Australia

@article{gould1848apteryx,
    author = "Gould, John",
    title = "Apteryx Australis, Shaw., Kiwi-kiwi, [Pl. 2]",
    year = "1848",
    journal = "The birds of Australia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/p.313326",
    doi = "10.5962/p.313326",
    volume = "6"
}

@techreport{oliver1949the6,
    author = "Oliver, W. R. B",
    title = "The Moas of New Zealand and Australia",
    year = "1949",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of the Dominion Museum, v. 15",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Oliver, W. R. B., 1949, The Moas of New Zealand and Australia: Bulletin of the Dominion Museum, v. 15.}"
}

@misc{andrewartha1963density1,
    author = "Andrewartha, H. G",
    title = "Density dependence in the Australian thrips",
    year = "1963",
    howpublished = "Ecology, v. 44, p. 218-220",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Andrewartha, H. G., 1963, Density dependence in the Australian thrips: Ecology, v. 44, p. 218-220.}"
}

@misc{schumm1968river7,
    author = "Schumm, S. A",
    title = "River adjustment to altered hydrologic regimen, Murrumbidgee River and paleochannels, Australia",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper, v. 598",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Schumm, S. A., 1968, River adjustment to altered hydrologic regimen, Murrumbidgee River and paleochannels, Australia: United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper, v. 598.}"
}

Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) were studied by telemetry methods. Using the equipment described, the temperature was found to be 37.0°C on the upper surface of the egg in contact with the male’s brood patch and 35.0°C at an approximate embryo depth within the egg. Using the temperatures obtained and to test the observation that the eggs are not turned, artificial incubation of a kiwi egg was successfully carried out.

@article{rowe1978incubation,
    author = "Rowe, Barry",
    title = "Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli)",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Notornis",
    abstract = "Incubation temperatures of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) were studied by telemetry methods. Using the equipment described, the temperature was found to be 37.0°C on the upper surface of the egg in contact with the male’s brood patch and 35.0°C at an approximate embryo depth within the egg. Using the temperatures obtained and to test the observation that the eggs are not turned, artificial incubation of a kiwi egg was successfully carried out.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/775141iixtcy",
    doi = "10.63172/775141iixtcy",
    number = "3",
    pages = "213",
    volume = "25"
}

@techreport{shibaoka1978hydrocarbon8,
    author = "Shibaoka, M. and Saxby, J. D. and Taylor, G. H",
    title = "Hydrocarbon generation in Gippsland basin, Australia--Comparison with Cooper Basin, Australia",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 62, no. 7, p. 1151-1158",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Shibaoka, M., Saxby, J. D., and Taylor, G. H., 1978, Hydrocarbon generation in Gippsland basin, Australia--Comparison with Cooper Basin, Australia: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 62, no. 7, p. 1151-1158.}"
}

@misc{finlowbates1979cyclicity2,
    author = "Finlow-Bates, T",
    title = "Cyclicity in the lead-zinc-silver bearing sediments at Mount Isa mine, Queensland, Austrailia, and rates of sulfide accumulation",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Economic Geology, v. 74, p. 1408-1419",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Finlow-Bates, T., 1979, Cyclicity in the lead-zinc-silver bearing sediments at Mount Isa mine, Queensland, Austrailia, and rates of sulfide accumulation: Economic Geology, v. 74, p. 1408-1419.}"
}

@article{mcgowen1979the3,
    author = "McGowen, C",
    title = "The hindlimb musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology, v. 160, p. 33-74",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McGowen, C., 1979, The hindlimb musculature of the Brown Kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli: Journal of Morphology, v. 160, p. 33-74.}"
}

@article{scarlett1979the,
    author = "Scarlett, Ron J.",
    title = "The hind limb musculature of the brown kiwi, Apteryx australis mantelli",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/783716nfvuwm",
    doi = "10.63172/783716nfvuwm",
    number = "3",
    pages = "323",
    volume = "26"
}

@misc{molnar1980a5,
    author = "Molnar, R. E. and Pledge, N. S",
    title = "A new theropod dinosaur from South Australia",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Alcheringa, v. 4, p. 281-287",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Molnar, R. E., and Pledge, N. S., 1980, A new theropod dinosaur from South Australia: Alcheringa, v. 4, p. 281-287.}"
}

@article{reid1981estimating,
    author = "Reid, Brian",
    title = "Estimating the fresh weight of eggs of brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli)",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/227749eqznrp",
    doi = "10.63172/227749eqznrp",
    number = "4",
    pages = "288",
    volume = "28"
}

@article{fleming1982the,
    author = "Fleming, Charles A.",
    title = "The wing musculature of the brown kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Notornis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/461814nikscx",
    doi = "10.63172/461814nikscx",
    number = "4",
    pages = "340",
    volume = "29"
}

@article{mcgowen1982the4,
    author = "McGowen, C",
    title = "The wing musculature of the Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, v. 197, p. 179- 219",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McGowen, C., 1982, The wing musculature of the Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis mantelli and its bearing on ratite affinities: Journal of Zoology, v. 197, p. 179- 219.}"
}

@misc{snelling1982the9,
    author = "Snelling, A",
    title = "The recent origin of Bass Strait oil and gas",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "Ex Nihilo, v. 5, no. 2, p. 43-46; International Edition, Vol. 1, No. 2",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Snelling, A., 1982, The recent origin of Bass Strait oil and gas: Ex Nihilo, v. 5, no. 2, p. 43-46; International Edition, Vol. 1, No. 2.}"
}

@misc{thulborn1984dinosaur10,
    author = "Thulborn, R. A. and Wade, M",
    title = "Dinosaur trackways in the Winton Formation (Mid-Cretaceous) of Queensland",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, v. 21, p. 413-517",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Thulborn, R. A., and Wade, M., 1984, Dinosaur trackways in the Winton Formation (Mid-Cretaceous) of Queensland: Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, v. 21, p. 413-517.}"
}

A kiwi chick has been examined at intervals for four and a half years since hatching. The rate of skeletal maturation has been analysed from radiographs (x‐ray photographs). Other aspects of the skeleton have been assessed, particularly the cervical spine. The results suggest that the thorax of the ancestors of the kiwi was more cephalically placed than at present and that four vertebrae classified as cervical were then in the thorax and carried ribs. Even in the modern kiwi vestigial ribs can be seen on the fifteenth cervical vertebra. Studies of the gastrointestinal tract have been carried out on other kiwis using a barium solution with videotaping and radiographic procedures. Anatomical and physiological observations, e.g., temperature, pulse and respiration studies have been made. On those birds requiring anaesthesia the effects of anaesthetic agents have been recorded. Some blood analysis has been done and there are observations on air sacs, the diaphragm and eggs. There is an appendix detailing the radiographic procedures used and the total amount of radiation administered, which was not significantly greater than natural gamma radiation over the same period.

@article{doi10108003036758198510416843,
    author = "Beale, Graham",
    title = "A radiological study of the kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli)",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand",
    abstract = "A kiwi chick has been examined at intervals for four and a half years since hatching. The rate of skeletal maturation has been analysed from radiographs (x‐ray photographs). Other aspects of the skeleton have been assessed, particularly the cervical spine. The results suggest that the thorax of the ancestors of the kiwi was more cephalically placed than at present and that four vertebrae classified as cervical were then in the thorax and carried ribs. Even in the modern kiwi vestigial ribs can be seen on the fifteenth cervical vertebra. Studies of the gastrointestinal tract have been carried out on other kiwis using a barium solution with videotaping and radiographic procedures. Anatomical and physiological observations, e.g., temperature, pulse and respiration studies have been made. On those birds requiring anaesthesia the effects of anaesthetic agents have been recorded. Some blood analysis has been done and there are observations on air sacs, the diaphragm and eggs. There is an appendix detailing the radiographic procedures used and the total amount of radiation administered, which was not significantly greater than natural gamma radiation over the same period.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/03036758.1985.10416843",
    doi = "10.1080/03036758.1985.10416843",
    openalex = "W2059253286",
    references = "doi101071mu956199"
}

@misc{weinberg1986creationevolution11,
    author = "Weinberg, S. N",
    title = "Creation/Evolution Literature from Austraila",
    year = "1986",
    howpublished = "Creation/ Evolution Newsletter, v. 6, p. 20-22",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Weinberg, S. N., 1986, Creation/Evolution Literature from Austraila: Creation/ Evolution Newsletter, v. 6, p. 20-22.}"
}

Kiwis are flightless, nocturnal birds with relatively small rudimentary eyes. Numerous reports indicate that these birds are myopic. Refractive measurements, carried out by retinoscopy and photorefraction, on two brown kiwis (Apteryx australis) show that they are hyperopic by amounts varying between 2.3 and 7.0 diopters. This variation is presumably an indication of accommodative ability. Since the kiwi eye is relatively small and since the refractive measurements may be based on reflection from the vitreous surface of the retina, all or part of the hyperopia measured may be artifactual.

@article{sivak1987refractive,
    author = "Sivak, J. G. and Howland, H. C.",
    title = "Refractive state of the eye of the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Kiwis are flightless, nocturnal birds with relatively small rudimentary eyes. Numerous reports indicate that these birds are myopic. Refractive measurements, carried out by retinoscopy and photorefraction, on two brown kiwis (Apteryx australis) show that they are hyperopic by amounts varying between 2.3 and 7.0 diopters. This variation is presumably an indication of accommodative ability. Since the kiwi eye is relatively small and since the refractive measurements may be based on reflection from the vitreous surface of the retina, all or part of the hyperopia measured may be artifactual.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/z87-431",
    doi = "10.1139/z87-431",
    number = "11",
    openalex = "W2048301456",
    pages = "2833-2835",
    volume = "65",
    references = "doi101007bf01861096, doi1010160042698983900676, doi1010160042698984901809, doi1010970000632419791100000004, doi1010970000653419731100000020, doi101126science1683931605, doi101364josa64000240, doi101364josa73001701, openalexw2416805857"
}

@article{howland1992focusing,
    author = "Howland, H.C. and Howland, M. and Schmid, K.L.",
    title = "Focusing and accommodation in the brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Physiology A",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00198978",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00198978",
    number = "6",
    volume = "170"
}

A case of disseminated cryptococcosis in a North Island kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) caused by Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii (serotype B) is reported. This is the first case of cryptococcosis to be reported in a kiwi and is also the first isolation of C. neoformans var. gattii from a veterinary source in New Zealand. The kiwi is an example of a ratite bird and as such has a lower body temperature approximating that of a mammal. As a consequence, the kiwi and other ratitis (e.g. emus) would be expected to show an increased susceptibility to cryptococcosis compared with other birds. There has been only one other isolate of this variety of C. neoformans in New Zealand and this was isolated from the sputum of a human male with leukaemia who was from the Gisborne area of the North Island, a region adjacent to Hawkes Bay where the case of kiwi cryptococcosis occurred. Some months prior to the development of the infection in the bird, a mulch of Eucalyptus leaves/twigs had been spread throughout the kiwi enclosure and this is considered to have been the probable source of the yeast. Neither Eucalyptus camaldulensis nor Eucalyptus tereticornis were among the species from which the mulch material originated and it is suggested another species may be the environmental host(s) of C. neoformans var. gattii in New Zealand.

@article{doi10108002681219580000621,
    author = "Hill, F. and Woodgyer, Alan and Lintott, M.A.",
    title = "Cryptococcosis in a North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) in New Zealand",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Medical Mycology",
    abstract = "A case of disseminated cryptococcosis in a North Island kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) caused by Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii (serotype B) is reported. This is the first case of cryptococcosis to be reported in a kiwi and is also the first isolation of C. neoformans var. gattii from a veterinary source in New Zealand. The kiwi is an example of a ratite bird and as such has a lower body temperature approximating that of a mammal. As a consequence, the kiwi and other ratitis (e.g. emus) would be expected to show an increased susceptibility to cryptococcosis compared with other birds. There has been only one other isolate of this variety of C. neoformans in New Zealand and this was isolated from the sputum of a human male with leukaemia who was from the Gisborne area of the North Island, a region adjacent to Hawkes Bay where the case of kiwi cryptococcosis occurred. Some months prior to the development of the infection in the bird, a mulch of Eucalyptus leaves/twigs had been spread throughout the kiwi enclosure and this is considered to have been the probable source of the yeast. Neither Eucalyptus camaldulensis nor Eucalyptus tereticornis were among the species from which the mulch material originated and it is suggested another species may be the environmental host(s) of C. neoformans var. gattii in New Zealand.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02681219580000621",
    doi = "10.1080/02681219580000621",
    openalex = "W2075097980",
    references = "doi101071mu956199"
}

Incubation behaviour varies among the different taxa of kiwi. For North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) and little spotted kiwi (A. owenii), only the male incubates the eggs, except for in the first week. Meanwhile, for Okarito brown kiwi (A. mantelli) and the tokoeka (A. australis), incubation is shared by both sexes. In addition, amongst southern tokoeka, family group members can assist with incubation to the extent that breeding males may take no part in incubation at all. This study shows that kiwi turn their eggs regularly, an observation that contradicts earlier findings. There is a mean incubation temperature of 36.5°C at the top of the egg but the bottom may be 10°C lower in North Island brown kiwi and 5-8°C lower in Okarito brown kiwi eggs. Experiments inducing water loss from fertile and infertile eggs show that the presence of an embryo does not influence rate of water loss. North Island brown kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi and tokoeka regularly have more than one clutch in a season, and some North Island brown kiwi females lay up to seven eggs each year.

@article{openalexw2127729266,
    author = "Colbourne, Rogan M.",
    title = "Incubation behaviour and egg physiology of kiwi (Apteryx spp.) in natural habitats",
    year = "2002",
    abstract = "Incubation behaviour varies among the different taxa of kiwi. For North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) and little spotted kiwi (A. owenii), only the male incubates the eggs, except for in the first week. Meanwhile, for Okarito brown kiwi (A. mantelli) and the tokoeka (A. australis), incubation is shared by both sexes. In addition, amongst southern tokoeka, family group members can assist with incubation to the extent that breeding males may take no part in incubation at all. This study shows that kiwi turn their eggs regularly, an observation that contradicts earlier findings. There is a mean incubation temperature of 36.5°C at the top of the egg but the bottom may be 10°C lower in North Island brown kiwi and 5-8°C lower in Okarito brown kiwi eggs. Experiments inducing water loss from fertile and infertile eggs show that the presence of an embryo does not influence rate of water loss. North Island brown kiwi, Okarito brown kiwi and tokoeka regularly have more than one clutch in a season, and some North Island brown kiwi females lay up to seven eggs each year.",
    openalex = "W2127729266",
    references = "doi1023073800210"
}

The Early Cretaceous fauna of Victoria, Australia, provides unique data on the composition of high latitude southern hemisphere dinosaurs. We describe and review theropod dinosaur postcranial remains from the Aptian-Albian Otway and Strzelecki groups, based on at least 37 isolated bones, and more than 90 teeth from the Flat Rocks locality. Several specimens of medium- and large-bodied individuals (estimated up to ~8.5 metres long) represent allosauroids. Tyrannosauroids are represented by elements indicating medium body sizes (~3 metres long), likely including the holotype femur of Timimus hermani, and a single cervical vertebra represents a juvenile spinosaurid. Single specimens representing medium- and small-bodied theropods may be referrable to Ceratosauria, Ornithomimosauria, a basal coelurosaur, and at least three taxa within Maniraptora. Thus, nine theropod taxa may have been present. Alternatively, four distinct dorsal vertebrae indicate a minimum of four taxa. However, because most taxa are known from single bones, it is likely that small-bodied theropod diversity remains underestimated. The high abundance of allosauroids and basal coelurosaurs (including tyrannosauroids and possibly ornithomimosaurs), and the relative rarity of ceratosaurs, is strikingly dissimilar to penecontemporaneous dinosaur faunas of Africa and South America, which represent an arid, lower-latitude biome. Similarities between dinosaur faunas of Victoria and the northern continents concern the proportional representatation of higher clades, and may result from the prevailing temperate-polar climate of Australia, especially at high latitudes in Victoria, which is similar to the predominant warm-temperate climate of Laurasia, but distinct from the arid climate zone that covered extensive areas of Gondwana. Most dinosaur groups probably attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Jurassic, prior to fragmentation of the Pangaean supercontinent, and some aspects of the hallmark 'Gondwanan' fauna of South America and Africa may therefore reflect climate-driven provinciality, not vicariant evolution driven by continental fragmentation. However, vicariance may still be detected at lower phylogenetic levels.

@article{doi101371journalpone0037122,
    author = "Benson, Roger and Rich, Thomas H. and Vickers-Rich, Patricia and Hall, Mike",
    title = "Theropod Fauna from Southern Australia Indicates High Polar Diversity and Climate-Driven Dinosaur Provinciality",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "The Early Cretaceous fauna of Victoria, Australia, provides unique data on the composition of high latitude southern hemisphere dinosaurs. We describe and review theropod dinosaur postcranial remains from the Aptian-Albian Otway and Strzelecki groups, based on at least 37 isolated bones, and more than 90 teeth from the Flat Rocks locality. Several specimens of medium- and large-bodied individuals (estimated up to \textasciitilde 8.5 metres long) represent allosauroids. Tyrannosauroids are represented by elements indicating medium body sizes (\textasciitilde 3 metres long), likely including the holotype femur of Timimus hermani, and a single cervical vertebra represents a juvenile spinosaurid. Single specimens representing medium- and small-bodied theropods may be referrable to Ceratosauria, Ornithomimosauria, a basal coelurosaur, and at least three taxa within Maniraptora. Thus, nine theropod taxa may have been present. Alternatively, four distinct dorsal vertebrae indicate a minimum of four taxa. However, because most taxa are known from single bones, it is likely that small-bodied theropod diversity remains underestimated. The high abundance of allosauroids and basal coelurosaurs (including tyrannosauroids and possibly ornithomimosaurs), and the relative rarity of ceratosaurs, is strikingly dissimilar to penecontemporaneous dinosaur faunas of Africa and South America, which represent an arid, lower-latitude biome. Similarities between dinosaur faunas of Victoria and the northern continents concern the proportional representatation of higher clades, and may result from the prevailing temperate-polar climate of Australia, especially at high latitudes in Victoria, which is similar to the predominant warm-temperate climate of Laurasia, but distinct from the arid climate zone that covered extensive areas of Gondwana. Most dinosaur groups probably attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Jurassic, prior to fragmentation of the Pangaean supercontinent, and some aspects of the hallmark 'Gondwanan' fauna of South America and Africa may therefore reflect climate-driven provinciality, not vicariant evolution driven by continental fragmentation. However, vicariance may still be detected at lower phylogenetic levels.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037122",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0037122",
    openalex = "W2083980191",
    references = "carpenter2005the, crossref1976allosaurus, doi1010160012821x89900186, doi101016jtoxlet200611011, doi10103831635, doi101038416816a, doi10108002724634199910011178, doi101080147720192010488045, doi101126science13334591105, doi101126science28454232137, doi101139e05044, doi101590s000137652011000100008, doi105281zenodo13315375, doi105281zenodo16171435, doi105860choice331556, doi105860choice393984"
}

The White Australia Policy was a series of policies excluding and discriminating against non‐European nonwhites from the beginning of Australia's federation in 1901 through to the late 1960s. It was based on beliefs about race and its importance for national unity. The aim of the policy was to defend Australia as a white, British nation. Apart from beliefs about race, the Australian labor movement also supported the White Australia Policy because it was believed that the presence of nonwhite labor would drive down wages and conditions. Restrictions on nonwhite immigrants became politically difficult after World War II, leading to the gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy.

@misc{moran2015australia,
    author = "Moran, Anthony",
    title = "Australia, White Australia Policy",
    year = "2015",
    booktitle = "The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism",
    abstract = "The White Australia Policy was a series of policies excluding and discriminating against non‐European nonwhites from the beginning of Australia's federation in 1901 through to the late 1960s. It was based on beliefs about race and its importance for national unity. The aim of the policy was to defend Australia as a white, British nation. Apart from beliefs about race, the Australian labor movement also supported the White Australia Policy because it was believed that the presence of nonwhite labor would drive down wages and conditions. Restrictions on nonwhite immigrants became politically difficult after World War II, leading to the gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663202.wberen365",
    doi = "10.1002/9781118663202.wberen365",
    pages = "1-4"
}

@incollection{crossref2016national,
    title = "National Australia Bank (Australia)",
    year = "2016",
    booktitle = "Worldwide Casebook in Marketing Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814689618\_0015",
    doi = "10.1142/9789814689618\_0015",
    pages = "515-549"
}

@incollection{crossref2020shark,
    title = "Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Dictionary of Geotourism",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2538-0\_2208",
    doi = "10.1007/978-981-13-2538-0\_2208",
    pages = "555-555"
}

The structure of Apteryx’s eggshell has generated much debate over the decades because it does not fit well with most allometric predictions. Apteryx eggshells are unusually thin and have been reported to be 60% less porous than expected. It has been suggested that these adaptations are compensations for a very long incubation period. Most studies so far have been carried out in what has been reported as Apteryx australis, and using infertile eggs or eggs laid in captivity. However, A. australis once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species: Brown Kiwi (A.mantelli), Rowi (A.rowi), and Tokoeka (A.australis). These three species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes. In addition, captive eggs are much smaller than wild laid eggs. These confounding factors make necessary to revise the assumptions made for Apteryx in the past. In this study, we analysed the physical characteristics of the Apteryx eggshells making a comparison between the three species of brown coloured kiwi and for some of the analysis we included some specimens of Roroa (A. haastii, Great Spotted Kiwi). We found that shell characteristics are different between the different species studied. The pore area of Apteryx eggshells was higher than previously suggested, and the water vapour conductance was much closer to what is expected for an egg that size. We found several new features such as triangular mineral particles composing the cuticle, only reported for a cretaceous Theropod, and the presence of plugs and caps on the eggshell pores. We suggest that the characteristics of the eggshells of the different species relate to the mating system of each species in addition to environmental variables, particularly pluviosity. We also suggest that the erosion of the cuticle during incubation is an adaptation to a long incubation period in a burrow.

@misc{doi1022541au16002752887752141,
    author = "Galvez, David Vieco and Castro, Isabel and Morel, P.C.H. and Chua, Wei Hang and Loh, Michael",
    title = "Eggshell structure in Apteryx: Form, Function, and Adaptation",
    year = "2020",
    abstract = "The structure of Apteryx’s eggshell has generated much debate over the decades because it does not fit well with most allometric predictions. Apteryx eggshells are unusually thin and have been reported to be 60\% less porous than expected. It has been suggested that these adaptations are compensations for a very long incubation period. Most studies so far have been carried out in what has been reported as Apteryx australis, and using infertile eggs or eggs laid in captivity. However, A. australis once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species: Brown Kiwi (A.mantelli), Rowi (A.rowi), and Tokoeka (A.australis). These three species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes. In addition, captive eggs are much smaller than wild laid eggs. These confounding factors make necessary to revise the assumptions made for Apteryx in the past. In this study, we analysed the physical characteristics of the Apteryx eggshells making a comparison between the three species of brown coloured kiwi and for some of the analysis we included some specimens of Roroa (A. haastii, Great Spotted Kiwi). We found that shell characteristics are different between the different species studied. The pore area of Apteryx eggshells was higher than previously suggested, and the water vapour conductance was much closer to what is expected for an egg that size. We found several new features such as triangular mineral particles composing the cuticle, only reported for a cretaceous Theropod, and the presence of plugs and caps on the eggshell pores. We suggest that the characteristics of the eggshells of the different species relate to the mating system of each species in addition to environmental variables, particularly pluviosity. We also suggest that the erosion of the cuticle during incubation is an adaptation to a long incubation period in a burrow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.22541/au.160027528.87752141",
    doi = "10.22541/au.160027528.87752141",
    openalex = "W4244979354",
    references = "doi1010160034568785900246, doi1010160300962984900835, doi101016jpalaeo200510029, doi101093auk11941210, doi101093icb202329, doi101111j1469185x1974tb01297x, doi101126science2665186779, doi101186s128590171934z, doi101642000480382002119121020co2, doi1023071366725, rowe1978incubation"
}

@misc{fjeldså2020okarito,
    author = "Fjeldså, Jon and Sharpe, Chris",
    title = "Okarito Brown Kiwi (Apteryx rowi)",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Birds of the World",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.okbkiw1.01",
    doi = "10.2173/bow.okbkiw1.01"
}

@misc{folch2020southern,
    author = "Folch, Anna and Jutglar, Francesc and Garcia, Ernest",
    title = "Southern Brown Kiwi (Apteryx australis)",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Birds of the World",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.sobkiw1.01",
    doi = "10.2173/bow.sobkiw1.01"
}

Apteryx is a genus of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand known to lay very large eggs in proportion to body weight. The eggshell of Apteryx is unusually thin and less porous than allometrically expected possibly as a compensation for a very long incubation period. Past studies have been carried out on Apteryx australis, a species which once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species. These species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes, therefore generating a need to revise our knowledge of the attributes of their eggshells. In this study, we measured the physical characteristics and water conductance on eggshell fragments of these three species and Great-spotted Kiwi and relate them to the environmental conditions of their respective environments; we also measured the water vapor conductance of Brown Kiwi eggs of late stages of incubation. We found that several trade-offs exist between incubation behavior, environmental conditions, and eggshell structure. We found differences between species in eggshell water vapor conductance seemingly related to altitude; Brown Kiwi and Rowi generally inhabiting lower altitudes had the highest conductance and Tokoeka, generally living in montane environments, the lowest. This is achieved by an increased eggshell thickness rather than a pore area reduction. Finally, the water vapor conductance late in incubation was 58% higher than infertile unincubated eggs, suggesting a drastic increase in conductance throughout the long incubation period. Using the values previously reported, we calculated the embryonic eggshell thinning to be 32.5% at the equatorial region of the eggshell. We describe several new features, such as triangular mineral particles in the cuticle, reported for the extinct Trigonoolithus amoei, and confirmed the existence of plugged pores. We suggest that these structures provide microbial protection needed by a burrow nesting species with a long incubation period.

@article{doi101002ece37266,
    author = "Vieco‐Galvez, David and Castro, Isabel and Morel, P.C.H. and Chua, Wei Hang and Loh, Michael",
    title = "The eggshell structure in apteryx; form, function, and adaptation",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Ecology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Apteryx is a genus of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand known to lay very large eggs in proportion to body weight. The eggshell of Apteryx is unusually thin and less porous than allometrically expected possibly as a compensation for a very long incubation period. Past studies have been carried out on Apteryx australis, a species which once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species. These species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes, therefore generating a need to revise our knowledge of the attributes of their eggshells. In this study, we measured the physical characteristics and water conductance on eggshell fragments of these three species and Great-spotted Kiwi and relate them to the environmental conditions of their respective environments; we also measured the water vapor conductance of Brown Kiwi eggs of late stages of incubation. We found that several trade-offs exist between incubation behavior, environmental conditions, and eggshell structure. We found differences between species in eggshell water vapor conductance seemingly related to altitude; Brown Kiwi and Rowi generally inhabiting lower altitudes had the highest conductance and Tokoeka, generally living in montane environments, the lowest. This is achieved by an increased eggshell thickness rather than a pore area reduction. Finally, the water vapor conductance late in incubation was 58\% higher than infertile unincubated eggs, suggesting a drastic increase in conductance throughout the long incubation period. Using the values previously reported, we calculated the embryonic eggshell thinning to be 32.5\% at the equatorial region of the eggshell. We describe several new features, such as triangular mineral particles in the cuticle, reported for the extinct Trigonoolithus amoei, and confirmed the existence of plugged pores. We suggest that these structures provide microbial protection needed by a burrow nesting species with a long incubation period.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7266",
    doi = "10.1002/ece3.7266",
    openalex = "W3134440767",
    references = "doi101002ece37266, doi1010160034568785900246, doi101016jpalaeo200510029, doi101073pnas1522931113, doi101111j00301299199912698x, doi101111j1469185x1974tb01297x, doi101126science2665186779, doi101186s128590171934z, doi1023071366724, doi1023071366725, doi1023073795643, rowe1978incubation"
}

@article{scofield2021identification,
    author = "Scofield, R. P. and Wood, J. R. and de Nascimento, L. and Robertson, H. A. and Colbourne, R. M. and De Pietri, V. L. and Innes, J. and Weir, J. T.",
    title = "Identification of the type locality of the South Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx australis",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Conservation Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-021-01349-y",
    doi = "10.1007/s10592-021-01349-y",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W3152298312",
    pages = "645-652",
    volume = "22",
    references = "doi101093bioinformaticsbtg180, doi101093bioinformaticsbtp352, doi101093bioinformaticsbtu033, doi101093bioinformaticsbtu170, doi101093nargkw955, doi1011112041210x12871, doi101111j146979981833tb06418x, doi101186s1304001400340, doi101371journalpone0019379, doi105962bhltitle3953"
}

Between 1993 and 2018, the number of Rakiura tokoeka (Apteryx australis australis, Stewart Island brown kiwi) territories in 125 ha of retired farmland near Island Hill Homestead, Mason Bay, declined from 17 to 12 at a mean rate of 1.43% per year, and the minimum number of adults declined by 1.39% per year. These rates triggered a New Zealand conservation status of ‘Nationally Endangered’ for the subspecies assuming that they were typical of the whole of Stewart Island/Rakiura. Feeding habitat for tokoeka has been lost as the study site reverts from rough pasture to flax (Phormium tenax) and scrub; the mean mass of adult birds has decreased by 7.5% over 30 years despite a 30% decline in population density. Key predators of adult kiwi are absent, and predation of Rakiura tokoeka by feral cats (Felis catus) is known but is likely to be insignificant. With a conservative population estimate of 15,000–20,000 adults, and with the decline likely localised at Mason Bay, the conservation status of Rakiura tokoeka is more appropriately classified as ‘At Risk – Naturally Uncommon’. This research highlights the risks of extrapolating results from a single study, in this case with a limited geographical extent rather than a limited duration.

@article{doi1063172833527jkdumk,
    author = "Robertson, Hugh A. and Colbourne, Rogan M.",
    title = "Habitat loss drives population decline and reduced mass of Rakiura tokoeka (Apteryx australis australis, Stewart Island brown kiwi,) at Mason Bay, Stewart Island/Rakiura",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Notornis",
    abstract = "Between 1993 and 2018, the number of Rakiura tokoeka (Apteryx australis australis, Stewart Island brown kiwi) territories in 125 ha of retired farmland near Island Hill Homestead, Mason Bay, declined from 17 to 12 at a mean rate of 1.43\% per year, and the minimum number of adults declined by 1.39\% per year. These rates triggered a New Zealand conservation status of ‘Nationally Endangered’ for the subspecies assuming that they were typical of the whole of Stewart Island/Rakiura. Feeding habitat for tokoeka has been lost as the study site reverts from rough pasture to flax (Phormium tenax) and scrub; the mean mass of adult birds has decreased by 7.5\% over 30 years despite a 30\% decline in population density. Key predators of adult kiwi are absent, and predation of Rakiura tokoeka by feral cats (Felis catus) is known but is likely to be insignificant. With a conservative population estimate of 15,000–20,000 adults, and with the decline likely localised at Mason Bay, the conservation status of Rakiura tokoeka is more appropriately classified as ‘At Risk – Naturally Uncommon’. This research highlights the risks of extrapolating results from a single study, in this case with a limited geographical extent rather than a limited duration.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.63172/833527jkdumk",
    doi = "10.63172/833527jkdumk",
    openalex = "W4408298559",
    references = "scofield2021identification"
}

@incollection{jiaxin2022northern,
    author = "Jiaxin, Pang",
    title = "Northern Australia Development Plan (Australia)",
    year = "2022",
    booktitle = "The Routledge Handbook of the Belt and Road",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003286202-130",
    doi = "10.4324/9781003286202-130",
    pages = "592-596"
}

@misc{crossrefNoneaustralia,
    title = "Australia- South australia",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "SpringerReference",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/springerreference\_43969",
    doi = "10.1007/springerreference\_43969"
}

@misc{crossrefNoneaustraliawestern,
    title = "Australia-Western Australia",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "SpringerReference",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/springerreference\_43972",
    doi = "10.1007/springerreference\_43972"
}

@incollection{firmanNoneaustralia,
    author = "Firman, Jon B.",
    title = "Australia– South australia",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Earth Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31081-1\_10",
    doi = "10.1007/3-540-31081-1\_10",
    pages = "61-81"
}

@incollection{playfordNoneaustraliawestern,
    author = "Playford, Phillip E.",
    title = "Australia—Western Australia",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Earth Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31081-1\_13",
    doi = "10.1007/3-540-31081-1\_13",
    pages = "100-108"
}