Behavior

@article{doi1010160146631356900028,
    author = "Backus, Richard H. and Springer, Stewart and Arnold, Edgar L.",
    title = "A contribution to the natural history of the white-tip shark, Pterolamiops longimanus (Poey)",
    year = "1956",
    journal = "Deep Sea Research (1953)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6313(56)90002-8",
    doi = "10.1016/0146-6313(56)90002-8",
    openalex = "W2059326123"
}

@incollection{carpenter1958territoriality3,
    author = "Carpenter, C. R",
    editor = "Roe, A. and Simpson, G. G.",
    title = "Territoriality: A Review of Concepts and Problems",
    year = "1958",
    booktitle = "Behavior and Evolution",
    publisher = "New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 224-250; 537 pp",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Carpenter, C. R., 1958, Territoriality: A Review of Concepts and Problems, in Roe, A., and Simpson, G. G., eds., Behavior and Evolution: New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 224-250; 537 pp.}"
}

@book{openalexw2947973547,
    author = "Strasburg, Donald W.",
    title = "Distribution, abundance, and habits of pelagic sharks in the central Pacific ocean",
    year = "1958",
    openalex = "W2947973547"
}

@article{openalexw227953458,
    author = "Clark, Eugenie and von Schmidt, Katherine",
    title = "Sharks of the Central Gulf Coast of Florida",
    year = "1965",
    openalex = "W227953458"
}

@article{kasl1966health,
    author = "Kasl, Stanislav V. and Cobb, Sidney",
    title = "Health Behavior, Illness Behavior, and Sick-Role Behavior",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00039896.1966.10664421",
    doi = "10.1080/00039896.1966.10664421",
    number = "4",
    pages = "531-541",
    volume = "12"
}

@techreport{aronson1967instrumental1,
    author = "Aronson, L. R. and Kaplan, H. and Aronson, F. R. and Clark, E",
    title = "Instrumental conditioning and light-dark discrimination in young nurse sharks",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, v. 17, p. 249-256",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Aronson, L. R., Kaplan, H., Aronson, F. R., and Clark, E., 1967, Instrumental conditioning and light-dark discrimination in young nurse sharks: Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, v. 17, p. 249-256.}"
}

@article{doi105479si0096380111935391,
    author = "Gilbert, Carter R.",
    title = "A Revision of the Hammerhead Sharks (Family Sphyrnidae)",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Proceedings of the United States National Museum",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00963801.119-3539.1",
    doi = "10.5479/si.00963801.119-3539.1",
    openalex = "W2035359972"
}

@article{filep1968controlling,
    author = "Filep, Robert T. and Markle, David G.",
    title = "Controlling behavior changers’ behavior",
    year = "1968",
    journal = "AV communication review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02769098",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02769098",
    number = "2",
    pages = "188-203",
    volume = "16"
}

@article{doi101007bf00351149,
    author = "Myrberg, A. A. and Banner, Arnold and Richard, Joseph D.",
    title = "Shark attraction using a video-acoustic system",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00351149",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00351149",
    openalex = "W2052342007"
}

The horn shark, Heterodontus francisci, and the swell shark, Cephaloscyllium ventriosum, exhibited distinct nocturnal activity patterns when observed underwater in the natural environment. Swimming activity began shortly after dusk and continued until dawn, after which very little activity was seen. Laboratory records for the horn shark under fixed and shifting LD 12:12 (12 hr light-12 hr dark) regimes indicated an exogenous rhythm, with an activity onset directly controlled by the onset of darkness. Horn sharks showed a high level of aperiodic activity in constant darkness and a low level of aperiodic activity in constant light. Activity in a swell shark appeared initiated by the onset of darkness during fixed LD 12:12 regimes, but slightly preceded darkness during a shifting (1 hr later/day) LD regime. This swell shark exhibited an endogenous (i.e., circadian) rhythm of shortened period (advancing phase drift) in constant darkness, and lengthened period (delaying phase drift) in constant light.

@article{doi1023071442315,
    author = "Nelson, Donald R. and Johnson, Richard H.",
    title = "Diel Activity Rhythms in the Nocturnal, Bottom-Dwelling Sharks, Heterodontus francisci and Cephaloscyllium ventriosum",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "The horn shark, Heterodontus francisci, and the swell shark, Cephaloscyllium ventriosum, exhibited distinct nocturnal activity patterns when observed underwater in the natural environment. Swimming activity began shortly after dusk and continued until dawn, after which very little activity was seen. Laboratory records for the horn shark under fixed and shifting LD 12:12 (12 hr light-12 hr dark) regimes indicated an exogenous rhythm, with an activity onset directly controlled by the onset of darkness. Horn sharks showed a high level of aperiodic activity in constant darkness and a low level of aperiodic activity in constant light. Activity in a swell shark appeared initiated by the onset of darkness during fixed LD 12:12 regimes, but slightly preceded darkness during a shifting (1 hr later/day) LD regime. This swell shark exhibited an endogenous (i.e., circadian) rhythm of shortened period (advancing phase drift) in constant darkness, and lengthened period (delaying phase drift) in constant light.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1442315",
    doi = "10.2307/1442315",
    openalex = "W2314552940"
}

(Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) with special reference to a quantitative analysis of parental fanning. Z. Tierpsychologie 23:537-554. MINCKLEY, W. L., AND E. T. ARNOLD. 1969. Pit-digging, a behavioral feeding adaptation in pupfishes (Genus Cyprinodon). J. Arizona Acad. Sci. 5:254-257. s: Cyprinodontidae) with special r ferRANEY, E. C., R. H. BACKUS, R. W. CRAWFORD AND C. R. ROBINS. 1953. Reproductive behavior in Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede, in Florida. Zoologica 38:97-105.

@article{doi1023071442360,
    author = "Johnson, Richard H. and Nelson, Donald R.",
    title = "Agonistic Display in the Gray Reef Shark, Carcharhinus menisorrah, and Its Relationship to Attacks on Man",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "(Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) with special reference to a quantitative analysis of parental fanning. Z. Tierpsychologie 23:537-554. MINCKLEY, W. L., AND E. T. ARNOLD. 1969. Pit-digging, a behavioral feeding adaptation in pupfishes (Genus Cyprinodon). J. Arizona Acad. Sci. 5:254-257. s: Cyprinodontidae) with special r ferRANEY, E. C., R. H. BACKUS, R. W. CRAWFORD AND C. R. ROBINS. 1953. Reproductive behavior in Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede, in Florida. Zoologica 38:97-105.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1442360",
    doi = "10.2307/1442360",
    openalex = "W2318825926"
}

Behavioral activities of a colony of 10 bonnethead sharks, Sphyrna t. tiburo, held under semi-natural conditions, were examined over a period of six months. All sharks had attained, or were approaching, sexual maturity. Objectives of the study were to describe species-typical motor patterns and postures, to analyze the diurnality of patrolling activity and to characterize pattern(s) of organization underlying social interactions noted within the colony. Eighteen postures and patterns of movement were described, almost half of them having apparent social relevance. In specific instances, functional significance of a pattern was cautiously given. Patrolling activity appeared to have a diurnal rhythm, with a peak occurring in the late afternoon; smaller individuals were more erratic in their patrolling. Finally, a clear but subtle social organization, based on a straight-line, size-dependent, dominance hierarchy was found. Though position within the hierarchy was not determined by sex, data indicated that all individuals tended to shy away from larger males. Sexual differences in the performance of certain patterns of movement were also established.

@article{doi1023071442530,
    author = "Myrberg, Arthur A. and Gruber, Samuel H.",
    title = "The Behavior of the Bonnethead Shark, Sphyrna tiburo",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "Behavioral activities of a colony of 10 bonnethead sharks, Sphyrna t. tiburo, held under semi-natural conditions, were examined over a period of six months. All sharks had attained, or were approaching, sexual maturity. Objectives of the study were to describe species-typical motor patterns and postures, to analyze the diurnality of patrolling activity and to characterize pattern(s) of organization underlying social interactions noted within the colony. Eighteen postures and patterns of movement were described, almost half of them having apparent social relevance. In specific instances, functional significance of a pattern was cautiously given. Patrolling activity appeared to have a diurnal rhythm, with a peak occurring in the late afternoon; smaller individuals were more erratic in their patrolling. Finally, a clear but subtle social organization, based on a straight-line, size-dependent, dominance hierarchy was found. Though position within the hierarchy was not determined by sex, data indicated that all individuals tended to shy away from larger males. Sexual differences in the performance of certain patterns of movement were also established.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1442530",
    doi = "10.2307/1442530",
    openalex = "W2319377716",
    references = "doi101007bf00351149, doi1010160146631356900028, doi101017s0025315400006317, doi101086physzool27430152372, doi1023071442315, doi1023071442360, doi1023071446699, doi105479si0096380111935391, openalexw227953458, openalexw2947973547"
}

A set of hypotheses are developed for the origin of living sharks and rays and the interrelationships of their major groups, using some methods of cladistic analysis to relate groups with shared derived characters. Comparative studies on living sharks and rays combined with new data on fossil sharks suggests that the living groups ultimately stem from a common ancestral group of “neoselachian” sharks with many modern characters. Reinterpretations of “amphistyly” in modern sharks is presented on new data.

@article{doi101093icb172303,
    author = "Compagno, Leonard J. V.",
    title = "Phyletic Relationships of Living Sharks and Rays",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "American Zoologist",
    abstract = "A set of hypotheses are developed for the origin of living sharks and rays and the interrelationships of their major groups, using some methods of cladistic analysis to relate groups with shared derived characters. Comparative studies on living sharks and rays combined with new data on fossil sharks suggests that the living groups ultimately stem from a common ancestral group of “neoselachian” sharks with many modern characters. Reinterpretations of “amphistyly” in modern sharks is presented on new data.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/17.2.303",
    doi = "10.1093/icb/17.2.303",
    openalex = "W2011454861",
    references = "doi101017cbo9781139680851, doi101038124440c0, doi101098rstb19210008, doi101111j146363951923tb00161x, doi101111j146979981936tb06287x, doi101111j146979981972tb01734x, doi1023071535500, openalexw1509085045, openalexw3041320757, openalexw3138434819"
}

@misc{gruber1977approaches4,
    author = "Gruber, S. H. and Myrberg, A. A. J",
    title = "Approaches to the study of the behavior of sharks",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "American Zoologist, v. 17, p. 471-486",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gruber, S. H., and Myrberg, A. A. J., 1977, Approaches to the study of the behavior of sharks: American Zoologist, v. 17, p. 471-486.}"
}

Partial contents: Vision--Visual system of the Elasmobranchs (State of the art 1960-1975), Refraction and accommodations of the Elasmobranch eye, Brain organization in the Cartilaginous fishes, and Behavioral studies correlated with central nervous system integration of vision in sharks; Chemical Senses--Electrophysiological studies of chemoreception in Elasmobranchs, and Chemoreception and the role of its interaction with flow and light perception in the locomotion and orientation of some Elasmobranchs; Mechanical and Acoustical Senses--Mechanoreception and the behavior of Elasmobranch fishes with special reference to the acoustico-lateralis systems, Underwater sound (Its effect on shark's behavior), and Telemetering techniques for study of free-ranging sharks; Electrical Senses--Physiology of the Ampulla of Lorenzini, and Electric and magnetic sensory world of sharks, skates, and rays; and Ecology and Behavior- Dispersion of the Port Jackson shark in Australian waters, Problems in studies of sharks in the southwest Indian Ocean, Knowledge and exploitation of the sensory biology of sharks in the southwestern Pacific, and Effects of fasting confinement on Squalus acanthias.

@book{doi105962bhltitle3596,
    author = "Hodgson, Edward S. and Mathewson, Robert F.",
    title = "Sensory Biology of Sharks, Skates, and Rays,",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "Biodiversity Heritage Library (Smithsonian Institution)",
    abstract = "Partial contents: Vision--Visual system of the Elasmobranchs (State of the art 1960-1975), Refraction and accommodations of the Elasmobranch eye, Brain organization in the Cartilaginous fishes, and Behavioral studies correlated with central nervous system integration of vision in sharks; Chemical Senses--Electrophysiological studies of chemoreception in Elasmobranchs, and Chemoreception and the role of its interaction with flow and light perception in the locomotion and orientation of some Elasmobranchs; Mechanical and Acoustical Senses--Mechanoreception and the behavior of Elasmobranch fishes with special reference to the acoustico-lateralis systems, Underwater sound (Its effect on shark's behavior), and Telemetering techniques for study of free-ranging sharks; Electrical Senses--Physiology of the Ampulla of Lorenzini, and Electric and magnetic sensory world of sharks, skates, and rays; and Ecology and Behavior- Dispersion of the Port Jackson shark in Australian waters, Problems in studies of sharks in the southwest Indian Ocean, Knowledge and exploitation of the sensory biology of sharks in the southwestern Pacific, and Effects of fasting confinement on Squalus acanthias.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.3596",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.3596",
    openalex = "W1794557058"
}

@book{auffenburg1981the2,
    author = "Auffenburg, W",
    title = "The Behavorial Ecology of the Komodo Monitor",
    year = "1981",
    publisher = "Gainesville, Florida, University of Florida Presses",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Auffenburg, W., 1981, The Behavorial Ecology of the Komodo Monitor: Gainesville, Florida, University of Florida Presses.}"
}

@article{fordyce1983behavior,
    author = "Fordyce, Wilbert E.",
    title = "Behavior is behavior is…",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/022371",
    doi = "10.1037/022371",
    number = "9",
    pages = "730-730",
    volume = "28"
}

@article{roberts1983animal,
    author = "Roberts, William C.",
    title = "Animal behavior—Human behavior—Cardiac behavior",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "The American Journal of Cardiology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(83)90001-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0002-9149(83)90001-2",
    number = "5",
    pages = "A14",
    volume = "52"
}

(Uploaded by Plazi from the Biodiversity Heritage Library) No abstract provided.

@book{doi105281zenodo16136060,
    author = "Tricas, Timothy C. and McCosker, John E.",
    title = "Predatory behavior of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), with notes on its biology",
    year = "1984",
    booktitle = "Biodiversity Heritage Library (Smithsonian Institution)",
    abstract = "(Uploaded by Plazi from the Biodiversity Heritage Library) No abstract provided.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16136060",
    doi = "10.5281/zenodo.16136060",
    openalex = "W2043658100"
}

Lengths at age and growth rates for the tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvieri. in the northwestern Alantic and Gulf of Mexico were estimated from bands formed seasonally in the vertebral centra. The tiger shark grows rapidly compared with many other shark species. Growth rates for Gulf of Mexico juveniles were faster than for Atlantic juveniles. This produced significantly different (P < 0.01) estimates of the parameters of von Bertalanffy curves for the two regional samples. With sexes combined, parameter estimates for the Gulf of Mexico sample were L = 388 cm TL. K 0.184. to = -1.13 years; for the Atlantic sample they were L = 440 cm TL, K = 0.107, to = -2.35 years. Males mature at approx­ imately 310 cm TL, females at 315-320 cm TL, but the regional differences in juvenile growth rates result in different ages at maturity. In the Gulf of Mexico. males mature in 7 years. females in 8 years; in the Atlantic. males and females both mature in approximately 10 years. The largest male and female examined (381 cm TL) were 15 and 16 years of age. The tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvieri, is cosmopolitan in warm-temperate and tropical coastal and oceanic waters of the western North Atlantic (Castro 1983). It is usually found alone or in small groups of three to six individuals distributed rather homogeneous­ ly over most bottom types (Springer 1963), Because of its large size, it is one of the most frequent en­ tries in recreational fishing tournaments, and it occurs regularly, but in low numbers, in longline catches (Clark and von Schmidt 1965; Dodrill 1977; Branstetter 1981, 1986). Along the U.S. Atlantic coast, the tiger shark occurs year-round off Florida, migrates as far north as Cape Cod in summer (Casey 1964), and returns to more southerly latitudes in fall (Musick et al. 1985). In the Gulf of Mexico, the species occurs in coastal waters from spring through fall, and in deeper continental shelf and offshore regions year-round (Branstetter 1981, 1986). The low catch rates and semisolitary nature of the tiger shark have hindered a comprehensive study of its biology. The tiger shark is both a scavenger (Gudger 1949; Clark and von Schmidt 1965) and euryphagous predator (Bass et al. 1975; Dodrill and Gilmore 1978). Information on the reproductive biology of the tiger shark must be gleaned from scat

@article{openalexw2185314413,
    author = "Branstetter, Steve and Musick, John A. and Colvocoresses, James A.",
    title = "A COMPARISON OF THE AGE AND GROWTH OF THE TIGER SHARK, GALEOCERDO CUVIERI, FROM OFF VIRGINIA AND FROM THE NORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXIC0 1",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Fishery Bulletin",
    abstract = "Lengths at age and growth rates for the tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvieri. in the northwestern Alantic and Gulf of Mexico were estimated from bands formed seasonally in the vertebral centra. The tiger shark grows rapidly compared with many other shark species. Growth rates for Gulf of Mexico juveniles were faster than for Atlantic juveniles. This produced significantly different (P < 0.01) estimates of the parameters of von Bertalanffy curves for the two regional samples. With sexes combined, parameter estimates for the Gulf of Mexico sample were L = 388 cm TL. K 0.184. to = -1.13 years; for the Atlantic sample they were L = 440 cm TL, K = 0.107, to = -2.35 years. Males mature at approx­ imately 310 cm TL, females at 315-320 cm TL, but the regional differences in juvenile growth rates result in different ages at maturity. In the Gulf of Mexico. males mature in 7 years. females in 8 years; in the Atlantic. males and females both mature in approximately 10 years. The largest male and female examined (381 cm TL) were 15 and 16 years of age. The tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvieri, is cosmopolitan in warm-temperate and tropical coastal and oceanic waters of the western North Atlantic (Castro 1983). It is usually found alone or in small groups of three to six individuals distributed rather homogeneous­ ly over most bottom types (Springer 1963), Because of its large size, it is one of the most frequent en­ tries in recreational fishing tournaments, and it occurs regularly, but in low numbers, in longline catches (Clark and von Schmidt 1965; Dodrill 1977; Branstetter 1981, 1986). Along the U.S. Atlantic coast, the tiger shark occurs year-round off Florida, migrates as far north as Cape Cod in summer (Casey 1964), and returns to more southerly latitudes in fall (Musick et al. 1985). In the Gulf of Mexico, the species occurs in coastal waters from spring through fall, and in deeper continental shelf and offshore regions year-round (Branstetter 1981, 1986). The low catch rates and semisolitary nature of the tiger shark have hindered a comprehensive study of its biology. The tiger shark is both a scavenger (Gudger 1949; Clark and von Schmidt 1965) and euryphagous predator (Bass et al. 1975; Dodrill and Gilmore 1978). Information on the reproductive biology of the tiger shark must be gleaned from scat",
    openalex = "W2185314413"
}

This book is a general review, taxonomic revision, and phylogenetic analysis of the carcharhinoids, the largest group of living sharks, which comprises almost 60 percent or 200 of known shark species. Students of shark biology have been hampered by the lack of just such a comprehensive and rigorous account of shark morphology. With this work L.J.V. Compagno offers not only the most comprehensive and detailed account of this important but neglected group to date but also one of the most comprehensive modern anatomical and phylogenetic studies on cartilaginous fishes available. It will become an essential reference not only for researchers on carcharhinoids but also for those who study other families of sharks and for paleontologists interested in this ancient group of fishes. The book begins with a general account of carcharhinoid sharks. Chapters Two through Eleven include detailed discussions of character systems used in taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of carcharhinoids. Chapter Twelve defines the Order Carcharhiniformes, lists its families, and includes a taxonomic key to the families. Chapters Thirteen through Twenty review the eight carcharhinoid families, and Chapter Twenty-One is an extended discussion of the phylogeny of carcharhinoids, with cladistic analysis of taxa at various levels.

@article{doi1023071445465,
    author = "McEachran, John D. and Compagno, Leonard J. V.",
    title = "Sharks of the Order Carcharhiniformes",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "This book is a general review, taxonomic revision, and phylogenetic analysis of the carcharhinoids, the largest group of living sharks, which comprises almost 60 percent or 200 of known shark species. Students of shark biology have been hampered by the lack of just such a comprehensive and rigorous account of shark morphology. With this work L.J.V. Compagno offers not only the most comprehensive and detailed account of this important but neglected group to date but also one of the most comprehensive modern anatomical and phylogenetic studies on cartilaginous fishes available. It will become an essential reference not only for researchers on carcharhinoids but also for those who study other families of sharks and for paleontologists interested in this ancient group of fishes. The book begins with a general account of carcharhinoid sharks. Chapters Two through Eleven include detailed discussions of character systems used in taxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of carcharhinoids. Chapter Twelve defines the Order Carcharhiniformes, lists its families, and includes a taxonomic key to the families. Chapters Thirteen through Twenty review the eight carcharhinoid families, and Chapter Twenty-One is an extended discussion of the phylogeny of carcharhinoids, with cladistic analysis of taxa at various levels.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1445465",
    doi = "10.2307/1445465",
    openalex = "W2044330064"
}

@incollection{reyna1989behavior,
    author = "Reyna, Leo J.",
    title = "Behavior Therapy, Applied Behavior Analysis, and Behavior Modification",
    year = "1989",
    booktitle = "Abnormal States of Brain and Mind",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-6768-8\_10",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4899-6768-8\_10",
    pages = "22-23"
}

@article{doi101007bf01344309,
    author = "Carey, Francis G. and Scharold, Jill V. and Kalmijn, Ad. J.",
    title = "Movements of blue sharks (Prionace glauca) in depth and course",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01344309",
    doi = "10.1007/bf01344309",
    openalex = "W2073075374"
}

Le regime alimentaire de N.b. a ete etudie en analysant les contenus stomachaux de specimens recoltes afin d'examiner les habitudes alimentaires et la quantite journaliere absorbee

@article{doi1023071445836,
    author = "Cortés, Enric and Gruber, Samuel H. and Cortés, Enric",
    title = "Diet, Feeding Habits and Estimates of Daily Ration of Young Lemon Sharks, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey)",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "Le regime alimentaire de N.b. a ete etudie en analysant les contenus stomachaux de specimens recoltes afin d'examiner les habitudes alimentaires et la quantite journaliere absorbee",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1445836",
    doi = "10.2307/1445836",
    openalex = "W2318996237"
}

@article{doi101071mf9920021,
    author = "Randall, Je.",
    title = "Review of the biology of the Tiger Shark (Galeocerdo cuvier)",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/mf9920021",
    doi = "10.1071/mf9920021",
    openalex = "W2050415716"
}

The biology of 835 specimens of Galeocerdo cuvier caught between 1964 and 1986 off Townsville, Australia, was examined. The sharks were caught in a protective meshing programme using both large mesh gill-nets and set lines. The size at birth was estimated to be 80-90 cm total length, and females matured at approximately 287 cm total length. Litter sizes ranged from 6 to 56. Breeding and pupping both appear to occur in summer, with females not breeding every year. Mature females possibly migrate inshore during late spring and summer to give birth. The sex ratio of juveniles and adults favoured females, with few adult males being caught. Ontogenic changes in the diet were observed, with juveniles feeding predominantly on teleosts, sea snakes and birds and adults mostly consuming teleosts, sea snakes, turtles and crabs. There was no apparent decrease in the population size of G. cuvier in the Townsville area as a result of the long-term catching of sharks by the protective meshing programme.

@article{doi101071mf9920033,
    author = "Simpfendorfer, Colin A.",
    title = "Biology of Tiger Sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) caught by the Queensland Shark Meshing Program off Townsville, Australia",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research",
    abstract = "The biology of 835 specimens of Galeocerdo cuvier caught between 1964 and 1986 off Townsville, Australia, was examined. The sharks were caught in a protective meshing programme using both large mesh gill-nets and set lines. The size at birth was estimated to be 80-90 cm total length, and females matured at approximately 287 cm total length. Litter sizes ranged from 6 to 56. Breeding and pupping both appear to occur in summer, with females not breeding every year. Mature females possibly migrate inshore during late spring and summer to give birth. The sex ratio of juveniles and adults favoured females, with few adult males being caught. Ontogenic changes in the diet were observed, with juveniles feeding predominantly on teleosts, sea snakes and birds and adults mostly consuming teleosts, sea snakes, turtles and crabs. There was no apparent decrease in the population size of G. cuvier in the Townsville area as a result of the long-term catching of sharks by the protective meshing programme.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/mf9920033",
    doi = "10.1071/mf9920033",
    openalex = "W1991780949"
}

Sharks of the world:an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date, Sharks of the world:an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date, مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی

@book{openalexw570265017,
    author = "Compagno, Leonard J. V.",
    title = "Sharks of the World: an Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    abstract = "Sharks of the world:an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date, Sharks of the world:an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date, مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی",
    openalex = "W570265017"
}

@article{doi101007bf00346421,
    author = "Klimley, A. Peter",
    title = "Highly directional swimming by scalloped hammerhead sharks, Sphyrna lewini, and subsurface irradiance, temperature, bathymetry, and geomagnetic field",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00346421",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00346421",
    openalex = "W2121907282",
    references = "doi10100797814613031383"
}

Manual acoustic telemetry techniques were used to study spatial and temporal patterns of movement of juvenile lemon sharks. Ultrasonic transmitters were implanted into the coelom of 38 sharks, yielding trackings totaling 2281 telemetry fixes. Activity space varied from 0.23 km2 to 1.26 km2 and was positively correlated with shark size. Three indices of site attachment demonstrated that juvenile lemon sharks establish a home range. An index of site defense and field observations indicated that no territoriality was observed against conspecifics.

@article{doi1023071447141,
    author = "Morrissey, John F. and Gruber, Samuel H.",
    title = "Home Range of Juvenile Lemon Sharks, Negaprion brevirostris",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "Manual acoustic telemetry techniques were used to study spatial and temporal patterns of movement of juvenile lemon sharks. Ultrasonic transmitters were implanted into the coelom of 38 sharks, yielding trackings totaling 2281 telemetry fixes. Activity space varied from 0.23 km2 to 1.26 km2 and was positively correlated with shark size. Three indices of site attachment demonstrated that juvenile lemon sharks establish a home range. An index of site defense and field observations indicated that no territoriality was observed against conspecifics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1447141",
    doi = "10.2307/1447141",
    openalex = "W2312871202"
}

Journal Article Game Shows and Economic Behavior: Risk-Taking on “Card Sharks” Get access Robert Gertner Robert Gertner University of Chicago Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 108, Issue 2, May 1993, Pages 507–521, https://doi.org/10.2307/2118342 Published: 01 May 1993

@article{doi1023072118342,
    author = "Gertner, Robert",
    title = {Game Shows and Economic Behavior: Risk-Taking on "Card Sharks"},
    year = "1993",
    journal = "The Quarterly Journal of Economics",
    abstract = "Journal Article Game Shows and Economic Behavior: Risk-Taking on “Card Sharks” Get access Robert Gertner Robert Gertner University of Chicago Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 108, Issue 2, May 1993, Pages 507–521, https://doi.org/10.2307/2118342 Published: 01 May 1993",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2118342",
    doi = "10.2307/2118342",
    openalex = "W2010081256",
    references = "doi101016b9780124458505500088, doi101017cbo9780511609220014, doi101086257177, doi1023071240194, doi1023071912199, doi1023072232222, doi1023072525326"
}

The largest of all seals, elephant seals rank among the most impressive of marine mammals. They are renowned for their spectacular recovery from near extinction at the end of the 19th century when seal hunters nearly eliminated the entire northern species. No other vertebrate has come so close to extinction and made such a complete recovery. The physiological extremes that elephant seals can tolerate are also remarkable. This study of the elephant seal brings together an international group of scientists who describe and debate recent research, including the history and status of various populations, their life-history tactics, and other findings obtained with the help of modern microcomputer diving instruments attached to free-ranging seals. It also aims to illuminate current debates about the species' extinction and possible means of prevention.

@article{doi105860choice323308,
    title = "Elephant seals: population ecology, behavior, and physiology",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "The largest of all seals, elephant seals rank among the most impressive of marine mammals. They are renowned for their spectacular recovery from near extinction at the end of the 19th century when seal hunters nearly eliminated the entire northern species. No other vertebrate has come so close to extinction and made such a complete recovery. The physiological extremes that elephant seals can tolerate are also remarkable. This study of the elephant seal brings together an international group of scientists who describe and debate recent research, including the history and status of various populations, their life-history tactics, and other findings obtained with the help of modern microcomputer diving instruments attached to free-ranging seals. It also aims to illuminate current debates about the species' extinction and possible means of prevention.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.32-3308",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.32-3308",
    openalex = "W2075097011"
}

@article{doi101007bf00005044,
    author = "Lowe, Christopher G. and Wetherbee, Bradley M. and Crow, Gerald L. and Tester, Albert L.",
    title = "Ontogenetic dietary shifts and feeding behavior of the tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, in Hawaiian waters",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Environmental Biology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00005044",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00005044",
    openalex = "W2127923360",
    references = "doi101007bf00306135, doi1010160967065395918027, doi101071mf9920021, doi101071mf9920033, doi101139f82058, doi1023071445836, doi1023071447141, doi105281zenodo15997053, doi105281zenodo16136060, openalexw2185314413"
}

Sharks are marine consumers believed to occupy top positions in marine food webs. But surprisingly, trophic level estimates for these predators are almost non-existent. With the hope of helping better define the ecological role of sharks in marine communities, this paper presents standardized diet compositions and trophic levels calculated for a suite of species. Dietary composition for each species was derived from published quantitative studies using a weighted average index that takes into account sample size in each study. The trophic level (TL) values of the 11 food types used to characterize the diet (obtained from published accounts) were then used to calculate fractional trophic levels for 149 species representing eight orders and 23 families. Sharks as a group are tertiary consumers (TL>4), and significant differences were found among the six orders compared, which were attributable to differences between orectolobiforms (TL<4) and all other orders, and between hexanchiforms and both carcharhiniforms and squatiniforms. Among four families of carcharhiniform sharks, carcharhinids (TL=4.1, n=39) had a significantly higher TL than triakids (TL=3.8, n=19) and scyliorhinids (TL=3.9, n=21), but not sphyrnids (TL=3.9, n=6). When compared to trophic levels for other top predators of marine communities obtained from the literature, mean TL for sharks was significantly higher than for seabirds (n=28), but not for marine mammals (n=97). Trophic level and body size were positively correlated (r s =0.33), with the fit increasing (r s =0.41) when the three predominantly zooplanktivorous sharks were omitted, and especially when considering only carcharhinid sharks (r s =0.55).

@article{doi101006jmsc19990489,
    author = "Cortés, Enric",
    title = "Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of sharks",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "ICES Journal of Marine Science",
    abstract = "Sharks are marine consumers believed to occupy top positions in marine food webs. But surprisingly, trophic level estimates for these predators are almost non-existent. With the hope of helping better define the ecological role of sharks in marine communities, this paper presents standardized diet compositions and trophic levels calculated for a suite of species. Dietary composition for each species was derived from published quantitative studies using a weighted average index that takes into account sample size in each study. The trophic level (TL) values of the 11 food types used to characterize the diet (obtained from published accounts) were then used to calculate fractional trophic levels for 149 species representing eight orders and 23 families. Sharks as a group are tertiary consumers (TL>4), and significant differences were found among the six orders compared, which were attributable to differences between orectolobiforms (TL<4) and all other orders, and between hexanchiforms and both carcharhiniforms and squatiniforms. Among four families of carcharhiniform sharks, carcharhinids (TL=4.1, n=39) had a significantly higher TL than triakids (TL=3.8, n=19) and scyliorhinids (TL=3.9, n=21), but not sphyrnids (TL=3.9, n=6). When compared to trophic levels for other top predators of marine communities obtained from the literature, mean TL for sharks was significantly higher than for seabirds (n=28), but not for marine mammals (n=97). Trophic level and body size were positively correlated (r s =0.33), with the fit increasing (r s =0.41) when the three predominantly zooplanktivorous sharks were omitted, and especially when considering only carcharhinid sharks (r s =0.55).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.1999.0489",
    doi = "10.1006/jmsc.1999.0489",
    openalex = "W2130534187",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19970280, doi101007978146123498212, doi1010160304380092900168, doi101016s0065288108600772, doi101038374255a0, doi101126science150369228, doi101126science2795352860, doi101139f96316, doi1023075256, doi103354meps084009"
}

The hunting behavior of a marine mammal was studied beneath the Antarctic fast ice with an animal-borne video system and data recorder. Weddell seals stalked large Antarctic cod and the smaller subice fish Pagothenia borchgrevinki, often with the under-ice surface for backlighting, which implies that vision is important for hunting. They approached to within centimeters of cod without startling the fish. Seals flushed P. borchgrevinki by blowing air into subice crevices or pursued them into the platelet ice. These observations highlight the broad range of insights that are possible with simultaneous recordings of video, audio, three-dimensional dive paths, and locomotor effort.

@article{doi101126science2835404993,
    author = "Davis, Randall W. and Fuiman, Lee A. and Williams, Terrie M. and Collier, Stuart and Hagey, W. P. and Kanatous, Shane B. and Kohin, Suzanne and Horning, Markus",
    title = "Hunting Behavior of a Marine Mammal Beneath the Antarctic Fast Ice",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The hunting behavior of a marine mammal was studied beneath the Antarctic fast ice with an animal-borne video system and data recorder. Weddell seals stalked large Antarctic cod and the smaller subice fish Pagothenia borchgrevinki, often with the under-ice surface for backlighting, which implies that vision is important for hunting. They approached to within centimeters of cod without startling the fish. Seals flushed P. borchgrevinki by blowing air into subice crevices or pursued them into the platelet ice. These observations highlight the broad range of insights that are possible with simultaneous recordings of video, audio, three-dimensional dive paths, and locomotor effort.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5404.993",
    doi = "10.1126/science.283.5404.993",
    openalex = "W2087847636"
}

The impact of fishing on chondrichthyan stocks around the world is currently the focus of considerable international concern. Most chondrichthyan populations are of low productivity relative to teleost fishes, a consequence of their different life-history strategies. This is reflected in the poor record of sustainability of target shark fisheries. Most sharks and some batoids are predators at, or near, the top of marine food webs. The effects of fishing are examined at the single-species level and through trophic interactions. We summarize the status of chondrichthyan fisheries from around the world. Some 50% of the estimated global catch of chondrichthyans is taken as by-catch, does not appear in official fishery statistics, and is almost totally unmanaged. When taken as by-catch, they are often subjected to high fishing mortality directed at teleost target species. Consequently, some skates, sawfish, and deep-water dogfish have been virtually extirpated from large regions. Some chondrichthyans are more resilient to fishing and we examine predictions on the vulnerability of different species based on their life-history and population parameters. At the species level, fishing may alter size structure and population parameters in response to changes in species abundance. We review the evidence for such density-dependent change. Fishing can affect trophic interactions and we examine cases of apparent species replacement and shifts in community composition. Sharks and rays learn to associate trawlers with food and feeding on discards may increase their populations. Using ECOSIM, we make some predictions about the long-term response of ecosystems to fishing on sharks. Three different environments are analysed: a tropical shelf ecosystem in Venezuela, a Hawaiian coral reef ecosystem, and a North Pacific oceanic ecosystem.

@article{doi101006jmsc20000724,
    author = "Stevens, John D.",
    title = "The effects of fishing on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosystems",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "ICES Journal of Marine Science",
    abstract = "The impact of fishing on chondrichthyan stocks around the world is currently the focus of considerable international concern. Most chondrichthyan populations are of low productivity relative to teleost fishes, a consequence of their different life-history strategies. This is reflected in the poor record of sustainability of target shark fisheries. Most sharks and some batoids are predators at, or near, the top of marine food webs. The effects of fishing are examined at the single-species level and through trophic interactions. We summarize the status of chondrichthyan fisheries from around the world. Some 50\% of the estimated global catch of chondrichthyans is taken as by-catch, does not appear in official fishery statistics, and is almost totally unmanaged. When taken as by-catch, they are often subjected to high fishing mortality directed at teleost target species. Consequently, some skates, sawfish, and deep-water dogfish have been virtually extirpated from large regions. Some chondrichthyans are more resilient to fishing and we examine predictions on the vulnerability of different species based on their life-history and population parameters. At the species level, fishing may alter size structure and population parameters in response to changes in species abundance. We review the evidence for such density-dependent change. Fishing can affect trophic interactions and we examine cases of apparent species replacement and shifts in community composition. Sharks and rays learn to associate trawlers with food and feeding on discards may increase their populations. Using ECOSIM, we make some predictions about the long-term response of ecosystems to fishing on sharks. Three different environments are analysed: a tropical shelf ecosystem in Venezuela, a Hawaiian coral reef ecosystem, and a North Pacific oceanic ecosystem.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.2000.0724",
    doi = "10.1006/jmsc.2000.0724",
    openalex = "W2121792431",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19990489, doi101098rspb19970181, doi101126science2795352860, doi1023071447035, doi1023071447424"
}

Ichthyology & Herpetology (formerly Copeia) publishes work on the biology of fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, or work using those organisms as models for testing hypotheses of broad significance.

@article{doi1016430045851120000000635br20co2,
    author = "Luer, Carl A.",
    title = "Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "Ichthyology \& Herpetology (formerly Copeia) publishes work on the biology of fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, or work using those organisms as models for testing hypotheses of broad significance.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0635:br]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0635:br]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2097502711"
}

@incollection{doi101007978940173245110,
    author = "Motta, Philip and Wilga, Cheryl D.",
    title = "Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics of sharks",
    year = "2001",
    booktitle = "Developments in environmental biology of fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3245-1\_10",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-017-3245-1\_10",
    openalex = "W1602500898",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19990489, doi101007bf00005044, doi101093icb172303, doi1016430045851120000000635br20co2, doi1023071441732, doi1023071445465, doi1023071447582, doi1023073514548, doi105962bhltitle3596, openalexw3041320757"
}

Abstract The importance of interactions between sharks and cetaceans has been a subject of much conjecture, but few studies have addressed these interactions. Sharks (order Selachii) have been hypothesized to be important predators on dolphins and porpoises (suborder Odontoceti). Unfortunately, there are often few data to back up claims that certain shark species are major threats to cetaceans. To help identify potential shark predators in specific locations, available data on interactions with odontocetes for all shark species that may include cetaceans in their diet are reviewed. Shark species are categorized into groups based on predatory interactions with dolphins and porpoises (regular predators, occasional predators, potential predators, ectoparasites and insufficient data). Several shark species that have been overlooked in the cetacean literature are identified as potentially important predators while others that have been suspected to be important predators are probably at most occasional predators. How shark predation can influence dolphin populations, habitat use, group size and behaviour is discussed. How risk of shark predation can vary with habitat attributes in both nearshore and pelagic waters is also discussed. Predator–prey interactions have been the focus of most studies of shark–dolphin interaction, but competitive interactions may also occur. The first analysis of shark–dolphin dietary overlap is presented, which shows it to be significant between common dolphins and several species of sharks, including species that prey upon these dolphins.

@article{doi101017s0952836901000061,
    author = "Heithaus, Michael R.",
    title = "Predator–prey and competitive interactions between sharks (order Selachii) and dolphins (suborder Odontoceti): a review",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Abstract The importance of interactions between sharks and cetaceans has been a subject of much conjecture, but few studies have addressed these interactions. Sharks (order Selachii) have been hypothesized to be important predators on dolphins and porpoises (suborder Odontoceti). Unfortunately, there are often few data to back up claims that certain shark species are major threats to cetaceans. To help identify potential shark predators in specific locations, available data on interactions with odontocetes for all shark species that may include cetaceans in their diet are reviewed. Shark species are categorized into groups based on predatory interactions with dolphins and porpoises (regular predators, occasional predators, potential predators, ectoparasites and insufficient data). Several shark species that have been overlooked in the cetacean literature are identified as potentially important predators while others that have been suspected to be important predators are probably at most occasional predators. How shark predation can influence dolphin populations, habitat use, group size and behaviour is discussed. How risk of shark predation can vary with habitat attributes in both nearshore and pelagic waters is also discussed. Predator–prey interactions have been the focus of most studies of shark–dolphin interaction, but competitive interactions may also occur. The first analysis of shark–dolphin dietary overlap is presented, which shows it to be significant between common dolphins and several species of sharks, including species that prey upon these dolphins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0952836901000061",
    doi = "10.1017/s0952836901000061",
    openalex = "W2162273735",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044, doi101016b9780124150317500288, openalexw3190442888"
}

@article{doi101023a1007656126281,
    author = "Pratt, Harold L. and Carrier, Jeffrey C.",
    title = "A Review of Elasmobranch Reproductive Behavior with a Case Study on the Nurse Shark, Ginglymostoma Cirratum",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Environmental Biology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007656126281",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1007656126281",
    openalex = "W1608851950",
    references = "doi101007bf00002325, doi1010160022519371901895, doi101093icb172379, doi101093icb212473, doi1023071442530, doi104159harvard9780674330702, doi105962bhltitle3596, doi105962bhltitle6859, openalexw1512990238, openalexw227953458"
}

@article{doi101023a1011021710183,
    author = "Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Goodreid, Adrian and McAuley, Rory B.",
    title = "Size, Sex And Geographic Variation in the Diet of the Tiger Shark, Galeocerdo Cuvier, From Western Australian Waters",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Environmental Biology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1011021710183",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1011021710183",
    openalex = "W1586147855",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044"
}

@article{doi101007s0022700107117,
    author = "Heithaus, Michael R. and Dill, L. M. and Marshall, G. and Buhleier, B",
    title = "Habitat use and foraging behavior of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) in a seagrass ecosystem",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-001-0711-7",
    doi = "10.1007/s00227-001-0711-7",
    openalex = "W1986826249"
}

@article{doi101023a1014200301213,
    author = "Klimley, A. Peter and Beavers, Sallie C. and Curtis, Tobey H. and Jorgensen, Salvador J.",
    title = "Movements and Swimming Behavior of Three Species of Sharks in La Jolla Canyon, California",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Environmental Biology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1014200301213",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1014200301213",
    openalex = "W2170012981",
    references = "doi10100797814613031383, doi101007bf00346421, doi101007bf01344309, doi101007s002270050478, doi101038358410a0, doi101103physrev69106, doi101126science2885463133, doi101139f85207, doi1015259780520328150013, doi105860choice323308"
}

@article{doi101038415035b,
    author = "Boustany, André M. and Davis, Scott F. and Pyle, Peter and Anderson, Scot D. and Bœuf, Burney J. Le and Block, Barbara A.",
    title = "Expanded niche for white sharks",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/415035b",
    doi = "10.1038/415035b",
    openalex = "W1948893769",
    references = "openalexw3190442888"
}

Although both food availability and predation risk have been hypothesized to affect dolphin habitat use and group size, no study has measured both factors concurrently to determine their relative influences. From 1997 to 1999, we investigated the effect of food availability and tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) predation risk on bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) habitat use and group size in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Food availability was measured by fish trapping, while predation risk was assessed by shark catch rates, acoustic tracks, and Crittercam deployments. Dolphin habitat use was determined using belt transects. The biomass of dolphin prey did not vary seasonally and was significantly greater in shallow habitats than in deeper ones. Tiger sharks were virtually absent during cold months of 1997 and 1998, abundant in warm months of all years, and found at an intermediate density during cold months of 1999. When present, shark density was highest in shallow habitats. Decreased echolocation efficiency in very shallow water and poor visual detection of tiger sharks (camouflaged over seagrass) probably further enhance the riskiness of such habitats, and the relative riskiness of shallow habitats is supported by the observation that dolphins select deep waters in which to rest. The observed dolphin group sizes were consistent with a food–safety trade-off. Groups were larger in more dangerous shallow habitats and larger during resting than during foraging. Foraging dolphins matched the distribution of their food when sharks were absent. However, during warm months, the distribution of foraging dolphins significantly deviated from that of their food, with fewer dolphins foraging in the productive (but dangerous) shallow habitats than expected on the basis of food alone. When shark density was intermediate, habitat use by foraging dolphins was more similar to the high-shark-density seasons than periods of low shark density. These results suggest that foraging dolphin distributions reflect a trade-off between predation risk and food availability. Because the distribution and abundance of tiger sharks are influenced by species other than dolphins, the distribution of the tiger sharks' primary prey may indirectly influence dolphin habitat use, suggesting that it is important to consider the community context in studies of habitat use.

@article{doi1018900012965820020830480faatsp20co2,
    author = "Heithaus, Michael R. and Dill, Lawrence M.",
    title = "FOOD AVAILABILITY AND TIGER SHARK PREDATION RISK INFLUENCE BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN HABITAT USE",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "Although both food availability and predation risk have been hypothesized to affect dolphin habitat use and group size, no study has measured both factors concurrently to determine their relative influences. From 1997 to 1999, we investigated the effect of food availability and tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) predation risk on bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) habitat use and group size in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Food availability was measured by fish trapping, while predation risk was assessed by shark catch rates, acoustic tracks, and Crittercam deployments. Dolphin habitat use was determined using belt transects. The biomass of dolphin prey did not vary seasonally and was significantly greater in shallow habitats than in deeper ones. Tiger sharks were virtually absent during cold months of 1997 and 1998, abundant in warm months of all years, and found at an intermediate density during cold months of 1999. When present, shark density was highest in shallow habitats. Decreased echolocation efficiency in very shallow water and poor visual detection of tiger sharks (camouflaged over seagrass) probably further enhance the riskiness of such habitats, and the relative riskiness of shallow habitats is supported by the observation that dolphins select deep waters in which to rest. The observed dolphin group sizes were consistent with a food–safety trade-off. Groups were larger in more dangerous shallow habitats and larger during resting than during foraging. Foraging dolphins matched the distribution of their food when sharks were absent. However, during warm months, the distribution of foraging dolphins significantly deviated from that of their food, with fewer dolphins foraging in the productive (but dangerous) shallow habitats than expected on the basis of food alone. When shark density was intermediate, habitat use by foraging dolphins was more similar to the high-shark-density seasons than periods of low shark density. These results suggest that foraging dolphin distributions reflect a trade-off between predation risk and food availability. Because the distribution and abundance of tiger sharks are influenced by species other than dolphins, the distribution of the tiger sharks' primary prey may indirectly influence dolphin habitat use, suggesting that it is important to consider the community context in studies of habitat use.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0480:faatsp]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0480:faatsp]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2124577949",
    references = "doi10100797814757990957, doi101007s0022700107117, doi1010160040580977900429, doi101016s0169534799017231, doi101086284280, doi101086285208, doi101086285880, doi101139z90092, doi1023071939877, doi1023071941633, openalexw631077730"
}

Organochlorine contaminants (OCs) are a large group of ubiquitous pollutants that have potential as tracers of ecological processes. To examine this utility, we measured OCs, stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ15C), and stomach contents in a large Arctic marine fish, the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), collected in the Davis Strait region to examine the feeding ecology of this little studied elasmobranch. Stable isotopes and OCs were also measured in the turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and stable isotopes in the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) to put the shark results in context. Values of δ15N suggest that the Greenland shark feeds at a similar trophic level as the turbot and ringed seal (about the fourth trophic level) and at a higher trophic level than harp seals, despite the presence of many turbot and a single ringed seal in the stomach contents of 14 sharks. Values of δ13C indicate that source of carbon in turbot and Greenland shark is of a more pelagic origin than in ringed and harp seals. High concentrations of biomagnifying OCs in the sharks compared with the turbot (concentration 10–100× lower) and ringed seals (3–10× lower) suggest that the sharks feed at a higher trophic level than implied by stable isotopes. High urea levels found in the tissues of sharks may influence δ15N values, resulting in an underestimate of shark trophic position, and requires additional study. The presence of a ringed seal in the stomach of one shark, relatively high levels of a contaminant metabolite (oxychlordane; slowly formed in fish) in some sharks, and high OC levels suggest that seals may be a common food item of some Greenland sharks. This study shows the utility of using OCs in ecological study and suggests caution when interpreting stable-isotope data as a single indicator of trophic position.

@article{doi1018900012965820020832162uacasi20co2,
    author = "Fisk, Aaron T. and Tittlemier, Sheryl A. and Pranschke, Jennifer L. and Norstrom, Ross J.",
    title = "USING ANTHROPOGENIC CONTAMINANTS AND STABLE ISOTOPES TO ASSESS THE FEEDING ECOLOGY OF GREENLAND SHARKS",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "Organochlorine contaminants (OCs) are a large group of ubiquitous pollutants that have potential as tracers of ecological processes. To examine this utility, we measured OCs, stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ15C), and stomach contents in a large Arctic marine fish, the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), collected in the Davis Strait region to examine the feeding ecology of this little studied elasmobranch. Stable isotopes and OCs were also measured in the turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and stable isotopes in the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) to put the shark results in context. Values of δ15N suggest that the Greenland shark feeds at a similar trophic level as the turbot and ringed seal (about the fourth trophic level) and at a higher trophic level than harp seals, despite the presence of many turbot and a single ringed seal in the stomach contents of 14 sharks. Values of δ13C indicate that source of carbon in turbot and Greenland shark is of a more pelagic origin than in ringed and harp seals. High concentrations of biomagnifying OCs in the sharks compared with the turbot (concentration 10–100× lower) and ringed seals (3–10× lower) suggest that the sharks feed at a higher trophic level than implied by stable isotopes. High urea levels found in the tissues of sharks may influence δ15N values, resulting in an underestimate of shark trophic position, and requires additional study. The presence of a ringed seal in the stomach of one shark, relatively high levels of a contaminant metabolite (oxychlordane; slowly formed in fish) in some sharks, and high OC levels suggest that seals may be a common food item of some Greenland sharks. This study shows the utility of using OCs in ecological study and suggests caution when interpreting stable-isotope data as a single indicator of trophic position.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2162:uacasi]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2162:uacasi]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2156335554",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044"
}

Habitat selection processes in highly migratory animals such as sharks and whales are important to understand because they influence patterns of distribution, availability and therefore catch rates. However, spatial strategies remain poorly understood over seasonal scales in most species, including, most notably, the plankton-feeding basking shark Cetorhinus maximus. It was proposed nearly 50 yr ago that this globally distributed species migrates from coastal summer-feeding areas of the northeast Atlantic to hibernate during winter in deep water on the bottom of continental-shelf slopes. This view has perpetuated in the literature even though the 'hibernation theory' has not been tested directly. We have now tracked basking sharks for the first time over seasonal scales (1.7 to 6.5 mo) using 'pop-up' satellite archival transmitters. We show that they do not hibernate during winter but instead undertake extensive horizontal (up to 3400 km) and vertical (> 750 m depth) movements to utilise productive continental-shelf and shelf-edge habitats during summer, autumn and winter. They travel long distances (390 to 460 km) to locate temporally discrete productivity 'hotspots' at shelf-break fronts, but at no time were prolonged movements into open-ocean regions away from shelf waters observed. Basking sharks have a very broad vertical diving range and can dive beyond the known range of planktivorous whales. Our study suggests this species can exploit shelf and slope-associated zooplankton communities in mesopelagic (200 to 1000 m) as well as epipelagic habitat (0 to 200 m).

@article{doi103354meps248187,
    author = "Sims, DW and Southall, Emily J. and Richardson, Anthony J. and Reid, PC and Metcalfe, JD",
    title = "Seasonal movements and behaviour of basking sharks from archival tagging: no evidence of winter hibernation",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Habitat selection processes in highly migratory animals such as sharks and whales are important to understand because they influence patterns of distribution, availability and therefore catch rates. However, spatial strategies remain poorly understood over seasonal scales in most species, including, most notably, the plankton-feeding basking shark Cetorhinus maximus. It was proposed nearly 50 yr ago that this globally distributed species migrates from coastal summer-feeding areas of the northeast Atlantic to hibernate during winter in deep water on the bottom of continental-shelf slopes. This view has perpetuated in the literature even though the 'hibernation theory' has not been tested directly. We have now tracked basking sharks for the first time over seasonal scales (1.7 to 6.5 mo) using 'pop-up' satellite archival transmitters. We show that they do not hibernate during winter but instead undertake extensive horizontal (up to 3400 km) and vertical (> 750 m depth) movements to utilise productive continental-shelf and shelf-edge habitats during summer, autumn and winter. They travel long distances (390 to 460 km) to locate temporally discrete productivity 'hotspots' at shelf-break fronts, but at no time were prolonged movements into open-ocean regions away from shelf waters observed. Basking sharks have a very broad vertical diving range and can dive beyond the known range of planktivorous whales. Our study suggests this species can exploit shelf and slope-associated zooplankton communities in mesopelagic (200 to 1000 m) as well as epipelagic habitat (0 to 200 m).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps248187",
    doi = "10.3354/meps248187",
    openalex = "W2097383320",
    references = "doi101023a1014200301213, doi101098rspb19380041"
}

@article{doi101007s0022700413560,
    author = "Sepúlveda, Chugey A. and Kohin, Suzanne and Chan, Cy and Vetter, Russell D. and Graham, J. B.",
    title = "Movement patterns, depth preferences, and stomach temperatures of free-swimming juvenile mako sharks, Isurus oxyrinchus, in the Southern California Bight",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1356-0",
    doi = "10.1007/s00227-004-1356-0",
    openalex = "W2127351219",
    references = "doi101023a1014200301213"
}

Shark populations are declining globally, yet the movements and habitats of most species are unknown. We used a satellite tag attached to the dorsal fin to track salmon sharks (Lamna ditropis) for up to 3.2 years. Here we show that salmon sharks have a subarctic-to-subtropical niche, ranging from 2 degrees to 24 degrees C, and they spend winter periods in waters as cold as 2 degrees to 8 degrees C. Functional assays and protein gels reveal that the expression of excitation-contraction coupling proteins is enhanced in salmon shark hearts, which may underlie the shark's ability to maintain heart function at cold temperatures and their niche expansion into subarctic seas.

@article{doi101126science1114616,
    author = "Weng, Kevin C. and Castilho, Pedro C. and Morrissette, Jeffery M. and Landeira-Fernandez, Ana M. and Holts, David B. and Schallert, Robert J. and Goldman, Kenneth J. and Block, Barbara A.",
    title = "Satellite Tagging and Cardiac Physiology Reveal Niche Expansion in Salmon Sharks",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Shark populations are declining globally, yet the movements and habitats of most species are unknown. We used a satellite tag attached to the dorsal fin to track salmon sharks (Lamna ditropis) for up to 3.2 years. Here we show that salmon sharks have a subarctic-to-subtropical niche, ranging from 2 degrees to 24 degrees C, and they spend winter periods in waters as cold as 2 degrees to 8 degrees C. Functional assays and protein gels reveal that the expression of excitation-contraction coupling proteins is enhanced in salmon shark hearts, which may underlie the shark's ability to maintain heart function at cold temperatures and their niche expansion into subarctic seas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1114616",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1114616",
    openalex = "W2097613054"
}

The large-scale spatial dynamics and population structure of marine top predators are poorly known. We present electronic tag and photographic identification data showing a complex suite of behavioral patterns in white sharks. These include coastal return migrations and the fastest known transoceanic return migration among swimming fauna, which provide direct evidence of a link between widely separated populations in South Africa and Australia. Transoceanic return migration involved a return to the original capture location, dives to depths of 980 meters, and the tolerance of water temperatures as low as 3.4 degrees C. These findings contradict previous ideas that female white sharks do not make transoceanic migrations, and they suggest natal homing behavior.

@article{doi101126science1114898,
    author = "Bonfil, Ramón and Meÿer, Michael A. and Scholl, Michael C. and Johnson, Ryan and O’Brien, Shannon M. and Oosthuizen, Herman and Swanson, Stephan and Kotze, Deon and Paterson, Michael J.",
    title = "Transoceanic Migration, Spatial Dynamics, and Population Linkages of White Sharks",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The large-scale spatial dynamics and population structure of marine top predators are poorly known. We present electronic tag and photographic identification data showing a complex suite of behavioral patterns in white sharks. These include coastal return migrations and the fastest known transoceanic return migration among swimming fauna, which provide direct evidence of a link between widely separated populations in South Africa and Australia. Transoceanic return migration involved a return to the original capture location, dives to depths of 980 meters, and the tolerance of water temperatures as low as 3.4 degrees C. These findings contradict previous ideas that female white sharks do not make transoceanic migrations, and they suggest natal homing behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1114898",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1114898",
    openalex = "W2104068398",
    references = "openalexw570265017"
}

@article{doi101007s0022700603251,
    author = "Bruce, Barry D. and Stevens, John D. and Malcolm, Hamish A.",
    title = "Movements and swimming behaviour of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in Australian waters",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-006-0325-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s00227-006-0325-1",
    openalex = "W1994237637",
    references = "doi101023a1014200301213"
}

@article{doi101007s1064100690076,
    author = "Heupel, Michelle R. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Collins, Angela B. and Tyminski, John P.",
    title = "Residency and movement patterns of bonnethead sharks, Sphyrna tiburo, in a large Florida estuary",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Environmental Biology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-006-9007-6",
    doi = "10.1007/s10641-006-9007-6",
    openalex = "W2077020085",
    references = "doi101071mf03023, doi1023071442530"
}

We conducted stable 13C and 15N analysis on white shark vertebrae and demonstrated that incremental analysis of isotopes along the radius of a vertebral centrum produces a chronological record of dietary information, allowing for reconstruction of an individual's trophic history. Isotopic data showed significant enrichments in 15N with increasing sampling distance from the centrum center, indicating a correlation between body size and trophic level. Additionally, isotopic values verified two distinct ontogenetic trophic shifts in the white shark: one following parturition, marking a dietary switch from yolk to fish; and one at a total length of >341 cm, representing a known diet shift from fish to marine mammals. Retrospective trophic-level reconstruction using vertebral tissue will have broad applications in future studies on the ecology of threatened, endangered, or extinct species to determine life-long feeding patterns, which would be impossible through other methods.

@article{doi10189000129658200687829uoiaov20co2,
    author = "Estrada, James A. and Rice, Aaron N. and Natanson, Lisa J. and Skomal, Gregory B.",
    title = "USE OF ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF VERTEBRAE IN RECONSTRUCTING ONTOGENETIC FEEDING ECOLOGY IN WHITE SHARKS",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "We conducted stable 13C and 15N analysis on white shark vertebrae and demonstrated that incremental analysis of isotopes along the radius of a vertebral centrum produces a chronological record of dietary information, allowing for reconstruction of an individual's trophic history. Isotopic data showed significant enrichments in 15N with increasing sampling distance from the centrum center, indicating a correlation between body size and trophic level. Additionally, isotopic values verified two distinct ontogenetic trophic shifts in the white shark: one following parturition, marking a dietary switch from yolk to fish; and one at a total length of >341 cm, representing a known diet shift from fish to marine mammals. Retrospective trophic-level reconstruction using vertebral tissue will have broad applications in future studies on the ecology of threatened, endangered, or extinct species to determine life-long feeding patterns, which would be impossible through other methods.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[829:uoiaov]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[829:uoiaov]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2179505923",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044"
}

Competition and predation are both important in structuring the distribution of marine organisms; however, little is known about how competition and predation influence the distribution of elasmobranch fishes. We used data collected from shark control programs conducted between 1967 and 1980, throughout the Hawaiian island chain, to examine the distribution and dietary overlap of the 4 most abundant carcharhinid sharks. Tiger sharks Galeorcerdo cuvier and Galapagos sharks Carcharhinus galapagensis were caught at all islands, but were more abundant in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) than in the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI). Gray reef sharks Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos and sandbar sharks Carcharhinus plumbeus showed an inverse relationship in distribution, with sandbar sharks abundant in the MHI, but virtually absent throughout the NWHI, and gray reef sharks only sporadically found throughout the MHI, but abundant in the NWHI. Dietary overlap was high between gray reef and sandbar sharks, and between sandbar and Galapagos sharks. Tiger sharks had low dietary overlap with all other species, except for large Galapagos sharks. The data analyzed in our study support the hypothesis that interspecific competition influences the distribution of carcharhinid sharks throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago.

@article{doi103354meps320239,
    author = "Papastamatiou, YP and Wetherbee, BM and Lowe, CG and Crow, GL",
    title = "Distribution and diet of four species of carcharhinid shark in the Hawaiian Islands: evidence for resource partitioning and competitive exclusion",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Competition and predation are both important in structuring the distribution of marine organisms; however, little is known about how competition and predation influence the distribution of elasmobranch fishes. We used data collected from shark control programs conducted between 1967 and 1980, throughout the Hawaiian island chain, to examine the distribution and dietary overlap of the 4 most abundant carcharhinid sharks. Tiger sharks Galeorcerdo cuvier and Galapagos sharks Carcharhinus galapagensis were caught at all islands, but were more abundant in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) than in the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI). Gray reef sharks Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos and sandbar sharks Carcharhinus plumbeus showed an inverse relationship in distribution, with sandbar sharks abundant in the MHI, but virtually absent throughout the NWHI, and gray reef sharks only sporadically found throughout the MHI, but abundant in the NWHI. Dietary overlap was high between gray reef and sandbar sharks, and between sandbar and Galapagos sharks. Tiger sharks had low dietary overlap with all other species, except for large Galapagos sharks. The data analyzed in our study support the hypothesis that interspecific competition influences the distribution of carcharhinid sharks throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps320239",
    doi = "10.3354/meps320239",
    openalex = "W2128379421",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044"
}

@article{crossref2007snipers,
    title = "Snipers, shills, \& sharks: eBay and human behavior",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.45-2152",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.45-2152",
    number = "04",
    openalex = "W4233691689",
    pages = "45-2152-45-2152",
    volume = "45"
}

@article{doi101007s0022700707394,
    author = "Weng, Kevin C. and Boustany, André M. and Pyle, Peter and Anderson, Scot D. and Brown, Adam and Block, Barbara A.",
    title = "Migration and habitat of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in the eastern Pacific Ocean",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-007-0739-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s00227-007-0739-4",
    openalex = "W2103636072",
    references = "doi101017s002531540501218x, doi101023a1014200301213, doi103354meps338211"
}

Synopsis For most vertebrates, locomotion is a fundamental component of prey capture. Despite this ubiquitous link, few studies have quantified the integration of these complex systems. Several variables related to locomotor performance, including maximum speed, acceleration, deceleration, maneuverability, accuracy, and approach stability, likely influence feeding performance in vertebrates. The relative importance of these measures of performance, however, depends on the ecology of the predator. While factors such as morphology and physiology likely define the limits of these variables, other factors such as motivation of the predator, prey type, and habitat structure can also influence performance. Understanding how these variables relate to feeding under a given suite of ecological conditions is central to understanding predator–prey interactions, and ultimately how locomotion and feeding have co-evolved. The goals of this article are to discuss several variables of locomotor performance related to prey capture, present new data on the relationship between locomotor and feeding morphology in fishes, discuss the evolution of prey capture in cichlid fishes, and outline some future directions for research. While suction feeding is a primary mechanism of prey capture in fishes, swimming is vital for accurately positioning the mouth relative to the prey item. Many fishes decelerate during prey capture using their body and fins, but the pectoral fins have a dominant role in maintaining approach stability. This suggests that fishes employing high-performance suction feeding (relatively small mouth) will have larger pectoral fins to facilitate accurate and stable feeding. I provide new data on the relationship between pectoral fin morphology and

@article{doi101093icbicm021,
    author = "Higham, Timothy E.",
    title = "The integration of locomotion and prey capture in vertebrates: Morphology, behavior, and performance",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Integrative and Comparative Biology",
    abstract = "Synopsis For most vertebrates, locomotion is a fundamental component of prey capture. Despite this ubiquitous link, few studies have quantified the integration of these complex systems. Several variables related to locomotor performance, including maximum speed, acceleration, deceleration, maneuverability, accuracy, and approach stability, likely influence feeding performance in vertebrates. The relative importance of these measures of performance, however, depends on the ecology of the predator. While factors such as morphology and physiology likely define the limits of these variables, other factors such as motivation of the predator, prey type, and habitat structure can also influence performance. Understanding how these variables relate to feeding under a given suite of ecological conditions is central to understanding predator–prey interactions, and ultimately how locomotion and feeding have co-evolved. The goals of this article are to discuss several variables of locomotor performance related to prey capture, present new data on the relationship between locomotor and feeding morphology in fishes, discuss the evolution of prey capture in cichlid fishes, and outline some future directions for research. While suction feeding is a primary mechanism of prey capture in fishes, swimming is vital for accurately positioning the mouth relative to the prey item. Many fishes decelerate during prey capture using their body and fins, but the pectoral fins have a dominant role in maintaining approach stability. This suggests that fishes employing high-performance suction feeding (relatively small mouth) will have larger pectoral fins to facilitate accurate and stable feeding. I provide new data on the relationship between pectoral fin morphology and",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icm021",
    doi = "10.1093/icb/icm021",
    openalex = "W2121918863",
    references = "doi101007978940173245110"
}

Summary The ability to identify individual animals is a critical aid in wildlife and conservation studies requiring information on behaviour, distribution, habitat use, population and life‐history parameters. We present a computer‐aided photo‐identification technique that relies on natural marks to identify individuals of Carcharias taurus, a shark species that is critically endangered off the eastern Australian coast and considered globally vulnerable. The technique could potentially be applied to a range of species of similar form and bearing natural marks. The use of natural marks for photo‐identification is a non‐invasive technique for identifying individual animals. As photo‐identification databases grow larger, and their implementation spans several years, the historically used visual‐matching processes lose accuracy and speed. A computerized pattern‐matching system that requires initial user interaction to select the key features aids researchers by considerably reducing the time needed for identification of individuals. Our method uses a two‐dimensional affine transformation to compare two individuals in a commonly defined reference space. The methodology was developed using a database of 221 individually identifiable sharks that were photographically marked and rephotographed over 9 years, demonstrating both the efficacy of the technique and that the natural pigment marks of C. taurus are a reliable means of tracking individuals over several years. Synthesis and applications. The identification of individual animals that are naturally marked with spots or similar patterns is achieved with an interactive pattern‐matching system that uses an affine transformation to compare selected points in a single‐user computer‐aided interface. Our technique has been used successfully on C. taurus and we believe the methodology can be applied to other species of a similar form that have natural marks or patterns. The identification of individuals allows accurate tracking of their movements and distribution, and contributes to better population estimates for improved wildlife management and conservation planning.

@article{doi101111j13652664200601273x,
    author = "van Tienhoven, A. M. and den Hartog, J.E. and REIJNS, R. A. and Peddemors, Victor M.",
    title = "A computer‐aided program for pattern‐matching of natural marks on the spotted raggedtooth shark Carcharias taurus",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary The ability to identify individual animals is a critical aid in wildlife and conservation studies requiring information on behaviour, distribution, habitat use, population and life‐history parameters. We present a computer‐aided photo‐identification technique that relies on natural marks to identify individuals of Carcharias taurus, a shark species that is critically endangered off the eastern Australian coast and considered globally vulnerable. The technique could potentially be applied to a range of species of similar form and bearing natural marks. The use of natural marks for photo‐identification is a non‐invasive technique for identifying individual animals. As photo‐identification databases grow larger, and their implementation spans several years, the historically used visual‐matching processes lose accuracy and speed. A computerized pattern‐matching system that requires initial user interaction to select the key features aids researchers by considerably reducing the time needed for identification of individuals. Our method uses a two‐dimensional affine transformation to compare two individuals in a commonly defined reference space. The methodology was developed using a database of 221 individually identifiable sharks that were photographically marked and rephotographed over 9 years, demonstrating both the efficacy of the technique and that the natural pigment marks of C. taurus are a reliable means of tracking individuals over several years. Synthesis and applications. The identification of individual animals that are naturally marked with spots or similar patterns is achieved with an interactive pattern‐matching system that uses an affine transformation to compare selected points in a single‐user computer‐aided interface. Our technique has been used successfully on C. taurus and we believe the methodology can be applied to other species of a similar form that have natural marks or patterns. The identification of individuals allows accurate tracking of their movements and distribution, and contributes to better population estimates for improved wildlife management and conservation planning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01273.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01273.x",
    openalex = "W1580935273",
    references = "doi1023071442530"
}

Impacts of chronic overfishing are evident in population depletions worldwide, yet indirect ecosystem effects induced by predator removal from oceanic food webs remain unpredictable. As abundances of all 11 great sharks that consume other elasmobranchs (rays, skates, and small sharks) fell over the past 35 years, 12 of 14 of these prey species increased in coastal northwest Atlantic ecosystems. Effects of this community restructuring have cascaded downward from the cownose ray, whose enhanced predation on its bay scallop prey was sufficient to terminate a century-long scallop fishery. Analogous top-down effects may be a predictable consequence of eliminating entire functional groups of predators.

@article{doi101126science1138657,
    author = "Myers, Ransom A. and Baum, Julia K. and Shepherd, Travis D. and Powers, Sean P. and Peterson, Charles H.",
    title = "Cascading Effects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocean",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Impacts of chronic overfishing are evident in population depletions worldwide, yet indirect ecosystem effects induced by predator removal from oceanic food webs remain unpredictable. As abundances of all 11 great sharks that consume other elasmobranchs (rays, skates, and small sharks) fell over the past 35 years, 12 of 14 of these prey species increased in coastal northwest Atlantic ecosystems. Effects of this community restructuring have cascaded downward from the cownose ray, whose enhanced predation on its bay scallop prey was sufficient to terminate a century-long scallop fishery. Analogous top-down effects may be a predictable consequence of eliminating entire functional groups of predators.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1138657",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1138657",
    openalex = "W2057695258",
    references = "doi101016s0169534799017231"
}

The widespread variation in brain size and complexity that is evident in sharks and holocephalans is related to both phylogeny and ecology. Relative brain size (expressed as encephalization quotients) and the relative development of the five major brain areas (the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, cerebellum, and medulla) was assessed for over 40 species from 20 families that represent a range of different lifestyles and occupy a number of habitats. In addition, an index (1-5) quantifying structural complexity of the cerebellum was created based on length, number, and depth of folds. Although the variation in brain size, morphology, and complexity is due in part to phylogeny, as basal groups have smaller brains, less structural hypertrophy, and lower foliation indices, there is also substantial variation within and across clades that does not reflect phylogenetic relationships. Ecological correlations, with the relative development of different brain areas as well as the complexity of the cerebellar corpus, are supported by cluster analysis and are suggestive of a range of 'cerebrotypes'. These correlations suggest that relative brain development reflects the dimensionality of the environment and/or agile prey capture in addition to phylogeny.

@article{doi101159000100037,
    author = "Yopak, Kara E. and Lisney, Thomas J. and Collin, Shaun P. and Montgomery, John C.",
    title = "Variation in Brain Organization and Cerebellar Foliation in Chondrichthyans: Sharks and Holocephalans",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Brain Behavior and Evolution",
    abstract = "The widespread variation in brain size and complexity that is evident in sharks and holocephalans is related to both phylogeny and ecology. Relative brain size (expressed as encephalization quotients) and the relative development of the five major brain areas (the telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, cerebellum, and medulla) was assessed for over 40 species from 20 families that represent a range of different lifestyles and occupy a number of habitats. In addition, an index (1-5) quantifying structural complexity of the cerebellum was created based on length, number, and depth of folds. Although the variation in brain size, morphology, and complexity is due in part to phylogeny, as basal groups have smaller brains, less structural hypertrophy, and lower foliation indices, there is also substantial variation within and across clades that does not reflect phylogenetic relationships. Ecological correlations, with the relative development of different brain areas as well as the complexity of the cerebellar corpus, are supported by cluster analysis and are suggestive of a range of 'cerebrotypes'. These correlations suggest that relative brain development reflects the dimensionality of the environment and/or agile prey capture in addition to phylogeny.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1159/000100037",
    doi = "10.1159/000100037",
    openalex = "W2089378501",
    references = "doi1010160025556471900514, doi101016b9780126709506500035, doi101086284325, doi101093sysbio41118, doi1010970000505319361100000044, doi101113jphysiol1969sp008820, doi101523jneurosci1405032081994, doi1023071442530, doi1023072407154, doi105860choice295104, openalexw143324445, openalexw3211386673, openalexw570265017"
}

Understanding of juvenile life stages of large pelagic predators such as the white shark Carcharodon carcharias remains limited. We tracked 6 juvenile white sharks (147 to 250 cm total length) in the eastern Pacific using pop-up satellite archival tags for a total of 534 d, demonstrating that the nursery region of white sharks includes waters of southern California, USA, and Baja California, Mexico. Young-of-the-year sharks remained south of Point Conception whereas one 3 yr old shark moved north to Point Reyes. All juvenile white sharks displayed a diel change in behavior, with deeper mean positions during dawn, day and dusk (26 15 m) than during night (6 3 m). Sharks occasionally displayed deeper nocturnal movements during full moon nights. On average, vertical excursions were deeper and cooler for 3 yr olds (226 81 m; 9.2 0.9C) than young-of-the-year animals (100 59 m; 11.2 1.4C). Juvenile white sharks are captured as bycatch in both US and Mexican waters, suggesting that management of fishing mortality should be of increased concern.

@article{doi103354meps338211,
    author = "Weng, Kevin C. and O’Sullivan, JB and Lowe, CG and Winkler, CE and Dewar, Heidi and Block, BA",
    title = "Movements, behavior and habitat preferences of juvenile white sharks Carcharodon carcharias in the eastern Pacific",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Understanding of juvenile life stages of large pelagic predators such as the white shark Carcharodon carcharias remains limited. We tracked 6 juvenile white sharks (147 to 250 cm total length) in the eastern Pacific using pop-up satellite archival tags for a total of 534 d, demonstrating that the nursery region of white sharks includes waters of southern California, USA, and Baja California, Mexico. Young-of-the-year sharks remained south of Point Conception whereas one 3 yr old shark moved north to Point Reyes. All juvenile white sharks displayed a diel change in behavior, with deeper mean positions during dawn, day and dusk (26 15 m) than during night (6 3 m). Sharks occasionally displayed deeper nocturnal movements during full moon nights. On average, vertical excursions were deeper and cooler for 3 yr olds (226 81 m; 9.2 0.9C) than young-of-the-year animals (100 59 m; 11.2 1.4C). Juvenile white sharks are captured as bycatch in both US and Mexican waters, suggesting that management of fishing mortality should be of increased concern.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps338211",
    doi = "10.3354/meps338211",
    openalex = "W2123855814",
    references = "doi101006jmsc20000724, doi101007bf01344309, doi101023a1014200301213, doi101038358410a0, doi101038415035b, doi101038nature03463, doi101126science1114616, doi101126science1114898, doi103354meps132001, doi103354meps283081, openalexw2098172777"
}

Abstract Ontogenetic diet shifts are a widespread phenomenon among vertebrates, although their relationships with life history traits are poorly known. We analyzed the relative importance of body size, age and maturity stage as determinants of the diet of a marine top predator, the copper shark, Carcharhinus brachyurus, by examining stomach contents using a multiple‐hypothesis modeling approach. Copper sharks shifted their diet as size and age increased and as they became sexually mature, incorporated larger prey as they grew, and had a discrete shift in diet with body size, with only individuals larger than ≈200 cm total length able to prey on chondrichthyans. Body size was the most important trait explaining the consumption of chondrichthyans, while age determined the consumption of pelagic teleosts. Pelagic teleosts were consumed mostly by medium‐aged sharks, a result, probably, of a risk‐reducing feeding strategy at young ages coupled with either a senescence‐related decline in performance or a change in sensory capabilities as sharks age. Copper sharks of all sizes were able to cut prey in pieces, implying that gape limitation (i.e., the impossibility of eating prey larger than a predator's mouth) did not play a role in producing the diet shift. Our results suggest that, contrary to the current practice of setting minimum but not maximum size limits in catches, any plan to conserve or restore the ecological function of sharks, through their predatory control of large prey, should aim to maintain the largest individuals.

@article{doi101007s112840080487z,
    author = "Lucifora, Luis O. and García, Verónica B. and Menni, Roberto Carlos and Escalante, Alicia H. and Hozbor, Natalia M.",
    title = "Effects of body size, age and maturity stage on diet in a large shark: ecological and applied implications",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Ecological Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Ontogenetic diet shifts are a widespread phenomenon among vertebrates, although their relationships with life history traits are poorly known. We analyzed the relative importance of body size, age and maturity stage as determinants of the diet of a marine top predator, the copper shark, Carcharhinus brachyurus, by examining stomach contents using a multiple‐hypothesis modeling approach. Copper sharks shifted their diet as size and age increased and as they became sexually mature, incorporated larger prey as they grew, and had a discrete shift in diet with body size, with only individuals larger than ≈200 cm total length able to prey on chondrichthyans. Body size was the most important trait explaining the consumption of chondrichthyans, while age determined the consumption of pelagic teleosts. Pelagic teleosts were consumed mostly by medium‐aged sharks, a result, probably, of a risk‐reducing feeding strategy at young ages coupled with either a senescence‐related decline in performance or a change in sensory capabilities as sharks age. Copper sharks of all sizes were able to cut prey in pieces, implying that gape limitation (i.e., the impossibility of eating prey larger than a predator's mouth) did not play a role in producing the diet shift. Our results suggest that, contrary to the current practice of setting minimum but not maximum size limits in catches, any plan to conserve or restore the ecological function of sharks, through their predatory control of large prey, should aim to maintain the largest individuals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-008-0487-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s11284-008-0487-z",
    openalex = "W2030589701",
    references = "doi101007978940173245110, doi101023a1007649900712, doi101086498196, openalexw1511461941"
}

@article{doi103354meps07628,
    author = "Domeier, M. L. and Nasby-Lucas, Nicole",
    title = "Migration patterns of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias tagged at Guadalupe Island, Mexico, and identification of an eastern Pacific shared offshore foraging area",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07628",
    doi = "10.3354/meps07628",
    openalex = "W2134682793",
    references = "doi103354meps338211"
}

Abstract An Integrated Risk Assessment for Climate Change (IRACC) is developed and applied to assess the vulnerability of sharks and rays on Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) to climate change. The IRACC merges a traditional climate change vulnerability framework with approaches from fisheries ecological risk assessments. This semi‐quantitative assessment accommodates uncertainty and can be applied at different spatial and temporal scales to identify exposure factors, at‐risk species and their key biological and ecological attributes, critical habitats a`nd ecological processes, and major knowledge gaps. Consequently, the IRACC can provide a foundation upon which to develop climate change response strategies. Here, we describe the assessment process, demonstrate its application to GBR shark and ray species, and explore the issues affecting their vulnerability to climate change. The assessment indicates that for the GBR, freshwater/estuarine and reef associated sharks and rays are most vulnerable to climate change, and that vulnerability is driven by case‐specific interactions of multiple factors and species attributes. Changes in temperature, freshwater input and ocean circulation will have the most widespread effects on these species. Although relatively few GBR sharks and rays were assessed as highly vulnerable, their vulnerability increases when synergies with other factors are considered. This is especially true for freshwater/estuarine and coastal/inshore sharks and rays. Reducing the impacts of climate change on the GBR's sharks and rays requires a range of approaches including mitigating climate change and addressing habitat degradation and sustainability issues. Species‐specific conservation actions may be required for higher risk species (e.g. the freshwater whipray, porcupine ray, speartooth shark and sawfishes) including reducing mortality, preserving coastal catchments and estuarine habitats, and addressing fisheries sustainability. The assessment identified many knowledge gaps concerning GBR habitats and processes, and highlights the need for improved understanding of the biology and ecology of the sharks and rays of the GBR.

@article{doi101111j13652486200902128x,
    author = "Chin, Andrew and Kyne, Peter M. and Walker, Terence I. and McAuley, Rory B.",
    title = "An integrated risk assessment for climate change: analysing the vulnerability of sharks and rays on Australia's Great Barrier Reef",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract An Integrated Risk Assessment for Climate Change (IRACC) is developed and applied to assess the vulnerability of sharks and rays on Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR) to climate change. The IRACC merges a traditional climate change vulnerability framework with approaches from fisheries ecological risk assessments. This semi‐quantitative assessment accommodates uncertainty and can be applied at different spatial and temporal scales to identify exposure factors, at‐risk species and their key biological and ecological attributes, critical habitats a`nd ecological processes, and major knowledge gaps. Consequently, the IRACC can provide a foundation upon which to develop climate change response strategies. Here, we describe the assessment process, demonstrate its application to GBR shark and ray species, and explore the issues affecting their vulnerability to climate change. The assessment indicates that for the GBR, freshwater/estuarine and reef associated sharks and rays are most vulnerable to climate change, and that vulnerability is driven by case‐specific interactions of multiple factors and species attributes. Changes in temperature, freshwater input and ocean circulation will have the most widespread effects on these species. Although relatively few GBR sharks and rays were assessed as highly vulnerable, their vulnerability increases when synergies with other factors are considered. This is especially true for freshwater/estuarine and coastal/inshore sharks and rays. Reducing the impacts of climate change on the GBR's sharks and rays requires a range of approaches including mitigating climate change and addressing habitat degradation and sustainability issues. Species‐specific conservation actions may be required for higher risk species (e.g. the freshwater whipray, porcupine ray, speartooth shark and sawfishes) including reducing mortality, preserving coastal catchments and estuarine habitats, and addressing fisheries sustainability. The assessment identified many knowledge gaps concerning GBR habitats and processes, and highlights the need for improved understanding of the biology and ecology of the sharks and rays of the GBR.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02128.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02128.x",
    openalex = "W2109922942",
    references = "doi101002j147786961990tb05660x, doi101006jmsc20000724, doi101007s0022700107117, doi101007s1058400603293, doi101016jaquabot200712007, doi101073pnas1231335100, doi101111j14610248200500871x, doi101111j14672979200800315x, doi101126science1111322, doi101126science1152509, doi101126science1159196"
}

Abstract The role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals. However, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered. Almost 50 years ago the first learning experiments on sharks were conducted; our first section discusses these studies and places them in a framework of associative and non‐associative learning. These experiments showed that sharks were capable of different forms of learning, such as operant and classical conditioning and habituation. Sharks could learn associations as rapidly as other vertebrates and also remember training regimes for several months. However, much of this experimental evidence was based on small sample sizes and few shark orders, such as Carcharhiniformes and Orectobliformes, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the general learning capabilities of other shark orders. We also examine recent research that has tested for, or inferred learning in behavioural processes. This section reveals that sharks, like teleost fishes use learning to improve prey search and capture to potentially navigate and orientate in their home range and recognize conspecifics, heterospecifics and mates. Learning is also discussed in relation to ecotourism and fisheries. Findings indicated that these activities may lead to conditioning of sharks and that considerable effort should go into investigating what impact this could have on the shark species involved. Finally, we discuss the importance of combining laboratory experiments with field studies, the use of new experimental techniques, the role of model species and research priorities for future work.

@article{doi101111j14672979200900339x,
    author = "Guttridge, Tristan L. and Myrberg, Arthur A. and Porcher, Ila France and Sims, David and Krause, Jens",
    title = "The role of learning in shark behaviour",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Fish and Fisheries",
    abstract = "Abstract The role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals. However, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered. Almost 50 years ago the first learning experiments on sharks were conducted; our first section discusses these studies and places them in a framework of associative and non‐associative learning. These experiments showed that sharks were capable of different forms of learning, such as operant and classical conditioning and habituation. Sharks could learn associations as rapidly as other vertebrates and also remember training regimes for several months. However, much of this experimental evidence was based on small sample sizes and few shark orders, such as Carcharhiniformes and Orectobliformes, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the general learning capabilities of other shark orders. We also examine recent research that has tested for, or inferred learning in behavioural processes. This section reveals that sharks, like teleost fishes use learning to improve prey search and capture to potentially navigate and orientate in their home range and recognize conspecifics, heterospecifics and mates. Learning is also discussed in relation to ecotourism and fisheries. Findings indicated that these activities may lead to conditioning of sharks and that considerable effort should go into investigating what impact this could have on the shark species involved. Finally, we discuss the importance of combining laboratory experiments with field studies, the use of new experimental techniques, the role of model species and research priorities for future work.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00339.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-2979.2009.00339.x",
    openalex = "W2037866588",
    references = "doi101093icbicm029, doi101159000100037, doi1023071442530"
}

A primary determinant of movement strategies is travel speed, which modulates both power consumption and distance travelled and thus varies according to ecological circumstance. Many dense animals moving in 3D media face costs according to their movement trajectory and it should therefore equally be optimized according to circumstance. \n \n2. We investigated the power requirements (using dynamic body acceleration as proxy for power) in relation to movement geometry of nine whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and discovered that movement geometry significantly affects power requirements in a manner similar to travel speed. \n \n3. Whale sharks dive repeatedly and use their negative buoyancy to glide during descents, while ascents were characterized by strong locomotory activity. Power requirements of ascents increased with the square of degrees pitch and were significantly greater than both level and descent swimming. \n \n4. The differences in geometry of five dive types are explored using four empirical optimality models based on minimum power based on our measurements. These models suggest that some dive types minimize the horizontal cost of transport, whereas others minimize the cost of vertical transport. Whale sharks are presumed to shift diving geometry with changing currencies and ecological context. The adaptive significance of appropriate diving geometry and associated power requirements is discussed with regard to current hypotheses for diving in gill-breathers: search, orientation and travel. \n \n5. Movement geometry significantly affects the cost of locomotion and is probably modulated by animals according to ecological circumstance. The in situ measurement of animal trajectory and locomotory activity via accelerometers now permits testing context-dependent movement geometry in free-ranging animals.

@article{doi101111j13652435201001801x,
    author = "Gleiss, Adrian C. and Norman, Bradley M. and Wilson, Rory P.",
    title = "Moved by that sinking feeling: variable diving geometry underlies movement strategies in whale sharks",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Functional Ecology",
    abstract = "A primary determinant of movement strategies is travel speed, which modulates both power consumption and distance travelled and thus varies according to ecological circumstance. Many dense animals moving in 3D media face costs according to their movement trajectory and it should therefore equally be optimized according to circumstance. \n \n2. We investigated the power requirements (using dynamic body acceleration as proxy for power) in relation to movement geometry of nine whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and discovered that movement geometry significantly affects power requirements in a manner similar to travel speed. \n \n3. Whale sharks dive repeatedly and use their negative buoyancy to glide during descents, while ascents were characterized by strong locomotory activity. Power requirements of ascents increased with the square of degrees pitch and were significantly greater than both level and descent swimming. \n \n4. The differences in geometry of five dive types are explored using four empirical optimality models based on minimum power based on our measurements. These models suggest that some dive types minimize the horizontal cost of transport, whereas others minimize the cost of vertical transport. Whale sharks are presumed to shift diving geometry with changing currencies and ecological context. The adaptive significance of appropriate diving geometry and associated power requirements is discussed with regard to current hypotheses for diving in gill-breathers: search, orientation and travel. \n \n5. Movement geometry significantly affects the cost of locomotion and is probably modulated by animals according to ecological circumstance. The in situ measurement of animal trajectory and locomotory activity via accelerometers now permits testing context-dependent movement geometry in free-ranging animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01801.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01801.x",
    openalex = "W1484770615",
    references = "doi101023a1014200301213"
}

Major fluctuations in salinity, temperature, depth, flow, and turbidity occur in nearshore waters on a variety of temporal scales (from hours to seasons) due to changes in tidal level, freshwater flow, rainfall, and seasonal

@article{doi103354meps08498,
    author = "Knip, DM and Heupel, Michelle R. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A.",
    title = "Sharks in nearshore environments: models, importance, and consequences",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Major fluctuations in salinity, temperature, depth, flow, and turbidity occur in nearshore waters on a variety of temporal scales (from hours to seasons) due to changes in tidal level, freshwater flow, rainfall, and seasonal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08498",
    doi = "10.3354/meps08498",
    openalex = "W1993009068",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044"
}

Global declines of shark populations are of concern because of their largely assumed role as moderators of ecosystem function. Without long-term data on movement patterns for many species, it is impossible to infer relative extinction risk, which varies as a function of range, dispersal and habitat specificity and use. The past 50 yr of research on coastal sharks has revealed common movement patterns among species. In the horizontal plane, measured home range size generally increases with body size. We demonstrate meta-analytically the effects of increasing body size and monitoring time on home range size. Changes in the extent of horizontal movement might arise from ontogeny, predator avoidance or environmental tolerances. In the vertical plane, movement patterns include oscillatory vertical displacement, surface swimming, diel vertical migration and swimming at depth. These vertical movements are often attributed to foraging or navigation, but have been quantified less than horizontal patterns. Habitat specificity is often correlated with environmental conditions such as depth, salinity, substratum, and in some cases, prey availability. Site fidelity is common in species that use nursery areas. However, fidelity to mating, pupping, feeding and natal sites has only been observed in a few species. To date, few studies have examined habitat partitioning, although some general patterns have emerged: habitats appear to be subdivided by benthos type, prey availability and depth. The conservation of coastal sharks can be facilitated in some cases by the use of marine protected areas, especially for coastal resident species using specific nursery, reproduction or feeding areas. Partial protected-area closures might be effective during aggregation or migration periods to protect older size classes, but these must be applied with other management strategies such as reduced fishing and size or bag limits to protect individuals throughout different life history phases. More long-term research on habitat use, migration patterns and habitat partitioning is essential for developing successful management initiatives for coastal shark populations.

@article{doi103354meps08581,
    author = "Speed, Conrad W. and Field, IC and Meekan, Mark G. and Bradshaw, CJA",
    title = "Complexities of coastal shark movements and their implications for management",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Global declines of shark populations are of concern because of their largely assumed role as moderators of ecosystem function. Without long-term data on movement patterns for many species, it is impossible to infer relative extinction risk, which varies as a function of range, dispersal and habitat specificity and use. The past 50 yr of research on coastal sharks has revealed common movement patterns among species. In the horizontal plane, measured home range size generally increases with body size. We demonstrate meta-analytically the effects of increasing body size and monitoring time on home range size. Changes in the extent of horizontal movement might arise from ontogeny, predator avoidance or environmental tolerances. In the vertical plane, movement patterns include oscillatory vertical displacement, surface swimming, diel vertical migration and swimming at depth. These vertical movements are often attributed to foraging or navigation, but have been quantified less than horizontal patterns. Habitat specificity is often correlated with environmental conditions such as depth, salinity, substratum, and in some cases, prey availability. Site fidelity is common in species that use nursery areas. However, fidelity to mating, pupping, feeding and natal sites has only been observed in a few species. To date, few studies have examined habitat partitioning, although some general patterns have emerged: habitats appear to be subdivided by benthos type, prey availability and depth. The conservation of coastal sharks can be facilitated in some cases by the use of marine protected areas, especially for coastal resident species using specific nursery, reproduction or feeding areas. Partial protected-area closures might be effective during aggregation or migration periods to protect older size classes, but these must be applied with other management strategies such as reduced fishing and size or bag limits to protect individuals throughout different life history phases. More long-term research on habitat use, migration patterns and habitat partitioning is essential for developing successful management initiatives for coastal shark populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08581",
    doi = "10.3354/meps08581",
    openalex = "W1999647795",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19990489, doi101006jmsc20000724, doi101007s0022700107117, doi101016jtree200801003, doi101016jtree200803011, doi101016s0169534799017231, doi101023a1007656126281, doi101023a1014200301213, doi101038nature01610, doi101038nature06518, doi101086282264, doi101086498196, doi101111j13652656200801512x, doi101126science1059199, doi101126science1138657, doi1023073802723, doi103354meps338211"
}

The feeding of marine predators is a popular means by which tourists and tour operators can facilitate close observation and interaction with wildlife. Shark-feeding has become the most developed provisioning activity around the world, despite its controversial nature. Amongst other detrimental effects, the long-term aggregation of sharks can modify the natural behaviour of the animals, potentially increase their aggression toward humans, and favour inbreeding. During 949 diving surveys conducted over 44 mo, we investigated the ecology and residence patterns of 36 photoidentified adult sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens. The group contained 20 females and 16 males. From this long-term survey, we identified 5 different behavioural groups that we described as 'new sharks' (7), 'missing sharks' (4), 'resident sharks' (13), 'unpredictable sharks' (5) and 'ghost sharks' (7). In spite of movements in and out of the area by some males and females, which were probably related to mating, the general trend was that residency significantly increased during the study, particularly in males, showing a risk of inbreeding due to the reduction of shark mobility. Intraand interspecific aggression was also witnessed, leading to an increased risk of potentially severe bites to humans. Our findings suggest the need for a revision of the legal framework of the provisioning activity in French Polynesia, which could include a yearly closure period to decrease shark behavioural modifications due to long-term shark-feeding activities.

@article{doi103354meps08746,
    author = "Clua, Éric and Buray, Nicolas and Legendre, Pierre and Mourier, Johann and Planes, Serge",
    title = "Behavioural response of sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens to underwater feeding for ecotourism purposes",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "The feeding of marine predators is a popular means by which tourists and tour operators can facilitate close observation and interaction with wildlife. Shark-feeding has become the most developed provisioning activity around the world, despite its controversial nature. Amongst other detrimental effects, the long-term aggregation of sharks can modify the natural behaviour of the animals, potentially increase their aggression toward humans, and favour inbreeding. During 949 diving surveys conducted over 44 mo, we investigated the ecology and residence patterns of 36 photoidentified adult sicklefin lemon sharks Negaprion acutidens. The group contained 20 females and 16 males. From this long-term survey, we identified 5 different behavioural groups that we described as 'new sharks' (7), 'missing sharks' (4), 'resident sharks' (13), 'unpredictable sharks' (5) and 'ghost sharks' (7). In spite of movements in and out of the area by some males and females, which were probably related to mating, the general trend was that residency significantly increased during the study, particularly in males, showing a risk of inbreeding due to the reduction of shark mobility. Intraand interspecific aggression was also witnessed, leading to an increased risk of potentially severe bites to humans. Our findings suggest the need for a revision of the legal framework of the provisioning activity in French Polynesia, which could include a yearly closure period to decrease shark behavioural modifications due to long-term shark-feeding activities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08746",
    doi = "10.3354/meps08746",
    openalex = "W2131452279",
    references = "doi1023071442530"
}

@article{doi101016janbehav201111008,
    author = "Mourier, Johann and Vercelloni, Julie and Planes, Serge",
    title = "Evidence of social communities in a spatially structured network of a free-ranging shark species",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Animal Behaviour",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.008",
    openalex = "W2082650839",
    references = "doi101007978940173245110, doi101023a1007649900712, doi101159000100037, doi1023071442530"
}

@article{doi101016jjembe201012012,
    author = "Hammerschlag, Neil and Gallagher, Austin J. and Lazarre, Dominique",
    title = "A review of shark satellite tagging studies",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2010.12.012",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jembe.2010.12.012",
    openalex = "W1972006618",
    references = "doi101017s002531540501218x, doi103354meps338211"
}

Growing concern for the world’s shark and ray populations is driving the need for greater research to inform conservation management. A change in public perception, from one that we need to protect humans from sharks to one where we must protect sharks from humans, has added to calls for better management. The present paper examines the growing need for research for conservation management of sharks and rays by synthesising information presented in this Special Issue from the 2010 Sharks International Conference and by identifying future research needs, including topics such as taxonomy, life history, population status, spatial ecology, environmental effects, ecosystem role and human impacts. However, this biological and ecological research agenda will not be sufficient to fully secure conservation management. There is also a need for research to inform social and economic sustainability. Effective conservation management will be achieved by setting clear priorities for research with the aid of stakeholders, implementing well designed research projects, building the capacity for research, and clearly communicating the results to stakeholders. If this can be achieved, it will assure a future for this iconic group, the ecosystems in which they occur and the human communities that rely on them.

@article{doi101071mf11086,
    author = "Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Heupel, Michelle R. and White, William T. and Dulvy, Nicholas K.",
    title = "The importance of research and public opinion to conservation management of sharks and rays: a synthesis",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Marine and Freshwater Research",
    abstract = "Growing concern for the world’s shark and ray populations is driving the need for greater research to inform conservation management. A change in public perception, from one that we need to protect humans from sharks to one where we must protect sharks from humans, has added to calls for better management. The present paper examines the growing need for research for conservation management of sharks and rays by synthesising information presented in this Special Issue from the 2010 Sharks International Conference and by identifying future research needs, including topics such as taxonomy, life history, population status, spatial ecology, environmental effects, ecosystem role and human impacts. However, this biological and ecological research agenda will not be sufficient to fully secure conservation management. There is also a need for research to inform social and economic sustainability. Effective conservation management will be achieved by setting clear priorities for research with the aid of stakeholders, implementing well designed research projects, building the capacity for research, and clearly communicating the results to stakeholders. If this can be achieved, it will assure a future for this iconic group, the ecosystems in which they occur and the human communities that rely on them.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/mf11086",
    doi = "10.1071/mf11086",
    openalex = "W2136069762",
    references = "doi101017s0376892909990191, doi101111j13652486200902128x"
}

Abstract There are widespread records of grouping behaviour in both adult and juvenile sharks and rays (Class Chondrichthyes, Subclass Elasmobranchii). Yet despite burgeoning descriptions of these events, many of the proximate and ultimate causes of group living in these top predators remain elusive. Given the documented negative anthropogenic effects on many shark populations globally, there is an increasing need to understand how behaviourally mediated grouping influences population distributions and abundance, and the role this plays in exacerbating vulnerability to fishing mortality. Here, we analyse group living in elasmobranchs: we describe our current understanding of the patterns, mechanisms and functions of both aggregation (where grouping is not driven by social mechanisms) and social grouping (where grouping is influenced by social interaction) and discuss some of the current methods used to study social behaviour in this taxa. In particular, social preferences in elasmobranchs have received relatively little attention. We propose that the study of shark aggregations may benefit from a more fine‐scale analytical approach offered by detailed exploration of social interactions using social network analysis. Better understanding of the frequency and longevity of social relations, in conjunction with current long‐term data on habitat use and site philopatry, will likely serve for a more informed approach to coastal and pelagic elasmobranch conservation initiatives.

@article{doi101111j14672979201100436x,
    author = "Jacoby, David and Croft, Darren P. and Sims, David",
    title = "Social behaviour in sharks and rays: analysis, patterns and implications for conservation",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Fish and Fisheries",
    abstract = "Abstract There are widespread records of grouping behaviour in both adult and juvenile sharks and rays (Class Chondrichthyes, Subclass Elasmobranchii). Yet despite burgeoning descriptions of these events, many of the proximate and ultimate causes of group living in these top predators remain elusive. Given the documented negative anthropogenic effects on many shark populations globally, there is an increasing need to understand how behaviourally mediated grouping influences population distributions and abundance, and the role this plays in exacerbating vulnerability to fishing mortality. Here, we analyse group living in elasmobranchs: we describe our current understanding of the patterns, mechanisms and functions of both aggregation (where grouping is not driven by social mechanisms) and social grouping (where grouping is influenced by social interaction) and discuss some of the current methods used to study social behaviour in this taxa. In particular, social preferences in elasmobranchs have received relatively little attention. We propose that the study of shark aggregations may benefit from a more fine‐scale analytical approach offered by detailed exploration of social interactions using social network analysis. Better understanding of the frequency and longevity of social relations, in conjunction with current long‐term data on habitat use and site philopatry, will likely serve for a more informed approach to coastal and pelagic elasmobranch conservation initiatives.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00436.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-2979.2011.00436.x",
    openalex = "W2096842280",
    references = "doi1023071442530"
}

The quantification of spatial and temporal movement patterns of coral reef sharks is important to understand their role in reef communities and to aid the design of conservation strategies for this predatory guild. We observed 4 species of reef sharks aggregating in an inshore bay in the north of Western Australia for over 2 yr, using acoustic telemetry and visual censuses to examine how they partitioned this site in space and time. We fitted 58 sharks with acoustic transmitters: Carcharhinus melanopterus (36), C. amblyrhynchos (11), Negaprion acutidens (7) and Triaenodon obesus (4). Aggregations consisted primarily of C. melanopterus, although C. amblyrhynchos and N. acu tidens were often present. We observed aggregations by visual census in summer (maximum of 44 sharks). Detections were highest during warmer months (Sep to Mar) for all species, although some individuals showed year-round residency. C. melanopterus, C. amblyrhynchos and N. acutidens had strong diel patterns of attendance at the aggregation site. Peak daily detections occurred from 13:00 to 14:00 h local time for C. melanopterus and C. amblyrhynchos; juvenile C. melanopterus and N. acutidens peaked at 05:00 and 10:00 h, respectively. There was considerable spatial overlap of core areas of use (50% kernel density estimates) at the northern end of the bay by all species; the southern end was used primarily by C. melanopterus and N. acutidens. Aggregations of C. mela nop terus and C. amblyrhynchos consisted mainly of adult females, some of them pregnant. Courtship behaviour in C. melanopterus and T. obesus suggests that these aggregations are related to reproduction. All species displayed inter-annual site fidelity. The long-term presence of juvenile C. melanopterus and N. acutidens also suggests that this bay provides suitable conditions for younger age classes.

@article{doi103354meps09080,
    author = "Speed, Conrad W. and Meekan, Mark G. and Field, IC and McMahon, Clive R. and Stevens, JD and McGregor, Frazer and Huveneers, Charlie and Berger, Yuval and Bradshaw, CJA",
    title = "Spatial and temporal movement patterns of a multi-species coastal reef shark aggregation",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "The quantification of spatial and temporal movement patterns of coral reef sharks is important to understand their role in reef communities and to aid the design of conservation strategies for this predatory guild. We observed 4 species of reef sharks aggregating in an inshore bay in the north of Western Australia for over 2 yr, using acoustic telemetry and visual censuses to examine how they partitioned this site in space and time. We fitted 58 sharks with acoustic transmitters: Carcharhinus melanopterus (36), C. amblyrhynchos (11), Negaprion acutidens (7) and Triaenodon obesus (4). Aggregations consisted primarily of C. melanopterus, although C. amblyrhynchos and N. acu tidens were often present. We observed aggregations by visual census in summer (maximum of 44 sharks). Detections were highest during warmer months (Sep to Mar) for all species, although some individuals showed year-round residency. C. melanopterus, C. amblyrhynchos and N. acutidens had strong diel patterns of attendance at the aggregation site. Peak daily detections occurred from 13:00 to 14:00 h local time for C. melanopterus and C. amblyrhynchos; juvenile C. melanopterus and N. acutidens peaked at 05:00 and 10:00 h, respectively. There was considerable spatial overlap of core areas of use (50\% kernel density estimates) at the northern end of the bay by all species; the southern end was used primarily by C. melanopterus and N. acutidens. Aggregations of C. mela nop terus and C. amblyrhynchos consisted mainly of adult females, some of them pregnant. Courtship behaviour in C. melanopterus and T. obesus suggests that these aggregations are related to reproduction. All species displayed inter-annual site fidelity. The long-term presence of juvenile C. melanopterus and N. acutidens also suggests that this bay provides suitable conditions for younger age classes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09080",
    doi = "10.3354/meps09080",
    openalex = "W2037668909",
    references = "doi103354meps08581"
}

@article{doi103354meps09423,
    author = "Guttridge, TL and Gruber, SH and Franks, BR and St, K and Gledhill, KS and Uphill, J and Krause, Jens and Sims, DW",
    title = "Deep danger: intra-specific predation risk influences habitat use and aggregation formation of juvenile lemon sharks Negaprion brevirostris",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09423",
    doi = "10.3354/meps09423",
    openalex = "W2146198571",
    references = "doi103354meps08581"
}

From 2001 to 2006, 71 pop-up satellite archival tags (PSATs)were deployed on five species of pelagic shark (blue shark [Prionace glauca]; shortfin mako [Isurus oxyrinchus]; silky shark [Carcharhinus falciformis]; oceanic whitetip shark[C. longimanus]; and bigeye thresher [Alopias superciliosus]) in the central Pacific Ocean to determine species-specific movement patterns and survival rates after release from longline fishing gear. Only a single postrelease mortality could be unequivocally documented:a male blue shark which succumbed seven days after release.Meta-analysis of published reports and the current study (n=78 reporting PSATs) indicated that the summaryeffect of postrelease mortality for blue sharks was 15% (95% CI, 8.5–25.1%) and suggested that catch-and-releasein longline fisheries can be a viable management tool to protect parental biomass in shark populations. Pelagic sharks displayed species-specific depth and temperature ranges, although with significant individual temporal and spatial variability in vertical movement patterns, whichwere also punctuated by stochastic events (e.g., El Niño-Southern Oscillation). Pelagic species can be separatedinto three broad groups based on daytime temperature preferences by using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averaging clustering on a Kolmogorov-SmirnovDmax distance matrix: 1) epipelagic species (silky and oceanic whitetip sharks), which spent >95% of theirtime at temperatures within 2°C of sea surface temperature; 2) mesopelagic-I species (blue sharks and shortfin makos, which spent 95% of their time at temperatures from 9.7°to 26.9°C and from 9.4° to 25.0°C, respectively; and 3) mesopelagic-II species (bigeye threshers), which spent 95% of their time at temperatures from 6.7° to 21.2°C. Distinctthermal niche partitioning based on body size and latitude was also evident within epipelagic species.

@article{openalexw2218779899,
    author = "Musyl, Michael K. and Brill, Richard W. and Curran, Daniel S. and Fragoso, Nuno and McNaughton, L and Nielsen, Anders and Kikkawa, Bert S. and Moyes, Christopher D.",
    title = "Postrelease survival, vertical and horizontal movements, and thermal habitats of five species of pelagic sharks in the central Pacific Ocean",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "W\&M Publish (College of William \& Mary)",
    abstract = "From 2001 to 2006, 71 pop-up satellite archival tags (PSATs)were deployed on five species of pelagic shark (blue shark [Prionace glauca]; shortfin mako [Isurus oxyrinchus]; silky shark [Carcharhinus falciformis]; oceanic whitetip shark[C. longimanus]; and bigeye thresher [Alopias superciliosus]) in the central Pacific Ocean to determine species-specific movement patterns and survival rates after release from longline fishing gear. Only a single postrelease mortality could be unequivocally documented:a male blue shark which succumbed seven days after release.Meta-analysis of published reports and the current study (n=78 reporting PSATs) indicated that the summaryeffect of postrelease mortality for blue sharks was 15\% (95\% CI, 8.5–25.1\%) and suggested that catch-and-releasein longline fisheries can be a viable management tool to protect parental biomass in shark populations. Pelagic sharks displayed species-specific depth and temperature ranges, although with significant individual temporal and spatial variability in vertical movement patterns, whichwere also punctuated by stochastic events (e.g., El Niño-Southern Oscillation). Pelagic species can be separatedinto three broad groups based on daytime temperature preferences by using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averaging clustering on a Kolmogorov-SmirnovDmax distance matrix: 1) epipelagic species (silky and oceanic whitetip sharks), which spent >95\% of theirtime at temperatures within 2°C of sea surface temperature; 2) mesopelagic-I species (blue sharks and shortfin makos, which spent 95\% of their time at temperatures from 9.7°to 26.9°C and from 9.4° to 25.0°C, respectively; and 3) mesopelagic-II species (bigeye threshers), which spent 95\% of their time at temperatures from 6.7° to 21.2°C. Distinctthermal niche partitioning based on body size and latitude was also evident within epipelagic species.",
    openalex = "W2218779899",
    references = "doi101023a1014200301213"
}

@article{doi101007s0030001211667,
    author = "Leclerc, Lisa‐Marie and Lydersen, Christian and Haug, Tore and Bachmann, Lutz and Fisk, Aaron T. and Kovacs, Kit M.",
    title = "A missing piece in the Arctic food web puzzle? Stomach contents of Greenland sharks sampled in Svalbard, Norway",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Polar Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-012-1166-7",
    doi = "10.1007/s00300-012-1166-7",
    openalex = "W1971180492",
    references = "doi101007978940173245110, doi101023a1007649900712"
}

Investigation of the social framing of human-shark interactions may provide useful strategies for integrating social, biological, and ecological knowledge into national and international policy discussions about shark conservation. One way to investigate social opinion and forces related to sharks and their conservation is through the media's coverage of sharks. We conducted a content analysis of 300 shark-related articles published in 20 major Australian and U.S. newspapers from 2000 to 2010. Shark attacks were the emphasis of over half the articles analyzed, and shark conservation was the primary topic of 11% of articles. Significantly more Australian articles than U.S. articles treated shark attacks (χ(2) = 3.862; Australian 58% vs. U.S. 47%) and shark conservation issues (χ(2) = 6.856; Australian 15% vs. U.S. 11%) as the primary article topic and used politicians as the primary risk messenger (i.e., primary person or authority sourced in the article) (χ(2) = 7.493; Australian 8% vs. U.S. 1%). However, significantly more U.S. articles than Australian articles discussed sharks as entertainment (e.g., subjects in movies, books, and television; χ(2) = 15.130; U.S. 6% vs. Australian 1%) and used scientists as the primary risk messenger (χ(2) = 5.333; U.S. 25% vs. Australian 15%). Despite evidence that many shark species are at risk of extinction, we found that most media coverage emphasized the risks sharks pose to people. To the extent that media reflects social opinion, our results highlight problems for shark conservation. We suggest that conservation professionals purposefully and frequently engage with the media to highlight the rarity of shark attacks, discuss preventative measures water users can take to reduce their vulnerability to shark encounters, and discuss conservation issues related to local and threatened species of sharks. When integrated with biological and ecological data, social-science data may help generate a more comprehensive perspective and inform conservation practice.

@article{doi101111j15231739201201952x,
    author = "Muter, Bret A. and Gore, Meredith L. and Gledhill, Katie S. and Lamont, Christopher K. and Huveneers, Charlie",
    title = "Australian and U.S. News Media Portrayal of Sharks and Their Conservation",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "Investigation of the social framing of human-shark interactions may provide useful strategies for integrating social, biological, and ecological knowledge into national and international policy discussions about shark conservation. One way to investigate social opinion and forces related to sharks and their conservation is through the media's coverage of sharks. We conducted a content analysis of 300 shark-related articles published in 20 major Australian and U.S. newspapers from 2000 to 2010. Shark attacks were the emphasis of over half the articles analyzed, and shark conservation was the primary topic of 11\% of articles. Significantly more Australian articles than U.S. articles treated shark attacks (χ(2) = 3.862; Australian 58\% vs. U.S. 47\%) and shark conservation issues (χ(2) = 6.856; Australian 15\% vs. U.S. 11\%) as the primary article topic and used politicians as the primary risk messenger (i.e., primary person or authority sourced in the article) (χ(2) = 7.493; Australian 8\% vs. U.S. 1\%). However, significantly more U.S. articles than Australian articles discussed sharks as entertainment (e.g., subjects in movies, books, and television; χ(2) = 15.130; U.S. 6\% vs. Australian 1\%) and used scientists as the primary risk messenger (χ(2) = 5.333; U.S. 25\% vs. Australian 15\%). Despite evidence that many shark species are at risk of extinction, we found that most media coverage emphasized the risks sharks pose to people. To the extent that media reflects social opinion, our results highlight problems for shark conservation. We suggest that conservation professionals purposefully and frequently engage with the media to highlight the rarity of shark attacks, discuss preventative measures water users can take to reduce their vulnerability to shark encounters, and discuss conservation issues related to local and threatened species of sharks. When integrated with biological and ecological data, social-science data may help generate a more comprehensive perspective and inform conservation practice.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01952.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01952.x",
    openalex = "W1606772073",
    references = "doi101111j13652486200902128x"
}

The white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) is a wide-ranging apex predator in the northeastern Pacific (NEP). Electronic tagging has demonstrated that white sharks exhibit a regular migratory pattern, occurring at coastal sites during the late summer, autumn and early winter and moving offshore to oceanic habitats during the remainder of the year, although the purpose of these migrations remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to use stable isotope analysis (SIA) to provide insight into the trophic ecology and migratory behaviors of white sharks in the NEP. Between 2006 and 2009, 53 white sharks were biopsied in central California to obtain dermal and muscle tissues, which were analyzed for stable isotope values of carbon (δ(13)C) and nitrogen (δ(15)N). We developed a mixing model that directly incorporates movement data and tissue incorporation (turnover) rates to better estimate the relative importance of different focal areas to white shark diet and elucidate their migratory behavior. Mixing model results for muscle showed a relatively equal dietary contribution from coastal and offshore regions, indicating that white sharks forage in both areas. However, model results indicated that sharks foraged at a higher relative rate in coastal habitats. There was a negative relationship between shark length and muscle δ(13)C and δ(15)N values, which may indicate ontogenetic changes in habitat use related to onset of maturity. The isotopic composition of dermal tissue was consistent with a more rapid incorporation rate than muscle and may represent more recent foraging. Low offshore consumption rates suggest that it is unlikely that foraging is the primary purpose of the offshore migrations. These results demonstrate how SIA can provide insight into the trophic ecology and migratory behavior of marine predators, especially when coupled with electronic tagging data.

@article{doi101371journalpone0030492,
    author = "Carlisle, Aaron B. and Kim, Sora L. and Semmens, Brice X. and Madigan, Daniel J. and Jorgensen, Salvador J. and Perle, Christopher R. and Anderson, Scot D. and Chapple, Taylor K. and Kanive, Paul E. and Block, Barbara A.",
    title = "Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Understand the Migration and Trophic Ecology of Northeastern Pacific White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias)",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "The white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) is a wide-ranging apex predator in the northeastern Pacific (NEP). Electronic tagging has demonstrated that white sharks exhibit a regular migratory pattern, occurring at coastal sites during the late summer, autumn and early winter and moving offshore to oceanic habitats during the remainder of the year, although the purpose of these migrations remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to use stable isotope analysis (SIA) to provide insight into the trophic ecology and migratory behaviors of white sharks in the NEP. Between 2006 and 2009, 53 white sharks were biopsied in central California to obtain dermal and muscle tissues, which were analyzed for stable isotope values of carbon (δ(13)C) and nitrogen (δ(15)N). We developed a mixing model that directly incorporates movement data and tissue incorporation (turnover) rates to better estimate the relative importance of different focal areas to white shark diet and elucidate their migratory behavior. Mixing model results for muscle showed a relatively equal dietary contribution from coastal and offshore regions, indicating that white sharks forage in both areas. However, model results indicated that sharks foraged at a higher relative rate in coastal habitats. There was a negative relationship between shark length and muscle δ(13)C and δ(15)N values, which may indicate ontogenetic changes in habitat use related to onset of maturity. The isotopic composition of dermal tissue was consistent with a more rapid incorporation rate than muscle and may represent more recent foraging. Low offshore consumption rates suggest that it is unlikely that foraging is the primary purpose of the offshore migrations. These results demonstrate how SIA can provide insight into the trophic ecology and migratory behavior of marine predators, especially when coupled with electronic tagging data.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030492",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0030492",
    openalex = "W2047150475",
    references = "doi101016b9780124150317500288, doi103354meps338211"
}

Although marine protected areas (MPAs) are a common conservation strategy, these areas are often designed with little prior knowledge of the spatial behaviour of the species they are designed to protect. Currently, the Coral Sea area and its seamounts (north-east Australia) are under review to determine if MPAs are warranted. The protection of sharks at these seamounts should be an integral component of conservation plans. Therefore, knowledge on the spatial ecology of sharks at the Coral Sea seamounts is essential for the appropriate implementation of management and conservation plans. Acoustic telemetry was used to determine residency, site fidelity and spatial use of three shark species at Osprey Reef: whitetip reef sharks Triaenodon obesus, grey reef sharks Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos and silvertip sharks Carcharhinus albimarginatus. Most individuals showed year round residency at Osprey Reef, although five of the 49 individuals tagged moved to the neighbouring Shark Reef (~14 km away) and one grey reef shark completed a round trip of ~250 km to the Great Barrier Reef. Additionally, individuals of white tip and grey reef sharks showed strong site fidelity to the areas they were tagged, and there was low spatial overlap between groups of sharks tagged at different locations. Spatial use at Osprey Reef by adult sharks is generally restricted to the north-west corner. The high residency and limited spatial use of Osprey Reef suggests that reef sharks would be highly vulnerable to targeted fishing pressure and that MPAs incorporating no-take of sharks would be effective in protecting reef shark populations at Osprey and Shark Reef.

@article{doi101371journalpone0036574,
    author = "Barnett, Adam and Abrantes, Kátya G. and Seymour, Jamie and Fitzpatrick, Richard",
    title = "Residency and Spatial Use by Reef Sharks of an Isolated Seamount and Its Implications for Conservation",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Although marine protected areas (MPAs) are a common conservation strategy, these areas are often designed with little prior knowledge of the spatial behaviour of the species they are designed to protect. Currently, the Coral Sea area and its seamounts (north-east Australia) are under review to determine if MPAs are warranted. The protection of sharks at these seamounts should be an integral component of conservation plans. Therefore, knowledge on the spatial ecology of sharks at the Coral Sea seamounts is essential for the appropriate implementation of management and conservation plans. Acoustic telemetry was used to determine residency, site fidelity and spatial use of three shark species at Osprey Reef: whitetip reef sharks Triaenodon obesus, grey reef sharks Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos and silvertip sharks Carcharhinus albimarginatus. Most individuals showed year round residency at Osprey Reef, although five of the 49 individuals tagged moved to the neighbouring Shark Reef (\textasciitilde 14 km away) and one grey reef shark completed a round trip of \textasciitilde 250 km to the Great Barrier Reef. Additionally, individuals of white tip and grey reef sharks showed strong site fidelity to the areas they were tagged, and there was low spatial overlap between groups of sharks tagged at different locations. Spatial use at Osprey Reef by adult sharks is generally restricted to the north-west corner. The high residency and limited spatial use of Osprey Reef suggests that reef sharks would be highly vulnerable to targeted fishing pressure and that MPAs incorporating no-take of sharks would be effective in protecting reef shark populations at Osprey and Shark Reef.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036574",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0036574",
    openalex = "W2020618561",
    references = "doi103354meps08581"
}

This chapter addresses the questions (1) What do we mean by “behavior” in personality and social psychology? and (2) How can we best assess social behavior? We define behavior as being observable and socially meaningful, but also discuss the dimensions on which behavior varies (e.g., intentional vs. habitual, discrete vs. continuous). We also discuss important variabilities in behavior as they relate to issues of measurement (e.g., behavioral frequency or desirability). For behavior assessment, we focus on some of the practical issues involved (e.g., choosing a coding system, selecting an observational setting), as well as how behavior assessment might intersect with personality and social psychological theory (e.g., manipulating or assessing behavior as it serves as moderator, mediator, or outcome in a theory). We end by discussing some emerging technologies that might prove useful for behavioral assessment (e.g., virtual reality), as well as a call for more integration of behavioral measures into future research.

@misc{kelly2012behavior,
    author = "Kelly, Janice R. and Agnew, Christopher R.",
    title = "Behavior and Behavior Assessment",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "The Oxford Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology",
    abstract = "This chapter addresses the questions (1) What do we mean by “behavior” in personality and social psychology? and (2) How can we best assess social behavior? We define behavior as being observable and socially meaningful, but also discuss the dimensions on which behavior varies (e.g., intentional vs. habitual, discrete vs. continuous). We also discuss important variabilities in behavior as they relate to issues of measurement (e.g., behavioral frequency or desirability). For behavior assessment, we focus on some of the practical issues involved (e.g., choosing a coding system, selecting an observational setting), as well as how behavior assessment might intersect with personality and social psychological theory (e.g., manipulating or assessing behavior as it serves as moderator, mediator, or outcome in a theory). We end by discussing some emerging technologies that might prove useful for behavioral assessment (e.g., virtual reality), as well as a call for more integration of behavioral measures into future research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398991.013.0005",
    doi = "10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398991.013.0005",
    pages = "92-110"
}

White sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) are threatened apex predators and identification of their critical habitats and how these are used are essential to ensuring improved local and ultimately global white shark protection. In this study we investigated habitat use by white sharks in False Bay, South Africa, using acoustic telemetry. 56 sharks (39 female, 17 male), ranging in size from 1.7-5 m TL, were tagged with acoustic transmitters and monitored on an array of 30 receivers for 975 days. To investigate the effects of season, sex and size on habitat use we used a generalized linear mixed effects model. Tagged sharks were detected in the Bay in all months and across all years, but their use of the Bay varied significantly with the season and the sex of the shark. In autumn and winter males and females aggregated around the Cape fur seal colony at Seal Island, where they fed predominantly on young of the year seals. In spring and summer there was marked sexual segregation, with females frequenting the Inshore areas and males seldom being detected. The shift from the Island in autumn and winter to the Inshore region in spring and summer by females mirrors the seasonal peak in abundance of juvenile seals and of migratory teleost and elasmobranch species respectively. This study provides the first evidence of sexual segregation at a fine spatial scale and demonstrates that sexual segregation in white sharks is not restricted to adults, but is apparent for juveniles and sub-adults too. Overall, the results confirm False Bay as a critical area for white shark conservation as both sexes, across a range of sizes, frequent the Bay on an annual basis. The finding that female sharks aggregate in the Inshore regions when recreational use peaks highlights the need for ongoing shark-human conflict mitigation strategies.

@article{doi101371journalpone0055048,
    author = "Kock, Alison and O’Riain, M. Justin and Mauff, Katya and Meÿer, Michael A. and Kotze, Deon and Griffiths, Charles L.",
    title = "Residency, Habitat Use and Sexual Segregation of White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias in False Bay, South Africa",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "White sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) are threatened apex predators and identification of their critical habitats and how these are used are essential to ensuring improved local and ultimately global white shark protection. In this study we investigated habitat use by white sharks in False Bay, South Africa, using acoustic telemetry. 56 sharks (39 female, 17 male), ranging in size from 1.7-5 m TL, were tagged with acoustic transmitters and monitored on an array of 30 receivers for 975 days. To investigate the effects of season, sex and size on habitat use we used a generalized linear mixed effects model. Tagged sharks were detected in the Bay in all months and across all years, but their use of the Bay varied significantly with the season and the sex of the shark. In autumn and winter males and females aggregated around the Cape fur seal colony at Seal Island, where they fed predominantly on young of the year seals. In spring and summer there was marked sexual segregation, with females frequenting the Inshore areas and males seldom being detected. The shift from the Island in autumn and winter to the Inshore region in spring and summer by females mirrors the seasonal peak in abundance of juvenile seals and of migratory teleost and elasmobranch species respectively. This study provides the first evidence of sexual segregation at a fine spatial scale and demonstrates that sexual segregation in white sharks is not restricted to adults, but is apparent for juveniles and sub-adults too. Overall, the results confirm False Bay as a critical area for white shark conservation as both sexes, across a range of sizes, frequent the Bay on an annual basis. The finding that female sharks aggregate in the Inshore regions when recreational use peaks highlights the need for ongoing shark-human conflict mitigation strategies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055048",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0055048",
    openalex = "W2092050903",
    references = "doi103354meps08581"
}

We used acoustic telemetry to describe the patterns of vertical movement, site fidelity and residency of grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) on the outer slope of coral reefs in Palau, Micronesia, over a period of two years and nine months. We tagged 39 sharks (mostly adult females) of which 31 were detected regularly throughout the study. Sharks displayed strong inter-annual residency with greater attendance at monitored sites during summer than winter months. More individuals were detected during the day than at night. Mean depths of tagged sharks increased from 35 m in winter to 60 m in spring following an increase in water temperature at 60 m, with maximum mean depths attained when water temperatures at 60 m stabilised around 29°C. Sharks descended to greater depths and used a wider range of depths around the time of the full moon. There were also crepuscular cycles in mean depth, with sharks moving into shallower waters at dawn and dusk each day. We suggest that daily, lunar and seasonal cycles in vertical movement and residency are strategies for optimising both energetic budgets and foraging behaviour. Cyclical patterns of movement in response to environmental variables might affect the susceptibility of reef sharks to fishing, a consideration that should be taken into account in the implementation of conservation strategies.

@article{doi101371journalpone0060331,
    author = "Vianna, Gabriel M. S. and Meekan, Mark G. and Meeuwig, Jessica J. and Speed, Conrad W.",
    title = "Environmental Influences on Patterns of Vertical Movement and Site Fidelity of Grey Reef Sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) at Aggregation Sites",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "We used acoustic telemetry to describe the patterns of vertical movement, site fidelity and residency of grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) on the outer slope of coral reefs in Palau, Micronesia, over a period of two years and nine months. We tagged 39 sharks (mostly adult females) of which 31 were detected regularly throughout the study. Sharks displayed strong inter-annual residency with greater attendance at monitored sites during summer than winter months. More individuals were detected during the day than at night. Mean depths of tagged sharks increased from 35 m in winter to 60 m in spring following an increase in water temperature at 60 m, with maximum mean depths attained when water temperatures at 60 m stabilised around 29°C. Sharks descended to greater depths and used a wider range of depths around the time of the full moon. There were also crepuscular cycles in mean depth, with sharks moving into shallower waters at dawn and dusk each day. We suggest that daily, lunar and seasonal cycles in vertical movement and residency are strategies for optimising both energetic budgets and foraging behaviour. Cyclical patterns of movement in response to environmental variables might affect the susceptibility of reef sharks to fishing, a consideration that should be taken into account in the implementation of conservation strategies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060331",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0060331",
    openalex = "W2027068469",
    references = "doi103354meps08581, doi103354meps338211"
}

Top predators and large-bodied megafauna are often the most affected elements of exploited ecosystems, both on land and in the sea; and the top-down control these predators exert on prey species can significantly alter community structure The loss of predation and the resultant indirect effects of mesopredator release and trophic cascades have resulted in widespread trophic downgrading of ecosystems For example, both the loss of wolves from Yellowstone National Park in the USA and declines in largebodied shark populations of the western North Atlantic Ocean have been reported to cause mesopredator release and trophic cascades Recently, much of the research focus has been on the response of prey to predators; here, we focus our attention on the ecological role of the predator. Despite some compelling and widely-cited case studies, our understanding of the dynamics of predators in regulating prey populations is still limited, yet predation is recognised as a key ecological and evolutionary process Particularly in the marine realm, gaining sufficient knowledge of large, highly mobile predators to define their roles is challenging. The widespread nature of these species makes them difficult to target, handle and experimentally manipulate for the purposes of research. Thus, defining the impacts of large marine predators is problematic.

@article{doi103354meps10597,
    author = "Heupel, Michelle R. and Knip, DM and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Dulvy, Nicholas K.",
    title = "Sizing up the ecological role of sharks as predators",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Marine Ecology Progress Series",
    abstract = "Top predators and large-bodied megafauna are often the most affected elements of exploited ecosystems, both on land and in the sea; and the top-down control these predators exert on prey species can significantly alter community structure The loss of predation and the resultant indirect effects of mesopredator release and trophic cascades have resulted in widespread trophic downgrading of ecosystems For example, both the loss of wolves from Yellowstone National Park in the USA and declines in largebodied shark populations of the western North Atlantic Ocean have been reported to cause mesopredator release and trophic cascades Recently, much of the research focus has been on the response of prey to predators; here, we focus our attention on the ecological role of the predator. Despite some compelling and widely-cited case studies, our understanding of the dynamics of predators in regulating prey populations is still limited, yet predation is recognised as a key ecological and evolutionary process Particularly in the marine realm, gaining sufficient knowledge of large, highly mobile predators to define their roles is challenging. The widespread nature of these species makes them difficult to target, handle and experimentally manipulate for the purposes of research. Thus, defining the impacts of large marine predators is problematic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10597",
    doi = "10.3354/meps10597",
    openalex = "W2037340081",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19990489, doi101007bf00005044, doi101016jtree201303008, doi101111j13652656201001753x, doi1018900012965820020830480faatsp20co2"
}

@incollection{crossref2014behavior,
    title = "Behavior Therapy (Behavior Modification)",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "The Practice of Psychotherapy (Psychology Revivals)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315768427-10",
    doi = "10.4324/9781315768427-10",
    pages = "63-84"
}

@article{doi101007s1116001493648,
    author = "Schlaff, Audrey and Heupel, Michelle R. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A.",
    title = "Influence of environmental factors on shark and ray movement, behaviour and habitat use: a review",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-014-9364-8",
    doi = "10.1007/s11160-014-9364-8",
    openalex = "W1973542493",
    references = "doi101007s0022700107117, doi101016jmarpolbul200411028, doi101016s1546509808601466, doi101038nature03906, doi101093icb172365, doi101111j13652486200902128x, doi101126science1111322, doi101126science1116448, doi101126science1128035, doi101126science1152509, doi107554elife00590, openalexw1520428197, openalexw2939474406"
}

Predators alter prey dynamics by direct killing and through the costs of antipredator responses or risk effects. Antipredator behavior includes proactive responses to long-term variation in risk (e.g., grouping patterns) and reactive responses to short-term variation in risk (e.g., intense vigilance). In a 3-year field study, we measured variation in antipredator responses and the foraging costs of these responses for 5 ungulates (zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, and giraffe) that comprised more than 90% of the prey community available to the 2 locally dominant predators, lions and spotted hyenas. Using a model-selection approach, we examined how vigilance and group size responded to attributes of the predator, prey, and environment. We found that 1) the strength of antipredator responses was affected by attributes of the predator, prey, and environment in which they met; 2) grouping and vigilance were complementary responses; 3) grouping was a proactive response to the use of dangerous habitats, whereas vigilance was a reactive response to finer cues about predation risk; 4) increased vigilance caused a large reduction in foraging for some species (but not all); and 5) there was no clear relationship between direct predation rates and the foraging costs of antipredator responses. Broadly, our results show that antipredator responses and their costs vary in a complex manner among prey species, the predators they face, and the environment in which they meet.

@article{doi101093behecoaru050,
    author = "Creel, Scott and Schuette, Paul and Christianson, David",
    title = "Effects of predation risk on group size, vigilance, and foraging behavior in an African ungulate community",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Behavioral Ecology",
    abstract = "Predators alter prey dynamics by direct killing and through the costs of antipredator responses or risk effects. Antipredator behavior includes proactive responses to long-term variation in risk (e.g., grouping patterns) and reactive responses to short-term variation in risk (e.g., intense vigilance). In a 3-year field study, we measured variation in antipredator responses and the foraging costs of these responses for 5 ungulates (zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, impala, and giraffe) that comprised more than 90\% of the prey community available to the 2 locally dominant predators, lions and spotted hyenas. Using a model-selection approach, we examined how vigilance and group size responded to attributes of the predator, prey, and environment. We found that 1) the strength of antipredator responses was affected by attributes of the predator, prey, and environment in which they met; 2) grouping and vigilance were complementary responses; 3) grouping was a proactive response to the use of dangerous habitats, whereas vigilance was a reactive response to finer cues about predation risk; 4) increased vigilance caused a large reduction in foraging for some species (but not all); and 5) there was no clear relationship between direct predation rates and the foraging costs of antipredator responses. Broadly, our results show that antipredator responses and their costs vary in a complex manner among prey species, the predators they face, and the environment in which they meet.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/aru050",
    doi = "10.1093/beheco/aru050",
    openalex = "W2106228428",
    references = "doi101111j13652656200801512x, openalexw1550433756"
}

Despite recent advances in field research on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in several regions around the world, opportunistic capture and sighting records remain the primary source of information on this species in the northwest Atlantic Ocean (NWA). Previous studies using limited datasets have suggested a precipitous decline in the abundance of white sharks from this region, but considerable uncertainty in these studies warrants additional investigation. This study builds upon previously published data combined with recent unpublished records and presents a synthesis of 649 confirmed white shark records from the NWA compiled over a 210-year period (1800-2010), resulting in the largest white shark dataset yet compiled from this region. These comprehensive records were used to update our understanding of their seasonal distribution, relative abundance trends, habitat use, and fisheries interactions. All life stages were present in continental shelf waters year-round, but median latitude of white shark occurrence varied seasonally. White sharks primarily occurred between Massachusetts and New Jersey during summer and off Florida during winter, with broad distribution along the coast during spring and fall. The majority of fishing gear interactions occurred with rod and reel, longline, and gillnet gears. Historic abundance trends from multiple sources support a significant decline in white shark abundance in the 1970s and 1980s, but there have been apparent increases in abundance since the 1990s when a variety of conservation measures were implemented. Though the white shark's inherent vulnerability to exploitation warrants continued protections, our results suggest a more optimistic outlook for the recovery of this iconic predator in the Atlantic.

@article{doi101371journalpone0099240,
    author = "Curtis, Tobey H. and McCandless, Camilla T. and Carlson, John K. and Skomal, Gregory B. and Kohler, Nancy E. and Natanson, Lisa J. and Burgess, George H. and Hoey, John J. and Pratt, Harold L.",
    title = "Seasonal Distribution and Historic Trends in Abundance of White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in the Western North Atlantic Ocean",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Despite recent advances in field research on white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in several regions around the world, opportunistic capture and sighting records remain the primary source of information on this species in the northwest Atlantic Ocean (NWA). Previous studies using limited datasets have suggested a precipitous decline in the abundance of white sharks from this region, but considerable uncertainty in these studies warrants additional investigation. This study builds upon previously published data combined with recent unpublished records and presents a synthesis of 649 confirmed white shark records from the NWA compiled over a 210-year period (1800-2010), resulting in the largest white shark dataset yet compiled from this region. These comprehensive records were used to update our understanding of their seasonal distribution, relative abundance trends, habitat use, and fisheries interactions. All life stages were present in continental shelf waters year-round, but median latitude of white shark occurrence varied seasonally. White sharks primarily occurred between Massachusetts and New Jersey during summer and off Florida during winter, with broad distribution along the coast during spring and fall. The majority of fishing gear interactions occurred with rod and reel, longline, and gillnet gears. Historic abundance trends from multiple sources support a significant decline in white shark abundance in the 1970s and 1980s, but there have been apparent increases in abundance since the 1990s when a variety of conservation measures were implemented. Though the white shark's inherent vulnerability to exploitation warrants continued protections, our results suggest a more optimistic outlook for the recovery of this iconic predator in the Atlantic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099240",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0099240",
    openalex = "W2121715483",
    references = "doi101016b9780124150317500288, doi103354meps338211"
}

The rapid expansion of human activities threatens ocean-wide biodiversity. Numerous marine animal populations have declined, yet it remains unclear whether these trends are symptomatic of a chronic accumulation of global marine extinction risk. We present the first systematic analysis of threat for a globally distributed lineage of 1,041 chondrichthyan fishes-sharks, rays, and chimaeras. We estimate that one-quarter are threatened according to IUCN Red List criteria due to overfishing (targeted and incidental). Large-bodied, shallow-water species are at greatest risk and five out of the seven most threatened families are rays. Overall chondrichthyan extinction risk is substantially higher than for most other vertebrates, and only one-third of species are considered safe. Population depletion has occurred throughout the world's ice-free waters, but is particularly prevalent in the Indo-Pacific Biodiversity Triangle and Mediterranean Sea. Improved management of fisheries and trade is urgently needed to avoid extinctions and promote population recovery. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00590.001.

@article{doi107554elife00590,
    author = "Dulvy, Nicholas K. and Fowler, Sarah and Musick, John A. and Cavanagh, Rachel D. and Kyne, Peter M. and Harrison, Lucy R. and Carlson, John K. and Davidson, Lindsay N. K. and Fordham, Sonja V. and Francis, Malcolm P. and Pollock, Caroline M. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Burgess, George H. and Carpenter, Kent E. and Compagno, Leonard J. V. and Ebert, David A. and Gibson, Claudine and Heupel, Michelle R. and Livingstone, Suzanne R. and Sanciangco, Jonnell C. and Stevens, John D. and Valenti, Sarah and White, William T.",
    title = "Extinction risk and conservation of the world’s sharks and rays",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "eLife",
    abstract = "The rapid expansion of human activities threatens ocean-wide biodiversity. Numerous marine animal populations have declined, yet it remains unclear whether these trends are symptomatic of a chronic accumulation of global marine extinction risk. We present the first systematic analysis of threat for a globally distributed lineage of 1,041 chondrichthyan fishes-sharks, rays, and chimaeras. We estimate that one-quarter are threatened according to IUCN Red List criteria due to overfishing (targeted and incidental). Large-bodied, shallow-water species are at greatest risk and five out of the seven most threatened families are rays. Overall chondrichthyan extinction risk is substantially higher than for most other vertebrates, and only one-third of species are considered safe. Population depletion has occurred throughout the world's ice-free waters, but is particularly prevalent in the Indo-Pacific Biodiversity Triangle and Mediterranean Sea. Improved management of fisheries and trade is urgently needed to avoid extinctions and promote population recovery. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00590.001.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.00590",
    doi = "10.7554/elife.00590",
    openalex = "W2105316344",
    references = "doi101017s0376892909990191, doi101111j13652486200902128x, doi101111j15231739200801044x, doi101126science1103538, doi101126science1187512"
}

These results demonstrate that accelerometers are useful tools for classifying the behaviors of cryptic medium and large-sized terrestrial mammals in their natural habitats and can help scientists gain deeper insight into their fine-scale behavioral patterns. We also show how accelerometer measurements can provide novel insights on the energetics and predation behavior of wild animals. Lastly we discuss the conservation implications of identifying these behavioral patterns in free-ranging species as natural and anthropogenic landscape features influence animal energy allocation and habitat use.

@article{doi101186s4046201500300,
    author = "Wang, Yiwei and Nickel, Barry A. and Rutishauser, Matthew and Bryce, Caleb M. and Williams, Terrie M. and Elkaim, Gabriel and Wilmers, Christopher C.",
    title = "Movement, resting, and attack behaviors of wild pumas are revealed by tri-axial accelerometer measurements",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Movement Ecology",
    abstract = "These results demonstrate that accelerometers are useful tools for classifying the behaviors of cryptic medium and large-sized terrestrial mammals in their natural habitats and can help scientists gain deeper insight into their fine-scale behavioral patterns. We also show how accelerometer measurements can provide novel insights on the energetics and predation behavior of wild animals. Lastly we discuss the conservation implications of identifying these behavioral patterns in free-ranging species as natural and anthropogenic landscape features influence animal energy allocation and habitat use.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-015-0030-0",
    doi = "10.1186/s40462-015-0030-0",
    openalex = "W2152779085",
    references = "doi101016jbiocon201301008"
}

@article{doi101016jcub201605058,
    author = "Mourier, Johann and Maynard, Jeffrey and Parravicini, Valériano and Ballesta, Laurent and Clua, Éric and Domeier, Michael L. and Planes, Serge",
    title = "Extreme Inverted Trophic Pyramid of Reef Sharks Supported by Spawning Groupers",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.05.058",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2016.05.058",
    openalex = "W2496392634",
    references = "doi101016jtree201602014"
}

@article{doi101016jtree201602014,
    author = "Roff, George and Doropoulos, Christopher and Rogers, Alice and Bozec, Yves‐Marie and Krueck, Nils C. and Aurellado, Eleanor and Priest, Mark A. and Birrell, Chico and Mumby, Peter J.",
    title = "The Ecological Role of Sharks on Coral Reefs",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.014",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.014",
    openalex = "W2293853906",
    references = "doi101007bf00005044, doi101007s0022700107117, doi101016jecolmodel200309003, doi101016jtree200801003, doi101016s0065288108602126, doi101016s0169534799017231, doi101023a1014864708777, doi101038nature02691, doi101111j14610248200901347x, doi101126science1059199, doi101126science1138657, doi101126science1205106, doi101126science1241484"
}

@article{doi101016jcub201704038,
    author = "Dulvy, Nicholas K. and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Davidson, Lindsay N. K. and Fordham, Sonja V. and Bräutigam, Amie and Sant, Glenn and Welch, David J.",
    title = "Challenges and Priorities in Shark and Ray Conservation",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.038",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.038",
    openalex = "W2622984877",
    references = "doi101006jmsc19990489, doi101017s0376892909990191, doi101073pnas1002195107, doi101111j13652486200902128x, doi101111jfb12874"
}

A thorough understanding of movement patterns of a species is critical for designing effective conservation and management initiatives. However, generating such information for large marine vertebrates is challenging, as they typically move over long distances, live in concealing environments, are logistically difficult to capture and, as upper-trophic predators, are naturally low in abundance. As a large bodied, broadly distributed tropical shark typically restricted to coastal and shelf habitats, the great hammerhead shark Sphyrna mokarran epitomizes such challenges. Highly valued for its fins, it suffers high bycatch mortality coupled with conservative fecundity, and as a result, is vulnerable to over-exploitation and population depletion. Although there is very little species specific data available, the absence of recent catch records give cause to suspect substantial declines across its range. Here, we used biotelemetry techniques (acoustic and satellite), conventional tagging, laser-photogrammetry, and photo-identification to investigate; the level of site fidelity, and or residency for great hammerheads to coastal areas in the Bahamas and U.S. and the extent of movements and connectivity of great hammerheads between the U.S. and Bahamas. Results revealed large scale return migrations (3030 km), seasonal residency to local areas (some for 5 months), site fidelity (annual return to Bimini and Jupiter for many individuals) and numerous international movements. These findings enhance the understanding of movement ecology of the great hammerhead shark and have the potential to contribute to improved conservation and management.

@article{doi103389fmars201700003,
    author = "Guttridge, Tristan L. and van Zinnicq Bergmann, Maurits P. M. and Bolte, Chris and Howey, Lucy A. and Finger, Jean Sebastien and Kessel, Steven T. and Brooks, Jill L. and Winram, William and Bond, Mark E. and Jordan, Lance K. B. and Cashman, Rachael C. and Tolentino, Emily R. and Grubbs, R. Dean and Gruber, Samuel H.",
    title = "Philopatry and Regional Connectivity of the Great Hammerhead Shark, Sphyrna mokarran in the U.S. and Bahamas",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Frontiers in Marine Science",
    abstract = "A thorough understanding of movement patterns of a species is critical for designing effective conservation and management initiatives. However, generating such information for large marine vertebrates is challenging, as they typically move over long distances, live in concealing environments, are logistically difficult to capture and, as upper-trophic predators, are naturally low in abundance. As a large bodied, broadly distributed tropical shark typically restricted to coastal and shelf habitats, the great hammerhead shark Sphyrna mokarran epitomizes such challenges. Highly valued for its fins, it suffers high bycatch mortality coupled with conservative fecundity, and as a result, is vulnerable to over-exploitation and population depletion. Although there is very little species specific data available, the absence of recent catch records give cause to suspect substantial declines across its range. Here, we used biotelemetry techniques (acoustic and satellite), conventional tagging, laser-photogrammetry, and photo-identification to investigate; the level of site fidelity, and or residency for great hammerheads to coastal areas in the Bahamas and U.S. and the extent of movements and connectivity of great hammerheads between the U.S. and Bahamas. Results revealed large scale return migrations (3030 km), seasonal residency to local areas (some for 5 months), site fidelity (annual return to Bimini and Jupiter for many individuals) and numerous international movements. These findings enhance the understanding of movement ecology of the great hammerhead shark and have the potential to contribute to improved conservation and management.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00003",
    doi = "10.3389/fmars.2017.00003",
    openalex = "W2579220390",
    references = "doi101007s1116001493648"
}

@article{doi101007s111600189528z,
    author = "Mitchell, J. D. and McLean, Dianne and Collin, Shaun P. and Langlois, Tim",
    title = "Shark depredation in commercial and recreational fisheries",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-018-9528-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s11160-018-9528-z",
    openalex = "W2883718349",
    references = "doi101007s1116001493648"
}

Sharks are a diverse group of mobile predators that forage across varied spatial scales and have the potential to influence food web dynamics. The ecological consequences of recent declines in shark biomass may extend across broader geographic ranges if shark taxa display common behavioural traits. By tracking the original site of photosynthetic fixation of carbon atoms that were ultimately assimilated into muscle tissues of 5,394 sharks from 114 species, we identify globally consistent biogeographic traits in trophic interactions between sharks found in different habitats. We show that populations of shelf-dwelling sharks derive a substantial proportion of their carbon from regional pelagic sources, but contain individuals that forage within additional isotopically diverse local food webs, such as those supported by terrestrial plant sources, benthic production and macrophytes. In contrast, oceanic sharks seem to use carbon derived from between 30° and 50° of latitude. Global-scale compilations of stable isotope data combined with biogeochemical modelling generate hypotheses regarding animal behaviours that can be tested with other methodological approaches.

@article{doi101038s415590170432z,
    author = "Bird, Christopher and Veríssimo, Ana and Magozzi, Sarah and Abrantes, Kátya G. and Aguilar, Álex and Al‐Reasi, Hassan A. and Barnett, Adam and Bethea, Dana M. and Biais, Gérard and Borrell, Asunción and Bouchoucha, Marc and Boyle, Mariah and Brooks, Edward J. and Brunnschweiler, Juerg M. and Bustamante, Paco and Carlisle, Aaron B. and Catarino, Diana and Caut, Stéphane and Cherel, Yves and Chouvelon, Tiphaine and Churchill, Diana A. and Ciancio, Javier and Claes, Julien M. and Colaço, Ana and Courtney, Dean L. and Cresson, Pierre and Daly, Ryan and Necker, Leigh De and Endo, Tetsuya and Figueiredo, Ivone and Frisch, Ashley J. and Hansen, Joan Holst and Heithaus, Michael R. and Hussey, Nigel E. and Iitembu, Johannes A. and Juanes, Francis and Kinney, Michael J. and Kiszka, Jérémy J. and Klarian, Sebastián A. and Kopp, Dorothée and Leaf, Robert T. and Li, Yunkai and Lorrain, Anne and Madigan, Daniel J. and Maljković, Aleksandra and Malpica‐Cruz, Luis and Matich, Philip and Meekan, Mark G. and Ménard, Frédéric and Menezes, Gui M. and Munroe, Samantha and Newman, Michael C. and Papastamatiou, Yannis P. and Pethybridge, Heidi and Plumlee, Jeffrey D. and Polo‐Silva, Carlos J. and Quaeck-Davies, Katie and Raoult, Vincent and Reum, Jonathan C. P. and Torres‐Rojas, Yassir Edén and Shiffman, David S. and Shipley, Oliver N. and Speed, Conrad W. and Staudinger, Michelle D. and Teffer, Amy K. and Tilley, Alexander and Valls, María and Vaudo, Jeremy J. and Wai, Tak-Cheung and Wells, R. J. David and Wyatt, Alex S. J. and Yool, Andrew and Trueman, Clive N.",
    title = "A global perspective on the trophic geography of sharks",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Nature Ecology \& Evolution",
    abstract = "Sharks are a diverse group of mobile predators that forage across varied spatial scales and have the potential to influence food web dynamics. The ecological consequences of recent declines in shark biomass may extend across broader geographic ranges if shark taxa display common behavioural traits. By tracking the original site of photosynthetic fixation of carbon atoms that were ultimately assimilated into muscle tissues of 5,394 sharks from 114 species, we identify globally consistent biogeographic traits in trophic interactions between sharks found in different habitats. We show that populations of shelf-dwelling sharks derive a substantial proportion of their carbon from regional pelagic sources, but contain individuals that forage within additional isotopically diverse local food webs, such as those supported by terrestrial plant sources, benthic production and macrophytes. In contrast, oceanic sharks seem to use carbon derived from between 30° and 50° of latitude. Global-scale compilations of stable isotope data combined with biogeochemical modelling generate hypotheses regarding animal behaviours that can be tested with other methodological approaches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0432-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41559-017-0432-z",
    openalex = "W2782608448",
    references = "doi101016jtree201602014"
}

A general northward shift in marine species distributions has been observed in the western North Atlantic Ocean, which may have significant ecological consequences. Large coastal sharks can have wide migratory distributions but show fidelity to specific nursery habitats. Here we show evidence for nursery range expansion into Pamlico Sound, North Carolina by a marine apex predator, the Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas). Previous assessments have shown little to no use of estuarine North Carolina waters as nursery habitat by Bull Sharks from 1965-2011. Juvenile sharks were rarely captured in a fishery-independent gillnet survey conducted by the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries (NCDMF) from 2003-2011, but were present every year from 2011-2016. Juvenile Bull Shark presence in the Sound was strongly related to early summer temperatures and late summer salinities, which have increased in the estuary over the 13 survey years, and further evidence for increasing water temperatures in Pamlico Sound was found in a 45-year data set for the NCDMF estuarine trawl survey. These results suggest that increasing water temperature and salinity have allowed Bull Sharks to expand their nursery habitat. This shift will have unknown, but potentially strong, impacts on both the local ecosystem and interactions with humans.

@article{doi101038s4159801824510z,
    author = "Bangley, Charles W. and Paramore, Lee M. and Shiffman, David S. and Rulifson, Roger A.",
    title = "Increased Abundance and Nursery Habitat Use of the Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas) in Response to a Changing Environment in a Warm-Temperate Estuary",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "A general northward shift in marine species distributions has been observed in the western North Atlantic Ocean, which may have significant ecological consequences. Large coastal sharks can have wide migratory distributions but show fidelity to specific nursery habitats. Here we show evidence for nursery range expansion into Pamlico Sound, North Carolina by a marine apex predator, the Bull Shark (Carcharhinus leucas). Previous assessments have shown little to no use of estuarine North Carolina waters as nursery habitat by Bull Sharks from 1965-2011. Juvenile sharks were rarely captured in a fishery-independent gillnet survey conducted by the North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries (NCDMF) from 2003-2011, but were present every year from 2011-2016. Juvenile Bull Shark presence in the Sound was strongly related to early summer temperatures and late summer salinities, which have increased in the estuary over the 13 survey years, and further evidence for increasing water temperatures in Pamlico Sound was found in a 45-year data set for the NCDMF estuarine trawl survey. These results suggest that increasing water temperature and salinity have allowed Bull Sharks to expand their nursery habitat. This shift will have unknown, but potentially strong, impacts on both the local ecosystem and interactions with humans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-24510-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-018-24510-z",
    openalex = "W2797871109",
    references = "doi101007s1116001493648, doi101080000284872011618352"
}

Overexploitation of large apex marine predators is widespread in the world's oceans, yet the timing and extent of declines are poorly understood. Here we reconstruct a unique fisheries-independent dataset from a shark control programme spanning 1760 km of the Australian coastline over the past 55 years. We report substantial declines (74-92%) of catch per unit effort of hammerhead (Sphyrnidae), whaler (Carcharhinidae), tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Following onset of the program in the 1960s, catch rates in new installations in subsequent decades occurred at a substantially lower rate, indicating regional depletion of shark populations over the past half a century. Concurrent declines in body size and the probability of encountering mature individuals suggests that apex shark populations are more vulnerable to exploitation than previously thought. Ongoing declines and lack of recovery of vulnerable and protected shark species are a cause for concern.

@article{doi101038s4200301802331,
    author = "Roff, George and Brown, Christopher J. and Priest, Mark A. and Mumby, Peter J.",
    title = "Decline of coastal apex shark populations over the past half century",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Communications Biology",
    abstract = "Overexploitation of large apex marine predators is widespread in the world's oceans, yet the timing and extent of declines are poorly understood. Here we reconstruct a unique fisheries-independent dataset from a shark control programme spanning 1760 km of the Australian coastline over the past 55 years. We report substantial declines (74-92\%) of catch per unit effort of hammerhead (Sphyrnidae), whaler (Carcharhinidae), tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). Following onset of the program in the 1960s, catch rates in new installations in subsequent decades occurred at a substantially lower rate, indicating regional depletion of shark populations over the past half a century. Concurrent declines in body size and the probability of encountering mature individuals suggests that apex shark populations are more vulnerable to exploitation than previously thought. Ongoing declines and lack of recovery of vulnerable and protected shark species are a cause for concern.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-018-0233-1",
    doi = "10.1038/s42003-018-0233-1",
    openalex = "W2902065459",
    references = "doi101007s1116001493648, doi101016jtree201602014"
}

@incollection{beirne2019professional,
    author = "Beirne, Ann and Sadavoy, Jacob A.",
    title = "Professional Behavior, Ethical Behavior, and Moral Behavior",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Understanding Ethics in Applied Behavior Analysis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429453168-11",
    doi = "10.4324/9780429453168-11",
    pages = "229-236"
}

@incollection{bonaventura2019flatfish,
    author = "Bonaventura, Joseph and Bonaventura, Celia",
    title = "Flatfish, Fireflies, Sharks: Behavior Modification Induced by Natural Repellents",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Shark Repellents from the Sea",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429305955-5",
    doi = "10.1201/9780429305955-5",
    openalex = "W2999852625",
    pages = "115-133",
    references = "doi101038237146a0"
}

Over the past 4 decades there has been a growing concern for the conservation status of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). In 2002, the first elasmobranch species were added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Less than 20 yr later, there were 39 species on Appendix II and 5 on Appendix I. Despite growing concern, effective conservation and management remain challenged by a lack of data on population status for many species, human−wildlife interactions, threats to population viability, and the efficacy of conservation approaches. We surveyed 100 of the most frequently published and cited experts on elasmobranchs and, based on ranked responses, prioritized 20 research questions on elasmobranch conservation. To address these questions, we then convened a group of 47 experts from 35 institutions and 12 countries. The 20 questions were organized into the following broad categories: (1) status and threats, (2) population and ecology, and (3) conservation and management. For each section, we sought to synthesize existing knowledge, describe consensus or diverging views, identify gaps, and suggest promising future directions and research priorities. The resulting synthesis aggregates an array of perspectives on emergent research and priority directions for elasmobranch conservation.

@article{doi103354esr01169,
    author = "Jorgensen, SJ and Micheli, Fiorenza and White, T D and Houtan, Kyle S. Van and Alfaro‐Shigueto, Joanna and Andrzejaczek, Samantha and Arnoldi, Natalie S. and Baum, Julia K. and Block, Barbara A. and Britten, GL and Butner, Cheryl and Caballero, Susana and Cardeñosa, Diego and Chapple, TK and Clarke, S. and Cortés, Enric and Dulvy, Nicholas K. and Fowler, S. and Gallagher, AJ and Gilman, Eric and Godley, Brendan J. and Graham, RT and Hammerschlag, Neil and Harry, AV and Heithaus, Michael R. and Hutchinson, Melanie and Huveneers, Charlie and Lowe, CG and Lucifora, Luis O. and MacKeracher, Tracy and Mangel, Jeffrey C. and Martins, Ana Paula Barbosa and McCauley, DJ and McClenachan, Loren and Mull, Christopher G. and Natanson, LJ and Pauly, Daniel and Pazmiño, DA and Pistevos, JCA and Queiroz, Nuno and Roff, George and Shea, BD and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Sims, DW and Ward‐Paige, Christine A. and Worm, Boris and Ferretti, Francesco",
    title = "Emergent research and priorities for shark and ray conservation",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Endangered Species Research",
    abstract = "Over the past 4 decades there has been a growing concern for the conservation status of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). In 2002, the first elasmobranch species were added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Less than 20 yr later, there were 39 species on Appendix II and 5 on Appendix I. Despite growing concern, effective conservation and management remain challenged by a lack of data on population status for many species, human−wildlife interactions, threats to population viability, and the efficacy of conservation approaches. We surveyed 100 of the most frequently published and cited experts on elasmobranchs and, based on ranked responses, prioritized 20 research questions on elasmobranch conservation. To address these questions, we then convened a group of 47 experts from 35 institutions and 12 countries. The 20 questions were organized into the following broad categories: (1) status and threats, (2) population and ecology, and (3) conservation and management. For each section, we sought to synthesize existing knowledge, describe consensus or diverging views, identify gaps, and suggest promising future directions and research priorities. The resulting synthesis aggregates an array of perspectives on emergent research and priority directions for elasmobranch conservation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3354/esr01169",
    doi = "10.3354/esr01169",
    openalex = "W3212659873",
    references = "doi101016jbiocon201502007, doi101016jcub202108062, doi101016jtree201602014, doi101038s4155901704484, doi101111j10958649201203265x, doi101643ot19179r"
}

@incollection{pazhoohi2023copulatory,
    author = "Pazhoohi, Farid",
    title = "Copulatory Behavior: Lordosis Behavior",
    year = "2023",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5\_677-1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5\_677-1",
    pages = "1-2"
}

In ecosystems, sharks can be predators, competitors, facilitators, nutrient transporters, and food. However, overfishing and other threats have greatly reduced shark populations, altering their roles and effects on ecosystems. We review these changes and implications for ecosystem function and management. Macropredatory sharks are often disproportionately affected by humans but can influence prey and coastal ecosystems, including facilitating carbon sequestration. Like terrestrial predators, sharks may be crucial to ecosystem functioning under climate change. However, large ecosystem effects of sharks are not ubiquitous. Increasing human uses of oceans are changing shark roles, necessitating management consideration. Rebuilding key populations and incorporating shark ecological roles, including less obvious ones, into management efforts are critical for retaining sharks' functional value. Coupled social-ecological frameworks can facilitate these efforts.

@article{doi101126scienceadl2362,
    author = "Dedman, Simon and Moxley, Jerry and Papastamatiou, Yannis P. and Braccini, Matías and Caselle, Jennifer E. and Chapman, Demian D. and Cinner, Joshua E. and Dillon, Erin and Dulvy, Nicholas K. and Dunn, Ruth E. and Espinoza, Mario and Harborne, Alastair R. and Harvey, Euan S. and Heupel, Michelle R. and Huveneers, Charlie and Graham, Nicholas A. J. and Ketchum, James T. and Klinard, Natalie V. and Kock, Alison and Lowe, Christopher G. and MacNeil, M. Aaron and Madin, Elizabeth M. P. and McCauley, Douglas J. and Meekan, Mark G. and Meier, Amelia and Simpfendorfer, Colin A. and Tinker, M. Tim and Winton, Megan V. and Wirsing, Aaron J. and Heithaus, Michael R.",
    title = "Ecological roles and importance of sharks in the Anthropocene Ocean",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "In ecosystems, sharks can be predators, competitors, facilitators, nutrient transporters, and food. However, overfishing and other threats have greatly reduced shark populations, altering their roles and effects on ecosystems. We review these changes and implications for ecosystem function and management. Macropredatory sharks are often disproportionately affected by humans but can influence prey and coastal ecosystems, including facilitating carbon sequestration. Like terrestrial predators, sharks may be crucial to ecosystem functioning under climate change. However, large ecosystem effects of sharks are not ubiquitous. Increasing human uses of oceans are changing shark roles, necessitating management consideration. Rebuilding key populations and incorporating shark ecological roles, including less obvious ones, into management efforts are critical for retaining sharks' functional value. Coupled social-ecological frameworks can facilitate these efforts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adl2362",
    doi = "10.1126/science.adl2362",
    openalex = "W4401211183",
    references = "doi101016jbiocon201502007, doi101016jcub202108062, doi101016jtree201602014"
}