Aggression

The authors postulate that aggression is always a consequence of frustration. They indicate manifestations of this sequence in almost every field of human behavior and interpret aggression as assuming many forms and as being affected by other psychological factors.

@book{doi10103710022000,
    author = "Dollard, John and Miller, Neal E. and Doob, Leonard W. and Mowrer, O. Hobart and Sears, Robert R.",
    title = "Frustration and aggression.",
    year = "1939",
    booktitle = "Yale University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "The authors postulate that aggression is always a consequence of frustration. They indicate manifestations of this sequence in almost every field of human behavior and interpret aggression as assuming many forms and as being affected by other psychological factors.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/10022-000",
    doi = "10.1037/10022-000",
    openalex = "W1983752985",
    references = "doi10103710667000, doi10103711059000, doi101093owc97801995525800010001, doi1023071414698, doi1023071415717, doi1023072013624, doi1023073708547, doi102307jctv19fvzzk47, doi103366pah20150169, doi1043249781315010533"
}

investigation reported in this study concerns the partial repetition of a study by Doob and Sears in which the arbitrary character of the situations was unintentionally an unacknowledged factor. Situations (the arbitrary set) were drawn up which paralleled those used by Doob and Sears. Modifications of the arbitrary set in the direction of non-arbitrariness was found to reduce considerably the number of aggressive responses which were elicited. The result was interpreted to imply that the arbitrary character of a frustrating situation should be part of a theory that attempts to explain the relationship between frustration and aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

@article{doi101037h0060884,
    author = "Pastore, Nicholas",
    title = "The role of arbitrariness in the frustration-aggression hypothesis.",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "Journal of Abnormal \& Social Psychology",
    abstract = "investigation reported in this study concerns the partial repetition of a study by Doob and Sears in which the arbitrary character of the situations was unintentionally an unacknowledged factor. Situations (the arbitrary set) were drawn up which paralleled those used by Doob and Sears. Modifications of the arbitrary set in the direction of non-arbitrariness was found to reduce considerably the number of aggressive responses which were elicited. The result was interpreted to imply that the arbitrary character of a frustrating situation should be part of a theory that attempts to explain the relationship between frustration and aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/h0060884",
    doi = "10.1037/h0060884",
    openalex = "W2024383134"
}

@book{doi10103711160000,
    author = "Buss, Arnold H.",
    title = "The Psychology of Aggression",
    year = "1961",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/11160-000",
    doi = "10.1037/11160-000",
    openalex = "W2015594889"
}

@article{doi102466pr0196193497,
    author = "Walder, Leopold O. and Abelson, Robert P. and Eron, Leonard D. and Banta, Thomas J. and Laulicht, Jerome",
    title = "Development of a Peer-Rating Measure of Aggression",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "Psychological Reports",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1961.9.3.497",
    doi = "10.2466/pr0.1961.9.3.497",
    openalex = "W2004301928"
}

@article{doi1023072091523,
    author = "Wood, Arthur Lewis and Berkowitz, Leonard",
    title = "Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis.",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "American Sociological Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2091523",
    doi = "10.2307/2091523",
    openalex = "W2795473988"
}

@article{doi101037h0023987,
    author = "Mallick, Shahbaz K. and McCandless, Boyd R.",
    title = "A study of catharsis of aggression.",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023987",
    doi = "10.1037/h0023987",
    openalex = "W2051701352"
}

@misc{lorenz1966on1,
    author = "Lorenz, K",
    title = "On Aggression",
    year = "1966",
    howpublished = "New York, Harcourt, Brace and World, 306 p.; Translated by Marjorie Kerr Wilson",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lorenz, K., 1966, On Aggression: New York, Harcourt, Brace and World, 306 p.; Translated by Marjorie Kerr Wilson.}"
}

W ITH the increasing prominence of vio-lence in our society, social scientistshave been turning their attention to the antecedents of aggressive behavior in children and adults. Television programming with its heavy emphasis on interpersonal violence and acquisi-tive lawlessness has been assigned a role both in inciting aggression and teaching viewers specific techniques of aggressive behavior. The relation between overt aggression and television habits has been demonstrated in a few survey studies which, however, because of the nature of surveys have not been able to discriminate cause and effect (Bailyn, 1959; Eron, 1963; Schramm, Lyle, & Parker, 1961). On the other hand, manipulative laboratory ex-periments have demonstrated an immediate effect on the extent of aggressive behavior of subjects who have witnessed aggressive displays on film (Ban-

@article{doi101037h0033721,
    author = "Eron, Leonard D. and Huesmann, L. Rowell and Lefkowitz, Monroe M. and Walder, Leopold O.",
    title = "Does television violence cause aggression?",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "American Psychologist",
    abstract = "W ITH the increasing prominence of vio-lence in our society, social scientistshave been turning their attention to the antecedents of aggressive behavior in children and adults. Television programming with its heavy emphasis on interpersonal violence and acquisi-tive lawlessness has been assigned a role both in inciting aggression and teaching viewers specific techniques of aggressive behavior. The relation between overt aggression and television habits has been demonstrated in a few survey studies which, however, because of the nature of surveys have not been able to discriminate cause and effect (Bailyn, 1959; Eron, 1963; Schramm, Lyle, \& Parker, 1961). On the other hand, manipulative laboratory ex-periments have demonstrated an immediate effect on the extent of aggressive behavior of subjects who have witnessed aggressive displays on film (Ban-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033721",
    doi = "10.1037/h0033721",
    openalex = "W1998574988"
}

@article{doi1023071227918,
    author = "Bandura, Albert",
    title = "Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Stanford Law Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1227918",
    doi = "10.2307/1227918",
    openalex = "W2029355702"
}

@article{doi1010160022103174900729,
    author = "Scheier, Michael F. and Fenigstein, Allan and Buss, Arnold H.",
    title = "Self-awareness and physical aggression",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Social Psychology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(74)90072-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0022-1031(74)90072-9",
    openalex = "W2048770509"
}

@article{doi1010370003066x295337,
    title = "Aggression in childhood: Developmental perspectives.",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "American Psychologist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.29.5.337",
    doi = "10.1037//0003-066x.29.5.337",
    openalex = "W2890495414"
}

@article{doi101111j146764941976tb00142x,
    author = "Scheier, Michael F.",
    title = "Self-awareness, self-consciousness, and angry aggression1",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Journal of Personality",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00142.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00142.x",
    openalex = "W1986021025"
}

@article{doi1010160092656678900892,
    author = "Scheier, Michael F. and Buss, Arnold H. and Buss, David M.",
    title = "Self-consciousness, self-report of aggressiveness, and aggression",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Journal of Research in Personality",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(78)90089-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0092-6566(78)90089-2",
    openalex = "W2089518308",
    references = "doi101016s006526010860252x, doi101037008080, doi10103711160000, doi10103712305007, doi101037h0037130, doi101037h0046900, doi101037h0076760, doi101111j146764941976tb00142x, doi1023072980908, openalexw1949366217"
}

@book{openalexw1686741020,
    author = "Olweus, Dan",
    title = "Aggression in the schools: bullies and whipping boys",
    year = "1978",
    openalex = "W1686741020"
}

@article{doi10103700121649204722,
    author = "Hyde, Janet Shibley",
    title = "How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis.",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Developmental Psychology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.20.4.722",
    doi = "10.1037/0012-1649.20.4.722",
    openalex = "W2043487626",
    references = "doi1010160092656678900892"
}

In a study spanning 22 years, data were collected on the aggressiveness of over 600 subjects, their parents, and their children. Subjects who were the more aggressive 8-year-olds at the beginning of the study were discovered to be the more aggressive 30-year-olds at the end of the study. The stability of aggressive behavior was shown to be very similar to the stability of intellectual competence, especially for males. Early aggressiveness was predictive of later serious antisocial behavior, including criminal behavior, spouse abuse, traffic violations, and self-reported physical aggression. Furthermore, the stability of aggression across generations within a family when measured at comparable ages was even higher than the within individual stability across ages. It is concluded that, whatever its causes, aggression can be viewed as a persistent trait that may be influenced by situational variables but possesses substantial cross-situational constancy.

@article{doi101037001216492061120,
    author = "Huesmann, L. Rowell and Eron, Leonard D. and Lefkowitz, Monroe M. and Walder, Leopold O.",
    title = "Stability of aggression over time and generations.",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Developmental Psychology",
    abstract = "In a study spanning 22 years, data were collected on the aggressiveness of over 600 subjects, their parents, and their children. Subjects who were the more aggressive 8-year-olds at the beginning of the study were discovered to be the more aggressive 30-year-olds at the end of the study. The stability of aggressive behavior was shown to be very similar to the stability of intellectual competence, especially for males. Early aggressiveness was predictive of later serious antisocial behavior, including criminal behavior, spouse abuse, traffic violations, and self-reported physical aggression. Furthermore, the stability of aggression across generations within a family when measured at comparable ages was even higher than the within individual stability across ages. It is concluded that, whatever its causes, aggression can be viewed as a persistent trait that may be influenced by situational variables but possesses substantial cross-situational constancy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.20.6.1120",
    doi = "10.1037/0012-1649.20.6.1120",
    openalex = "W2153988286",
    references = "doi10103700332909864852, doi10103710022000, doi101037h0033721, doi101037h0035592, doi1023071227918, doi1023072068814, doi1023072091523, doi1023072094234, doi102466pr0196193497, openalexw1686741020"
}

I. Perspectives on Anger and Aggression.- 1. The Nature of Emotion.- The Place of Emotions in Systems of Behavior.- Emotions Defined.- The Experience and Expression of Emotion.- Anger and Aggression.- Concluding Observations.- 2. Anger and Aggression in Biological Perspective.- Biological Systems of Behavior.- Biological Systems Related to Anger and Aggression.- Central Neural Mechanisms Mediating Anger and Aggression.- Expressive Reactions as Elements in Emotional Syndromes.- Concluding Observations.- 3. Cross-Cultural Variations in Aggressive Syndromes.- Wild-Man Behavior.- Running Amok.- To Nu.- Ikari.- Concluding Observations.- 4. Historical Teachings on Anger.- An Overview of the Issues.- Plato.- Aristotle.- Seneca.- Lactantius.- Aquinas.- Descartes.- Summary and Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 5. Anger and the Law.- The Relationship Between Social Custom and the Law of Homicide.- The Incidence of Homicide.- The Attribution of Anger in Courts of Law.- Temporary Insanity.- Concluding Observations.- 6. Nonnormative Sources of Anger and Aggression.- The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis.- Physiological Arousal.- Aggressive Stimuli.- Extrinsic Motivation.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- II. Empirical Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- 7. Overview and Methods.- Some Observations on Past and Current Research.- Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- Limitations of Self-Report Data.- Concluding Observations.- 8. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Targets, Instigations, and Motives.- Participants.- The Angry Incidents.- The Target of Anger.- The Instigation to Anger.- The Nature of the Instigation.- Motives for Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 9. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Responses and Consequences.- A Review of Prior Research.- Instrumental Responses During Anger.- Expressive Reactions and Physiological Symptoms.- Reappraisals of the Instigating Conditions.- The Consequences of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 10. Experiencing Another's Anger.- Procedural Considerations.- The Angry Incidents.- The Nature of the Instigation.- The Motives for Anger.- Responses of the Angry Person as Perceived by the Target.- Recognizing Another's Anger.- The Effects of the Other Person's Anger on the Target.- Concluding Observations.- 11. Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Empirical Analyses.- The Diary Records.- A Comparison of Specific Instances of Anger and Annoyance.- Content Analyses of Subjects' Own Descriptions of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Supplementary Data from Study I.- An Integrative Summary of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Conceptual Analyses.- Concluding Observations.- 12. Temporal Dimensions of Anger: An Exploration of Time and Emotion.- A Review of Theories.- On Dispositions and Episodes.- On the Duration of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 13. Differences Between Men and Women in the Everyday Experience of Anger.- The Biological Argument.- The Feminist Argument.- Sex Differences in the Self-Reported Experience of Anger.- A Brief Review of Research on Sex Differences in Anger and Aggression.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 14. Epilogue.- A Summary Definition of Anger.- Rules, Norms, and the Appropriate Unit of Analysis for the Study of Emotion.- The Development of Anger in Children.- Anger Gone Awry.- Concluding Observations.- Appendix A. Questionnaire A, Used in Studies I and III for the Description of the Subject's Own Experience of Anger.- Appendix B. Questionnaire B, Used in Study II for the Description of the Subject's Experiences as the Target of Another Person's Anger.- References.- Author Index.

@article{doi1023072068914,
    author = "Lyman, Peter and Averill, James R.",
    title = "Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion.",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews",
    abstract = "I. Perspectives on Anger and Aggression.- 1. The Nature of Emotion.- The Place of Emotions in Systems of Behavior.- Emotions Defined.- The Experience and Expression of Emotion.- Anger and Aggression.- Concluding Observations.- 2. Anger and Aggression in Biological Perspective.- Biological Systems of Behavior.- Biological Systems Related to Anger and Aggression.- Central Neural Mechanisms Mediating Anger and Aggression.- Expressive Reactions as Elements in Emotional Syndromes.- Concluding Observations.- 3. Cross-Cultural Variations in Aggressive Syndromes.- Wild-Man Behavior.- Running Amok.- To Nu.- Ikari.- Concluding Observations.- 4. Historical Teachings on Anger.- An Overview of the Issues.- Plato.- Aristotle.- Seneca.- Lactantius.- Aquinas.- Descartes.- Summary and Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 5. Anger and the Law.- The Relationship Between Social Custom and the Law of Homicide.- The Incidence of Homicide.- The Attribution of Anger in Courts of Law.- Temporary Insanity.- Concluding Observations.- 6. Nonnormative Sources of Anger and Aggression.- The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis.- Physiological Arousal.- Aggressive Stimuli.- Extrinsic Motivation.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- II. Empirical Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- 7. Overview and Methods.- Some Observations on Past and Current Research.- Studies of the Everyday Experience of Anger.- Limitations of Self-Report Data.- Concluding Observations.- 8. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Targets, Instigations, and Motives.- Participants.- The Angry Incidents.- The Target of Anger.- The Instigation to Anger.- The Nature of the Instigation.- Motives for Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 9. Anger as Experienced by the Angry Person: Responses and Consequences.- A Review of Prior Research.- Instrumental Responses During Anger.- Expressive Reactions and Physiological Symptoms.- Reappraisals of the Instigating Conditions.- The Consequences of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 10. Experiencing Another's Anger.- Procedural Considerations.- The Angry Incidents.- The Nature of the Instigation.- The Motives for Anger.- Responses of the Angry Person as Perceived by the Target.- Recognizing Another's Anger.- The Effects of the Other Person's Anger on the Target.- Concluding Observations.- 11. Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Empirical Analyses.- The Diary Records.- A Comparison of Specific Instances of Anger and Annoyance.- Content Analyses of Subjects' Own Descriptions of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Supplementary Data from Study I.- An Integrative Summary of the Differences Between Anger and Annoyance.- Conceptual Analyses.- Concluding Observations.- 12. Temporal Dimensions of Anger: An Exploration of Time and Emotion.- A Review of Theories.- On Dispositions and Episodes.- On the Duration of Anger.- Concluding Observations.- 13. Differences Between Men and Women in the Everyday Experience of Anger.- The Biological Argument.- The Feminist Argument.- Sex Differences in the Self-Reported Experience of Anger.- A Brief Review of Research on Sex Differences in Anger and Aggression.- Implications.- Concluding Observations.- 14. Epilogue.- A Summary Definition of Anger.- Rules, Norms, and the Appropriate Unit of Analysis for the Study of Emotion.- The Development of Anger in Children.- Anger Gone Awry.- Concluding Observations.- Appendix A. Questionnaire A, Used in Studies I and III for the Description of the Subject's Own Experience of Anger.- Appendix B. Questionnaire B, Used in Study II for the Description of the Subject's Experiences as the Target of Another Person's Anger.- References.- Author Index.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2068914",
    doi = "10.2307/2068914",
    openalex = "W1969390138"
}

We examined social-information-processing mechanisms (e.g., hostile attributional biases and intention-cue detection deficits) in chronic reactive and proactive aggressive behavior in children's peer groups. In Study 1, a teacher-rating instrument was developed to assess these behaviors in elementary school children (N = 259). Reactive and proactive scales were found to be internally consistent, and factor analyses partially supported convergent and discriminant validities. In Study 2, behavioral correlates of these forms of aggression were examined through assessments by peers (N = 339). Both types of aggression related to social rejection, but only proactively aggressive boys were also viewed as leaders and as having a sense of humor. In Study 3, we hypothesized that reactive aggression (but not proactive aggression) would occur as a function of hostile attributional biases and intention-cue detection deficits. Four groups of socially rejected boys (reactive aggressive, proactive aggressive, reactive-proactive aggressive, and nonaggressive) and a group of average boys were presented with a series of hypothetical videorecorded vignettes depicting provocations by peers and were asked to interpret the intentions of the provocateur (N = 117). Only the two reactive-aggressive groups displayed biases and deficits in interpretations. In Study 4, attributional biases and deficits were found to be positively correlated with the rate of reactive aggression (but not proactive aggression) displayed in free play with peers (N = 127). These studies supported the hypothesis that attributional biases and deficits are related to reactive aggression but not to proactive aggression.

@article{doi101037002235145361146,
    author = "Dodge, Kenneth A. and Coie, John D.",
    title = "Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups.",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology",
    abstract = "We examined social-information-processing mechanisms (e.g., hostile attributional biases and intention-cue detection deficits) in chronic reactive and proactive aggressive behavior in children's peer groups. In Study 1, a teacher-rating instrument was developed to assess these behaviors in elementary school children (N = 259). Reactive and proactive scales were found to be internally consistent, and factor analyses partially supported convergent and discriminant validities. In Study 2, behavioral correlates of these forms of aggression were examined through assessments by peers (N = 339). Both types of aggression related to social rejection, but only proactively aggressive boys were also viewed as leaders and as having a sense of humor. In Study 3, we hypothesized that reactive aggression (but not proactive aggression) would occur as a function of hostile attributional biases and intention-cue detection deficits. Four groups of socially rejected boys (reactive aggressive, proactive aggressive, reactive-proactive aggressive, and nonaggressive) and a group of average boys were presented with a series of hypothetical videorecorded vignettes depicting provocations by peers and were asked to interpret the intentions of the provocateur (N = 117). Only the two reactive-aggressive groups displayed biases and deficits in interpretations. In Study 4, attributional biases and deficits were found to be positively correlated with the rate of reactive aggression (but not proactive aggression) displayed in free play with peers (N = 127). These studies supported the hypothesis that attributional biases and deficits are related to reactive aggression but not to proactive aggression.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1146",
    doi = "10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1146",
    openalex = "W2081231572",
    references = "doi10103700121649184557, doi10103710022000, doi101037h0046016, doi101038133515b0, doi1023071129603, doi1023071161696, doi1023071227918, doi1023071415214, doi1043249780203992739, openalexw1686741020, openalexw562595160"
}

Examines the Dollard et al. (1939) frustration-aggression hypothesis. The original formulation's main proposition is limited to interference with an expected attainment of a desired goal on hostile (emotional) aggression. Although some studies have yielded negative results, others support the core proposition. Frustrations can create aggressive inclinations even when they are not arbitrary or aimed at the subject personally. Interpretations and attributions can be understood partly in terms of the original analysis but they can also influence the unpleasantness of the thwarting. A proposed revision of the 1939 model holds that frustrations generate aggressive inclinations to the degree that they arouse negative affect. Evidence regarding the aggressive consequences of aversive events is reviewed, and Berkowitz's cognitive-neoassociationistic model is summarized.

@article{doi10103700332909106159,
    author = "Berkowitz, Leonard",
    title = "Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation.",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Psychological Bulletin",
    abstract = "Examines the Dollard et al. (1939) frustration-aggression hypothesis. The original formulation's main proposition is limited to interference with an expected attainment of a desired goal on hostile (emotional) aggression. Although some studies have yielded negative results, others support the core proposition. Frustrations can create aggressive inclinations even when they are not arbitrary or aimed at the subject personally. Interpretations and attributions can be understood partly in terms of the original analysis but they can also influence the unpleasantness of the thwarting. A proposed revision of the 1939 model holds that frustrations generate aggressive inclinations to the degree that they arouse negative affect. Evidence regarding the aggressive consequences of aversive events is reviewed, and Berkowitz's cognitive-neoassociationistic model is summarized.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59",
    openalex = "W2129950297",
    references = "doi10103700223514484813, doi1010370033295x924548, doi10103710022000, doi10103711160000, doi101037h0043125, doi1023071227918, doi1023072068914, doi1023072087246, doi1023073709294, doi1043249780203780978"
}

Gender differences in regard to aggressive behaviour were investigated in a series of studies of schoolchildren of different age cohorts: 8-year-olds (N = 85), 11-year-olds (N = 167), and 15-year-olds (N = 127). Different types of aggressive behaviour were measured with peer nomination techniques, supported by self-ratings. The social structure of the peer groups were also studied. The results of the 11-year-old cohort were previously presented by Lagerspetz et al. [1988; Aggressive Behavior 14:403–414], but they are compared here with the other age groups. The principal finding was that girls of the two older cohorts overall make greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas boys tend to employ direct means. Previously, the main difference between the genders has been thought to be that boys use physical aggressive strategies, while girls prefer verbal ones. Our studies suggest that the differentiation between direct and indirect strategies of aggression presents a more exact picture. Indirect aggressive strategies were not yet fully developed among the 8-year-old girls, but they were already prominent among the 11-year-old girls. Aggressive behaviour was assessed overall by the children themselves to be the highest in this age group.

@article{doi101002109823371992182117aidab248018020530co23,
    author = "Björkqvist, Kaj and Lagerspetz, Kirsti and Kaukiainen, Ari",
    title = "Do girls manipulate and boys fight? developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Aggressive Behavior",
    abstract = "Gender differences in regard to aggressive behaviour were investigated in a series of studies of schoolchildren of different age cohorts: 8-year-olds (N = 85), 11-year-olds (N = 167), and 15-year-olds (N = 127). Different types of aggressive behaviour were measured with peer nomination techniques, supported by self-ratings. The social structure of the peer groups were also studied. The results of the 11-year-old cohort were previously presented by Lagerspetz et al. [1988; Aggressive Behavior 14:403–414], but they are compared here with the other age groups. The principal finding was that girls of the two older cohorts overall make greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas boys tend to employ direct means. Previously, the main difference between the genders has been thought to be that boys use physical aggressive strategies, while girls prefer verbal ones. Our studies suggest that the differentiation between direct and indirect strategies of aggression presents a more exact picture. Indirect aggressive strategies were not yet fully developed among the 8-year-old girls, but they were already prominent among the 11-year-old girls. Aggressive behaviour was assessed overall by the children themselves to be the highest in this age group.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<117::aid-ab2480180205>3.0.co;2-3",
    doi = "10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<117::aid-ab2480180205>3.0.co;2-3",
    openalex = "W2167100987",
    references = "doi101037001216492061120"
}

A new questionnaire on aggression was constructed. Replicated factor analyses yielded 4 scales: Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility. Correlational analysis revealed that anger is the bridge between both physical and verbal aggression and hostility. The scales showed internal consistency and stability over time. Men scored slightly higher on Verbal Aggression and Hostility and much higher on Physical Aggression. There was no sex difference for Anger. The various scales correlated differently with various personality traits. Scale scores correlated with peer nominations of the various kinds of aggression. These findings suggest the need to assess not only overall aggression but also its individual components.

@article{doi10103700223514633452,
    author = "Buss, Arnold H. and Perry, Mark",
    title = "The Aggression Questionnaire.",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology",
    abstract = "A new questionnaire on aggression was constructed. Replicated factor analyses yielded 4 scales: Physical Aggression, Verbal Aggression, Anger, and Hostility. Correlational analysis revealed that anger is the bridge between both physical and verbal aggression and hostility. The scales showed internal consistency and stability over time. Men scored slightly higher on Verbal Aggression and Hostility and much higher on Physical Aggression. There was no sex difference for Anger. The various scales correlated differently with various personality traits. Scale scores correlated with peer nominations of the various kinds of aggression. These findings suggest the need to assess not only overall aggression but also its individual components.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.63.3.452",
    doi = "10.1037//0022-3514.63.3.452",
    openalex = "W2136253554",
    references = "doi1010160092656678900892, doi101037001216492061120, doi1010370022006x56117, doi10103700223514412330, doi101037h0046900, doi101037h0076760, doi1023071421420, openalexw1531492433, openalexw2037302440, openalexw63792389"
}

CHAPTER 1: The Problem of AggressionPART ONE: EMOTIONAL AGGRESSIONCHAPTER 2: Effects of FrustrationCHAPTER 3: We're Nasty When We Feel BadCHAPTER 4: Does Thinking Make It So?PART TWO: AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITIESCHAPTER 5: The Identification of the Violence ProneCHAPTER 6: The Development of Violence PronenessPART THREE: VIOLENCE IN SOCIETYCHAPTER 7: Violence in the MediaCHAPTER 8: Domestic ViolenceCHAPTER 9: MurderPART FOUR: CONTROLLING AGGRESSIONCHAPTER 10: Punishment and Societal ControlCHAPTER 11: Psychological ProcedurePART FIVE: SOME SPECIAL QUESTIONCHAPTER 12: Biology and AggressionCHAPTER 13: Aggression in the LaboratorPART SIX: CONCLUSIONCHAPTER 14: Some Lessons to be Draw

@book{openalexw1977004202,
    author = "Berkowitz, Leonard",
    title = "Aggression: Its Causes, Consequences, and Control",
    year = "1993",
    abstract = "CHAPTER 1: The Problem of AggressionPART ONE: EMOTIONAL AGGRESSIONCHAPTER 2: Effects of FrustrationCHAPTER 3: We're Nasty When We Feel BadCHAPTER 4: Does Thinking Make It So?PART TWO: AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITIESCHAPTER 5: The Identification of the Violence ProneCHAPTER 6: The Development of Violence PronenessPART THREE: VIOLENCE IN SOCIETYCHAPTER 7: Violence in the MediaCHAPTER 8: Domestic ViolenceCHAPTER 9: MurderPART FOUR: CONTROLLING AGGRESSIONCHAPTER 10: Punishment and Societal ControlCHAPTER 11: Psychological ProcedurePART FIVE: SOME SPECIAL QUESTIONCHAPTER 12: Biology and AggressionCHAPTER 13: Aggression in the LaboratorPART SIX: CONCLUSIONCHAPTER 14: Some Lessons to be Draw",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W1977004202",
    openalex = "W1977004202"
}

Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third-through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).

@article{doi101111j146786241995tb00900x,
    author = "Crick, Nicki R. and Grotpeter, Jennifer K.",
    title = "Relational Aggression, Gender, and Social-Psychological Adjustment",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Child Development",
    abstract = "Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third-through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x",
    openalex = "W2071148395",
    references = "doi10100797803877906194285, doi10103700121649184557, doi101037002235145361146, doi101037003329091003309, doi101037003329091023357, doi10103700332909115174, doi1023071129603, doi1023072071877, openalexw1977004202, openalexw384530792"
}

@article{doi1023071131945,
    author = "Crick, Nicki R. and Grotpeter, Jennifer K.",
    title = "Relational Aggression, Gender, and Social-Psychological Adjustment",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Child Development",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1131945",
    doi = "10.2307/1131945",
    openalex = "W4237001729"
}

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

@article{doi1010370033295x10315,
    author = "Baumeister, Roy F. and Smart, Laura and Boden, Joseph M.",
    title = "Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Psychological Review",
    abstract = "Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5",
    openalex = "W2100354065",
    references = "doi101016s0065260108602294, doi101037001216492061120, doi10103700223514702321, doi101037003329091032193, doi10103700332909106159, doi1010370033295x943319, doi10103710022000, doi10103711059000, doi1015159781503621794, doi1043249780203781906, doi1043249780203789513, doi105860choice264165, doi107208chicago97802261128790010001, openalexw1508671760"
}

@article{doi1023071131875,
    author = "Crick, Nicki R. and Dodge, Kenneth A.",
    title = "Social Information-Processing Mechanisms in Reactive and Proactive Aggression",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Child Development",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1131875",
    doi = "10.2307/1131875",
    openalex = "W4255156132",
    references = "doi1023071129603, openalexw1977004202"
}

The external validity of artificial “trivial” laboratory settings is examined. Past views emphasizing generalizability of relations among conceptual variables are reviewed and affirmed. One major implication of typical challenges to the external validity of laboratory research is tested with aggression research: If laboratory research is low in external validity, then laboratory studies should fail to detect relations among variables that are correlated with aggression in “real-world” studies. Meta-analysis was used to examine 5 situational variables (provocation, violent media, alcohol, anonymity, hot temperature) and 3 individual difference variables (sex, Type A personality, trait aggressiveness) in real-world and laboratory aggression studies. Results strongly supported the external validity of trivial laboratory studies. Advice is given on how scholars might handle occasional descrepancies between laboratory and real-world findings.

@article{doi101037108926801119,
    author = "Anderson, Craig A. and Bushman, Brad J.",
    title = "External Validity of “Trivial” Experiments: The Case of Laboratory Aggression",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Review of General Psychology",
    abstract = "The external validity of artificial “trivial” laboratory settings is examined. Past views emphasizing generalizability of relations among conceptual variables are reviewed and affirmed. One major implication of typical challenges to the external validity of laboratory research is tested with aggression research: If laboratory research is low in external validity, then laboratory studies should fail to detect relations among variables that are correlated with aggression in “real-world” studies. Meta-analysis was used to examine 5 situational variables (provocation, violent media, alcohol, anonymity, hot temperature) and 3 individual difference variables (sex, Type A personality, trait aggressiveness) in real-world and laboratory aggression studies. Results strongly supported the external validity of trivial laboratory studies. Advice is given on how scholars might handle occasional descrepancies between laboratory and real-world findings.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.1.19",
    doi = "10.1037/1089-2680.1.1.19",
    openalex = "W2164313413",
    references = "doi1010160092656678900892, doi1010370022006x56117"
}

Different manifestations of aggression from childhood to early adulthood are reviewed to establish how early manifestations are related to later manifestations. Similarities and differences in manifestations of aggression between the two genders are noted. Developmental sequences and pathways from minor aggression to violence are highlighted. Long-term escalation is contrasted with short-term escalation at older ages. Although studies have emphasized high stability of aggression over time, data show that a substantial proportion of aggressive youth desist over time. Temperamental, emotional, and cognitive aspects of aggression are reviewed, either as precursors or co-occurring conditions to aggression. Selected processes in the realms of the family, peers, and neighborhoods are highlighted that are known to be associated with juvenile aggression. Cumulative, long-term causes are contrasted with short-term causes, and causes associated with desistance in aggression are reviewed.

@article{doi101146annurevpsych481371,
    author = "Loeber, Rolf and Hay, Dale F.",
    title = "KEY ISSUES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE FROM CHILDHOOD TO EARLY ADULTHOOD",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Annual Review of Psychology",
    abstract = "Different manifestations of aggression from childhood to early adulthood are reviewed to establish how early manifestations are related to later manifestations. Similarities and differences in manifestations of aggression between the two genders are noted. Developmental sequences and pathways from minor aggression to violence are highlighted. Long-term escalation is contrasted with short-term escalation at older ages. Although studies have emphasized high stability of aggression over time, data show that a substantial proportion of aggressive youth desist over time. Temperamental, emotional, and cognitive aspects of aggression are reviewed, either as precursors or co-occurring conditions to aggression. Selected processes in the realms of the family, peers, and neighborhoods are highlighted that are known to be associated with juvenile aggression. Cumulative, long-term causes are contrasted with short-term causes, and causes associated with desistance in aggression are reviewed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371",
    openalex = "W2125608916",
    references = "doi101037002235145361146"
}

@incollection{adams1998aggression,
    author = "Adams, Bridget and Bromley, Barbara",
    title = "Aggression and aggression management",
    year = "1998",
    booktitle = "Psychology for Health Care",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26634-0\_1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-349-26634-0\_1",
    openalex = "W2462602289",
    pages = "1-14"
}

It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause.

@article{doi10103700223514751219,
    author = "Bushman, Brad J. and Baumeister, Roy F.",
    title = "Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology",
    abstract = "It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219",
    doi = "10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219",
    openalex = "W2150232152",
    references = "doi10103700332909106159, doi1010370033295x10315, doi10103710022000, doi10108000401706199710485141, doi1015159781400876136, doi1023072286442, doi1023072287930, doi1023072289108, doi1023072348747, doi1043249781410606266, doi1050409798216436638, doi105860choice293352"
}

Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression to heterosexual partners and in its physical consequences are reported. Women were slightly more likely (d = -.05) than men to use one or more act of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently. Men were more likely (d =.15) to inflict an injury, and overall, 62% of those injured by a partner were women. The findings partially support previous claims that different methods of measurement produce conflicting results, but there was also evidence that the sample was an important moderator of effect size. Continuous models showed that younger aged dating samples and a lower proportion of physically aggressive males predicted effect sizes in the female direction. Analyses were limited by the available database, which is biased toward young dating samples in the United States. Wider variations are discussed in terms of two conflicting norms about physical aggression to partners that operate to different degrees in different cultures.

@article{doi101037003329091265651,
    author = "Archer, John",
    title = "Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review.",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Psychological Bulletin",
    abstract = "Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression to heterosexual partners and in its physical consequences are reported. Women were slightly more likely (d = -.05) than men to use one or more act of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently. Men were more likely (d =.15) to inflict an injury, and overall, 62\% of those injured by a partner were women. The findings partially support previous claims that different methods of measurement produce conflicting results, but there was also evidence that the sample was an important moderator of effect size. Continuous models showed that younger aged dating samples and a lower proportion of physically aggressive males predicted effect sizes in the female direction. Analyses were limited by the available database, which is biased toward young dating samples in the United States. Wider variations are discussed in terms of two conflicting norms about physical aggression to partners that operate to different degrees in different cultures.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651",
    openalex = "W2075254395",
    references = "openalexw1977004202"
}

@article{doi101006jrpe20002302,
    author = "Bryant, Fred B. and Smith, Bruce D.",
    title = "Refining the Architecture of Aggression: A Measurement Model for the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Research in Personality",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2302",
    doi = "10.1006/jrpe.2000.2302",
    openalex = "W2021160880",
    references = "doi1010370022006x56117"
}

Research on human aggression has progressed to a point at which a unifying framework is needed. Major domain-limited theories of aggression include cognitive neoassociation, social learning, social interaction, script, and excitation transfer theories. Using the general aggression model (GAM), this review posits cognition, affect, and arousal to mediate the effects of situational and personological variables on aggression. The review also organizes recent theories of the development and persistence of aggressive personality. Personality is conceptualized as a set of stable knowledge structures that individuals use to interpret events in their social world and to guide their behavior. In addition to organizing what is already known about human aggression, this review, using the GAM framework, also serves the heuristic function of suggesting what research is needed to fill in theoretical gaps and can be used to create and test interventions for reducing aggression.

@article{doi101146annurevpsych53100901135231,
    author = "Anderson, Craig A. and Bushman, Brad J.",
    title = "Human Aggression",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Annual Review of Psychology",
    abstract = "Research on human aggression has progressed to a point at which a unifying framework is needed. Major domain-limited theories of aggression include cognitive neoassociation, social learning, social interaction, script, and excitation transfer theories. Using the general aggression model (GAM), this review posits cognition, affect, and arousal to mediate the effects of situational and personological variables on aggression. The review also organizes recent theories of the development and persistence of aggressive personality. Personality is conceptualized as a set of stable knowledge structures that individuals use to interpret events in their social world and to guide their behavior. In addition to organizing what is already known about human aggression, this review, using the GAM framework, also serves the heuristic function of suggesting what research is needed to fill in theoretical gaps and can be used to create and test interventions for reducing aggression.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231",
    openalex = "W4212813690",
    references = "doi1010079781461249641, doi1010370003066x362129, doi1010370003066x442329, doi10103710022000, doi101037h0035002, doi101037h0046234, doi101146annurevpsych5211, doi1023073340496, doi102307412850, doi105860choice343595"
}

Meta-analytic reviews of sex differences in aggression from real-world settings are described. They cover self-reports, observations, peer reports, and teacher reports of overall direct, physical, verbal, and indirect forms of aggression, as well as (for self-reports) trait anger. Findings are related to sexual selection theory and social role theory. Direct, especially physical, aggression was more common in males and females at all ages sampled, was consistent across cultures, and occurred from early childhood on, showing a peak between 20 and 30 years. Anger showed no sex differences. Higher female indirect aggression was limited to later childhood and adolescence and varied with method of measurement. The overall pattern indicated males’ greater use of costly methods of aggression rather than a threshold difference in anger.

@article{doi1010371089268084291,
    author = "Archer, John",
    title = "Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Review of General Psychology",
    abstract = "Meta-analytic reviews of sex differences in aggression from real-world settings are described. They cover self-reports, observations, peer reports, and teacher reports of overall direct, physical, verbal, and indirect forms of aggression, as well as (for self-reports) trait anger. Findings are related to sexual selection theory and social role theory. Direct, especially physical, aggression was more common in males and females at all ages sampled, was consistent across cultures, and occurred from early childhood on, showing a peak between 20 and 30 years. Anger showed no sex differences. Higher female indirect aggression was limited to later childhood and adolescence and varied with method of measurement. The overall pattern indicated males’ greater use of costly methods of aggression rather than a threshold difference in anger.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291",
    doi = "10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291",
    openalex = "W2130417382",
    references = "doi1010160191886986900255, doi101016s0005789475800311, doi10103700223514633452, doi10103711160000, doi101037h0030372, doi101037h0046900, doi101145988616988619, doi1023071164953, doi102307351733, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667"
}

@article{doi101016jneubiorev200412007,
    author = "Archer, John",
    title = "Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007",
    doi = "10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007",
    openalex = "W2131593548",
    references = "doi101017s0140525x0000337x, doi101017s0140525x98001228, doi1010371089268084291, doi101037h0046900"
}

Over the last decade, researchers have found that girls may be just as aggressive as boys when manipulative forms of aggression, such as gossiping and spreading rumors, are included. These forms of aggression are known by 3 different names: indirect aggression, relational aggression, and social aggression. This review examines their commonalities and differences, and concludes that they are essentially the same form of aggression. We show that analogous forms are not found in other species. We offer a functional account: indirect aggression is an alternative strategy to direct aggression, enacted when the costs of direct aggression are high, and whose aim is to socially exclude, or harm the social status of, a victim. In this light, we consider sex differences and developmental trends and the impact of this aggression on victims. We conclude that indirect, relational, and social aggression are much more similar than they are different, and we suggest ways in which future research can be facilitated by integrating the three areas under an adaptive framework.

@article{doi101207s15327957pspr09032,
    author = "Archer, John and Coyne, Sarah M.",
    title = "An Integrated Review of Indirect, Relational, and Social Aggression",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Personality and Social Psychology Review",
    abstract = "Over the last decade, researchers have found that girls may be just as aggressive as boys when manipulative forms of aggression, such as gossiping and spreading rumors, are included. These forms of aggression are known by 3 different names: indirect aggression, relational aggression, and social aggression. This review examines their commonalities and differences, and concludes that they are essentially the same form of aggression. We show that analogous forms are not found in other species. We offer a functional account: indirect aggression is an alternative strategy to direct aggression, enacted when the costs of direct aggression are high, and whose aim is to socially exclude, or harm the social status of, a victim. In this light, we consider sex differences and developmental trends and the impact of this aggression on victims. We conclude that indirect, relational, and social aggression are much more similar than they are different, and we suggest ways in which future research can be facilitated by integrating the three areas under an adaptive framework.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903\_2",
    doi = "10.1207/s15327957pspr0903\_2",
    openalex = "W2147696324",
    references = "doi1010371089268062166, doi1010371089268084291"
}

This study reports the development of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ), and the differential correlates of these two forms of aggression. Antisocial, psychosocial and personality measures were obtained at ages 7 and 16 years in schoolboys, while the RPQ was administered to 334 of the boys at age 16 years. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a significant fit for a two-factor proactive-reactive model that replicated from one independent subsample to another. Proactive aggression was uniquely characterized at age 7 by initiation of fights, strong-arm tactics, delinquency, poor school motivation, poor peer relationships, single-parent status, psychosocial adversity, substance-abusing parents, and hyperactivity, and at age 16 by a psychopathic personality, blunted affect, delinquency, and serious violent offending. Reactive aggression was uniquely characterized at age 16 by impulsivity, hostility, social anxiety, lack of close friends, unusual perceptual experiences, and ideas of reference. Findings confirm and extend the differential correlates of proactive-reactive aggression, and demonstrate that this brief but reliable and valid self-report instrument can be used to assess proactive and reactive aggression in child and adolescent samples.

@article{doi101002ab20115,
    author = "Raine, Adrian and Dodge, Kenneth A. and Loeber, Rolf and Gatzke‐Kopp, Lisa M. and Lynam, Donald R. and Reynolds, Chandra A. and Stouthamer‐Loeber, Magda and Liu, Jianghong",
    title = "The reactive–proactive aggression questionnaire: differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Aggressive Behavior",
    abstract = "This study reports the development of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ), and the differential correlates of these two forms of aggression. Antisocial, psychosocial and personality measures were obtained at ages 7 and 16 years in schoolboys, while the RPQ was administered to 334 of the boys at age 16 years. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a significant fit for a two-factor proactive-reactive model that replicated from one independent subsample to another. Proactive aggression was uniquely characterized at age 7 by initiation of fights, strong-arm tactics, delinquency, poor school motivation, poor peer relationships, single-parent status, psychosocial adversity, substance-abusing parents, and hyperactivity, and at age 16 by a psychopathic personality, blunted affect, delinquency, and serious violent offending. Reactive aggression was uniquely characterized at age 16 by impulsivity, hostility, social anxiety, lack of close friends, unusual perceptual experiences, and ideas of reference. Findings confirm and extend the differential correlates of proactive-reactive aggression, and demonstrate that this brief but reliable and valid self-report instrument can be used to assess proactive and reactive aggression in child and adolescent samples.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115",
    doi = "10.1002/ab.20115",
    openalex = "W2054945284",
    references = "doi1010029781118619179, doi101007bf02294359, doi1010160198971590900504, doi101037003329091072238, doi10103700332909883588, doi1023071270020, doi1023072072165, doi1043249780203771693, openalexw1607171655, openalexw3217490374"
}

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 57 empirical studies (59 samples) concerning enacted workplace aggression to answer 3 research questions. First, what are the individual and situational predictors of interpersonal and organizational aggression? Second, within interpersonal aggression, are there different predictors of supervisor- and coworker-targeted aggression? Third, what are the relative contributions of individual (i.e., trait anger, negative affectivity, and biological sex) and situational (i.e., injustice, job dissatisfaction, interpersonal conflict, situational constraints, and poor leadership) factors in explaining interpersonal and organizational aggression? Results show that both individual and situational factors predict aggression and that the pattern of predictors is target specific. Implications for future research are discussed.

@article{doi10103700219010921228,
    author = "Hershcovis, M. Sandy and Turner, Nick and Barling, Julian and Arnold, Kara A. and Dupré, Kathryne E. and Inness, Michelle and LeBlanc, Manon Mireille and Sivanathan, Niro",
    title = "Predicting workplace aggression: A meta-analysis.",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Psychology",
    abstract = "The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 57 empirical studies (59 samples) concerning enacted workplace aggression to answer 3 research questions. First, what are the individual and situational predictors of interpersonal and organizational aggression? Second, within interpersonal aggression, are there different predictors of supervisor- and coworker-targeted aggression? Third, what are the relative contributions of individual (i.e., trait anger, negative affectivity, and biological sex) and situational (i.e., injustice, job dissatisfaction, interpersonal conflict, situational constraints, and poor leadership) factors in explaining interpersonal and organizational aggression? Results show that both individual and situational factors predict aggression and that the pattern of predictors is target specific. Implications for future research are discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.228",
    doi = "10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.228",
    openalex = "W2072226624",
    references = "doi101146annurevpsych53100901135231"
}

@article{doi101038nrn2174,
    author = "Nelson, Randy J. and Trainor, Brian C.",
    title = "Neural mechanisms of aggression",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Nature reviews. Neuroscience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2174",
    doi = "10.1038/nrn2174",
    openalex = "W1988418074",
    references = "doi101017s0140525x98001228"
}

This meta-analytic review of 148 studies on child and adolescent direct and indirect aggression examined the magnitude of gender differences, intercorrelations between forms, and associations with maladjustment. Results confirmed prior findings of gender differences (favoring boys) in direct aggression and trivial gender differences in indirect aggression. Results also indicated a substantial intercorrelation (r =.76) between these forms. Despite this high intercorrelation, the 2 forms showed unique associations with maladjustment: Direct aggression is more strongly related to externalizing problems, poor peer relations, and low prosocial behavior, and indirect aggression is related to internalizing problems and higher prosocial behavior. Moderation of these effect sizes by method of assessment, age, gender, and several additional variables were systematically investigated.

@article{doi101111j14678624200801184x,
    author = "Card, Noel A. and Stucky, Brian D. and Sawalani, Gita M. and Little, Todd D.",
    title = "Direct and Indirect Aggression During Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Differences, Intercorrelations, and Relations to Maladjustment",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Child Development",
    abstract = "This meta-analytic review of 148 studies on child and adolescent direct and indirect aggression examined the magnitude of gender differences, intercorrelations between forms, and associations with maladjustment. Results confirmed prior findings of gender differences (favoring boys) in direct aggression and trivial gender differences in indirect aggression. Results also indicated a substantial intercorrelation (r =.76) between these forms. Despite this high intercorrelation, the 2 forms showed unique associations with maladjustment: Direct aggression is more strongly related to externalizing problems, poor peer relations, and low prosocial behavior, and indirect aggression is related to internalizing problems and higher prosocial behavior. Moderation of these effect sizes by method of assessment, age, gender, and several additional variables were systematically investigated.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x",
    openalex = "W2014172771",
    references = "doi1010371089268084291, doi10103711160000, doi101111j146786241995tb00900x"
}

This article reviews research on workplace victimization, which we define as acts of aggression perpetrated by one or more members of an organization that cause psychological, emotional, or physical harm to their intended target. We compare several types of victimizing behaviors that have been introduced into the organizational psychology literature to illustrate differences and similarities among them. We then review studies looking at who is likely to become a victim of aggression. Predictors include personality, demographic, behavioral, structural, and organizational variables. We also review research on coping strategies for victimization, which include problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies. We conclude with a summary of challenges for victimization research. These include addressing the proliferation of constructs and terms into the literature, attempting to clarify inconclusive findings, and using theory to guide the selection of study variables.

@article{doi101146annurevpsych60110707163703,
    author = "Aquino, Karl and Thau, Stefan",
    title = "Workplace Victimization: Aggression from the Target's Perspective",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Annual Review of Psychology",
    abstract = "This article reviews research on workplace victimization, which we define as acts of aggression perpetrated by one or more members of an organization that cause psychological, emotional, or physical harm to their intended target. We compare several types of victimizing behaviors that have been introduced into the organizational psychology literature to illustrate differences and similarities among them. We then review studies looking at who is likely to become a victim of aggression. Predictors include personality, demographic, behavioral, structural, and organizational variables. We also review research on coping strategies for victimization, which include problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies. We conclude with a summary of challenges for victimization research. These include addressing the proliferation of constructs and terms into the literature, attempting to clarify inconclusive findings, and using theory to guide the selection of study variables.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163703",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163703",
    openalex = "W2124116553",
    references = "doi101037002190109241159, doi101146annurevpsych53100901135231"
}

Acts of violence account for an estimated 1.43 million deaths worldwide annually. While violence can occur in many contexts, individual acts of aggression account for the majority of instances. In some individuals, repetitive acts of aggression are grounded in an underlying neurobiological susceptibility that is just beginning to be understood. The failure of "top-down" control systems in the prefrontal cortex to modulate aggressive acts that are triggered by anger provoking stimuli appears to play an important role. An imbalance between prefrontal regulatory influences and hyper-responsivity of the amygdala and other limbic regions involved in affective evaluation are implicated. Insufficient serotonergic facilitation of "top-down" control, excessive catecholaminergic stimulation, and subcortical imbalances of glutamatergic/gabaminergic systems as well as pathology in neuropeptide systems involved in the regulation of affiliative behavior may contribute to abnormalities in this circuitry. Thus, pharmacological interventions such as mood stabilizers, which dampen limbic irritability, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which may enhance "top-down" control, as well as psychosocial interventions to develop alternative coping skills and reinforce reflective delays may be therapeutic.

@article{doi101176appiajp200807111774,
    author = "Siever, Larry J.",
    title = "Neurobiology of Aggression and Violence",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "American Journal of Psychiatry",
    abstract = {Acts of violence account for an estimated 1.43 million deaths worldwide annually. While violence can occur in many contexts, individual acts of aggression account for the majority of instances. In some individuals, repetitive acts of aggression are grounded in an underlying neurobiological susceptibility that is just beginning to be understood. The failure of "top-down" control systems in the prefrontal cortex to modulate aggressive acts that are triggered by anger provoking stimuli appears to play an important role. An imbalance between prefrontal regulatory influences and hyper-responsivity of the amygdala and other limbic regions involved in affective evaluation are implicated. Insufficient serotonergic facilitation of "top-down" control, excessive catecholaminergic stimulation, and subcortical imbalances of glutamatergic/gabaminergic systems as well as pathology in neuropeptide systems involved in the regulation of affiliative behavior may contribute to abnormalities in this circuitry. Thus, pharmacological interventions such as mood stabilizers, which dampen limbic irritability, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which may enhance "top-down" control, as well as psychosocial interventions to develop alternative coping skills and reinforce reflective delays may be therapeutic.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111774",
    doi = "10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111774",
    openalex = "W2143884902",
    references = "doi101002ab20115, doi101016s0140673602077401, doi101037002235145361146, doi101037003329091312202, doi1010370033295x973377, doi101038nature03701, doi101038nn1463, doi101046j14714159199666062621x, doi101126science1072290, doi101152physrev000022003, doi101523jneurosci3984052005"
}

@article{doi101002job621,
    author = "Hershcovis, M. Sandy and Barling, Julian",
    title = "Towards a multi‐foci approach to workplace aggression: A meta‐analytic review of outcomes from different perpetrators",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Organizational Behavior",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/job.621",
    doi = "10.1002/job.621",
    openalex = "W1975465630",
    references = "doi101037002190109241159"
}

Abstract I argue that the magnitude and nature of sex differences in aggression, their development, causation, and variability, can be better explained by sexual selection than by the alternative biosocial version of social role theory. Thus, sex differences in physical aggression increase with the degree of risk, occur early in life, peak in young adulthood, and are likely to be mediated by greater male impulsiveness, and greater female fear of physical danger. Male variability in physical aggression is consistent with an alternative life history perspective, and context-dependent variability with responses to reproductive competition, although some variability follows the internal and external influences of social roles. Other sex differences, in variance in reproductive output, threat displays, size and strength, maturation rates, and mortality and conception rates, all indicate that male aggression is part of a sexually selected adaptive complex. Physical aggression between partners can be explained using different evolutionary principles, arising from the conflicts of interest between males and females entering a reproductive alliance, combined with variability following differences in societal gender roles. In this case, social roles are particularly important since they enable both the relatively equality in physical aggression between partners from Western nations, and the considerable cross-national variability, to be explained.

@article{doi101017s0140525x09990951,
    author = "Archer, John",
    title = "Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract I argue that the magnitude and nature of sex differences in aggression, their development, causation, and variability, can be better explained by sexual selection than by the alternative biosocial version of social role theory. Thus, sex differences in physical aggression increase with the degree of risk, occur early in life, peak in young adulthood, and are likely to be mediated by greater male impulsiveness, and greater female fear of physical danger. Male variability in physical aggression is consistent with an alternative life history perspective, and context-dependent variability with responses to reproductive competition, although some variability follows the internal and external influences of social roles. Other sex differences, in variance in reproductive output, threat displays, size and strength, maturation rates, and mortality and conception rates, all indicate that male aggression is part of a sexually selected adaptive complex. Physical aggression between partners can be explained using different evolutionary principles, arising from the conflicts of interest between males and females entering a reproductive alliance, combined with variability following differences in societal gender roles. In this case, social roles are particularly important since they enable both the relatively equality in physical aggression between partners from Western nations, and the considerable cross-national variability, to be explained.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x09990951",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x09990951",
    openalex = "W2005139579",
    references = "doi101002ab20115, doi101002sici109686441999110291aidajpa230co2e, doi101007978146847862422, doi1010079789400767720, doi101016s0005789475800311, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi101126science327542, doi101146annurevanthro291125, doi1015159780691207278, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023071367778, doi102307351733, doi1043249781315129266"
}

Meta-analytic procedures were used to test the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, empathy/desensitization, and prosocial behavior. Unique features of this meta-analytic review include (a) more restrictive methodological quality inclusion criteria than in past meta-analyses; (b) cross-cultural comparisons; (c) longitudinal studies for all outcomes except physiological arousal; (d) conservative statistical controls; (e) multiple moderator analyses; and (f) sensitivity analyses. Social-cognitive models and cultural differences between Japan and Western countries were used to generate theory-based predictions. Meta-analyses yielded significant effects for all 6 outcome variables. The pattern of results for different outcomes and research designs (experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal) fit theoretical predictions well. The evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior. Moderator analyses revealed significant research design effects, weak evidence of cultural differences in susceptibility and type of measurement effects, and no evidence of sex differences in susceptibility. Results of various sensitivity analyses revealed these effects to be robust, with little evidence of selection (publication) bias.

@article{doi101037a0018251,
    author = "Anderson, Craig A. and Shibuya, Akiko and Ihori, Nobuko and Swing, Edward L. and Bushman, Brad J. and Sakamoto, Akira and Rothstein, Hannah R. and Saleem, Muniba",
    title = "Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries: A meta-analytic review.",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Psychological Bulletin",
    abstract = "Meta-analytic procedures were used to test the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, empathy/desensitization, and prosocial behavior. Unique features of this meta-analytic review include (a) more restrictive methodological quality inclusion criteria than in past meta-analyses; (b) cross-cultural comparisons; (c) longitudinal studies for all outcomes except physiological arousal; (d) conservative statistical controls; (e) multiple moderator analyses; and (f) sensitivity analyses. Social-cognitive models and cultural differences between Japan and Western countries were used to generate theory-based predictions. Meta-analyses yielded significant effects for all 6 outcome variables. The pattern of results for different outcomes and research designs (experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal) fit theoretical predictions well. The evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior. Moderator analyses revealed significant research design effects, weak evidence of cultural differences in susceptibility and type of measurement effects, and no evidence of sex differences in susceptibility. Results of various sensitivity analyses revealed these effects to be robust, with little evidence of selection (publication) bias.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251",
    doi = "10.1037/a0018251",
    openalex = "W2151922135",
    references = "doi1010020470870168, doi1010079789400767720, doi10103700223514633452, doi10103700223514852197, doi10103700332909115174, doi1010370033295x1082291, doi10108001621459200010473905, doi10108003637750500111781, doi101111j0006341x200000455x, doi101207s15327957pspr08031, doi102307582242, openalexw1977004202"
}

Interpersonal provocation is a common and robust antecedent to aggression. Four studies identified angry rumination and reduced self-control as mechanisms underlying the provocation-aggression relationship. Following provocation, participants demonstrated decreased self-control on an unpleasant task relative to a control condition (Study 1). When provoked, rumination reduced self-control and increased aggression. This effect was mediated by reduced self-control capacity (Study 2). State rumination following provocation, but not anger per se, mediated the effect of trait rumination on aggression (Study 3). Bolstering self-regulatory resources by consuming a glucose beverage improved performance on a measure of inhibitory control following rumination (Study 4). These findings suggest that rumination following an anger-inducing provocation reduces self-control and increases aggression. Bolstering self-regulatory resources may reduce this adverse effect.

@article{doi1011770146167211401420,
    author = "Denson, Thomas F. and Pedersen, William C. and Friese, Malte and Hahm, Aryun and Roberts, Lynette",
    title = "Understanding Impulsive Aggression: Angry Rumination and Reduced Self-Control Capacity Are Mechanisms Underlying the Provocation-Aggression Relationship",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin",
    abstract = "Interpersonal provocation is a common and robust antecedent to aggression. Four studies identified angry rumination and reduced self-control as mechanisms underlying the provocation-aggression relationship. Following provocation, participants demonstrated decreased self-control on an unpleasant task relative to a control condition (Study 1). When provoked, rumination reduced self-control and increased aggression. This effect was mediated by reduced self-control capacity (Study 2). State rumination following provocation, but not anger per se, mediated the effect of trait rumination on aggression (Study 3). Bolstering self-regulatory resources by consuming a glucose beverage improved performance on a measure of inhibitory control following rumination (Study 4). These findings suggest that rumination following an anger-inducing provocation reduces self-control and increases aggression. Bolstering self-regulatory resources may reduce this adverse effect.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211401420",
    doi = "10.1177/0146167211401420",
    openalex = "W2149385112",
    references = "doi101176appiajp200807111774"
}

@article{doi101016jsleep201112006,
    author = "Kamphuis, Jeanine and Meerlo, Peter and Koolhaas, Jaap M. and Lancel, Marike",
    title = "Poor sleep as a potential causal factor in aggression and violence",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Sleep Medicine",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2011.12.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.sleep.2011.12.006",
    openalex = "W2040894493",
    references = "doi101176appiajp200807111774"
}

Comprised of papers and commentaries from the Earlscourt Symposium on Childhood Aggression held in Toronto, Canada, this volume reflects the Earlscourt Child and Family Centre's commitment to linking clinical practice to identifiable research-based interventions which are known to be effective in the prevention and treatment of antisocial behavior in children. The education of human services professionals has typically failed to train individuals to work with specific client populations, providing a generalist approach grounded in theoretical assumptions and professional values rather than research and empirical studies. This compelling book serves to fill this gap in professional education in the area of childhood aggression. Representing substantial accomplishments in the advancement of an understanding of the plight of aggressive children and how best to ameliorate their often unpredictable and painful situations, this text allows for cautious optimism that empirical research can have practical consequences for aggressive children and their prospects for a better life. As such, it is a truly important information resource for professionals in the fields of developmental psychology and counseling.

@book{doi1043249780203771693,
    author = "Rubin, Kenneth H. and Pepler, Debra J.",
    title = "The Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression",
    year = "2013",
    booktitle = "Psychology Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Comprised of papers and commentaries from the Earlscourt Symposium on Childhood Aggression held in Toronto, Canada, this volume reflects the Earlscourt Child and Family Centre's commitment to linking clinical practice to identifiable research-based interventions which are known to be effective in the prevention and treatment of antisocial behavior in children. The education of human services professionals has typically failed to train individuals to work with specific client populations, providing a generalist approach grounded in theoretical assumptions and professional values rather than research and empirical studies. This compelling book serves to fill this gap in professional education in the area of childhood aggression. Representing substantial accomplishments in the advancement of an understanding of the plight of aggressive children and how best to ameliorate their often unpredictable and painful situations, this text allows for cautious optimism that empirical research can have practical consequences for aggressive children and their prospects for a better life. As such, it is a truly important information resource for professionals in the fields of developmental psychology and counseling.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771693",
    doi = "10.4324/9780203771693",
    openalex = "W2784322274"
}

Aggression and violence represent a significant public health concern and a clinical challenge for the mental healthcare provider. A great deal has been revealed regarding the neurobiology of violence and aggression, and an integration of this body of knowledge will ultimately serve to advance clinical diagnostics and therapeutic interventions. We will review here the latest findings regarding the neurobiology of aggression and violence. First, we will introduce the construct of aggression, with a focus on issues related to its heterogeneity, as well as the importance of refining the aggression phenotype in order to reduce pathophysiologic variability. Next we will examine the neuroanatomy of aggression and violence, focusing on regional volumes, functional studies, and interregional connectivity. Significant emphasis will be on the amygdala, as well as amygdala-frontal circuitry. Then we will turn our attention to the neurochemistry and molecular genetics of aggression and violence, examining the extensive findings on the serotonergic system, as well as the growing literature on the dopaminergic and vasopressinergic systems. We will also address the contribution of steroid hormones, namely, cortisol and testosterone. Finally, we will summarize these findings with a focus on reconciling inconsistencies and potential clinical implications; and, then we will suggest areas of focus for future directions in the field.

@article{doi101017s109285291500019x,
    author = "Rosell, Daniel R. and Siever, Larry J.",
    title = "The neurobiology of aggression and violence",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "CNS Spectrums",
    abstract = "Aggression and violence represent a significant public health concern and a clinical challenge for the mental healthcare provider. A great deal has been revealed regarding the neurobiology of violence and aggression, and an integration of this body of knowledge will ultimately serve to advance clinical diagnostics and therapeutic interventions. We will review here the latest findings regarding the neurobiology of aggression and violence. First, we will introduce the construct of aggression, with a focus on issues related to its heterogeneity, as well as the importance of refining the aggression phenotype in order to reduce pathophysiologic variability. Next we will examine the neuroanatomy of aggression and violence, focusing on regional volumes, functional studies, and interregional connectivity. Significant emphasis will be on the amygdala, as well as amygdala-frontal circuitry. Then we will turn our attention to the neurochemistry and molecular genetics of aggression and violence, examining the extensive findings on the serotonergic system, as well as the growing literature on the dopaminergic and vasopressinergic systems. We will also address the contribution of steroid hormones, namely, cortisol and testosterone. Finally, we will summarize these findings with a focus on reconciling inconsistencies and potential clinical implications; and, then we will suggest areas of focus for future directions in the field.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s109285291500019x",
    doi = "10.1017/s109285291500019x",
    openalex = "W771105852",
    references = "doi101002ab20115, doi101016jjchemneu200310003, doi101037002235145361146, doi101038nn1463, doi101046j14714159199666062621x, doi101126science8211186, doi101152physrev000022003, doi101523jneurosci2215068102002, doi1023071131875"
}

@article{doi101016jpnpbp201601001,
    author = "Godar, Sean C. and Fite, Paula J. and McFarlin, Kenneth M. and Bortolato, Marco",
    title = "The role of monoamine oxidase A in aggression: Current translational developments and future challenges",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.001",
    openalex = "W2222458118",
    references = "doi101017s109285291500019x"
}

@article{doi101016jneubiorev201709017,
    author = "Haller, József",
    title = "The role of central and medial amygdala in normal and abnormal aggression: A review of classical approaches",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Neuroscience \& Biobehavioral Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.017",
    doi = "10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.017",
    openalex = "W2754545671",
    references = "doi101017s109285291500019x"
}

@article{doi101016jneuron201706046,
    author = "Yang, Taehong and Yang, Cindy F. and Chizari, Mojtaba and Maheswaranathan, Niru and Burke, Kenneth J. and Borius, Maxim and Inoue, Sayaka and Chiang, Michael and Bender, Kevin J. and Ganguli, Surya and Shah, Nirao M.",
    title = "Social Control of Hypothalamus-Mediated Male Aggression",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Neuron",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.046",
    doi = "10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.046",
    openalex = "W2741363039",
    references = "doi101017s109285291500019x"
}

Two major types of aggression, proactive and reactive, are associated with contrasting expression, eliciting factors, neural pathways, development, and function. The distinction is useful for understanding the nature and evolution of human aggression. Compared with many primates, humans have a high propensity for proactive aggression, a trait shared with chimpanzees but not bonobos. By contrast, humans have a low propensity for reactive aggression compared with chimpanzees, and in this respect humans are more bonobo-like. The bimodal classification of human aggression helps solve two important puzzles. First, a long-standing debate about the significance of aggression in human nature is misconceived, because both positions are partly correct. The Hobbes-Huxley position rightly recognizes the high potential for proactive violence, while the Rousseau-Kropotkin position correctly notes the low frequency of reactive aggression. Second, the occurrence of two major types of human aggression solves the execution paradox, concerned with the hypothesized effects of capital punishment on self-domestication in the Pleistocene. The puzzle is that the propensity for aggressive behavior was supposedly reduced as a result of being selected against by capital punishment, but capital punishment is itself an aggressive behavior. Since the aggression used by executioners is proactive, the execution paradox is solved to the extent that the aggressive behavior of which victims were accused was frequently reactive, as has been reported. Both types of killing are important in humans, although proactive killing appears to be typically more frequent in war. The biology of proactive aggression is less well known and merits increased attention.

@article{doi101073pnas1713611115,
    author = "Wrangham, Richard W.",
    title = "Two types of aggression in human evolution",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Two major types of aggression, proactive and reactive, are associated with contrasting expression, eliciting factors, neural pathways, development, and function. The distinction is useful for understanding the nature and evolution of human aggression. Compared with many primates, humans have a high propensity for proactive aggression, a trait shared with chimpanzees but not bonobos. By contrast, humans have a low propensity for reactive aggression compared with chimpanzees, and in this respect humans are more bonobo-like. The bimodal classification of human aggression helps solve two important puzzles. First, a long-standing debate about the significance of aggression in human nature is misconceived, because both positions are partly correct. The Hobbes-Huxley position rightly recognizes the high potential for proactive violence, while the Rousseau-Kropotkin position correctly notes the low frequency of reactive aggression. Second, the occurrence of two major types of human aggression solves the execution paradox, concerned with the hypothesized effects of capital punishment on self-domestication in the Pleistocene. The puzzle is that the propensity for aggressive behavior was supposedly reduced as a result of being selected against by capital punishment, but capital punishment is itself an aggressive behavior. Since the aggression used by executioners is proactive, the execution paradox is solved to the extent that the aggressive behavior of which victims were accused was frequently reactive, as has been reported. Both types of killing are important in humans, although proactive killing appears to be typically more frequent in war. The biology of proactive aggression is less well known and merits increased attention.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713611115",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1713611115",
    openalex = "W2775958664",
    references = "doi101002ab20115, doi101007978140206287210, doi101017cbo9780511606397, doi101017s0140525x09990951, doi101037002235145361146, doi101098rsos160107, doi101126science1240937, doi101126science2895479591, doi101176appiajp200807111774, doi1023071131875, doi105860choice473250, doi105860choice495144, openalexw1977004202, openalexw2001431842"
}

@article{doi101016javb201908003,
    author = "Bresin, Konrad",
    title = "Impulsivity and aggression: A meta-analysis using the UPPS model of impulsivity",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Aggression and Violent Behavior",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.003",
    openalex = "W2968446269",
    references = "doi101017s109285291500019x"
}

@article{doi101038s41593020007152,
    author = "Lischinsky, Julieta E. and Lin, Dayu",
    title = "Neural mechanisms of aggression across species",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Nature Neuroscience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00715-2",
    doi = "10.1038/s41593-020-00715-2",
    openalex = "W3091775171",
    references = "doi101073pnas1713611115"
}

The hypothesis of chronically low brain serotonin levels as pathophysiologically linked to impulsive aggression has been around for several decades. Whereas the theory was initially based on indirect methods to probe serotonin function, our understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in impulsive aggression has progressed with recent advances in neuroimaging. The review integrates evidence based on data from several neuroimaging domains in humans. In vivo molecular neuroimaging findings demonstrate associations between impulsive aggression and high serotonin 1B and serotonin 4 receptor binding, high serotonin transporter levels, and low monoamine oxidase A levels, suggesting that low interstitial serotonin levels are a neurobiological risk factor for impulsive aggressive behavior. Imaging genetics suggests that serotonergic-related genetic polymorphisms associate with antisocial behavior, and some evidence indicates that the low-expressing monoamine oxidase A genotype specifically predisposes to impulsive aggression, which may be mediated by effects on corticolimbic function. Interventions that (presumably) alter serotonin levels have effects on brain activity within brain regions involved in impulsive aggression, notably the amygdala, dorsal striatum, anterior cingulate, insula, and prefrontal cortex. Based on these findings, we propose a model for the modulatory role of serotonin in impulsive aggression. Future studies should ensure that clinical features unique for impulsive aggression are appropriately assessed, and we propose investigations of knowledge gaps that can help confirm, refute, or modify our proposed model of impulsive aggression.

@article{doi101016jbiopsych202105016,
    author = "da Cunha‐Bang, Sofi and Knudsen, Gitte M.",
    title = "The Modulatory Role of Serotonin on Human Impulsive Aggression",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Biological Psychiatry",
    abstract = "The hypothesis of chronically low brain serotonin levels as pathophysiologically linked to impulsive aggression has been around for several decades. Whereas the theory was initially based on indirect methods to probe serotonin function, our understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in impulsive aggression has progressed with recent advances in neuroimaging. The review integrates evidence based on data from several neuroimaging domains in humans. In vivo molecular neuroimaging findings demonstrate associations between impulsive aggression and high serotonin 1B and serotonin 4 receptor binding, high serotonin transporter levels, and low monoamine oxidase A levels, suggesting that low interstitial serotonin levels are a neurobiological risk factor for impulsive aggressive behavior. Imaging genetics suggests that serotonergic-related genetic polymorphisms associate with antisocial behavior, and some evidence indicates that the low-expressing monoamine oxidase A genotype specifically predisposes to impulsive aggression, which may be mediated by effects on corticolimbic function. Interventions that (presumably) alter serotonin levels have effects on brain activity within brain regions involved in impulsive aggression, notably the amygdala, dorsal striatum, anterior cingulate, insula, and prefrontal cortex. Based on these findings, we propose a model for the modulatory role of serotonin in impulsive aggression. Future studies should ensure that clinical features unique for impulsive aggression are appropriately assessed, and we propose investigations of knowledge gaps that can help confirm, refute, or modify our proposed model of impulsive aggression.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.016",
    doi = "10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.016",
    openalex = "W3164252487",
    references = "doi101017s109285291500019x, doi101073pnas1713611115"
}

BACKGROUND: Nursing students often report high anxiety and low confidence when anticipating patient aggression during mental health clinical rotations. METHOD: A quantitative, quasiexperimental pre-post design was used to evaluate the feasibility of implementing preclinical aggression management training with a small cohort of students at one site. RESULTS: Training was implemented without barriers, demonstrating feasibility. Preliminary findings suggest potential benefits for student preparedness, although sample size and setting were limited. CONCLUSION: Aggression management training prior to clinical placement is feasible and warrants larger, multisite studies to evaluate effectiveness in reducing student anxiety and improving confidence.

@article{doi103928014848342026031603,
    author = "Baisden, Paula and Cray, Danielle",
    title = "Aggression Management Training for Nursing Students: A Feasibility Study.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "The Journal of nursing education",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: Nursing students often report high anxiety and low confidence when anticipating patient aggression during mental health clinical rotations. METHOD: A quantitative, quasiexperimental pre-post design was used to evaluate the feasibility of implementing preclinical aggression management training with a small cohort of students at one site. RESULTS: Training was implemented without barriers, demonstrating feasibility. Preliminary findings suggest potential benefits for student preparedness, although sample size and setting were limited. CONCLUSION: Aggression management training prior to clinical placement is feasible and warrants larger, multisite studies to evaluate effectiveness in reducing student anxiety and improving confidence.",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42043339/",
    doi = "10.3928/01484834-20260316-03",
    pmid = "42043339"
}