutch size of a pre-laying female by counting large (>20 mm), highly vascularized ovarian follicles; actual clutch size of post-laying females was the number of post-ovulatory follicles.Females with larger nutrient reserves had, on average, larger potential clutches.Reserves were used by the geese during laying and, after laying, the mean weights of reserves from females that laid different size clutches were not significantly different.We suggest that clutch size in Lesser Snow Geese is determined by size of nutrient reserves.Successful females used much of their remaining fat and protein reserves during incubation but this use was not significantly modified by the size of clutch they incubated.Late in incubation some females depleted their reserves and left their nests to feed; others starved to death.Thus, to reproduce successfully a female must retain, after egglaying, sufficient nutrient reserves for her own maintenance during incubation.

@article{doi101093auk953459,
    author = "Ankney, C. Davison and MacInnes, Charles D.",
    title = "Nutrient Reserves and Reproductive Performance of Female Lesser Snow Geese",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)",
    abstract = "We studied the relation between nutrient reserves and reproductive performance of female Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) in 1971 and 1972 at the McConnell River (6050'N, 9425'W), Northwest Territories, Canada.We determined the potential clutch size of a pre-laying female by counting large (>20 mm), highly vascularized ovarian follicles; actual clutch size of post-laying females was the number of post-ovulatory follicles.Females with larger nutrient reserves had, on average, larger potential clutches.Reserves were used by the geese during laying and, after laying, the mean weights of reserves from females that laid different size clutches were not significantly different.We suggest that clutch size in Lesser Snow Geese is determined by size of nutrient reserves.Successful females used much of their remaining fat and protein reserves during incubation but this use was not significantly modified by the size of clutch they incubated.Late in incubation some females depleted their reserves and left their nests to feed; others starved to death.Thus, to reproduce successfully a female must retain, after egglaying, sufficient nutrient reserves for her own maintenance during incubation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/95.3.459",
    doi = "10.1093/auk/95.3.459",
    openalex = "W3197737922"
}

Archaeologists, along with other Quaternary researchers, seldom rely upon a single radiocarbon determination to provide an estimate of the age of the phenomenon which is the object of their study. There is an evident need for an explicitly formulated procedure for comparing sets of radiocarbon determinations from the same and from adjacent strata or sites, and for combining these where statistical and archaeological criteria indicate that this combination is warranted. The present contribution provides explicit modelling for a series of recommended procedures, a critique of previous methods, and paradigms for application of the recommended procedures.

@article{doi101111j147547541978tb00208x,
    author = "Ward, Graeme and Wilson, Susan R.",
    title = "PROCEDURES FOR COMPARING AND COMBINING RADIOCARBON AGE DETERMINATIONS: A CRITIQUE",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Archaeometry",
    abstract = "Archaeologists, along with other Quaternary researchers, seldom rely upon a single radiocarbon determination to provide an estimate of the age of the phenomenon which is the object of their study. There is an evident need for an explicitly formulated procedure for comparing sets of radiocarbon determinations from the same and from adjacent strata or sites, and for combining these where statistical and archaeological criteria indicate that this combination is warranted. The present contribution provides explicit modelling for a series of recommended procedures, a critique of previous methods, and paradigms for application of the recommended procedures.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1978.tb00208.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1475-4754.1978.tb00208.x",
    openalex = "W2004966701",
    references = "doi101017s0003598x00070277, doi101111j147547541974tb01088x, doi101126science1193083135, doi102307276313, doi102307279583, openalexw84870047"
}

@article{nelson1980counts,
    author = "Nelson, Richard C. and Bookhout, Theodore A.",
    title = "Counts of Periosteal Layers Invalid for Aging Canada Geese",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3807992",
    doi = "10.2307/3807992",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2332958679",
    pages = "518",
    volume = "44"
}

@article{nelson1980counts1,
    author = "Nelson, R. C. and Bookhout, T. A",
    title = "Counts of periosteal layers invalid for aging Canada Geese",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 44, p. 518-521",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nelson, R. C., and Bookhout, T. A., 1980, Counts of periosteal layers invalid for aging Canada Geese: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 44, p. 518-521.}"
}

Changes in diet and body composition of Giant Canada Geese (Branta canadensis maxima) were studied before geese initiated spring migration in early April.During the period of hyperphagia in March, body weight of female and male geese increased 36% and 26%, respectively, above average winter weights.Body weights of paired geese averaged 0.34 kg (females) and 0.27 kg (males) more than those of geese without mates before the weight gain period.Some unmated geese did not gain weight, and others gained less weight than paired geese.Geese shifted from a winter diet of corn (Zea mays) to a diversity of food items in spring.Corn remained the primary source of carbohydrate, and bluegrass (Poa pratensis) provided protein for geese.Weight gain of females was composed of 61% lipid, 10% protein, and 21% water, whereas weight gained by males was 47% lipid, 13% protein, and 35% water.Initial weight gains were predominantly protein (and accompanying water), probably required for gut enlargement.Most of the later body weight gain was due to lipid storage.Increase in size of breast and leg muscles at the end of March was largely due to lipid storage and a shift of protein from other body tissues.Lipid and protein storage was adequate to explain energy and nutrient requirements for body maintenance after arrival on the breeding grounds, egg laying, and territorial defense.Females may have to obtain minerals (and possibly additional protein) for egg formation from food sources on the breeding grounds.Lipid reserves of male Giant Canada Geese indicate an ability to sustain energetic costs during nesting equal to those of the female (apart from egg laying) and are greater than reserves of other species of geese and subspecies of Canada Geese investigated to date.

@article{doi101093auk98165,
    author = "McLandress, M. Robert and Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Changes in Diet and Body Composition of Canada Geese before Spring Migration",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)",
    abstract = "Changes in diet and body composition of Giant Canada Geese (Branta canadensis maxima) were studied before geese initiated spring migration in early April.During the period of hyperphagia in March, body weight of female and male geese increased 36\% and 26\%, respectively, above average winter weights.Body weights of paired geese averaged 0.34 kg (females) and 0.27 kg (males) more than those of geese without mates before the weight gain period.Some unmated geese did not gain weight, and others gained less weight than paired geese.Geese shifted from a winter diet of corn (Zea mays) to a diversity of food items in spring.Corn remained the primary source of carbohydrate, and bluegrass (Poa pratensis) provided protein for geese.Weight gain of females was composed of 61\% lipid, 10\% protein, and 21\% water, whereas weight gained by males was 47\% lipid, 13\% protein, and 35\% water.Initial weight gains were predominantly protein (and accompanying water), probably required for gut enlargement.Most of the later body weight gain was due to lipid storage.Increase in size of breast and leg muscles at the end of March was largely due to lipid storage and a shift of protein from other body tissues.Lipid and protein storage was adequate to explain energy and nutrient requirements for body maintenance after arrival on the breeding grounds, egg laying, and territorial defense.Females may have to obtain minerals (and possibly additional protein) for egg formation from food sources on the breeding grounds.Lipid reserves of male Giant Canada Geese indicate an ability to sustain energetic costs during nesting equal to those of the female (apart from egg laying) and are greater than reserves of other species of geese and subspecies of Canada Geese investigated to date.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/98.1.65",
    doi = "10.1093/auk/98.1.65",
    openalex = "W2330261513",
    references = "doi1023073798552, doi105962bhltitle15145, elder1946age"
}

An index of average percent error is a better estimate of the precision of age determinations than the conventional percent agreement method because it is not independent of the age of a species.Key words: age determination, aging errors

@article{doi101139f81132,
    author = "Beamish, Richard J. and Fournier, D.",
    title = "A Method for Comparing the Precision of a Set of Age Determinations",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences",
    abstract = "An index of average percent error is a better estimate of the precision of age determinations than the conventional percent agreement method because it is not independent of the age of a species.Key words: age determination, aging errors",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/f81-132",
    doi = "10.1139/f81-132",
    openalex = "W2030298956"
}

The coefficients of variation and the index of precision provide a statistical test of reproducibility of aging between readers. Because the coefficients of variation and the index of precision incorporate the averaged year-class of a fish species, they are free from the shortcoming of the percent agreement method. Because variance is a better estimator than absolute difference, the coefficient of variation is a stronger estimator than the index of average percent error in providing a test statistic.Key words: age determination, coefficients of variation, index of precision, average percent error, percent agreement

@article{doi101139f82158,
    author = "Chang, William Y. B.",
    title = "A Statistical Method for Evaluating the Reproducibility of Age Determination",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences",
    abstract = "The coefficients of variation and the index of precision provide a statistical test of reproducibility of aging between readers. Because the coefficients of variation and the index of precision incorporate the averaged year-class of a fish species, they are free from the shortcoming of the percent agreement method. Because variance is a better estimator than absolute difference, the coefficient of variation is a stronger estimator than the index of average percent error in providing a test statistic.Key words: age determination, coefficients of variation, index of precision, average percent error, percent agreement",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/f82-158",
    doi = "10.1139/f82-158",
    openalex = "W2156358945"
}

We measured seasonal changes in the incidence of various social behaviors performed by members of a captive flock of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis moffittz] in order to determine (a) which of these behaviors were associated with reproduction in a species with long-term monogamy, (b) sexual differences in their expression, and (c) their temporal relationship with nesting events.Breeding and nonbreeding geese were compared.Aggression, Triumph Ceremony, and Calling by breeding male geese reinforced pair bonds and were performed most frequently in the context of territorial display.The Triumph Ceremonies of breeding females also strengthened pair bonds and were probably essential for establishing a territory and reproductive success.Breeding males behaved aggressively most frequently before the initiation of nesting through the incubation period.During incubation, females became increasingly unresponsive to their mate' s Triumph Ceremony and by the time their goslings were two weeks old the frequency of their aggressive behaviors was closer to that of their mates than at any other time of the year.These changes coincided with an increase in social gregariousness during brood rearing and molt.Retreat was more common in nonbreeding than breeding geese.Nonbreeding males were not aggressive and performed few Triumph Ceremonies.Their behavior did not elicit supportive responses from nonbreeding females and probably inhibited pair formation. The timing of reproduction of many avian species inseasonal habitats is confined by the periodic availability of resources (Lack 1968).Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) nest predominantly in northern latitudes (Delacour 1954, Palmer 1976) and reproductive events occur within a relatively short period of time.Nesting generally begins as soon as secure nest sites become available, and growth of goslings coincides with the growth of sedges and grasses during the summer (MacInnes 1962, Vermeer 1970, MacInnes et al. 1974, Raveling and Lumsden 1977, Raveling 1978).The timing of nesting is also influenced by intra-pair activities (Lofts and Murton 1973:8 1, Silver 1978) and social conditions (Lott et al. 1967).Formation of life-long pair bonds and intensification of mutual behaviors by pairs of Canada Geese before arrival on their breeding grounds permit nesting to begin without the delay of pair formation.The social behavior of Canada Geese is well documented (e.g., Hanson 1953, Collias and Jahn 1959, Klopman 1962, 1968, Brakhage 1965, Raveling 1970) but few investigators have quantified such behavior using individuals with known histories in a well defined social environment.In this paper, we report the frequency with which previously described behaviors were performed by breeding and nonbreeding Canada Geese (B.c. moffittz].Our objective was to identify behaviors that were important to intra-pair synchrony and nesting success in order to increase our understanding of the behavioral role of the sexes in a species that has long-term pair bonds and nests within a restricted period of time.METHODS STUDY ANIMALS AND FACILITY Geese used in this study either originated from eggs collected at Lake Almanor, Plumas Co., California, during 197 1, or were offspring of these birds.Neck collars (Sherwood 1966) and leg bands were used for individual identification.The geese were kept outdoors in a large (9 1 X 44 X 8 m high), completely enclosed pen which contained a permanent pond (45 X 15 m) and three islands.Primary flight feathers on one wing were clipped to render the geese flightless.The pen was located on the Davis campus, University of California (38"32' N).It was surrounded by fallow fields to which access by humans was controlled.Grass and a variety of grains were available to the geese at all times and commercial pigeon pellets (20% protein) were provided during the repro-11881

@article{doi1023071367669,
    author = "Akesson, Thomas R. and Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Behaviors Associated with Seasonal Reproduction and Long-Term Monogamy in Canada Geese",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Ornithological Applications",
    abstract = {We measured seasonal changes in the incidence of various social behaviors performed by members of a captive flock of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis moffittz] in order to determine (a) which of these behaviors were associated with reproduction in a species with long-term monogamy, (b) sexual differences in their expression, and (c) their temporal relationship with nesting events.Breeding and nonbreeding geese were compared.Aggression, Triumph Ceremony, and Calling by breeding male geese reinforced pair bonds and were performed most frequently in the context of territorial display.The Triumph Ceremonies of breeding females also strengthened pair bonds and were probably essential for establishing a territory and reproductive success.Breeding males behaved aggressively most frequently before the initiation of nesting through the incubation period.During incubation, females became increasingly unresponsive to their mate' s Triumph Ceremony and by the time their goslings were two weeks old the frequency of their aggressive behaviors was closer to that of their mates than at any other time of the year.These changes coincided with an increase in social gregariousness during brood rearing and molt.Retreat was more common in nonbreeding than breeding geese.Nonbreeding males were not aggressive and performed few Triumph Ceremonies.Their behavior did not elicit supportive responses from nonbreeding females and probably inhibited pair formation. The timing of reproduction of many avian species inseasonal habitats is confined by the periodic availability of resources (Lack 1968).Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) nest predominantly in northern latitudes (Delacour 1954, Palmer 1976) and reproductive events occur within a relatively short period of time.Nesting generally begins as soon as secure nest sites become available, and growth of goslings coincides with the growth of sedges and grasses during the summer (MacInnes 1962, Vermeer 1970, MacInnes et al. 1974, Raveling and Lumsden 1977, Raveling 1978).The timing of nesting is also influenced by intra-pair activities (Lofts and Murton 1973:8 1, Silver 1978) and social conditions (Lott et al. 1967).Formation of life-long pair bonds and intensification of mutual behaviors by pairs of Canada Geese before arrival on their breeding grounds permit nesting to begin without the delay of pair formation.The social behavior of Canada Geese is well documented (e.g., Hanson 1953, Collias and Jahn 1959, Klopman 1962, 1968, Brakhage 1965, Raveling 1970) but few investigators have quantified such behavior using individuals with known histories in a well defined social environment.In this paper, we report the frequency with which previously described behaviors were performed by breeding and nonbreeding Canada Geese (B.c. moffittz].Our objective was to identify behaviors that were important to intra-pair synchrony and nesting success in order to increase our understanding of the behavioral role of the sexes in a species that has long-term pair bonds and nests within a restricted period of time.METHODS STUDY ANIMALS AND FACILITY Geese used in this study either originated from eggs collected at Lake Almanor, Plumas Co., California, during 197 1, or were offspring of these birds.Neck collars (Sherwood 1966) and leg bands were used for individual identification.The geese were kept outdoors in a large (9 1 X 44 X 8 m high), completely enclosed pen which contained a permanent pond (45 X 15 m) and three islands.Primary flight feathers on one wing were clipped to render the geese flightless.The pen was located on the Davis campus, University of California (38"32' N).It was surrounded by fallow fields to which access by humans was controlled.Grass and a variety of grains were available to the geese at all times and commercial pigeon pellets (20\% protein) were provided during the repro-11881},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1367669",
    doi = "10.2307/1367669",
    openalex = "W2330843923",
    references = "craighead1964breeding, doi101016b9780122494031500098, doi101086282628, doi101111j143903101965tb01498x, doi101163156853970x00394, doi1023072874, doi1023073498751, doi1023073797797, doi1023073800036, doi1023074081052, openalexw1595343243"
}

Abstract During 1979 and 1980, we studied the incubation behavior and body-weight dynamics of captive Canada Geese (Branta canadensis moffitti) with known breeding histories. Females were attentive to their nests for 97.5% of the incubation period and lost 27% of their initial body weight. Heavier females were more attentive to their nests and lost more weight during incubation than did lighter females. Variation in body weight among females was greatest at the onset of incubation and least at hatch, which suggests that females invested maximum reserves in incubation. Recess frequency and duration increased throughout incubation, resulting in more foraging time for the female. Once a lower critical weight of about 3,200 g was reached, the amount of recess time taken increased dramatically, probably because lipid reserves were depleted. Females nesting for the first time began incubation at a lighter body weight and were less attentive than experienced females. All inexperienced females were either 4 or 5 yr old, but their egg production (4 eggs) was that of 2- or 3-yr-old wild females. This indicated that experience rather than age was the important variable affecting acquisition of reserves. Inattentiveness to a nest by a female prolongs the duration of incubation and exposes the nest to a greater risk of predation. The inability of inexperienced females to gain enough reserves to provide for both maximum clutch size and attentiveness during incubation may be a major explanation for the lower hatching success of geese nesting for the first time.

@article{doi101093auk1003670,
    author = "Aldrich, Thomas W. and Raveling, Dennis G.",
    title = "Effects of Experience and Body Weight on Incubation Behavior of Canada Geese",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "The Auk",
    abstract = "Abstract During 1979 and 1980, we studied the incubation behavior and body-weight dynamics of captive Canada Geese (Branta canadensis moffitti) with known breeding histories. Females were attentive to their nests for 97.5\% of the incubation period and lost 27\% of their initial body weight. Heavier females were more attentive to their nests and lost more weight during incubation than did lighter females. Variation in body weight among females was greatest at the onset of incubation and least at hatch, which suggests that females invested maximum reserves in incubation. Recess frequency and duration increased throughout incubation, resulting in more foraging time for the female. Once a lower critical weight of about 3,200 g was reached, the amount of recess time taken increased dramatically, probably because lipid reserves were depleted. Females nesting for the first time began incubation at a lighter body weight and were less attentive than experienced females. All inexperienced females were either 4 or 5 yr old, but their egg production (4 eggs) was that of 2- or 3-yr-old wild females. This indicated that experience rather than age was the important variable affecting acquisition of reserves. Inattentiveness to a nest by a female prolongs the duration of incubation and exposes the nest to a greater risk of predation. The inability of inexperienced females to gain enough reserves to provide for both maximum clutch size and attentiveness during incubation may be a major explanation for the lower hatching success of geese nesting for the first time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/100.3.670",
    doi = "10.1093/auk/100.3.670",
    openalex = "W2519562503"
}

All current standardized methods of age determination using the os pubis were tested by blind assessment of a skeletal sample with documented ages (from the Todd collection; N = 96). No demographic data (sex, age, race, age composition) were known to the assessors prior to completion of the test. Results showed the Todd method to be more reliable than more recent component techniques and that all systems tended to underage. Therefore, modifications were made of the Todd system to eliminate this and other deficiencies, and a second test using a new sample was conducted (N = 109). The age distribution determined by the revised Todd method did not significantly differ from the actual age distribution of the second sample. Error due to race was nonsignificant. Biological stages of pubic metamorphosis are described and possible evolutionary specializations of the hominid symphysis are discussed. Revised standards for age determination are presented.

@article{doi101002ajpa1330680104,
    author = "Meindl, Richard S. and Lovejoy, C. Owen and Mensforth, Robert P. and Walker, Robert A.",
    title = "A revised method of age determination using the os pubis, with a review and tests of accuracy of other current methods of pubic symphyseal aging",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "All current standardized methods of age determination using the os pubis were tested by blind assessment of a skeletal sample with documented ages (from the Todd collection; N = 96). No demographic data (sex, age, race, age composition) were known to the assessors prior to completion of the test. Results showed the Todd method to be more reliable than more recent component techniques and that all systems tended to underage. Therefore, modifications were made of the Todd system to eliminate this and other deficiencies, and a second test using a new sample was conducted (N = 109). The age distribution determined by the revised Todd method did not significantly differ from the actual age distribution of the second sample. Error due to race was nonsignificant. Biological stages of pubic metamorphosis are described and possible evolutionary specializations of the hominid symphysis are discussed. Revised standards for age determination are presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330680104",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330680104",
    openalex = "W2031305578",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330030301, doi101002ajpa1330040102, doi101002ajpa1330570403, doi101002ajpa1330680102, doi101002ajpa1330680103, doi101002ajpa1330680105, doi1010160002941663901751, doi101146annurevbi53070184003441, doi1023071141003, doi1023071529880, openalexw1975075234"
}

The lower Flathead System Canada Goose Study was initiated to determine population trends and the effects of water level fluctuations on nest and brood habitat on the southern half of Flathead Lake and the lower Flathead River as a result of the operations of Kerr Dam. This report presents data collected during the 1984 field season as part of an ongoing project. Geese used Pablo, Kicking Horse, Ninepipe Reservoirs heavily during late summer and fall. Use of the river by geese was high during the winter, when the reservoirs were frozen, and during the breeding period. Most breeding geese left the river after broods fledged. Thirteen percent of the artificial tree nest structures on the river were used by nesting geese. Goose nest initiation on the river peaked the last week in March through the first week in April, and hatching peaked the first week in May. Predation was the most significant cause of nest loss on the river, and nest loss by flooding was not observed. Avian predation was the single largest factor contributing to nest loss on the lake. Habitat use was studied in 4 brood areas on the river and 8 brood areas on the lake, and available habitat was assessed for 2 portions of both the lake and the river. Brood habitat use was significantly different from the available habitat in all areas studied. On the lower river, broods used wheat fields, gravel bars, and shrub habitats. On the upper river, coniferous forest and shrub habitats were preferred. On the West Bay of the lake, brood areas consisted primarily of lawns and tall herbaceous habitat, while on the South Bay, marshes dominated the brood areas studied. Water levels on the river and lake affect both accessibility of these areas to brooding geese, and the ecology of the habitats preferred by geese. 43 refs., 24 figs., 31 tabs.

@misc{doi1021725465396,
    author = "Mackey, Dennis L.",
    title = "Impacts of Water Levels on Breeding Canada Geese and the Methodology for Mitigation and Enhancement in the Flathead Drainage, 1984 Annual Report.",
    year = "1985",
    abstract = "The lower Flathead System Canada Goose Study was initiated to determine population trends and the effects of water level fluctuations on nest and brood habitat on the southern half of Flathead Lake and the lower Flathead River as a result of the operations of Kerr Dam. This report presents data collected during the 1984 field season as part of an ongoing project. Geese used Pablo, Kicking Horse, Ninepipe Reservoirs heavily during late summer and fall. Use of the river by geese was high during the winter, when the reservoirs were frozen, and during the breeding period. Most breeding geese left the river after broods fledged. Thirteen percent of the artificial tree nest structures on the river were used by nesting geese. Goose nest initiation on the river peaked the last week in March through the first week in April, and hatching peaked the first week in May. Predation was the most significant cause of nest loss on the river, and nest loss by flooding was not observed. Avian predation was the single largest factor contributing to nest loss on the lake. Habitat use was studied in 4 brood areas on the river and 8 brood areas on the lake, and available habitat was assessed for 2 portions of both the lake and the river. Brood habitat use was significantly different from the available habitat in all areas studied. On the lower river, broods used wheat fields, gravel bars, and shrub habitats. On the upper river, coniferous forest and shrub habitats were preferred. On the West Bay of the lake, brood areas consisted primarily of lawns and tall herbaceous habitat, while on the South Bay, marshes dominated the brood areas studied. Water levels on the river and lake affect both accessibility of these areas to brooding geese, and the ecology of the habitats preferred by geese. 43 refs., 24 figs., 31 tabs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2172/5465396",
    doi = "10.2172/5465396",
    openalex = "W1560494084",
    references = "openalexw3039249584"
}

SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size.

@article{doi1023074747,
    author = "Lessells, C. M.",
    title = "Brood Size in Canada Geese: A Manipulation Experiment",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    abstract = "SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size. SUMMARY (1) A brood size manipulation experiment was carried out on Canada geese Branta canadensis to examine the effects of brood size on both goslings and adults. Because brood size was manipulated, it could be interpreted unequivocally as the cause of any observed relationship, while the results could still be examined for a relationship between parental ability and clutch size. (2) Brood size (within the normal range) had no effect on the survival or weight of the goslings to fledging, or on their subsequent survival, growth or reproduction. Gosling survival was correlated with other factors including weather and male size. (3) There was no evidence for a correlation between clutch size and parental ability. (4) Brood size had deleterious effects on the condition (weight and timing of moult) of the female. These effects were not reflected in overwinter survival, but pairs with larger broods bred later the following year. Clutch size in the following year, and the condition of the male at the end of the breeding season were unaffected by brood size.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4747",
    doi = "10.2307/4747",
    openalex = "W2320495529",
    references = "doi1023073798552, doi105962bhltitle15145"
}

Kerr Hydroelectric Dam is located at the south end of Flathead Lake, controls water levels on the lake and the Flathead River below the dam, and is currently operated as a load control facility. Current operation of Kerr Dam creates the greatest yearly water level fluctuations on both the lake and river during the Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffitti) brood and nesting period. Data collected from 1980-1982 indicated that goose nest numbers on the river were lower than during the 1950's, and that brood habitat on the lake may be limiting the goose population there. Our study was conducted from 1983-1987 to determine the effects of Kerr Dam operation on Canada goose populations and habitat on the south half of Flathead Lake and the Flathead River, and to formulate management and mitigation recommendations. Nesting geese on the river appeared to be negatively affected by a lack of nest sites free from predators, and responded to available artificial nest structures with an increase in nest numbers and nesting success. Under current dam operation, river channel depths and widths do not discourage access to nesting islands by mammalian predators during some years and high predation on ground nests occurs. Intensively used brood areas on the lake and river were identified and described. Brood habitat on the lake was lower in quality and quantity than on the river due to dam operations. Gosling mortality on the lake was high, almost 2 times higher than on the river. Lake broods expended more energy obtaining food than river broods. Losses of brood habitat in the form of wet meadow marshes were documented and mitigation options developed. Management/mitigation alternatives and monitoring methods for nesting and brooding geese were identified.

@misc{doi1021725692559,
    author = "Mackey, Dennis L. and Gregory, Shari K. and Matthews, William C. Jr. and Claar, James J. and Ball, I. J.",
    title = "Impacts of Water Levels on Breeding Canada Geese and Methods for Mitigation and Management in the Southern Flathead Valley, Montana, 1983-1987 Final Report.",
    year = "1987",
    abstract = "Kerr Hydroelectric Dam is located at the south end of Flathead Lake, controls water levels on the lake and the Flathead River below the dam, and is currently operated as a load control facility. Current operation of Kerr Dam creates the greatest yearly water level fluctuations on both the lake and river during the Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffitti) brood and nesting period. Data collected from 1980-1982 indicated that goose nest numbers on the river were lower than during the 1950's, and that brood habitat on the lake may be limiting the goose population there. Our study was conducted from 1983-1987 to determine the effects of Kerr Dam operation on Canada goose populations and habitat on the south half of Flathead Lake and the Flathead River, and to formulate management and mitigation recommendations. Nesting geese on the river appeared to be negatively affected by a lack of nest sites free from predators, and responded to available artificial nest structures with an increase in nest numbers and nesting success. Under current dam operation, river channel depths and widths do not discourage access to nesting islands by mammalian predators during some years and high predation on ground nests occurs. Intensively used brood areas on the lake and river were identified and described. Brood habitat on the lake was lower in quality and quantity than on the river due to dam operations. Gosling mortality on the lake was high, almost 2 times higher than on the river. Lake broods expended more energy obtaining food than river broods. Losses of brood habitat in the form of wet meadow marshes were documented and mitigation options developed. Management/mitigation alternatives and monitoring methods for nesting and brooding geese were identified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2172/5692559",
    doi = "10.2172/5692559",
    openalex = "W265141048",
    references = "openalexw3039249584"
}

Condensed sections play a fundamental role in stratigraphic correlation, both regionally and globally. Condensed sections are thin marine stratigraphic units consisting of pelagic to hemipelagic sediments characterized by very low-sedimentation rates. Areally, they are most extensive at the time of maximum regional transgression of the shoreline. Condensed sections are associated commonly with apparent marine hiatuses and often occur as thin, but continuous, zones of burrowed, slightly lithified beds (omission surfaces) or as marine hardgrounds. In addition, condensed sections may be characterized by abundant and diverse planktonic and benthic mi-crofossil assemblages, authigenic minerals (such as glauconite, phosphorite, and siderite), organic...

@incollection{doi102110pec88010183,
    author = "Loutit, T. S. and Hardenbol, Jan and Vail, Peter R. and BAUM, GERALD R.",
    title = "CONDENSED SECTIONS: THE KEY TO AGE DETERMINATION AND CORRELATION OF CONTINENTAL MARGIN SEQUENCES",
    year = "1988",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "Condensed sections play a fundamental role in stratigraphic correlation, both regionally and globally. Condensed sections are thin marine stratigraphic units consisting of pelagic to hemipelagic sediments characterized by very low-sedimentation rates. Areally, they are most extensive at the time of maximum regional transgression of the shoreline. Condensed sections are associated commonly with apparent marine hiatuses and often occur as thin, but continuous, zones of burrowed, slightly lithified beds (omission surfaces) or as marine hardgrounds. In addition, condensed sections may be characterized by abundant and diverse planktonic and benthic mi-crofossil assemblages, authigenic minerals (such as glauconite, phosphorite, and siderite), organic...",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.88.01.0183",
    doi = "10.2110/pec.88.01.0183",
    openalex = "W1526544082"
}

We studied fall flock behavior and harvest of locally breeding Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and those that use the area as a migration stopover at the Talcot Lake Wildlife Management Area (TLWMA) in southwest Minnesota in 1980-81. We used neckbands and radio transmitters to measure movements and survival of geese. We conducted aerial and ground surveys to estimate the size of goose populations. The 800-ha TLWMA refuge provided hunting season sanctuary for geese breeding in a 1,500-km2 area surrounding the refuge. Fidelity of local geese to feeding and roosting sites was strong throughout the fall. Prehuntingseason flight patterns to feeding sites off the refuge continued despite heavy hunting pressure. Marked families from a given brood-rearing site fed and roosted together at rates greater than would have been expected by chance. This subflock behavior, combined with consistent flight patterns, resulted in differential mortality among brood-rearing groups. In contrast, migrants remained at TLWMA briefly, fed independently from local geese when off the refuge, and were harvested at a lower rate (P < 0.05) than local geese. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):679-688 The giant Canada goose (B. c. maxima) has been restored over much of its former midwestern range (Nelson 1963, Brakhage 1965, Dill and Lee 1970, Cooper 1978). This race has steadily increased to an estimated 108,000 birds in the Mississippi Flyway in 1981 (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. and Can. Wildl. Serv. 1982). Although less numerous than subarctic and arctic goose populations (Bellrose 1976), resident populations of giant Canada geese provide recreation where geese were once rare or absent (Hine and Schoenfeld 1968). Management programs for local geese have included establishing additional populations, improving breeding habitat, and establishing refuges. Refuges have also contributed to an increase in subarctic and arctic nesting Canada geese stopping in the upper midwest (Vaught and Kirsch 1966, Reeves et al. 1968). Concurrent use of refuges by migrant geese and locally breeding geese is common. Goose concentrations on refuges have resulted in high hunter densities, firing lines, and crop depredations. These issues, and a goal to apportion the harvest of geese equitably in the Mississippi Flyway, have led to a search for methods to distribute migrant geese (Reeves et al. 1968). Sherwood (1968) identified hunting as an important limiting factor for restored populations; therefore, techniques are needed for managing the harvest of migrant and locally breeding geese concurrently using a refuge. An understanding of the behavior of migrant and resident geese during fall is necessary to attain this objective. Migratory and wintering subpopulations or subflocks of Canada geese have been described by Kennedy and Arthur (1974), Koerner et al. (1974), and Raveling (1969, 1978, 1979). Zicus (1981a) documented subflock behavior on the breeding grounds in summer and fall. Zicus (1981a) suggested that resident geese rearing young at specific sites associated with each other and differed from other subflocks in their use of a refuge for feeding and roosting; he speculated that subflocks may differ in their vulnerability to hunting. Our study examined behavior of resident and migrant Canada geese using a refuge concurrently during fall in southwest Minnesota. We studied chronological changes in size and composition of migrant and local flocks, use of feeding sites, family associations and mortality rates among local geese, composition of the Canada goose harvest, and factors affecting vulnerability of these geese to hunting. We thank J. R. Kitts and F. B. Martin, University of Minnesota, for reviewing the manuscript and for assisting with statistical procedures, respectively. R. J. Peterson, J. G. Beech, D. G. Opdahl, L. M. Koster, E. L. Larson, and other personnel of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) helped with banding, observations, and bag checks. Additional banding assistance was provided by S. J. 1 Present address: Section of Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 231 E. Second Street, Redwood Falls, MN 56283.

@article{doi1023073800931,
    author = "Schultz, D. F. and Cooper, James A. and Zicus, Michael C.",
    title = "Fall Flock Behavior and Harvest of Canada Geese",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "We studied fall flock behavior and harvest of locally breeding Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and those that use the area as a migration stopover at the Talcot Lake Wildlife Management Area (TLWMA) in southwest Minnesota in 1980-81. We used neckbands and radio transmitters to measure movements and survival of geese. We conducted aerial and ground surveys to estimate the size of goose populations. The 800-ha TLWMA refuge provided hunting season sanctuary for geese breeding in a 1,500-km2 area surrounding the refuge. Fidelity of local geese to feeding and roosting sites was strong throughout the fall. Prehuntingseason flight patterns to feeding sites off the refuge continued despite heavy hunting pressure. Marked families from a given brood-rearing site fed and roosted together at rates greater than would have been expected by chance. This subflock behavior, combined with consistent flight patterns, resulted in differential mortality among brood-rearing groups. In contrast, migrants remained at TLWMA briefly, fed independently from local geese when off the refuge, and were harvested at a lower rate (P < 0.05) than local geese. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):679-688 The giant Canada goose (B. c. maxima) has been restored over much of its former midwestern range (Nelson 1963, Brakhage 1965, Dill and Lee 1970, Cooper 1978). This race has steadily increased to an estimated 108,000 birds in the Mississippi Flyway in 1981 (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. and Can. Wildl. Serv. 1982). Although less numerous than subarctic and arctic goose populations (Bellrose 1976), resident populations of giant Canada geese provide recreation where geese were once rare or absent (Hine and Schoenfeld 1968). Management programs for local geese have included establishing additional populations, improving breeding habitat, and establishing refuges. Refuges have also contributed to an increase in subarctic and arctic nesting Canada geese stopping in the upper midwest (Vaught and Kirsch 1966, Reeves et al. 1968). Concurrent use of refuges by migrant geese and locally breeding geese is common. Goose concentrations on refuges have resulted in high hunter densities, firing lines, and crop depredations. These issues, and a goal to apportion the harvest of geese equitably in the Mississippi Flyway, have led to a search for methods to distribute migrant geese (Reeves et al. 1968). Sherwood (1968) identified hunting as an important limiting factor for restored populations; therefore, techniques are needed for managing the harvest of migrant and locally breeding geese concurrently using a refuge. An understanding of the behavior of migrant and resident geese during fall is necessary to attain this objective. Migratory and wintering subpopulations or subflocks of Canada geese have been described by Kennedy and Arthur (1974), Koerner et al. (1974), and Raveling (1969, 1978, 1979). Zicus (1981a) documented subflock behavior on the breeding grounds in summer and fall. Zicus (1981a) suggested that resident geese rearing young at specific sites associated with each other and differed from other subflocks in their use of a refuge for feeding and roosting; he speculated that subflocks may differ in their vulnerability to hunting. Our study examined behavior of resident and migrant Canada geese using a refuge concurrently during fall in southwest Minnesota. We studied chronological changes in size and composition of migrant and local flocks, use of feeding sites, family associations and mortality rates among local geese, composition of the Canada goose harvest, and factors affecting vulnerability of these geese to hunting. We thank J. R. Kitts and F. B. Martin, University of Minnesota, for reviewing the manuscript and for assisting with statistical procedures, respectively. R. J. Peterson, J. G. Beech, D. G. Opdahl, L. M. Koster, E. L. Larson, and other personnel of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) helped with banding, observations, and bag checks. Additional banding assistance was provided by S. J. 1 Present address: Section of Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 231 E. Second Street, Redwood Falls, MN 56283.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3800931",
    doi = "10.2307/3800931",
    openalex = "W2332581888",
    references = "openalexw3039249584"
}

Project personnel banded 28,849 Canada geese (Branta canadensis) with aluminum leg bands and individually coded neck bands in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina from 1983 to 1986. The mean annual neck band retention rate was 99.3 * 0.3 (SE)% from retrap data of previously banded geese. The annual survival rate for the flyway was 77.3 3.8% using band-recovery analyses from 1,008 recoveries of 13,331 postseason-banded geese and 70.9? 1.3% using mark-resight data. Annual changes in the distribution of wintering geese were caused, in part, by changes in annual survival rate. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(1):91-96 The changing winter distribution of Canada geese is a major problem facing managers within the Atlantic flyway (Hankla and Rudolph 1967, Trost and Malecki 1985, Malecki and Trost 1986). During the 1960's, a large percentage of wintering geese shifted northward from North and South Carolina to the Chesapeake region (Del., Md., and Va.) (Trost and Malecki 1985). The distribution of wintering geese appears to be shifting further north from the Chesapeake to the mid-Atlantic region (N.Y., Pa., and N.J.) (Fig. 1). The changing winter distribution may result from differential survival, reproduction, or movement between subpopulations or regions. Differential survival or movement may result from changes in available wintering habitat, changes in diet, proliferation of private sanctuaries, changing weather trends, and increasing numbers of resident geese decoying migrants. Our objective was to determine if changing winter distribution of Canada geese results from differential survival. We thank all state, federal, and private biologists who have banded or observed geese in the Atlantic flyway. Without their hard work, this study would not have been possible. We especially thank J. D. Nichols for assistance with the analysis, S. Sheaffer for computing assistance, and J. E. Hines for Figure 1. We also thank J. D. Nichols, S. Sheaffer, N. B. Barber, M. J. Conroy, and an anonymous referee for reviewing the manuscript. This paper is a contribution of the New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit: the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Cornell University, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and Wildlife Management Institute (USFWS contract 14-16-0009-1524) cooperate with the New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit.

@article{doi1023073801312,
    author = "Hestbeck, Jay B. and Malecki, Richard A.",
    title = "Estimated Survival Rates of Canada Geese within the Atlantic Flyway",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Project personnel banded 28,849 Canada geese (Branta canadensis) with aluminum leg bands and individually coded neck bands in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina from 1983 to 1986. The mean annual neck band retention rate was 99.3 * 0.3 (SE)\% from retrap data of previously banded geese. The annual survival rate for the flyway was 77.3 3.8\% using band-recovery analyses from 1,008 recoveries of 13,331 postseason-banded geese and 70.9? 1.3\% using mark-resight data. Annual changes in the distribution of wintering geese were caused, in part, by changes in annual survival rate. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(1):91-96 The changing winter distribution of Canada geese is a major problem facing managers within the Atlantic flyway (Hankla and Rudolph 1967, Trost and Malecki 1985, Malecki and Trost 1986). During the 1960's, a large percentage of wintering geese shifted northward from North and South Carolina to the Chesapeake region (Del., Md., and Va.) (Trost and Malecki 1985). The distribution of wintering geese appears to be shifting further north from the Chesapeake to the mid-Atlantic region (N.Y., Pa., and N.J.) (Fig. 1). The changing winter distribution may result from differential survival, reproduction, or movement between subpopulations or regions. Differential survival or movement may result from changes in available wintering habitat, changes in diet, proliferation of private sanctuaries, changing weather trends, and increasing numbers of resident geese decoying migrants. Our objective was to determine if changing winter distribution of Canada geese results from differential survival. We thank all state, federal, and private biologists who have banded or observed geese in the Atlantic flyway. Without their hard work, this study would not have been possible. We especially thank J. D. Nichols for assistance with the analysis, S. Sheaffer for computing assistance, and J. E. Hines for Figure 1. We also thank J. D. Nichols, S. Sheaffer, N. B. Barber, M. J. Conroy, and an anonymous referee for reviewing the manuscript. This paper is a contribution of the New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit: the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Cornell University, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and Wildlife Management Institute (USFWS contract 14-16-0009-1524) cooperate with the New York Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3801312",
    doi = "10.2307/3801312",
    openalex = "W2313119583"
}

@article{moser1989agespecific,
    author = "Moser, Timothy J. and Rusch, Donald H.",
    title = "Age-Specific Breeding Rates of Female Interior Canada Geese",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3809205",
    doi = "10.2307/3809205",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2315633136",
    pages = "734",
    volume = "53"
}

@article{doi101007bf02437238,
    author = "Brooks, Sheilagh T. and Suchey, J. M.",
    title = "Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: A comparison of the Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks methods",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02437238",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02437238",
    openalex = "W1967977521",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330030301, doi101002ajpa1330040102, doi101002ajpa1330130403, doi101002ajpa1330380109, doi101002ajpa1330510404, doi101002ajpa1330680104, doi101002ajpa1330690402, doi1010160047248480900615, doi1023071529880, openalexw91638685"
}

@incollection{crossref1992canada,
    title = "CANADA GEESE",
    year = "1992",
    booktitle = "The Angel of Obsession",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv303wc31.21",
    doi = "10.2307/j.ctv303wc31.21",
    openalex = "W4312332152",
    pages = "34-34"
}

[in Japanese]

@article{doi103838jjo40109,
    author = "Mitani, Atsushi and Fujimaki, Yuzo",
    title = "Age Determination of the Hazel Grouse and Carrion Crow based on the Layered Structure of the Mandible",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Japanese Journal of Ornithology",
    abstract = "[in Japanese]",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3838/jjo.40.109",
    doi = "10.3838/jjo.40.109",
    openalex = "W2063390556",
    references = "doi1011632666064404101008, doi1023073676269, nelson1980counts, openalexw2968818527"
}

@incollection{crossref1993age,
    title = "Age determination",
    year = "1993",
    booktitle = "Antarctic Seals",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511565281.013",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9780511565281.013",
    openalex = "W4237357718",
    pages = "199-227"
}

Nesting ecology of Mississippi Valley population (MVP) Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) was studied during April-June 1985-90 in an 11.2-km 2 study area located in tundra habitats along the coast of Hudson Bay 12 km east of Winisk, Ontario. Brood-rearing ecology was studied during June-July 1988-90 in the same area. Nest initiation occurred 1-6 days (x = 2.5 ± 0.8) before peak spring run-off and was relatively stable for 6 years; median nest initiation dates varied about 9 days between earliest and latest years. Spring phenology was not the primary determinant of annual productivity, but did influence nest density (overall x = 6.1 ± 0.6 [SE] nests/km 2); high nest densities occurred in years with an early spring breakup, and low densities in years with late spring breakup

@article{openalexw2494244915,
    author = "Bruggink, John G. and Tacha, Thomas C. and Davies, J. Chris and Abraham, Kenneth F.",
    title = "Nesting and brood-rearing ecology of Mississippi Valley population Canada geese",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Wildlife Monographs",
    abstract = "Nesting ecology of Mississippi Valley population (MVP) Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) was studied during April-June 1985-90 in an 11.2-km 2 study area located in tundra habitats along the coast of Hudson Bay 12 km east of Winisk, Ontario. Brood-rearing ecology was studied during June-July 1988-90 in the same area. Nest initiation occurred 1-6 days (x = 2.5 ± 0.8) before peak spring run-off and was relatively stable for 6 years; median nest initiation dates varied about 9 days between earliest and latest years. Spring phenology was not the primary determinant of annual productivity, but did influence nest density (overall x = 6.1 ± 0.6 [SE] nests/km 2); high nest densities occurred in years with an early spring breakup, and low densities in years with late spring breakup",
    openalex = "W2494244915"
}

Feral populations of the canada goose Branta canadensis continue to grow at around 8% per year in the UK. The growing feral populations in Europe and non‐migratory populations of ‘urban’ canada geese in North America are beginning to conflict with human interests. In response to increasingly frequent calls for control of this species, we review the scientific literature concerning the biology of feral populations in an attempt to determine why such rapid population growth has occurred. We also examine the available evidence about the problems caused by canada geese and the published information on the management techniques already tested. Feral canada geese are highly fecund, producing up to six young per pair, and have high fledging success. This allows populations to continue to grow even in areas with high levels of mortality in both adult and immature birds, mostly as a result of shooting. Population growth has been most rapid in urban areas with little shooting pressure and correspondingly low adult mortality. Site faithfulness, particularly in females, has probably slowed the spread of canada geese to new habitats, many of which have been created by man. Many apparently suitable sites remain unoccupied at present, and the factors which govern the carrying capacity of existing sites are not fully understood. The upper limits to the growth of feral populations are therefore difficult to estimate, but there is little evidence that density‐dependent factors are acting to regulate population size except at long‐established breeding sites. Canada geese can cause damage to agricultural crops and amenity areas resulting in significant localised economic loss particularly in areas close to water bodies. In most countries the extent and cost of the damage caused has not been fully evaluated, and evidence in support of the need for control on a national or international level is currently weak. Work on the impact of canada geese on other waterfowl and on the possibility that they may transmit diseases to humans is continuing. In Britain, research into management has concentrated on reproductive control by treatment of eggs. Results have shown that, even if the control is highly efficient, it takes a number of years for any reduction in the population size to occur. Most researchers suggest that reproductive control needs to be combined with an increase in adult mortality if the population size at a site is to be reduced in an acceptable time. We suggest that Integrated Management Strategies (combining habitat management, behavioural modification of the birds e.g. by scaring and, where necessary, by population reduction) need to be developed. These strategies should be specific to the particular location concerned. Current research in progress in the UK is summarised and areas where further research is needed both to quantify the problem and develop effective management strategies are identified.

@article{doi102981wlb1995018,
    author = "Allan, John and Kirby, Jeffrey.S. and Feare, Christopher J.",
    title = "The biology of canada geese Branta canadensis in relation to the management of feral populations",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Wildlife Biology",
    abstract = "Feral populations of the canada goose Branta canadensis continue to grow at around 8\% per year in the UK. The growing feral populations in Europe and non‐migratory populations of ‘urban’ canada geese in North America are beginning to conflict with human interests. In response to increasingly frequent calls for control of this species, we review the scientific literature concerning the biology of feral populations in an attempt to determine why such rapid population growth has occurred. We also examine the available evidence about the problems caused by canada geese and the published information on the management techniques already tested. Feral canada geese are highly fecund, producing up to six young per pair, and have high fledging success. This allows populations to continue to grow even in areas with high levels of mortality in both adult and immature birds, mostly as a result of shooting. Population growth has been most rapid in urban areas with little shooting pressure and correspondingly low adult mortality. Site faithfulness, particularly in females, has probably slowed the spread of canada geese to new habitats, many of which have been created by man. Many apparently suitable sites remain unoccupied at present, and the factors which govern the carrying capacity of existing sites are not fully understood. The upper limits to the growth of feral populations are therefore difficult to estimate, but there is little evidence that density‐dependent factors are acting to regulate population size except at long‐established breeding sites. Canada geese can cause damage to agricultural crops and amenity areas resulting in significant localised economic loss particularly in areas close to water bodies. In most countries the extent and cost of the damage caused has not been fully evaluated, and evidence in support of the need for control on a national or international level is currently weak. Work on the impact of canada geese on other waterfowl and on the possibility that they may transmit diseases to humans is continuing. In Britain, research into management has concentrated on reproductive control by treatment of eggs. Results have shown that, even if the control is highly efficient, it takes a number of years for any reduction in the population size to occur. Most researchers suggest that reproductive control needs to be combined with an increase in adult mortality if the population size at a site is to be reduced in an acceptable time. We suggest that Integrated Management Strategies (combining habitat management, behavioural modification of the birds e.g. by scaring and, where necessary, by population reduction) need to be developed. These strategies should be specific to the particular location concerned. Current research in progress in the UK is summarised and areas where further research is needed both to quantify the problem and develop effective management strategies are identified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.1995.018",
    doi = "10.2981/wlb.1995.018",
    openalex = "W2298476711",
    references = "doi1023073798969"
}

We examined the effect of neck bands on the survival and recovery rates of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) breeding in New Jersey. A total of 8,082 geese were legbanded and 3,428 geese were neck- and legbanded from 1984 through 1989 during June-July throughout New Jersey. Our analysis suggested that survival rates did not differ between adults and immatures within either group (P > 0.05). However, there was evidence that survival did differ between the 2 methods of marking (P < 0.01). The average annual survival rate was estimated as 82.77% (SE = 3.17%) for geese with leg bands only and 69.21% (SE = 3.66%) for geese banded with both leg and neck bands. The use of neck-band observations to estimate annual or period survival rates requires an assumption that neck bands do not influence survival rates. In our study, this assumption appeared to be violated. Managers should use caution in interpreting the results of existing neck-banding studies. Neck bands should be used judiciously and, when possible, with a leg-banded only control group.

@article{doi1023073802390,
    author = "Castelli, Paul M. and Trost, Robert E.",
    title = "Neck Bands Reduce Survival of Canada Geese in New Jersey",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "We examined the effect of neck bands on the survival and recovery rates of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) breeding in New Jersey. A total of 8,082 geese were legbanded and 3,428 geese were neck- and legbanded from 1984 through 1989 during June-July throughout New Jersey. Our analysis suggested that survival rates did not differ between adults and immatures within either group (P > 0.05). However, there was evidence that survival did differ between the 2 methods of marking (P < 0.01). The average annual survival rate was estimated as 82.77\% (SE = 3.17\%) for geese with leg bands only and 69.21\% (SE = 3.66\%) for geese banded with both leg and neck bands. The use of neck-band observations to estimate annual or period survival rates requires an assumption that neck bands do not influence survival rates. In our study, this assumption appeared to be violated. Managers should use caution in interpreting the results of existing neck-banding studies. Neck bands should be used judiciously and, when possible, with a leg-banded only control group.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3802390",
    doi = "10.2307/3802390",
    openalex = "W2332056700",
    references = "doi1021900jinhsv25184"
}

@article{walter1997visibility,
    author = "Walter, Scott E. and Rusch, Donald H.",
    title = "Visibility Bias on Counts of Nesting Canada Geese",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "The Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3802183",
    doi = "10.2307/3802183",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2327098528",
    pages = "768",
    volume = "61",
    references = "doi1023073799071, doi1023073800036, doi1023073800067, doi1023073800708, doi1023073801061, doi1023073801311, doi1023073801429, doi1023073809603, openalexw2494244915, openalexw2886222304"
}

Many calcified structures produce periodic growth increments useful for age determination at the annual or daily scale. However, age determination is invariably accompanied by various sources of error, some of which can have a serious effect on age‐structured calculations. This review highlights the best available methods for insuring ageing accuracy and quantifying ageing precision, whether in support of large‐scale production ageing or a small‐scale research project. Included in this review is a critical overview of methods used to initiate and pursue an accurate and controlled ageing program, including (but not limited to) validation of an ageing method. The distinction between validation of absolute age and increment periodicity is emphasized, as is the importance of determining the age of first increment formation. Based on an analysis of 372 papers reporting age validation since 1983, considerable progress has been made in age validation efforts in recent years. Nevertheless, several of the age validation methods which have been used routinely are of dubious value, particularly marginal increment analysis. The two major measures of precision, average percent error and coefficient of variation, are shown to be functionally equivalent, and a conversion factor relating the two is presented. Through use of quality control monitoring, ageing errors are readily detected and quantified; reference collections are the key to both quality control and reduction of costs. Although some level of random ageing error is unavoidable, such error can often be corrected after the fact using statistical (‘digital sharpening)’ methods.

@article{doi101111j109586492001tb00127x,
    author = "Campana, Steven E.",
    title = "Accuracy, precision and quality control in age determination, including a review of the use and abuse of age validation methods",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Fish Biology",
    abstract = "Many calcified structures produce periodic growth increments useful for age determination at the annual or daily scale. However, age determination is invariably accompanied by various sources of error, some of which can have a serious effect on age‐structured calculations. This review highlights the best available methods for insuring ageing accuracy and quantifying ageing precision, whether in support of large‐scale production ageing or a small‐scale research project. Included in this review is a critical overview of methods used to initiate and pursue an accurate and controlled ageing program, including (but not limited to) validation of an ageing method. The distinction between validation of absolute age and increment periodicity is emphasized, as is the importance of determining the age of first increment formation. Based on an analysis of 372 papers reporting age validation since 1983, considerable progress has been made in age validation efforts in recent years. Nevertheless, several of the age validation methods which have been used routinely are of dubious value, particularly marginal increment analysis. The two major measures of precision, average percent error and coefficient of variation, are shown to be functionally equivalent, and a conversion factor relating the two is presented. Through use of quality control monitoring, ageing errors are readily detected and quantified; reference collections are the key to both quality control and reduction of costs. Although some level of random ageing error is unavoidable, such error can often be corrected after the fact using statistical (‘digital sharpening)’ methods.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb00127.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb00127.x",
    openalex = "W2007695757",
    references = "doi101126science17340021124, doi101139f00177, doi101139f81132, doi101139f82158, doi101139f85127, doi101139f90246, doi101139f95038, doi101577154886591983112735tfrfav20co2, doi1015771548865919951240131gasmfd23co2, doi103354meps188263, openalexw3011194386"
}

Michael R. J. Hill, Ray T. Alisauskas, C. Davison Ankney, James O. Leafloor, Influence of Body Size and Condition on Harvest and Survival of Juvenile Canada Geese, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Jul., 2003), pp. 530-541

@article{doi1023073802711,
    author = "Hill, Michael R. J. and Alisauskas, Ray T. and Ankney, C. Davison and Leafloor, James O.",
    title = "Influence of Body Size and Condition on Harvest and Survival of Juvenile Canada Geese",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Michael R. J. Hill, Ray T. Alisauskas, C. Davison Ankney, James O. Leafloor, Influence of Body Size and Condition on Harvest and Survival of Juvenile Canada Geese, The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Jul., 2003), pp. 530-541",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3802711",
    doi = "10.2307/3802711",
    openalex = "W2320723135",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle15145, moser1989agespecific"
}

We analyzed banding and recovery data for Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded in Nebraska during 1990–2000. Survival rates were lower during 1996–2000 (adult: 0.688, SE = 0.016; juvenile: 0.611, SE = 0.029), than 1990–1995 (adult: 0.727, SE = 0.011; juvenile: 0.639, SE = 0.024). Average juvenile-to-adult ratio from banding data was 0.834 (SD = 0.485), resulting in an annual population growth rate (λ) estimate for 1990–1995 of 0.995 (95% CI = 0.021), and 0.922 (0.018) for 1996–2000. Our recovery analysis suggests that 67% of geese banded in Nebraska are shot in Nebraska. Over 30% of both juvenile and adult recoveries are obtained in December, and geese banded in Lancaster County are recovered in higher numbers during October than geese banded in the Panhandle and Sandhills regions. Sixty to 70% of geese banded in Lancaster County and the Panhandle region are recovered in their respective region, while less than 20% of geese banded in the Sandhills are recovered in the Sandhills. Our analysis suggests that subpopulations of Canada geese in Nebraska differ in their survival and movements. Thus, area-specifi c management could be directed at each subpopulation.

@article{openalexw141839347,
    author = "Powell, Larkin A. and Vrtiska, Mark P. and Lyman, Nick",
    title = "SURVIVAL RATES AND RECOVERY DISTRIBUTIONS OF CANADA GEESE BANDED IN NEBRASKA",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Insecta mundi",
    abstract = "We analyzed banding and recovery data for Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded in Nebraska during 1990–2000. Survival rates were lower during 1996–2000 (adult: 0.688, SE = 0.016; juvenile: 0.611, SE = 0.029), than 1990–1995 (adult: 0.727, SE = 0.011; juvenile: 0.639, SE = 0.024). Average juvenile-to-adult ratio from banding data was 0.834 (SD = 0.485), resulting in an annual population growth rate (λ) estimate for 1990–1995 of 0.995 (95\% CI = 0.021), and 0.922 (0.018) for 1996–2000. Our recovery analysis suggests that 67\% of geese banded in Nebraska are shot in Nebraska. Over 30\% of both juvenile and adult recoveries are obtained in December, and geese banded in Lancaster County are recovered in higher numbers during October than geese banded in the Panhandle and Sandhills regions. Sixty to 70\% of geese banded in Lancaster County and the Panhandle region are recovered in their respective region, while less than 20\% of geese banded in the Sandhills are recovered in the Sandhills. Our analysis suggests that subpopulations of Canada geese in Nebraska differ in their survival and movements. Thus, area-specifi c management could be directed at each subpopulation.",
    openalex = "W141839347"
}

Abdominally implanted radiotransmitters with percutaneous antennas are increasingly used to monitor movements, survival, and reproduction of waterbirds. However, there has been relatively little assessment of the effects of such radios on avian demographic parameters or migration. We implanted either a 26- or 35-g abdominal transmitter with percutaneous antenna in 198 adult female lesser Canada geese (Branta canadensis parvipes) in Anchorage, Alaska during 2000 and 2001. We compared migration chronology, reproductive effort, and survival of radiomarked females to 118 control females marked with leg bands. Arrival dates following spring migration were similar among females in different treatments in 2001. However, in 2002, wind direction during late migration was less favorable, and arrival of females with 35-g radiotransmitters lagged 1–2 days behind that of control females. Nest initiation dates, clutch size, and mean egg volume were similar for 152 nests of females that lacked radios and 62 nests of radiomarked females. Estimated nesting propensity for females with operable radiotransmitters was 61% and 72% in 2001 and 2002, respectively. Apparent annual survival (φ = 0.82, 95% confidence interval: 0.76 to 0.87) was similar among treatments in the first year after geese were marked. In the second and third years after marking, model-averaged estimates for survival of females with large radiotransmitters were 10% lower than estimates for control females. However, the effect of large radios on long-term survival was equivocal because of uncertainty surrounding treatment estimates. We conclude that abdominally implanted radiotransmitters with percutaneous antennas had small effects on migration chronology but no apparent effects on fecundity. Abdominal transmitters can provide unbiased estimates of anserine survival in the first year after deployment. Because of the potentially greater effects of larger transmitters on migration and long-term survival, we recommend that biologists minimize the size of implanted transmitters and deploy radios with caution if long-term survival of marked birds is a concern.

@article{doi1021930022541x200670812eoairw20co2,
    author = "Hupp, Jerry W. and Pearce, John M. and Mulcahy, Daniel M. and Miller, David A.",
    title = "Effects of Abdominally Implanted Radiotransmitters with Percutaneous Antennas on Migration, Reproduction, and Survival of Canada Geese",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "Abdominally implanted radiotransmitters with percutaneous antennas are increasingly used to monitor movements, survival, and reproduction of waterbirds. However, there has been relatively little assessment of the effects of such radios on avian demographic parameters or migration. We implanted either a 26- or 35-g abdominal transmitter with percutaneous antenna in 198 adult female lesser Canada geese (Branta canadensis parvipes) in Anchorage, Alaska during 2000 and 2001. We compared migration chronology, reproductive effort, and survival of radiomarked females to 118 control females marked with leg bands. Arrival dates following spring migration were similar among females in different treatments in 2001. However, in 2002, wind direction during late migration was less favorable, and arrival of females with 35-g radiotransmitters lagged 1–2 days behind that of control females. Nest initiation dates, clutch size, and mean egg volume were similar for 152 nests of females that lacked radios and 62 nests of radiomarked females. Estimated nesting propensity for females with operable radiotransmitters was 61\% and 72\% in 2001 and 2002, respectively. Apparent annual survival (φ = 0.82, 95\% confidence interval: 0.76 to 0.87) was similar among treatments in the first year after geese were marked. In the second and third years after marking, model-averaged estimates for survival of females with large radiotransmitters were 10\% lower than estimates for control females. However, the effect of large radios on long-term survival was equivocal because of uncertainty surrounding treatment estimates. We conclude that abdominally implanted radiotransmitters with percutaneous antennas had small effects on migration chronology but no apparent effects on fecundity. Abdominal transmitters can provide unbiased estimates of anserine survival in the first year after deployment. Because of the potentially greater effects of larger transmitters on migration and long-term survival, we recommend that biologists minimize the size of implanted transmitters and deploy radios with caution if long-term survival of marked birds is a concern.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[812:eoairw]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[812:eoairw]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2177852302",
    references = "moser1989agespecific"
}

Resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nest or reside in the temperate latitudes of North America. In past years, translocation—the capture and subsequent release of geese at distant locations—has been used to establish resident goose populations and to reduce nuisance problems. However, with new special hunting seasons designed to target resident Canada geese, we can now evaluate translocation as a management tool when hunting is allowed at release sites. We selected 2 study sites, representative of urban and suburban locations with nuisance resident geese, in central and western New York, USA. In June 2003, we translocated 80 neck-banded adult geese, 14 radiomarked adult females, and 83 juveniles 150 km east and southwest from urban and suburban problem sites in western New York to state-owned Wildlife Management Areas. At these same capture sites, we used 151 neck-banded adult geese, 12 radiomarked females, and 100 juveniles as controls to compare dispersal movements and harvest vulnerability to translocated geese. All observations (n = 45) of translocated radiomarked geese were <20 km from release sites, in areas where hunting was permitted. Only 25 of 538 observations (4.6%) of radiomarked geese at control sites were in areas open to hunting. The remainder of observations occurred at nonhunting locations within 10 km of control sites. More translocated adult geese (23.8%) were harvested than control geese (6.6%; χ2 = 12.98, P = 0.0009). More translocated juvenile geese were harvested (22.9%) than juvenile controls (5.0%; χ2 = 12.30, P = 0.0005). Only 7 (8.8%) translocated adult geese returned to the original capture sites during Canada goose hunting seasons. Translocation of adult and juvenile geese in family groups may alleviate nuisance problems at conflict sites through increased harvest, reducing the number of birds returning in subsequent years.

@article{doi10219300917648200634845chotnc20co2,
    author = "Holevinski, Robin A. and Malecki, Richard A. and Curtis, Paul D.",
    title = "Can Hunting of Translocated Nuisance Canada Geese Reduce Local Conflicts?",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Wildlife Society Bulletin",
    abstract = "Resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nest or reside in the temperate latitudes of North America. In past years, translocation—the capture and subsequent release of geese at distant locations—has been used to establish resident goose populations and to reduce nuisance problems. However, with new special hunting seasons designed to target resident Canada geese, we can now evaluate translocation as a management tool when hunting is allowed at release sites. We selected 2 study sites, representative of urban and suburban locations with nuisance resident geese, in central and western New York, USA. In June 2003, we translocated 80 neck-banded adult geese, 14 radiomarked adult females, and 83 juveniles 150 km east and southwest from urban and suburban problem sites in western New York to state-owned Wildlife Management Areas. At these same capture sites, we used 151 neck-banded adult geese, 12 radiomarked females, and 100 juveniles as controls to compare dispersal movements and harvest vulnerability to translocated geese. All observations (n = 45) of translocated radiomarked geese were <20 km from release sites, in areas where hunting was permitted. Only 25 of 538 observations (4.6\%) of radiomarked geese at control sites were in areas open to hunting. The remainder of observations occurred at nonhunting locations within 10 km of control sites. More translocated adult geese (23.8\%) were harvested than control geese (6.6\%; χ2 = 12.98, P = 0.0009). More translocated juvenile geese were harvested (22.9\%) than juvenile controls (5.0\%; χ2 = 12.30, P = 0.0005). Only 7 (8.8\%) translocated adult geese returned to the original capture sites during Canada goose hunting seasons. Translocation of adult and juvenile geese in family groups may alleviate nuisance problems at conflict sites through increased harvest, reducing the number of birds returning in subsequent years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[845:chotnc]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[845:chotnc]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2173639691",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle15145"
}

In response to increasing populations, damage complaints, and a desire to understand population and spatial dynamics, we studied population size, survival rates, home ranges, movements, and site fidelity of female resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) at 18 study sites within 23 km of Lincoln, Nebraska, during 1991–1994. Based on mean flock size (x̄ = 93) and number of collared geese in flocks (x̄ = 13), the estimated population of resident Canada geese was nearly 4,000. Estimated monthly survival for female Canada geese was 0.94, mean home range was 25 km2, and mean maximum distance moved between use areas was 13 km. Collared female Canada geese exhibited strong site fidelity, with 16% of relocated individuals observed at only 1 location during a single year. Other collared geese were observed at a single site during 75% of all observations. Our findings suggest that management efforts to address complaints about nuisance Canada geese must be implemented on the local level to be successful.

@article{doi1026077w6171d10,
    author = "Groepper, Scott R. and Gabig, P. Joseph and Vrtiska, Mark P. and Gilsdorf, Jason M. and Hygnstrom, Scott E. and Powell, Larkin A.",
    title = "Population and Spatial Dynamics of Resident Canada Geese in Southeastern Nebraska",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Insecta mundi",
    abstract = "In response to increasing populations, damage complaints, and a desire to understand population and spatial dynamics, we studied population size, survival rates, home ranges, movements, and site fidelity of female resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) at 18 study sites within 23 km of Lincoln, Nebraska, during 1991–1994. Based on mean flock size (x̄ = 93) and number of collared geese in flocks (x̄ = 13), the estimated population of resident Canada geese was nearly 4,000. Estimated monthly survival for female Canada geese was 0.94, mean home range was 25 km2, and mean maximum distance moved between use areas was 13 km. Collared female Canada geese exhibited strong site fidelity, with 16\% of relocated individuals observed at only 1 location during a single year. Other collared geese were observed at a single site during 75\% of all observations. Our findings suggest that management efforts to address complaints about nuisance Canada geese must be implemented on the local level to be successful.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.26077/w617-1d10",
    doi = "10.26077/w617-1d10",
    openalex = "W2161345313"
}

The population of resident giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) has increased dramatically in eastern South Dakota since reintroduction efforts were initiated in the 1960s. In order to effectively manage this population of Canada geese, it is important to determine their reproductive success. We collected information on goose nesting success and related brood movements using Very High Frequency (VHF) telemetry. We captured Canada geese in seven counties in eastern South Dakota during summers, 2000–2003. The reproductive success of 88 females was monitored during spring 2001–2004. Half of the geese had successful nests, 20.5% were unsuccessful, and 29.5% did not attempt to nest. Apparent and Mayfield nesting success estimates averaged 71% and 63%, respectively. Overall egg success was 62.6% and overall hatching success was 88.8%. Mean total clutch size averaged 5.73 ± 0.17 while the number of goslings leaving the nest averaged 5.02 ± 0.25. Forty-nine percent of marked females nested on or around the shoreline of their previous summers capture wetland. The remaining 51% nested on peripheral wetlands ranging from seasonal wetlands to permanent lakes. Mean distance from the capture wetlands to nest sites across years was 1.5 km ± 0.18. Biologists need to consider long distance movement of giant Canada goose broods when making management decisions.

@article{doi101674000300311622373,
    author = "Dieter, Charles D. and Anderson, Bobby J.",
    title = "Reproductive Success and Brood Movements of Giant Canada Geese in Eastern South Dakota",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "The American Midland Naturalist",
    abstract = "The population of resident giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) has increased dramatically in eastern South Dakota since reintroduction efforts were initiated in the 1960s. In order to effectively manage this population of Canada geese, it is important to determine their reproductive success. We collected information on goose nesting success and related brood movements using Very High Frequency (VHF) telemetry. We captured Canada geese in seven counties in eastern South Dakota during summers, 2000–2003. The reproductive success of 88 females was monitored during spring 2001–2004. Half of the geese had successful nests, 20.5\% were unsuccessful, and 29.5\% did not attempt to nest. Apparent and Mayfield nesting success estimates averaged 71\% and 63\%, respectively. Overall egg success was 62.6\% and overall hatching success was 88.8\%. Mean total clutch size averaged 5.73 ± 0.17 while the number of goslings leaving the nest averaged 5.02 ± 0.25. Forty-nine percent of marked females nested on or around the shoreline of their previous summers capture wetland. The remaining 51\% nested on peripheral wetlands ranging from seasonal wetlands to permanent lakes. Mean distance from the capture wetlands to nest sites across years was 1.5 km ± 0.18. Biologists need to consider long distance movement of giant Canada goose broods when making management decisions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-162.2.373",
    doi = "10.1674/0003-0031-162.2.373",
    openalex = "W2091936278",
    references = "moser1989agespecific"
}

The population of giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) breeding in eastern South Dakota has increased dramatically since reintroduction efforts began in the 1960s. May breeding population levels of giant Canada geese exceeded population management goals set by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks (SDGFP) by the mid-1990s, and the population has continued to increase into the 2000s. This population increase was accompanied by an increase in goose-related conflicts such as crop depredation. In 1996, a September hunting season was implemented in select counties in eastern South Dakota in an effort to reduce the giant Canada goose population. After its implementation, some hunters and biologists were concerned that the early September season was causing Canada geese to disperse from areas open to hunting due to hunting pressure. Herein, we describe post-molt movements by geese, particularly in relation to the September hunting season. We caught Canada geese in 7 counties in eastern South Dakota during the summer molting period, 2000 to 2003. We attached VHF (n = 153) and satellite transmitters (n = 43) on adult female geese with broods. We monitored movements of marked geese weekly from July through the fall freezing period. For this study, we considered major movements any postmolt movement ≥40 km from the wetland in which the goose was banded prior to October 15. Forty-six percent of marked geese made major movements from July to September, and 43% moved during the first week of the September season, indicating that the season may have triggered their post-molt movement. Major movements were primarily in a northerly direction, and the longest documented post-molt movement was 474 km north. It appears that the onset of the September hunting season may have caused geese to move immediately before or during the first 10 days of the season. Post-molt movements prior to the September hunting season may simply have been a function of established, learned traditions, but the punctuated movement of geese during the opening weekend of the hunting season may have resulted from geese responding to the hunting season itself.

@article{doi10260771s4jfc37,
    author = "Dieter, Charles D. and Anderson, Bobby J. and Gleason, Jeffrey S. and Mammenga, Paul W. and Vaa, Spencer",
    title = "Late Summer Movements by Giant Canada Geese in Relation to a September Hunting Season",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University)",
    abstract = "The population of giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) breeding in eastern South Dakota has increased dramatically since reintroduction efforts began in the 1960s. May breeding population levels of giant Canada geese exceeded population management goals set by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks (SDGFP) by the mid-1990s, and the population has continued to increase into the 2000s. This population increase was accompanied by an increase in goose-related conflicts such as crop depredation. In 1996, a September hunting season was implemented in select counties in eastern South Dakota in an effort to reduce the giant Canada goose population. After its implementation, some hunters and biologists were concerned that the early September season was causing Canada geese to disperse from areas open to hunting due to hunting pressure. Herein, we describe post-molt movements by geese, particularly in relation to the September hunting season. We caught Canada geese in 7 counties in eastern South Dakota during the summer molting period, 2000 to 2003. We attached VHF (n = 153) and satellite transmitters (n = 43) on adult female geese with broods. We monitored movements of marked geese weekly from July through the fall freezing period. For this study, we considered major movements any postmolt movement ≥40 km from the wetland in which the goose was banded prior to October 15. Forty-six percent of marked geese made major movements from July to September, and 43\% moved during the first week of the September season, indicating that the season may have triggered their post-molt movement. Major movements were primarily in a northerly direction, and the longest documented post-molt movement was 474 km north. It appears that the onset of the September hunting season may have caused geese to move immediately before or during the first 10 days of the season. Post-molt movements prior to the September hunting season may simply have been a function of established, learned traditions, but the punctuated movement of geese during the opening weekend of the hunting season may have resulted from geese responding to the hunting season itself.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.26077/1s4j-fc37",
    doi = "10.26077/1s4j-fc37",
    openalex = "W2769331064"
}

In the last few decades, Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) have become established in metropolitan areas throughout North America. From 1984 through 2009, Canada Geese in New Haven County, Connecticut, were banded as goslings (HY geese) and adults (AHY), and their movements and recruitment into the local breeding population were documented. During this period, the number of Canada Geese increased several fold in Connecticut. Geese were non-migratory; most recoveries (85%) of banded Canada Geese came from Connecticut, and 76% came from New Haven County. Dispersal rates outside of Connecticut peaked during 1990–1994 when 23% of all reported geese were shot outside of the state; more recently (2005–2009) only 3% of reported geese were shot outside 0f Connecticut. The proportion of dispersing geese that moved northward in the Atlantic Flyway has increased in recent years. Similar proportions 0f AHY females (23%) and AHY males (22%) were recruited into the local breeding population. Among HY geese, more females (22%) than males (5%) were recruited because HY males were more likely to disperse out of the county than HY females. Non-migratory populations of geese in metropolitan areas are causing nuisance problems; the restricted movements of these geese indicate that efforts to reduce their populations will have to be conducted at the local level.

@article{doi1016750630340403,
    author = "Conover, Michael R.",
    title = "Population Growth and Movements of Canada Geese in New Haven County, Connecticut, during a 25-Year Period",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Waterbirds",
    abstract = "In the last few decades, Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) have become established in metropolitan areas throughout North America. From 1984 through 2009, Canada Geese in New Haven County, Connecticut, were banded as goslings (HY geese) and adults (AHY), and their movements and recruitment into the local breeding population were documented. During this period, the number of Canada Geese increased several fold in Connecticut. Geese were non-migratory; most recoveries (85\%) of banded Canada Geese came from Connecticut, and 76\% came from New Haven County. Dispersal rates outside of Connecticut peaked during 1990–1994 when 23\% of all reported geese were shot outside of the state; more recently (2005–2009) only 3\% of reported geese were shot outside 0f Connecticut. The proportion of dispersing geese that moved northward in the Atlantic Flyway has increased in recent years. Similar proportions 0f AHY females (23\%) and AHY males (22\%) were recruited into the local breeding population. Among HY geese, more females (22\%) than males (5\%) were recruited because HY males were more likely to disperse out of the county than HY females. Non-migratory populations of geese in metropolitan areas are causing nuisance problems; the restricted movements of these geese indicate that efforts to reduce their populations will have to be conducted at the local level.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1675/063.034.0403",
    doi = "10.1675/063.034.0403",
    openalex = "W2147650397",
    references = "craighead1964breeding, doi1023073800623, doi1023073801312, doi1023073802390, doi1023073802521, doi10260771s4jfc37, doi1026077w6171d10, doi1032800abc2012350219, openalexw141839347, openalexw2160784652, openalexw2778707849"
}

In many avian species, females do not nest the first year they attain sexual maturity. I examined the benefits and costs of delayed nesting in a nonmigratory population of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) in New Haven County, Connecticut, from 1984 through 2008. I individually marked 381 female goslings and monitored them throughout their lives. Eighty-seven females were recruited into the local breeding population; 16 of these started nesting when 1 or 2 years old (young nesters), and 71 started nesting when 3 to 9 years old (delayed nesters). During their first reproductive effort, young nesters and delayed nesters produced similar-sized clutches but young nesters produced fewer hatchlings or fledglings. Young nesters died sooner than delayed nesters, but the two groups were similar in number of years of life following first nesting effort, number of nesting years during life span, and total lifetime production of eggs, hatchlings, and fledglings. Both young nesters and delayed nesters had similar values of λ(m), which is an integrated measure of an individual's propensity fitness. Young nesters weighed more at fledging than delayed nesters, which suggests that larger and healthier females were more likely to become young nesters. Competition among Canada Geese for safe nesting sites on islands was keen in the study area. This may have contributed to the prevalence of delayed nesting because geese that were unable to secure a safe nesting site may have delayed nesting until the following year.

@article{doi101525auk201211217,
    author = "Conover, Michael R.",
    title = "Delayed nesting by female Canada Geese (Branta canadensis): Benefits and costs",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "The Auk",
    abstract = "In many avian species, females do not nest the first year they attain sexual maturity. I examined the benefits and costs of delayed nesting in a nonmigratory population of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) in New Haven County, Connecticut, from 1984 through 2008. I individually marked 381 female goslings and monitored them throughout their lives. Eighty-seven females were recruited into the local breeding population; 16 of these started nesting when 1 or 2 years old (young nesters), and 71 started nesting when 3 to 9 years old (delayed nesters). During their first reproductive effort, young nesters and delayed nesters produced similar-sized clutches but young nesters produced fewer hatchlings or fledglings. Young nesters died sooner than delayed nesters, but the two groups were similar in number of years of life following first nesting effort, number of nesting years during life span, and total lifetime production of eggs, hatchlings, and fledglings. Both young nesters and delayed nesters had similar values of λ(m), which is an integrated measure of an individual's propensity fitness. Young nesters weighed more at fledging than delayed nesters, which suggests that larger and healthier females were more likely to become young nesters. Competition among Canada Geese for safe nesting sites on islands was keen in the study area. This may have contributed to the prevalence of delayed nesting because geese that were unable to secure a safe nesting site may have delayed nesting until the following year.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/auk.2012.11217",
    doi = "10.1525/auk.2012.11217",
    openalex = "W2159774154",
    references = "craighead1964breeding, doi101007s0044200913140, doi101086283611, doi101086285839, doi101093auk1003670, doi101111j1469185x201100193x, doi101163156853992x00020, doi1016750630340403, doi1023072874, doi1023073498751, doi1023075522, moser1989agespecific, openalexw2284884087"
}

ABSTRACT The abundance of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in temperate regions of North America has increased dramatically during the past half century. Numbers have reached nuisance levels in many areas and supplementary hunting seasons, which are timed to occur before and after traditional waterfowl hunting periods, are widely employed to limit population growth. We evaluated how changes in hunting regulations have affected population growth, the seasonal age distribution of harvest, and survival rates of temperate‐breeding Canada geese banded in Ontario. We found that although the number of geese harvested in the province has increased, population growth has not abated. Annual survival rates of locally nesting adults (i.e., after‐hatch‐year geese captured in brood flocks) have declined in association with harvest liberalization (pre‐liberalization: = 0.78 ± 0.06 SE; post‐liberalization: = 0.74 ± 0.04 SE) and we estimated negative process correlation between hunter recovery rates and survival rates within this group (ρ = − 0.24), which is indicative of an additive effect of harvest mortality on total mortality. However, peak harvest has advanced into early September, which is a time when large numbers of molt migrant individuals are present in northern portions of the population's range. Molt migrant flocks are comprised primarily of subadults and adult geese that failed to hatch eggs (i.e., non‐reproductive individuals), many of which are unaffiliated with the local breeding population. We found that hunter recovery rates of non‐reproductive geese were greater and survival rates were less than those of locally nesting adults; however, process correlation between recovery and survival rates was weakly positive (ρ = 0.09), which indicates that harvest mortality is at least partially compensatory within non‐reproductive cohorts. We conclude that current harvest levels are insufficient to halt population growth and that the influence of hunting, relative to its potential, is diminished by a disproportionate take of individuals of low reproductive value during the early hunting season. © The Wildlife Society, 2013

@article{doi101002jwmg636,
    author = "Iverson, Samuel A. and Reed, Eric T. and Hughes, Robert and Forbes, Mark R.",
    title = "Age and breeding stage‐ r elated variation in the survival and harvest of temperate‐ b reeding Canada Geese in Ontario",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The abundance of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in temperate regions of North America has increased dramatically during the past half century. Numbers have reached nuisance levels in many areas and supplementary hunting seasons, which are timed to occur before and after traditional waterfowl hunting periods, are widely employed to limit population growth. We evaluated how changes in hunting regulations have affected population growth, the seasonal age distribution of harvest, and survival rates of temperate‐breeding Canada geese banded in Ontario. We found that although the number of geese harvested in the province has increased, population growth has not abated. Annual survival rates of locally nesting adults (i.e., after‐hatch‐year geese captured in brood flocks) have declined in association with harvest liberalization (pre‐liberalization: = 0.78 ± 0.06 SE; post‐liberalization: = 0.74 ± 0.04 SE) and we estimated negative process correlation between hunter recovery rates and survival rates within this group (ρ = − 0.24), which is indicative of an additive effect of harvest mortality on total mortality. However, peak harvest has advanced into early September, which is a time when large numbers of molt migrant individuals are present in northern portions of the population's range. Molt migrant flocks are comprised primarily of subadults and adult geese that failed to hatch eggs (i.e., non‐reproductive individuals), many of which are unaffiliated with the local breeding population. We found that hunter recovery rates of non‐reproductive geese were greater and survival rates were less than those of locally nesting adults; however, process correlation between recovery and survival rates was weakly positive (ρ = 0.09), which indicates that harvest mortality is at least partially compensatory within non‐reproductive cohorts. We conclude that current harvest levels are insufficient to halt population growth and that the influence of hunting, relative to its potential, is diminished by a disproportionate take of individuals of low reproductive value during the early hunting season. © The Wildlife Society, 2013",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.636",
    doi = "10.1002/jwmg.636",
    openalex = "W1538059734",
    references = "doi1023073796086"
}

Inter- and intra-specific interactions are potentially important factors influencing the distribution of populations. Aerial survey data, collected during range-wide breeding population surveys for Eastern Prairie Population (EPP) Canada Geese (Branta canadensis interior), 1987–2008, were evaluated to assess factors influencing their nesting distribution. Specifically, associations between nesting Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) and EPP Canada Geese were quantified; and changes in the spatial distribution of EPP Canada Geese were identified. Mixed-effects Poisson regression models of EPP Canada Goose nest counts were evaluated within a cross-validation framework. The total count of EPP Canada Goose nests varied moderately among years between 1987 and 2008 with no long-term trend; however, the total count of nesting Lesser Snow Geese generally increased. Three models containing factors related to previous EPP Canada Goose nest density (representing recruitment), distance to Hudson Bay (representing brood-habitat), nesting habitat type, and Lesser Snow Goose nest density (inter-specific associations) were the most accurate, improving prediction accuracy by 45% when compared to intercept-only models. EPP Canada Goose nest density varied by habitat type, was negatively associated with distance to coastal brood-rearing areas, and suggested density-dependent intra-specific effects on recruitment. However, a non-linear relationship between Lesser Snow and EPP Canada Goose nest density suggests that as nesting Lesser Snow Geese increase, EPP Canada Geese locally decline and subsequently the spatial distribution of EPP Canada Geese on western Hudson Bay has changed.

@article{doi1016750630360105,
    author = "Reiter, Matthew E. and Andersen, David E. and Raedeke, Andrew H. and Humburg, Dale D.",
    title = "Species Associations and Habitat Influence the Range-Wide Distribution of Breeding Canada Geese (Branta canadensis interior) on Western Hudson Bay",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Waterbirds",
    abstract = "Inter- and intra-specific interactions are potentially important factors influencing the distribution of populations. Aerial survey data, collected during range-wide breeding population surveys for Eastern Prairie Population (EPP) Canada Geese (Branta canadensis interior), 1987–2008, were evaluated to assess factors influencing their nesting distribution. Specifically, associations between nesting Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) and EPP Canada Geese were quantified; and changes in the spatial distribution of EPP Canada Geese were identified. Mixed-effects Poisson regression models of EPP Canada Goose nest counts were evaluated within a cross-validation framework. The total count of EPP Canada Goose nests varied moderately among years between 1987 and 2008 with no long-term trend; however, the total count of nesting Lesser Snow Geese generally increased. Three models containing factors related to previous EPP Canada Goose nest density (representing recruitment), distance to Hudson Bay (representing brood-habitat), nesting habitat type, and Lesser Snow Goose nest density (inter-specific associations) were the most accurate, improving prediction accuracy by 45\% when compared to intercept-only models. EPP Canada Goose nest density varied by habitat type, was negatively associated with distance to coastal brood-rearing areas, and suggested density-dependent intra-specific effects on recruitment. However, a non-linear relationship between Lesser Snow and EPP Canada Goose nest density suggests that as nesting Lesser Snow Geese increase, EPP Canada Geese locally decline and subsequently the spatial distribution of EPP Canada Geese on western Hudson Bay has changed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1675/063.036.0105",
    doi = "10.1675/063.036.0105",
    openalex = "W2130646645",
    references = "moser1989agespecific"
}

Senescence is a decline in body function with advanced age that manifests itself in birds as a decrease in survival rates or reproduction. Senescence is difficult to study in free-ranging birds because few birds reach old age and few studies last long enough to identify those birds that do. For 21 years, I studied lifelong reproduction among Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in New Haven County, Connecticut. These data were used to determine the impact of old age on female and male fecundity during the current year and during the remainder of the birds' lives. Old-aged geese were relatively common in this population; 15% of recruited geese lived 10 years, 3% lived 15 years, and one female lived 20 years. Females that nested when they were between 5 and 9 years old had a mean clutch size of 4.5, brood size at hatching of 3.4, and brood size at fledging of 2.9. Females that nested when they were at least 10 years old had a mean clutch size of 4.7, brood size at hatching of 3.4, and brood size at fledging of 3.3. These variables were independent of age for both sexes. Future reproduction (number of future nesting years and future production of eggs, hatchlings, and fledglings) declined with parental age for males but not females. Body mass of nesting birds did not change with age for either males or females. These results provided evidence of an effect of senescence in male Canada Geese but not females. The terminal investment hypothesis (i.e., that parental investment should increase as birds become older) was not supported for either sex.

@article{doi1016750630360317,
    author = "Conover, Michael R.",
    title = "Effects of Increasing Age on Fecundity of Old-aged Canada Geese (Branta canadensis)",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Waterbirds",
    abstract = "Senescence is a decline in body function with advanced age that manifests itself in birds as a decrease in survival rates or reproduction. Senescence is difficult to study in free-ranging birds because few birds reach old age and few studies last long enough to identify those birds that do. For 21 years, I studied lifelong reproduction among Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in New Haven County, Connecticut. These data were used to determine the impact of old age on female and male fecundity during the current year and during the remainder of the birds' lives. Old-aged geese were relatively common in this population; 15\% of recruited geese lived 10 years, 3\% lived 15 years, and one female lived 20 years. Females that nested when they were between 5 and 9 years old had a mean clutch size of 4.5, brood size at hatching of 3.4, and brood size at fledging of 2.9. Females that nested when they were at least 10 years old had a mean clutch size of 4.7, brood size at hatching of 3.4, and brood size at fledging of 3.3. These variables were independent of age for both sexes. Future reproduction (number of future nesting years and future production of eggs, hatchlings, and fledglings) declined with parental age for males but not females. Body mass of nesting birds did not change with age for either males or females. These results provided evidence of an effect of senescence in male Canada Geese but not females. The terminal investment hypothesis (i.e., that parental investment should increase as birds become older) was not supported for either sex.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1675/063.036.0317",
    doi = "10.1675/063.036.0317",
    openalex = "W2105913422",
    references = "doi101525auk201211217"
}

@incollection{crossref2014age,
    title = "age determination",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "Dictionary Geotechnical Engineering/Wörterbuch GeoTechnik",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6\_10935",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6\_10935",
    openalex = "W4253758270",
    pages = "27-27"
}

ABSTRACT In the last few decades, non‐migratory populations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) have become established in metropolitan areas throughout North America. We banded 1,845 Canada geese in New Haven County, Connecticut, and studied goose survival of geese from 1984 through 2001, a period when local goose numbers increased several fold. Males outnumbered females among adults but not among juveniles. The hunter‐recovery proportion (probability that a goose was harvested by a hunter and its band reported to the U.S. Banding Lab) was 0.17 for all banded geese and was higher for males (0.19) than females (0.15). We used the Seber band‐recovery model in Program MARK to estimate the annual recovery rate and annual survival rate. The annual recovery rate was 0.22 for all geese and varied by year. The annual survival rate was 0.72 for all geese; survival was higher for females than males and higher for juveniles than adults. Survival rates varied among years and decreased in years with higher winter temperatures or more geese observed during Audubon's Christmas Bird Count. During our study, special hunting seasons in Connecticut targeted non‐migratory geese. Despite this, we found survival rates to be at the high end of values reported elsewhere, and the number of geese killed by hunters in Connecticut did not influence survival. Our results suggest that it will be difficult for wildlife agencies to rely solely on hunting to reduce the size of non‐migratory goose populations. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

@article{doi101002jwmg942,
    author = "Conover, Michael R. and Dinkins, Jonathan B. and Ruzicka, Rebekah E.",
    title = "Consequences of hunter harvest, winter weather, and increasing population size on survival of non‐migratory Canada geese in Connecticut",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT In the last few decades, non‐migratory populations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) have become established in metropolitan areas throughout North America. We banded 1,845 Canada geese in New Haven County, Connecticut, and studied goose survival of geese from 1984 through 2001, a period when local goose numbers increased several fold. Males outnumbered females among adults but not among juveniles. The hunter‐recovery proportion (probability that a goose was harvested by a hunter and its band reported to the U.S. Banding Lab) was 0.17 for all banded geese and was higher for males (0.19) than females (0.15). We used the Seber band‐recovery model in Program MARK to estimate the annual recovery rate and annual survival rate. The annual recovery rate was 0.22 for all geese and varied by year. The annual survival rate was 0.72 for all geese; survival was higher for females than males and higher for juveniles than adults. Survival rates varied among years and decreased in years with higher winter temperatures or more geese observed during Audubon's Christmas Bird Count. During our study, special hunting seasons in Connecticut targeted non‐migratory geese. Despite this, we found survival rates to be at the high end of values reported elsewhere, and the number of geese killed by hunters in Connecticut did not influence survival. Our results suggest that it will be difficult for wildlife agencies to rely solely on hunting to reduce the size of non‐migratory goose populations. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.942",
    doi = "10.1002/jwmg.942",
    openalex = "W2161406318",
    references = "doi1016750630340403"
}

The present study examined a possible determination of age in the Shorttailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris by microscopic observation of sliced sections of the lower mandible. The section samples obtained from 14 individuals, aged from about one month-old to five or more years old, were prepared by decalcifying then staining with Delafields haematoxylin. Results indicated that morphological changes in the mandible tissue were useful for the age determination of individuals during the growing period from one to six months-old, within nestling to fledgling. It was also found that morphological differences in the layered structure of the mandible were of use in distinguishing between sub-adults and adults. However, the number of layered structures was not consistent with the age of adult individuals.

@article{doi103312jyio471,
    author = "Imamura, Tomoko and Kawarada, Shiharu and Sugimori, Fumio",
    title = "A Possible Determination of Age in the Short-tailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris Based upon Tissue and the Layered Structure of the Mandible",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Journal of the Yamashina Institute for Ornithology",
    abstract = "The present study examined a possible determination of age in the Shorttailed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris by microscopic observation of sliced sections of the lower mandible. The section samples obtained from 14 individuals, aged from about one month-old to five or more years old, were prepared by decalcifying then staining with Delafields haematoxylin. Results indicated that morphological changes in the mandible tissue were useful for the age determination of individuals during the growing period from one to six months-old, within nestling to fledgling. It was also found that morphological differences in the layered structure of the mandible were of use in distinguishing between sub-adults and adults. However, the number of layered structures was not consistent with the age of adult individuals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3312/jyio.47.1",
    doi = "10.3312/jyio.47.1",
    openalex = "W2757581865",
    references = "doi103838jjo40109"
}

ABSTRACT Fledgling mass is an important determinant of first‐year survival and recruitment into the breeding population for many Arctic‐nesting goose species. In turn, fledgling mass of these geese is influenced by hatch date and forage quality and quantity in the brood‐rearing area. Less is known about the determinants of growth rates and fledgling mass in temperate‐nesting geese. For 25 years, we examined near‐fledging mass, hatch dates, and growth rates of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in Connecticut, USA by tracking individually marked geese that wore neck collars or large plastic leg bands. Fledgling mass was influenced by sex (males were heavier), gosling age when weighed, and family type (fledglings raised in 2‐parent families were heavier than those raised in gang broods). Paternal nesting experience (years of prior nesting) influenced fledgling mass, probably because goslings with experienced fathers hatched earlier than goslings with inexperienced fathers. Among fledglings raised in gang broods, fledgling mass was positively correlated with the number of parents attending the brood and negatively correlated with the number of goslings within the brood. Gosling growth rates (daily gain in mass) were higher for males than females; goslings in 2‐parent families grew 2 g/day faster than those in gang broods. Late‐hatched goslings grew faster than goslings that hatched earlier. In gang broods, growth rates were positively correlated with the ratio of parents to goslings. Assessing goose sex ratios, Julian hatching dates, family types, and brood sizes will allow waterfowl managers in temperate regions to refine their goose population models. This, in turn, will allow waterfowl managers to determine more accurately what proportion of the populations can be safely harvested or how best to manage nuisance goose populations. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

@article{doi101002jwmg21465,
    author = "Conover, Michael R. and Frank, Maureen G.",
    title = "Determinants of growth rates and mass of Canada geese goslings",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Fledgling mass is an important determinant of first‐year survival and recruitment into the breeding population for many Arctic‐nesting goose species. In turn, fledgling mass of these geese is influenced by hatch date and forage quality and quantity in the brood‐rearing area. Less is known about the determinants of growth rates and fledgling mass in temperate‐nesting geese. For 25 years, we examined near‐fledging mass, hatch dates, and growth rates of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nesting in Connecticut, USA by tracking individually marked geese that wore neck collars or large plastic leg bands. Fledgling mass was influenced by sex (males were heavier), gosling age when weighed, and family type (fledglings raised in 2‐parent families were heavier than those raised in gang broods). Paternal nesting experience (years of prior nesting) influenced fledgling mass, probably because goslings with experienced fathers hatched earlier than goslings with inexperienced fathers. Among fledglings raised in gang broods, fledgling mass was positively correlated with the number of parents attending the brood and negatively correlated with the number of goslings within the brood. Gosling growth rates (daily gain in mass) were higher for males than females; goslings in 2‐parent families grew 2 g/day faster than those in gang broods. Late‐hatched goslings grew faster than goslings that hatched earlier. In gang broods, growth rates were positively correlated with the ratio of parents to goslings. Assessing goose sex ratios, Julian hatching dates, family types, and brood sizes will allow waterfowl managers in temperate regions to refine their goose population models. This, in turn, will allow waterfowl managers to determine more accurately what proportion of the populations can be safely harvested or how best to manage nuisance goose populations. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21465",
    doi = "10.1002/jwmg.21465",
    openalex = "W2796675671",
    references = "doi1016750630340403"
}

ABSTRACT Abundance of temperate‐nesting Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in Central Flyway east‐tier states (ND, SD, NE, KS, OK, USA) increased since the 1970s. Hunting regulations were liberalized since the mid‐1990s in these states to increase harvest and reduce abundance of local populations. Because 2 age classes, juvenile and adult, are typically classified when banding, most dead‐recovery band analyses of Canada geese have only considered 2 age classes to estimate survival and recovery probabilities, despite a delayed breeding life history. We evaluated recovery distributions and survival and recovery probabilities of Canada goose age classes (i.e., juvenile [first year], subadult [second and third year], and adult [≥fourth year]) among Central Flyway east‐tier states relative to liberalized hunting regulations during 1990–2015. We also conducted simulations and evaluated bias in parameter estimates from 2‐age‐class dead‐recovery models when a subadult age class was not modeled. Models including 3 age classes were more supported than models including only 2 age classes. Mean juvenile survival estimates among states from the top 2‐age‐class models were 9–50% greater than an equivalent 3‐age‐class model, whereas differences were less or negligible for adult survival (−4% to −1%), adult recovery (1–12%), and juvenile recovery (−3–6%). Geese were primarily recovered in the state they were banded (range among states = 59–86%), and 91% of all recoveries occurred in the Central Flyway east‐tier states. Recovery distributions of subadults were broader and more northward than adults and juveniles. Recovery estimates (Brownie parameterization) of subadults among states (= 0.091 ± 0.039 [SE] to 0.116 ± 0.029) were also generally greater than adults (0.061 ± 0.030 to 0.104 ± 0.033) and juveniles (0.049 ± 0.026 to 0.132 ± 0.041). Survival estimates of adults (0.713 ± 0.103 to 0.748 ± 0.119) and subadults (0.621 ± 0.197 to 0.801 ± 0.154) exhibited some decrease through time concurrent with liberalized harvest regulations, but survival estimate of juveniles (0.492 ± 0.093 to 0.686 ± 0.164) increased or were stable. Of the 5 Central Flyway east‐tier states, management actions to reduce local Canada goose populations were the most intensive in North Dakota and South Dakota, and these states had the greatest decrease in adult and subadult survival estimates. Our results provide some limited evidence that harvest regulations targeted at locally breeding Canada geese can affect their survival, have greatest effects when first implemented, and affect subadults from a broader spatial scale than adults and juveniles. More information is needed on how localized harvest regulations affect temperate‐nesting Canada geese from other areas, particularly subadults and molt migrants, and, conversely, how such geese affect the ability to achieve management objectives at varying spatial scales. Lastly, to minimize bias when analyzing temperate‐nesting Canada goose data, or other species with similar marking constraints and age‐class structure, consideration should be given to evaluating ≥3 age classes and using recapture data and joint live‐dead models when possible. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

@article{doi101002jwmg21639,
    author = "Dooley, Joshua L. and Szymanski, Michael L. and Murano, Rocco J. and Vrtiska, Mark P. and Bidrowski, Tom F. and Richardson, Josh L. and White, Gary C.",
    title = "Age class dynamics of Canada geese in the Central Flyway",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Abundance of temperate‐nesting Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in Central Flyway east‐tier states (ND, SD, NE, KS, OK, USA) increased since the 1970s. Hunting regulations were liberalized since the mid‐1990s in these states to increase harvest and reduce abundance of local populations. Because 2 age classes, juvenile and adult, are typically classified when banding, most dead‐recovery band analyses of Canada geese have only considered 2 age classes to estimate survival and recovery probabilities, despite a delayed breeding life history. We evaluated recovery distributions and survival and recovery probabilities of Canada goose age classes (i.e., juvenile [first year], subadult [second and third year], and adult [≥fourth year]) among Central Flyway east‐tier states relative to liberalized hunting regulations during 1990–2015. We also conducted simulations and evaluated bias in parameter estimates from 2‐age‐class dead‐recovery models when a subadult age class was not modeled. Models including 3 age classes were more supported than models including only 2 age classes. Mean juvenile survival estimates among states from the top 2‐age‐class models were 9–50\% greater than an equivalent 3‐age‐class model, whereas differences were less or negligible for adult survival (−4\% to −1\%), adult recovery (1–12\%), and juvenile recovery (−3–6\%). Geese were primarily recovered in the state they were banded (range among states = 59–86\%), and 91\% of all recoveries occurred in the Central Flyway east‐tier states. Recovery distributions of subadults were broader and more northward than adults and juveniles. Recovery estimates (Brownie parameterization) of subadults among states (= 0.091 ± 0.039 [SE] to 0.116 ± 0.029) were also generally greater than adults (0.061 ± 0.030 to 0.104 ± 0.033) and juveniles (0.049 ± 0.026 to 0.132 ± 0.041). Survival estimates of adults (0.713 ± 0.103 to 0.748 ± 0.119) and subadults (0.621 ± 0.197 to 0.801 ± 0.154) exhibited some decrease through time concurrent with liberalized harvest regulations, but survival estimate of juveniles (0.492 ± 0.093 to 0.686 ± 0.164) increased or were stable. Of the 5 Central Flyway east‐tier states, management actions to reduce local Canada goose populations were the most intensive in North Dakota and South Dakota, and these states had the greatest decrease in adult and subadult survival estimates. Our results provide some limited evidence that harvest regulations targeted at locally breeding Canada geese can affect their survival, have greatest effects when first implemented, and affect subadults from a broader spatial scale than adults and juveniles. More information is needed on how localized harvest regulations affect temperate‐nesting Canada geese from other areas, particularly subadults and molt migrants, and, conversely, how such geese affect the ability to achieve management objectives at varying spatial scales. Lastly, to minimize bias when analyzing temperate‐nesting Canada goose data, or other species with similar marking constraints and age‐class structure, consideration should be given to evaluating ≥3 age classes and using recapture data and joint live‐dead models when possible. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21639",
    doi = "10.1002/jwmg.21639",
    openalex = "W2913052863",
    references = "doi1016750630340403, doi105962bhltitle15145"
}

Among some Arctic-nesting geese, mass at fledging impacts first-year survival and recruitment into the breeding population, but this might not be true for temperate-nesting geese. For 25 years, we examined what variables impacted survival and recruitment of 731 Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) fledglings raised in Connecticut, USA by tracking individually marked birds throughout their lives. At fledging, the number of females (391) were similar to males (340), but by the end of the first year of life, females (247) outnumbered males (187). This can be explained due to the apparent survival rates for juvenile females (0.63) being higher than for males (0.55). Dispersal rate from natal areas were similar for males and females during the first year of life and cannot account for why females outnumbered males after one year of life. Apparent survival rates of female fledglings to the end of the second year was 0.48. For the 247 females still alive at the end of their first year of life, 190 were still alive at the end of their second year of life, yielding a 0.77 apparent survival rates during their second year of life. Sex was the only variable that explained the survival of fledglings until the end of their first year of life. The probability of females surviving the second year of life was not influenced by hatching date, fledging age, fledging mass, or family type. Heavier females at fledging were more likely to be recruited into the breeding population than lighter ones. Our results indicate that while an inability to acquire sufficient mass as a gosling does not affect survival, it impacts the ability to be recruited.

@article{doi1016750630430308,
    author = "Conover, Michael R. and Frank, Maureen G.",
    title = "Survival and Recruitment among Non-Migratory Canada Geese (Branta canadensis): Influence of Gosling Sex, Hatching Date, Mass at Fledging, and Family Type",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Waterbirds",
    abstract = "Among some Arctic-nesting geese, mass at fledging impacts first-year survival and recruitment into the breeding population, but this might not be true for temperate-nesting geese. For 25 years, we examined what variables impacted survival and recruitment of 731 Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) fledglings raised in Connecticut, USA by tracking individually marked birds throughout their lives. At fledging, the number of females (391) were similar to males (340), but by the end of the first year of life, females (247) outnumbered males (187). This can be explained due to the apparent survival rates for juvenile females (0.63) being higher than for males (0.55). Dispersal rate from natal areas were similar for males and females during the first year of life and cannot account for why females outnumbered males after one year of life. Apparent survival rates of female fledglings to the end of the second year was 0.48. For the 247 females still alive at the end of their first year of life, 190 were still alive at the end of their second year of life, yielding a 0.77 apparent survival rates during their second year of life. Sex was the only variable that explained the survival of fledglings until the end of their first year of life. The probability of females surviving the second year of life was not influenced by hatching date, fledging age, fledging mass, or family type. Heavier females at fledging were more likely to be recruited into the breeding population than lighter ones. Our results indicate that while an inability to acquire sufficient mass as a gosling does not affect survival, it impacts the ability to be recruited.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1675/063.043.0308",
    doi = "10.1675/063.043.0308",
    openalex = "W3199979115",
    references = "doi1016750630340403"
}

To assess the possibility of using the bird bone tissue as a recording structure, the histomorphological parameters of the bone tissue of laying hens of the lohman brown cross from the Kirov region (9 females and 1 male) aged from 1 month to 7.5 years were investigated. The comparison of the cross-sections of the humerus and femur, the phalanx of the toe and tibiotarsus of a 6-year-old individual revealed that tibiotarsus is the least susceptible to resorption. For further research in 7 individuals, this bone was divided into 3 sections (T1, T2 and T3), for each of which the description and measurement of the microstructure of the cross sections was carried out. It was revealed that the process of resorption of the periosteum begins at 2.5 years of age with the appearance of primary osteons. At the age of 3.5 years and later they penetrate into all layers of the periosteum, locating in chains between the lines of arrested growth. At 4.5 years of age, secondary osteons appear in the place of the primary ones, and areas of resorption are formed at the intersection of the Haversian and Volkmann canals. At the age of 5.5 years the medullary bone disappears from the bone cavity, rounded cavities filled with centripetal deposition of new bone tissue at the edges appear within the resorption sites. At the age of 6-7 years, bone tissue degeneration occurs, when the small cavities enlarge and merge into large resorption cavities, up to the complete resorption of the mesost. In the distal part of tibiotarsus (T3), a prolonged apposition of the layers of the periosteum and the latest resorption were recorded. The increase of the thickness of the periosteum and a decrease in the density of the osteon population was revealed by the morphometry of cross sections of the center of diaphysis. The sites of tibiotarsus where the age of females corresponds to the lines of growth layer of the periosteum were determined. The sites with additional lines of the arrested growth were demarcated. It was concluded that the periosteal layer of the domestic fowl tibiotarsus in the distal and proximal sites are suitable as a recording structure.

@article{doi1030766207290812021222264277,
    author = "Sukhanova, N. S.",
    title = "Age-related changes of the histological structure in the limb bones of the domestic fowl",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Agricultural science Euro-North-East",
    abstract = "To assess the possibility of using the bird bone tissue as a recording structure, the histomorphological parameters of the bone tissue of laying hens of the lohman brown cross from the Kirov region (9 females and 1 male) aged from 1 month to 7.5 years were investigated. The comparison of the cross-sections of the humerus and femur, the phalanx of the toe and tibiotarsus of a 6-year-old individual revealed that tibiotarsus is the least susceptible to resorption. For further research in 7 individuals, this bone was divided into 3 sections (T1, T2 and T3), for each of which the description and measurement of the microstructure of the cross sections was carried out. It was revealed that the process of resorption of the periosteum begins at 2.5 years of age with the appearance of primary osteons. At the age of 3.5 years and later they penetrate into all layers of the periosteum, locating in chains between the lines of arrested growth. At 4.5 years of age, secondary osteons appear in the place of the primary ones, and areas of resorption are formed at the intersection of the Haversian and Volkmann canals. At the age of 5.5 years the medullary bone disappears from the bone cavity, rounded cavities filled with centripetal deposition of new bone tissue at the edges appear within the resorption sites. At the age of 6-7 years, bone tissue degeneration occurs, when the small cavities enlarge and merge into large resorption cavities, up to the complete resorption of the mesost. In the distal part of tibiotarsus (T3), a prolonged apposition of the layers of the periosteum and the latest resorption were recorded. The increase of the thickness of the periosteum and a decrease in the density of the osteon population was revealed by the morphometry of cross sections of the center of diaphysis. The sites of tibiotarsus where the age of females corresponds to the lines of growth layer of the periosteum were determined. The sites with additional lines of the arrested growth were demarcated. It was concluded that the periosteal layer of the domestic fowl tibiotarsus in the distal and proximal sites are suitable as a recording structure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.30766/2072-9081.2021.22.2.264-277",
    doi = "10.30766/2072-9081.2021.22.2.264-277",
    openalex = "W3158995529",
    references = "doi10103835086650, doi101038nature03635, doi101038s41598017085363, doi101093biolinneanblaa013, doi101098rsbl20090310, doi101111j109636421911tb01942x, doi101111jeb13019, doi101201b11393, doi101242jeb00841, doi107868s0044513416080079"
}

Nesting outcomes of Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) in Canterbury, New Zealand were recorded from a sedentary population nesting at coastal Lake Forsyth (1967–70) and from a seasonally migratory population nesting in headwater valleys of the Waimakariri River (1966–80). Mean clutch size in 462 Lake Forsyth nests was 5.3 (sd = 1.3) eggs, with clutches of 4, 5, and 6 eggs comprising 17%, 30% and 30% respectively of the total. Goslings hatched from 67.4% of 1,602 eggs in 298 monitored nests, and the entire clutch hatched successfully in 42.6% of the monitored nests. Mean productivity at hatching was 3.6 (sd = 2.3) goslings per nest. Mean clutch size in 1,211 Waimakariri River headwaters nests was 4.5 (sd = 1.3), with clutches of 4, 5, and 6 eggs comprising 25%, 32%, and 20% respectively of the total. Goslings hatched from 63.3% of 3,952 eggs in 871 monitored nests, and the entire clutch hatched successfully in 30.5% of the monitored nests. Mean productivity at hatching was 2.9 (sd = 1.9) goslings per nest. Relative to Canada geese in their native North American range, geese nesting at Lake Forsyth laid clutches of similar size, had similar hatching success but higher nest success whereas geese nesting in the Waimakariri River headwaters laid, on average, conspicuously smaller clutches, had similar hatching success, but higher nest success.

@article{doi1063172047848yrkryv,
    author = "Adams, John S. and Williams, Murray",
    title = "Clutch sizes and hatching success of Canada geese nesting in Canterbury, New Zealand",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Notornis",
    abstract = "Nesting outcomes of Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) in Canterbury, New Zealand were recorded from a sedentary population nesting at coastal Lake Forsyth (1967–70) and from a seasonally migratory population nesting in headwater valleys of the Waimakariri River (1966–80). Mean clutch size in 462 Lake Forsyth nests was 5.3 (sd = 1.3) eggs, with clutches of 4, 5, and 6 eggs comprising 17\%, 30\% and 30\% respectively of the total. Goslings hatched from 67.4\% of 1,602 eggs in 298 monitored nests, and the entire clutch hatched successfully in 42.6\% of the monitored nests. Mean productivity at hatching was 3.6 (sd = 2.3) goslings per nest. Mean clutch size in 1,211 Waimakariri River headwaters nests was 4.5 (sd = 1.3), with clutches of 4, 5, and 6 eggs comprising 25\%, 32\%, and 20\% respectively of the total. Goslings hatched from 63.3\% of 3,952 eggs in 871 monitored nests, and the entire clutch hatched successfully in 30.5\% of the monitored nests. Mean productivity at hatching was 2.9 (sd = 1.9) goslings per nest. Relative to Canada geese in their native North American range, geese nesting at Lake Forsyth laid clutches of similar size, had similar hatching success but higher nest success whereas geese nesting in the Waimakariri River headwaters laid, on average, conspicuously smaller clutches, had similar hatching success, but higher nest success.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/047848yrkryv",
    doi = "10.63172/047848yrkryv",
    openalex = "W4408313052",
    references = "doi1023073798969"
}

The determination of individual age and ontogenetic stage (juvenile, subadult, adult) of fossil vertebrates is important for the initial determination of taxonomic affiliation, as well as for further evolutionary and paleobiological interpretations. Determination of individual age and ontogenetic stage (= relative age) is carried out by various methods, including paleohistological analysis. The study of thin sections of tetrapod bones allows us to assume how many years the animal lived (skeletochronological method) and to determine the ontogenetic stage according to a set of age-related histological markers: change in the type of bone matrix and vascularization, change in the distance between growth marks, formation of the external fundamental system (EFS), formation of the inner (endosteal) and outer (periosteal) circumferential layers (OCL, ICL), occurrences of secondary remodeling – Haversian substitution and formation of trabeculae. Depending on the phylogenetic position and biological peculiarities of the study group of tetrapods, the set of age “histologic markers” may be different.

@article{doi1031857s0044513424060014,
    author = "Skutschas, Pavel P. and Kolchanov, Veniamin V.",
    title = "Determination of individual age and ontogenetic stages of fossil tetrapods using paleohistological methods",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Зоологический журнал",
    abstract = "The determination of individual age and ontogenetic stage (juvenile, subadult, adult) of fossil vertebrates is important for the initial determination of taxonomic affiliation, as well as for further evolutionary and paleobiological interpretations. Determination of individual age and ontogenetic stage (= relative age) is carried out by various methods, including paleohistological analysis. The study of thin sections of tetrapod bones allows us to assume how many years the animal lived (skeletochronological method) and to determine the ontogenetic stage according to a set of age-related histological markers: change in the type of bone matrix and vascularization, change in the distance between growth marks, formation of the external fundamental system (EFS), formation of the inner (endosteal) and outer (periosteal) circumferential layers (OCL, ICL), occurrences of secondary remodeling – Haversian substitution and formation of trabeculae. Depending on the phylogenetic position and biological peculiarities of the study group of tetrapods, the set of age “histologic markers” may be different.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.31857/s0044513424060014",
    doi = "10.31857/s0044513424060014",
    openalex = "W4404948069",
    references = "doi101007978148995740520, doi101016jtree200508012, doi101016s1631069102014294, doi101017s0094837300012331, doi101017s0094837300021308, doi10103835086558, doi101038nature04633, doi1016660094837320000260466lhotts20co2, doi1016710272463420040240555gisdap20co2, openalexw2226673225"
}

Little is known about what happens to juvenile birds after one or both of their parents are harvested by hunters during the post‐fledging dependency period. Here, we compare the fate of juvenile Canada geese Branta canadensis that lost ≥ 1 parent to hunters (orphans) during this period to other juveniles that retained both parents (non‐orphans). For 25 years, we placed large leg bands and neck collars on juvenile and adult Canada geese nesting in New Haven County, Connecticut, USA, and followed them, their parents, siblings and offspring until their deaths. Mortality rates for orphans (0.37) and non‐orphans (0.38) were similar during their first year of life. Similar proportions of orphans (22%) and non‐orphans (24%) were recruited into the breeding population, and those that were recruited produced similar numbers of fledglings during their lives. Age at death was the same for orphans and non‐orphans. Becoming an orphan during the early‐hunting season (September) was more catastrophic than becoming an orphan during the late‐hunting season (January–February). Over half (59%) of early orphans (those with parents harvested in the early‐hunting season) did not survive their first year of life compared to only 19% of late orphans. Early orphans were less likely to be recruited into the breeding population (5%) than late orphans (33%). Additionally, early orphans that were recruited nested for fewer years (= 0.1) than late orphans (0.9) and produced fewer fledglings (0.0) during their lives than late orphans (2.6). These data suggest that hunting Canada geese during the early September season has an adverse effect on their orphans, but hunting seasons later in the year do not.

@article{doi101002wlb301644,
    author = "Conover, Michael R. and Head, Lauren J.",
    title = "Fate of orphans of Canada geese harvested by hunters in Connecticut, USA, depends upon which month the parents were killed",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Wildlife Biology",
    abstract = "Little is known about what happens to juvenile birds after one or both of their parents are harvested by hunters during the post‐fledging dependency period. Here, we compare the fate of juvenile Canada geese Branta canadensis that lost ≥ 1 parent to hunters (orphans) during this period to other juveniles that retained both parents (non‐orphans). For 25 years, we placed large leg bands and neck collars on juvenile and adult Canada geese nesting in New Haven County, Connecticut, USA, and followed them, their parents, siblings and offspring until their deaths. Mortality rates for orphans (0.37) and non‐orphans (0.38) were similar during their first year of life. Similar proportions of orphans (22\%) and non‐orphans (24\%) were recruited into the breeding population, and those that were recruited produced similar numbers of fledglings during their lives. Age at death was the same for orphans and non‐orphans. Becoming an orphan during the early‐hunting season (September) was more catastrophic than becoming an orphan during the late‐hunting season (January–February). Over half (59\%) of early orphans (those with parents harvested in the early‐hunting season) did not survive their first year of life compared to only 19\% of late orphans. Early orphans were less likely to be recruited into the breeding population (5\%) than late orphans (33\%). Additionally, early orphans that were recruited nested for fewer years (= 0.1) than late orphans (0.9) and produced fewer fledglings (0.0) during their lives than late orphans (2.6). These data suggest that hunting Canada geese during the early September season has an adverse effect on their orphans, but hunting seasons later in the year do not.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/wlb3.01644",
    doi = "10.1002/wlb3.01644",
    openalex = "W7153295015",
    references = "doi101525auk201211217"
}