@misc{muybridge1887animals21,
    author = "Muybridge, E",
    title = "Animals in Motion",
    year = "1887",
    howpublished = "New York, Dover Books [1957]",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Muybridge, E., 1887, Animals in Motion: New York, Dover Books [1957].}"
}

@misc{gregory1912notes11,
    author = "Gregory, W. K",
    title = "Notes on the principles of quadrupedal locomotion and the mechanisms of the limbs in hoofed animals",
    year = "1912",
    howpublished = "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 22, p. 267-292",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gregory, W. K., 1912, Notes on the principles of quadrupedal locomotion and the mechanisms of the limbs in hoofed animals: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 22, p. 267-292.}"
}

@article{harris1936the12,
    author = "Harris, J. E",
    title = "The role of fins in the equilibrium of the swimming fish I. Wind-tunnel tests on a model of Mustelus canis (Mitchill)",
    year = "1936",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology, v. 13, p. 476-493",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Harris, J. E., 1936, The role of fins in the equilibrium of the swimming fish I. Wind-tunnel tests on a model of Mustelus canis (Mitchill): Journal of Experimental Biology, v. 13, p. 476-493.}"
}

@article{harris1938the13,
    author = "Harris, J. E",
    title = "The role of fins in the equilibrium of the swimming fish II. The role of the pelvic fins",
    year = "1938",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology, v. 13, p. 476-493",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Harris, J. E., 1938, The role of fins in the equilibrium of the swimming fish II. The role of the pelvic fins: Journal of Experimental Biology, v. 13, p. 476-493.}"
}

@book{howell1944speed14,
    author = "Howell, A. B",
    title = "Speed in Animals",
    year = "1944",
    publisher = "Chicago, University of Chicago Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Howell, A. B., 1944, Speed in Animals: Chicago, University of Chicago Press.}"
}

@article{newman1970stance22,
    author = "Newman, B. H",
    title = "Stance and gait in the flesh-eating dinosaur Tyrannosaurus",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 2; 119-123",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Newman, B. H., 1970, Stance and gait in the flesh-eating dinosaur Tyrannosaurus: Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 2; 119-123.}"
}

@techreport{cracraft1971the4,
    author = "Cracraft, J",
    title = "The functional morphology of the hind limb of the domestic pgeon, Columba livia",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 144, p. 175-268",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cracraft, J., 1971, The functional morphology of the hind limb of the domestic pgeon, Columba livia: Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, v. 144, p. 175-268.}"
}

@book{schmidtnielsen1972how26,
    author = "Schmidt-Nielsen, K",
    title = "How Animals Work",
    year = "1972",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Schmidt-Nielsen, K., 1972, How Animals Work: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.}"
}

@phdthesis{molnar1973the20,
    author = "Molnar, R. E",
    title = "The cranial morphology and mechanics of Tyrannosaurus rex (Reptilia",
    year = "1973",
    publisher = "Saurischia) [PhD dissert.]: University of California at Los Angeles",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Molnar, R. E., 1973, The cranial morphology and mechanics of Tyrannosaurus rex (Reptilia: Saurischia) [PhD dissert.]: University of California at Los Angeles.}"
}

@article{webb1973the30,
    author = "Webb, J. E",
    title = "The role of the notochord in forward and reverse swimming and burrowing in the amphioxus Branchiostoma lanceolatum",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, London, v. 170, p. 325-338",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Webb, J. E., 1973, The role of the notochord in forward and reverse swimming and burrowing in the amphioxus Branchiostoma lanceolatum: Journal of Zoology, London, v. 170, p. 325-338.}"
}

@article{doi101126science18641691112,
    author = "Heglund, N. C. and Taylor, C. Richard and McMahon, Thomas A.",
    title = "Scaling Stride Frequency and Gait to Animal Size: Mice to Horses",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The stride frequency at which animals of different size change from one gait to another (walk, trot, gallop) changes in a regular manner with body mass. The speed at the transition from trot to gallop can be used as an equivalent speed for comparing animals of different size. This transition point occurs at lower speeds and higher stride frequencies in smaller animals. Plotting stride frequency at the trot-gallop transition point as a function of body mass in logarithmic coordinates yields a straight line.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.186.4169.1112",
    doi = "10.1126/science.186.4169.1112",
    openalex = "W1985834661"
}

@article{alexander1977fast1,
    author = "Alexander, R. M",
    title = "Fast locomotion of some African ungulates",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, v. 183, p. 291-300",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Alexander, R. M., 1977, Fast locomotion of some African ungulates: Journal of Zoology, v. 183, p. 291-300.}"
}

@article{coombs1978theoretical3,
    author = "Coombs, W. P",
    title = "Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 53, p. 393-418",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Coombs, W. P., 1978, Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs: Quarterly Review of Biology, v. 53, p. 393-418.}"
}

@misc{fedak1979reappraisal8,
    author = "Fedak, M. A. and Seeherman, H. J",
    title = "Reappraisal of energetics of locomotion shows identical cost in bipeds and quadrupeds including ostrich and horse",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 282, p. 713-716",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fedak, M. A., and Seeherman, H. J., 1979, Reappraisal of energetics of locomotion shows identical cost in bipeds and quadrupeds including ostrich and horse: Nature, v. 282, p. 713-716.}"
}

@book{gessamen1979methods10,
    author = "Gessamen, J. A",
    title = "Methods of Estimating the Energy Cost of Free Existance, in Gessamen, J. A., ed., Ecological Economics of Homeotherms",
    year = "1979",
    publisher = "Logan, Utah, Utah State University Press, p. 3-31",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gessamen, J. A., 1979, Methods of Estimating the Energy Cost of Free Existance, in Gessamen, J. A., ed., Ecological Economics of Homeotherms: Logan, Utah, Utah State University Press, p. 3-31.}"
}

@misc{olson1979flight24,
    author = "Olson, S. L. and Feduccia, A",
    title = "Flight capability and the pectoral girdle of Archeopteryx",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 278, p. 247-248",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Olson, S. L., and Feduccia, A., 1979, Flight capability and the pectoral girdle of Archeopteryx: Nature, v. 278, p. 247-248.}"
}

@article{taylor1979running28,
    author = "Taylor, C. R. et al",
    title = "Running in cheetahs, gazelles and goats",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Energy cost and limb configuration: American Journal of Physiology, p. 848-850",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Taylor, C. R. et al., 1979, Running in cheetahs, gazelles and goats: Energy cost and limb configuration: American Journal of Physiology, p. 848-850.}"
}

@article{coombs1980swimming,
    author = "Coombs, W. P.",
    title = "Swimming Ability of Carnivorous Dinosaurs",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Dinosaur tracks from Lower Jurassic rocks at Rocky Hill, Connecticut, were apparently made by a floating or half-submerged animal that was pushing along the bottom with the tips of its toes. These tracks were probably made by large carnivorous dinosaurs (Theropoda) and are apparently the first evidence of swimming by such animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.207.4436.1198",
    doi = "10.1126/science.207.4436.1198",
    number = "4436",
    pages = "1198-1200",
    volume = "207"
}

@misc{farlow1981estimates7,
    author = "Farlow, J. O",
    title = "Estimates of dinosaur speeds from a new trackway site in Texas",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 294, p. 747-748",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Farlow, J. O., 1981, Estimates of dinosaur speeds from a new trackway site in Texas: Nature, v. 294, p. 747-748.}"
}

@article{clarke1982biomechanics,
    author = "Clarke, Ian C.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Orthopedic Clinics of North America",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0030-5898(20)30229-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s0030-5898(20)30229-7",
    number = "4",
    pages = "681-707",
    volume = "13"
}

@article{kurzanov1982structural16,
    author = "Kurzanov, S. M",
    title = "Structural chacteristics of the fore limbs of Avimimus",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Palaeontological Journal, v. 16, no. 3, p. 108-112",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kurzanov, S. M., 1982, Structural chacteristics of the fore limbs of Avimimus: Palaeontological Journal, v. 16, no. 3, p. 108-112.}"
}

@misc{thulborn1982speeds29,
    author = "Thulborn, R. A",
    title = "Speeds and gaits of dinosaurs",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 38, p. 273-274",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Thulborn, R. A., 1982, Speeds and gaits of dinosaurs: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 38, p. 273-274.}"
}

@article{garland1983the9,
    author = "Garland, T",
    title = "The relation between maximal running speed and body mass in terrestrial mammals",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology, London, v. 199, p. 1557-1570",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Garland, T., 1983, The relation between maximal running speed and body mass in terrestrial mammals: Journal of Zoology, London, v. 199, p. 1557-1570.}"
}

@article{kurzanov1983new17,
    author = "Kurzanov, S. M",
    title = "New data on the pelvic structure of Avimimus",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Palaeontological Journal, v. 17, no. 4, p. 110-111",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kurzanov, S. M., 1983, New data on the pelvic structure of Avimimus: Palaeontological Journal, v. 17, no. 4, p. 110-111.}"
}

@misc{lewin1983do18,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "Do ape-size legs mean ape-like gait?",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 221, p. 537- 538",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1983, Do ape-size legs mean ape-like gait?: Science, v. 221, p. 537- 538.}"
}

@misc{tarsitano1983stance27,
    author = "Tarsitano, S",
    title = "Stance and gait in theropod dinosaurs",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, v. 28, p. 251-264",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Tarsitano, S., 1983, Stance and gait in theropod dinosaurs: Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, v. 28, p. 251-264.}"
}

@article{doi101177027836498400300205,
    author = "Alexander, R. McN.",
    title = "The Gaits of Bipedal and Quadrupedal Animals",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "The International Journal of Robotics Research",
    abstract = "The gaits of reptiles, birds, and mammals are reviewed. It is shown that mammals of different sizes tend to move in dy namically similar fashion whenever their Froude numbers u 2 /gh are equal: here u is speed, g is the acceleration of free fall, and h is the height of the hip joint from the ground. The gaits of turtles and people are examined in detail. The gaits of turtles appear to reduce unwanted displacements (pitch, roll, etc.) to the minimum possible for animals with such slow muscles. The patterns of force exerted in human walking and running minimize the work required of the muscles at each speed. Much of the energy that would otherwise be neededfor running, by people and other large mammals, is saved by tendon elasticity.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/027836498400300205",
    doi = "10.1177/027836498400300205",
    openalex = "W1997576152",
    references = "doi101038261129a0, doi101111j146979981983tb04266x"
}

@article{leveau1984biomechanics,
    author = "LeVeau, Barney F.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Physical Therapy",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/64.12.1812",
    doi = "10.1093/ptj/64.12.1812",
    number = "12",
    pages = "1812-1812",
    volume = "64"
}

@article{alexander1985mechanics2,
    author = "Alexander, R. M",
    title = "Mechanics of posture and gait of some large dinosaurs",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 83, p. 1-25",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Alexander, R. M., 1985, Mechanics of posture and gait of some large dinosaurs: Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 83, p. 1-25.}"
}

@misc{lewin1985how19,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "How does half a bird fly?",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 230, p. 530-531",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1985, How does half a bird fly?: Science, v. 230, p. 530-531.}"
}

@misc{nicholls1985structure23,
    author = "Nicholls, E. L. and Russell, A. P",
    title = "Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Ornithomimidae): Palaeontology, v. 28, p. 643-677",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nicholls, E. L., and Russell, A. P., 1985, Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda: Ornithomimidae): Palaeontology, v. 28, p. 643-677.}"
}

@misc{diamond1986how5,
    author = "Diamond, J. M",
    title = "How great white sharks, sabre-toothed cats and soldiers kill",
    year = "1986",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 322, p. 773-774",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Diamond, J. M., 1986, How great white sharks, sabre-toothed cats and soldiers kill: Nature, v. 322, p. 773-774.}"
}

@misc{parrish1986locomotor25,
    author = "Parrish, J. M",
    title = "Locomotor adaptations in the hindlimb and pelvis of the Thecodontia",
    year = "1986",
    howpublished = "Hunteria, v. 1, p. 2-35",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Parrish, J. M., 1986, Locomotor adaptations in the hindlimb and pelvis of the Thecodontia: Hunteria, v. 1, p. 2-35.}"
}

@misc{earle1987a6,
    author = "Earle, M",
    title = "A flexible body mass in social carnivores",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "American Naturalist, v. 129, p. 755-760",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Earle, M., 1987, A flexible body mass in social carnivores: American Naturalist, v. 129, p. 755-760.}"
}

@misc{kitchner1987function15,
    author = "Kitchner, A",
    title = "Function of Claw's claws",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 325, p. 114",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kitchner, A., 1987, Function of Claw's claws: Nature, v. 325, p. 114.}"
}

@article{doi101126science2251499,
    author = "Biewener, Andrew A.",
    title = "Biomechanics of Mammalian Terrestrial Locomotion",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Mammalian skeletons experience peak locomotor stresses (force per area) that are 25 to 50\% of their failure strength, indicating a safety factor of between two and four. The mechanism by which animals achieve a constant safety factor varies depending on the size of the animal. Over much of their size (0.1 to 300 kilograms), larger mammals maintain uniform skeletal stress primarily by having a more upright posture, which decreases mass-specific muscle force by increasing muscle mechanical advantage. At greater sizes, increased skeletal allometry and decreased locomotor performance likely maintain stresses constant. At smaller sizes, skeletal stiffness may be more critical than strength. The decrease in mass-specific muscle force in mammals weighing 0.1 to 300 kilogram indicates that peak muscle stresses are also constant and correlates with a decrease in mass-specific energy cost of locomotion. The consistent pattern of locomotor stresses developed in long bones at different speeds and gaits within a species may have important implications for how bones adaptively remodel to changes in stress.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2251499",
    doi = "10.1126/science.2251499",
    openalex = "W1992071621",
    references = "doi101007bf02058654, doi101007bf02553711, doi1010160021929082902469, doi101017cbo9781139167826, doi101038292239a0, doi101085jgp506197, doi101111j146979981983tb02087x, doi101126science2740914, doi101152ajplegacy197021941104, doi101152physrev1972521129, doi101242jeb1011187, doi101242jeb1381301, doi1015159780691221540, doi1015159781400853724, doi1023072530028, doi102307jctv143mdjg, doi105962bhltitle11332, halstead1969calcified, openalexw1534787790"
}

@article{leach1993recommended,
    author = "Leach, D.",
    title = "Recommended Terminology for Researchers in Locomotion and Biomechanics of Quadrupedal Animals",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Cells Tissues Organs",
    abstract = "This paper summarizes recommendations for terminology to be used in the description of quadrupedal locomotion and selected aspects of biomechanics. Directional terms and planes of the body (anatomical position, spatial reference systems), joint angulation, conformation, general locomotion terminology, phases of the stride and limb cycle (e.g. step, cadence) and terminology for the description of jumping are described.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1159/000147434",
    doi = "10.1159/000147434",
    number = "2-3",
    openalex = "W2059180862",
    pages = "130-136",
    volume = "146"
}

@article{doi10110948757275,
    author = "Sfakiotakis, Michael and Lane, David M. and Davies, J.B.C.",
    title = "Review of fish swimming modes for aquatic locomotion",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering",
    abstract = "Several physico-mechanical designs evolved in fish are currently inspiring robotic devices for propulsion and maneuvering purposes in underwater vehicles. Considering the potential benefits involved, this paper presents an overview of the swimming mechanisms employed by fish. The motivation is to provide a relevant and useful introduction to the existing literature for engineers with an interest in the emerging area of aquatic biomechanisms. The fish swimming types are presented, following the well-established classification scheme and nomenclature originally proposed by Breder. Fish swim either by body and/or caudal fin (BCF) movements or using median and/or paired fin (MPF) propulsion. The latter is generally employed at slow speeds, offering greater maneuverability and better propulsive efficiency, while BCF movements can achieve greater thrust and accelerations. For both BCF and MPF locomotion, specific swimming modes are identified, based on the propulsor and the type of movements (oscillatory or undulatory) employed for thrust generation. Along with general descriptions and kinematic data, the analytical approaches developed to study each swimming mode are also introduced. Particular reference is made to lunate tail propulsion, undulating fins, and labriform (oscillatory pectoral fin) swimming mechanisms, identified as having the greatest potential for exploitation in artificial systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/48.757275",
    doi = "10.1109/48.757275",
    openalex = "W2117289015",
    references = "doi101017s0022112070001830, openalexw1575479768"
}

@misc{crussemeyer2000biomechanics,
    author = "Crussemeyer, Jill A. and Dufek, Janet S.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "Women in Sport",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757093.ch6",
    doi = "10.1002/9780470757093.ch6",
    pages = "93-107"
}

@article{crossref2002biomécanique,
    title = "Biomécanique de la locomotion / Gait Biomechanics",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1076/apab.110.5.5.93.19859",
    doi = "10.1076/apab.110.5.5.93.19859",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W4247889902",
    pages = "93-100",
    volume = "110",
    references = "doi101093brain10611, doi101146annurevne05030182001131"
}

@article{doi101242jeb02186,
    author = "Riskin, Daniel K. and Parsons, Stuart and Schutt, William A. and Carter, Gerald G. and Hermanson, John W.",
    title = "Terrestrial locomotion of the New Zealand short-tailed bat Mystacina tuberculata and the common vampire bat Desmodus rotundus",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "Bats (Chiroptera) are generally awkward crawlers, but the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) and the New Zealand short-tailed bat (Mystacina tuberculata) have independently evolved the ability to manoeuvre well on the ground. In this study we describe the kinematics of locomotion in both species, and the kinetics of locomotion in M. tuberculata. We sought to determine whether these bats move terrestrially the way other quadrupeds do, or whether they possess altogether different patterns of movement on the ground than are observed in quadrupeds that do not fly. Using high-speed video analyses of bats moving on a treadmill, we observed that both species possess symmetrical lateral-sequence gaits similar to the kinematically defined walks of a broad range of tetrapods. At high speeds, D. rotundus use an asymmetrical bounding gait that appears to converge on the bounding gaits of small terrestrial mammals, but with the roles of the forelimbs and hindlimbs reversed. This gait was not performed by M. tuberculata. Many animals that possess a single kinematic gait shift with increasing speed from a kinetic walk (where kinetic and potential energy of the centre of mass oscillate out of phase from each other) to a kinetic run (where they oscillate in phase). To determine whether the single kinematic gait of M. tuberculata meets the kinetic definition of a walk, a run, or a gait that functions as a walk at low speed and a run at high speed, we used force plates and high-speed video recordings to characterize the energetics of the centre of mass in that species. Although oscillations in kinetic and potential energy were of similar magnitudes, M. tuberculata did not use pendulum-like exchanges of energy between them to the extent that many other quadrupedal animals do, and did not transition from a kinetic walk to kinetic run with increasing speed. The gait of M. tuberculata is kinematically a walk, but kinetically run-like at all speeds.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02186",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.02186",
    openalex = "W2112468692",
    references = "doi101016jjtbi200504004, doi101098rstb19870030, doi101111j146979981983tb04266x, doi101111j146979981991tb04794x, doi101113jphysiol1976sp011613, doi101126science1105113, doi101152ajpregu19772335r243, doi101242jeb1381301, doi104159harvard9780674184404, openalexw3081581194"
}

@article{doi1010881748318243036001,
    author = "Chung, M.M.",
    title = "On burst-and-coast swimming performance in fish-like locomotion",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics",
    abstract = "Burst-and-coast swimming performance in fish-like locomotion is studied via two-dimensional numerical simulation. The numerical method used is the collocated finite-volume adaptive Cartesian cut-cell method developed previously. The NACA00xx airfoil shape is used as an equilibrium fish-body form. Swimming in a burst-and-coast style is computed assuming that the burst phase is composed of a single tail-beat. Swimming efficiency is evaluated in terms of the mass-specific cost of transport instead of the Froude efficiency. The effects of the Reynolds number (based on the body length and burst time), duty cycle and fineness ratio (the body length over the largest thickness) on swimming performance (momentum capacity and the mass-specific cost of transport) are studied quantitatively. The results lead to a conclusion consistent with previous findings that a larval fish seldom swims in a burst-and-coast style. Given mass and swimming speed, a fish needs the least cost if it swims in a burst-and-coast style with a fineness ratio of 8.33. This energetically optimal fineness ratio is larger than that derived from the simple hydromechanical model proposed in literature. The calculated amount of energy saving in burst-and-coast swimming is comparable with the real-fish estimation in the literature. Finally, the predicted wake-vortex structures of both continuous and burst-and-coast swimming are biologically relevant.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/4/3/036001",
    doi = "10.1088/1748-3182/4/3/036001",
    openalex = "W2039103601"
}

@article{doi101007s0011400906373,
    author = "Niemitz, Carsten",
    title = "The evolution of the upright posture and gait—a review and a new synthesis",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Die Naturwissenschaften",
    abstract = "During the last century, approximately 30 hypotheses have been constructed to explain the evolution of the human upright posture and locomotion. The most important and recent ones are discussed here. Meanwhile, it has been established that all main hypotheses published until the last decade of the past century are outdated, at least with respect to some of their main ideas: Firstly, they were focused on only one cause for the evolution of bipedality, whereas the evolutionary process was much more complex. Secondly, they were all placed into a savannah scenario. During the 1990s, the fossil record allowed the reconstruction of emerging bipedalism more precisely in a forested habitat (e.g., as reported by Clarke and Tobias (Science 269:521-524, 1995) and WoldeGabriel et al. (Nature 412:175-178, 2001)). Moreover, the fossil remains revealed increasing evidence that this part of human evolution took place in a more humid environment than previously assumed. The Amphibian Generalist Theory, presented first in the year 2000, suggests that bipedalism began in a wooded habitat. The forests were not far from a shore, where our early ancestor, along with its arboreal habits, walked and waded in shallow water finding rich food with little investment. In contrast to all other theories, wading behaviour not only triggers an upright posture, but also forces the individual to maintain this position and to walk bipedally. So far, this is the only scenario suitable to overcome the considerable anatomical and functional threshold from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. This is consistent with paleoanthropological findings and with functional anatomy as well as with energetic calculations, and not least, with evolutionary psychology. The new synthesis presented here is able to harmonise many of the hitherto competing theories.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-009-0637-3",
    doi = "10.1007/s00114-009-0637-3",
    openalex = "W2075013568",
    references = "doi101016s0047248484800792, doi10103712293000, doi101038385333a0, doi101038nature00879, doi101038nature03052, doi101038nature04789, doi101086281823, doi101126science2114480341, doi101242jeb00279, doi101353book59141, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072792, doi105860choice352112"
}

@incollection{masouros2010biomechanics,
    author = "Masouros, S. D. and McDermott, I. D. and Bull, A. M. J. and Amis, A. A.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "The Meniscus",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02450-4\_4",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-02450-4\_4",
    pages = "29-37"
}

@incollection{hill2012biomechanics,
    author = "Hill, Keith and Baranowski, Tom and Schmidt, Walter and Prommer, Nicole and Audran, Michel and Connes, Philippe and Gutiérrez, Ramiro L. and Decker, Catherine F. and Plasqui, Guy and Westerterp, Klaas R. and Chilibeck, Phil and Newman, Christopher L. and Allen, Matthew R.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Exercise Medicine in Health and Disease",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-29807-6\_2151",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-540-29807-6\_2151",
    pages = "119-119"
}

@article{doi1010881748318291011001,
    author = "Lock, R J and Burgess, Stuart C and Vaidyanathan, Ravi",
    title = "Multi-modal locomotion: from animal to application",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics",
    abstract = "The majority of robotic vehicles that can be found today are bound to operations within a single media (i.e. land, air or water). This is very rarely the case when considering locomotive capabilities in natural systems. Utility for small robots often reflects the exact same problem domain as small animals, hence providing numerous avenues for biological inspiration. This paper begins to investigate the various modes of locomotion adopted by different genus groups in multiple media as an initial attempt to determine the compromise in ability adopted by the animals when achieving multi-modal locomotion. A review of current biologically inspired multi-modal robots is also presented. The primary aim of this research is to lay the foundation for a generation of vehicles capable of multi-modal locomotion, allowing ambulatory abilities in more than one media, surpassing current capabilities. By identifying and understanding when natural systems use specific locomotion mechanisms, when they opt for disparate mechanisms for each mode of locomotion rather than using a synergized singular mechanism, and how this affects their capability in each medium, similar combinations can be used as inspiration for future multi-modal biologically inspired robotic platforms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/9/1/011001",
    doi = "10.1088/1748-3182/9/1/011001",
    openalex = "W1991951278",
    references = "doi1010079783642838484, doi101016030096299090674h, doi101016jrobot200409015, doi101038nature02000, doi101093oso97801985660380010001, doi101109joe2005843748, doi101109tro2008915426, doi101242jeb01262, doi101242jeb01974, doi101242jeb02186, doi1015159780691212975, doi1015159781400849512"
}

@article{doi101111brv12071,
    author = "Maidment, Susannah C. R. and Bates, Karl T. and Falkingham, Peter and VanBuren, Collin S. and Arbour, Victoria M. and Barrett, Paul M.",
    title = "Locomotion in ornithischian dinosaurs: an assessment using three‐dimensional computational modelling",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Ornithischian dinosaurs were primitively bipedal with forelimbs modified for grasping, but quadrupedalism evolved in the clade on at least three occasions independently. Outside of Ornithischia, quadrupedality from bipedal ancestors has only evolved on two other occasions, making this one of the rarest locomotory transitions in tetrapod evolutionary history. The osteological and myological changes associated with these transitions have only recently been documented, and the biomechanical consequences of these changes remain to be examined. Here, we review previous approaches to understanding locomotion in extinct animals, which can be broadly split into form-function approaches using analogy based on extant animals, limb-bone scaling, and computational approaches. We then carry out the first systematic attempt to quantify changes in locomotor muscle function in bipedal and quadrupedal ornithischian dinosaurs. Using three-dimensional computational modelling of the major pelvic locomotor muscle moment arms, we examine similarities and differences among individual taxa, between quadrupedal and bipedal taxa, and among taxa representing the three major ornithischian lineages (Thyreophora, Ornithopoda, Marginocephalia). Our results suggest that the ceratopsid Chasmosaurus and the ornithopod Hypsilophodon have relatively low moment arms for most muscles and most functions, perhaps suggesting poor locomotor performance in these taxa. Quadrupeds have higher abductor moment arms than bipeds, which we suggest is due to the overall wider bodies of the quadrupeds modelled. A peak in extensor moment arms at more extended hip angles and lower medial rotator moment arms in quadrupeds than in bipeds may be due to a more columnar hindlimb and loss of medial rotation as a form of lateral limb support in quadrupeds. We are not able to identify trends in moment arm evolution across Ornithischia as a whole, suggesting that the bipedal ancestry of ornithischians did not constrain the development of quadrupedal locomotion via a limited number of functional pathways. Functional anatomy appears to have had a greater effect on moment arms than phylogeny, and the differences identified between individual taxa and individual clades may relate to differences in locomotor performance required for living in different environments or for clade-specific behaviours.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12071",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12071",
    openalex = "W2133932331",
    references = "coombs1980swimming, doi101007s1126300701073, doi101080027246342011606857, doi101098rsbl20120263, doi101109tpami2009161, doi101126science17940791201, doi101130g23452a1, doi10114511419111141964, doi101152ajpregu19772335r243, doi101371journalpone0004591, doi101371journalpone0067182, doi1016660094837320000260450fpindi20co2, doi101666100041, doi104159harvard9780674184404, doi105860choice326223, doi105860choice392183, openalexw2183707334, openalexw2473973115, openalexw638862129"
}

@article{doi101098rsif20151089,
    author = "Karakasiliotis, Konstantinos and Thandiackal, Robin and Melo, Kamilo and Horvat, Tomislav and Mahabadi, Navid and Tsitkov, Stanislav and Cabelguen, J.‐M. and Ijspeert, Auke Jan",
    title = "From cineradiography to biorobots: an approach for designing robots to emulate and study animal locomotion",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of The Royal Society Interface",
    abstract = "Robots are increasingly used as scientific tools to investigate animal locomotion. However, designing a robot that properly emulates the kinematic and dynamic properties of an animal is difficult because of the complexity of musculoskeletal systems and the limitations of current robotics technology. Here, we propose a design process that combines high-speed cineradiography, optimization, dynamic scaling, three-dimensional printing, high-end servomotors and a tailored dry-suit to construct Pleurobot: a salamander-like robot that closely mimics its biological counterpart, Pleurodeles waltl Our previous robots helped us test and confirm hypotheses on the interaction between the locomotor neuronal networks of the limbs and the spine to generate basic swimming and walking gaits. With Pleurobot, we demonstrate a design process that will enable studies of richer motor skills in salamanders. In particular, we are interested in how these richer motor skills can be obtained by extending our spinal cord models with the addition of more descending pathways and more detailed limb central pattern generator networks. Pleurobot is a dynamically scaled amphibious salamander robot with a large number of actuated degrees of freedom (DOFs: 27 in total). Because of our design process, the robot can capture most of the animal's DOFs and range of motion, especially at the limbs. We demonstrate the robot's abilities by imposing raw kinematic data, extracted from X-ray videos, to the robot's joints for basic locomotor behaviours in water and on land. The robot closely matches the behaviour of the animal in terms of relative forward speeds and lateral displacements. Ground reaction forces during walking also resemble those of the animal. Based on our results, we anticipate that future studies on richer motor skills in salamanders will highly benefit from Pleurobot's design.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.1089",
    doi = "10.1098/rsif.2015.1089",
    openalex = "W2469381446",
    references = "doi101038nature02000, doi101038nature08152, doi101109iros1995525827, doi101126science1138353, doi101126science28454221954, doi101126science2885463100, doi10117702783640122067570, doi101242jeb202233325, doi1015159781400849512, doi1023073514548"
}

@incollection{kassab2019biomechanics,
    author = "Kassab, Ghassan S.",
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Coronary Circulation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14819-5\_1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-14819-5\_1",
    pages = "1-28"
}

@article{doi101017pab202046,
    author = "Bishop, Peter J. and Cuff, Andrew R. and Hutchinson, John R.",
    title = "How to build a dinosaur: Musculoskeletal modeling and simulation of locomotor biomechanics in extinct animals",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "Abstract The intersection of paleontology and biomechanics can be reciprocally illuminating, helping to improve paleobiological knowledge of extinct species and furthering our understanding of the generality of biomechanical principles derived from study of extant species. However, working with data gleaned primarily from the fossil record has its challenges. Building on decades of prior research, we outline and critically discuss a complete workflow for biomechanical analysis of extinct species, using locomotor biomechanics in the Triassic theropod dinosaur Coelophysis as a case study. We progress from the digital capture of fossil bone morphology to creating rigged skeletal models, to reconstructing musculature and soft tissue volumes, to the development of computational musculoskeletal models, and finally to the execution of biomechanical simulations. Using a three-dimensional musculoskeletal model comprising 33 muscles, a static inverse simulation of the mid-stance of running shows that Coelophysis probably used more upright (extended) hindlimb postures and was likely capable of withstanding a vertical ground reaction force of magnitude more than 2.5 times body weight. We identify muscle force-generating capacity as a key source of uncertainty in the simulations, highlighting the need for more refined methods of estimating intrinsic muscle parameters such as fiber length. Our approach emphasizes the explicit application of quantitative techniques and physics-based principles, which helps maximize results robustness and reproducibility. Although we focus on one specific taxon and question, many of the techniques and philosophies explored here have much generality to them, so they can be applied in biomechanical investigation of other extinct organisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/pab.2020.46",
    doi = "10.1017/pab.2020.46",
    openalex = "W3095550271",
    references = "doi101007s0001501000242, doi101016jcub201910050, doi101038s4158601808512, doi1010800272463420171427593, doi101098rsbl20120263, doi101098rsos160342, doi1011112041210x12226, doi101111brv12071, doi101111pala12329, doi101242jeb069567, doi101371journalpone0013120, doi101371journalpone0192172, doi101666100041, doi103389fbioe201800140, doi104202app20090075"
}

@article{doi101146annurevcontrol091919095731,
    author = "Ijspeert, Auke Jan",
    title = "Amphibious and Sprawling Locomotion: From Biology to Robotics and Back",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Annual Review of Control Robotics and Autonomous Systems",
    abstract = "A milestone in vertebrate evolution, the transition from water to land, owes its success to the development of a sprawling body plan that enabled an amphibious lifestyle. The body, originally adapted for swimming, evolved to benefit from limbs that enhanced its locomotion capabilities on submerged and dry ground. The first terrestrial animals used sprawling locomotion, a type of legged locomotion in which limbs extend laterally from the body (as opposed to erect locomotion, in which limbs extend vertically below the body). This type of locomotion—exhibited, for instance, by salamanders, lizards, and crocodiles—has been studied in a variety of fields, including neuroscience, biomechanics, evolution, and paleontology. Robotics can benefit from these studies to design amphibious robots capable of swimming and walking, with interesting applications in field robotics, in particular for search and rescue, inspection, and environmental monitoring. In return, robotics can provide useful scientific tools to test hypotheses in neuroscience, biomechanics, and paleontology. For instance, robots have been used to test hypotheses about the organization of neural circuits that can switch between swimming and walking under the control of simple modulation signals, as well as to identify the most likely gaits of extinct sprawling animals. Here, I review different aspects of amphibious and sprawling locomotion, namely gait characteristics, neurobiology, numerical models, and sprawling robots, and discuss fruitful interactions between robotics and other scientific fields.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-control-091919-095731",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-control-091919-095731",
    openalex = "W2998026442",
    references = "doi101086physzool67130163845, doi101098rsif20151089, doi103390biomimetics4030060"
}

@inproceedings{han2020effects,
    author = "Han, Pan and Wang, Junshi and Dong, Haibo",
    title = "Effects of Intermittent Swimming Gait in Fish-Like Locomotion",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "AIAA Scitech 2020 Forum",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2020-1779",
    doi = "10.2514/6.2020-1779",
    openalex = "W2998233015",
    references = "doi101007s1040901706943, doi101016030096299190382m, doi101016jjcp201904062, doi101017cbo9780511983641005, doi101017jfm2017533, doi1010881748318243036001, doi101098rspb19710085, doi10110948757275, doi101242jeb008128, openalexw2744262668"
}

@article{doi10108817483190ac2afe,
    author = "Baldwin, Tierney and Battista, Nicholas",
    title = "Hopscotching Jellyfish: combining different duty cycle kinematics can lead to enhanced swimming performance",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "arXiv (Cornell University)",
    abstract = "Jellyfish (Medusozoa) have been deemed the most energy-efficient animals in the world. Their bell morphology and relatively simple nervous systems make them attractive to robotocists. Although, the science community has devoted much attention to understanding their swimming performance, there is still much to be learned about the jet propulsive locomotive gait displayed by prolate jellyfish. Traditionally, computational scientists have assumed uniform duty cycle kinematics when computationally modeling jellyfish locomotion. In this study we used fluid-structure interaction modeling to determine possible enhancements in performance from shuffling different duty cycles together across multiple Reynolds numbers and contraction frequencies. Increases in speed and reductions in cost of transport were observed as high as 80\% and 50\%, respectively. Generally, the net effects were greater for cases involving lower contraction frequencies. Overall, robust duty cycle combinations were determined that led to enhanced or impeded performance.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/ac2afe",
    doi = "10.1088/1748-3190/ac2afe",
    openalex = "W3204959302",
    references = "han2020effects"
}

@article{doi101111brv12790,
    author = "Gutarra, Susana and Rahman, Imran A.",
    title = "The locomotion of extinct secondarily aquatic tetrapods",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "The colonisation of freshwater and marine ecosystems by land vertebrates has repeatedly occurred in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals over the course of 300 million years. Functional interpretations of the fossil record are crucial to understanding the forces shaping these evolutionary transitions. Secondarily aquatic tetrapods have acquired a suite of anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations to locomotion in water. However, much of this information is lost for extinct clades, with fossil evidence often restricted to osteological data and a few extraordinary specimens with soft tissue preservation. Traditionally, functional morphology in fossil secondarily aquatic tetrapods was investigated through comparative anatomy and correlation with living functional analogues. However, in the last two decades, biomechanics in palaeobiology has experienced a remarkable methodological shift. Anatomy-based approaches are increasingly rigorous, informed by quantitative techniques for analysing shape. Moreover, the incorporation of physics-based methods has enabled objective tests of functional hypotheses, revealing the importance of hydrodynamic forces as drivers of evolutionary innovation and adaptation. Here, we present an overview of the latest research on the locomotion of extinct secondarily aquatic tetrapods, with a focus on amniotes, highlighting the state-of-the-art experimental approaches used in this field. We discuss the suitability of these techniques for exploring different aspects of locomotory adaptation, analysing their advantages and limitations and laying out recommendations for their application, with the aim to inform future experimental strategies. Furthermore, we outline some unexplored research avenues that have been successfully deployed in other areas of palaeobiomechanical research, such as the use of dynamic models in feeding mechanics and terrestrial locomotion, thus providing a new methodological synthesis for the field of locomotory biomechanics in extinct secondarily aquatic vertebrates. Advances in imaging technology and three-dimensional modelling software, new developments in robotics, and increased availability and awareness of numerical methods like computational fluid dynamics make this an exciting time for analysing form and function in ancient vertebrates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12790",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12790",
    openalex = "W3197611735",
    references = "doi101006jfls19931012, doi101017pab201615, doi101017s0022112060001110, doi101038nature02000, doi101038ncomms10825, doi101038ncomms4460, doi101038s4158601805214, doi101038s415980160028x, doi101038scientificamerican039564, doi101038srep02120, doi10108002693445201611963958, doi101098rsos160342, doi101098rspb19710085, doi101126science1774045222, doi101371journalpone0183070, doi101371journalpone0216148, doi105860choice324494"
}

@article{doi101111pala12584,
    author = "Lallensack, Jens N. and Farlow, James O. and Falkingham, Peter",
    title = "A new solution to an old riddle: elongate dinosaur tracks explained as deep penetration of the foot, not plantigrade locomotion",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Palaeontology",
    abstract = "Abstract The dinosaur track record features numerous examples of trackways with elongated metatarsal marks. Such ‘elongate tracks’ are often highly variable and characterized by indistinct outlines and abbreviated or missing digit impressions. Elongate dinosaur tracks are well‐known from the Paluxy River bed of Texas, where some have been interpreted as ‘man tracks’ by creationists due to their superficially human‐like appearance. The horizontal orientation of the metatarsal marks led to the now widely accepted idea of a facultative plantigrade, or ‘flat‐footed’, mode of locomotion in a variety of dinosaurian trackmakers small to large. This hypothesis, however, is at odds with the observation that elongate tracks do not indicate reduced locomotion speeds and increased pace angulation values, but instead are correlated with low anatomical fidelity. We here interpret elongate tracks as deep penetrations of the foot in soft sediment. Sediment may collapse above parts of the descending foot, leaving a shallow surface track that preserves a metatarsal mark. The length of a metatarsal mark is determined by multiple factors and is not necessarily correlated with the length of the metatarsus. Other types of posterior marks in dinosaur footprints, such as drag and slip marks, are reviewed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12584",
    doi = "10.1111/pala.12584",
    openalex = "W4200240294",
    references = "doi1010079789400904095, doi10103820167, doi10108002724634199510011574, doi1010800272463420171314298, doi1010800272463420201781142, doi101080104209402013817405, doi10108010420940601006859, doi101111j146979981983tb02087x, doi101111pala12502, doi101111pala12584, doi101242jeb1051147, doi101371journalpone0004591, doi1023071311183, doi1026879529, doi10297960650, doi105860choice273305, doi105860choice393984, doi107717peerj2059, openalexw114509570, openalexw2618301958, openalexw2619609965"
}

@article{doi101093icbicac049,
    author = "Cuff, Andrew R. and Demuth, Oliver E. and Michel, K and Otero, Alejandro and Pintore, Romain and Polet, Delyle T. and Wiseman, Ashleigh L. A. and Hutchinson, John R.",
    title = "Walking—and Running and Jumping—with Dinosaurs and their Cousins, Viewed Through the Lens of Evolutionary Biomechanics",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Integrative and Comparative Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract Archosauria diversified throughout the Triassic Period before experiencing two mass extinctions near its end ∼201 Mya, leaving only the crocodile-lineage (Crocodylomorpha) and bird-lineage (Dinosauria) as survivors; along with the pterosaurian flying reptiles. About 50 years ago, the “locomotor superiority hypothesis” (LSH) proposed that dinosaurs ultimately dominated by the Early Jurassic Period because their locomotion was superior to other archosaurs’. This idea has been debated continuously since, with taxonomic and morphological analyses suggesting dinosaurs were “lucky” rather than surviving due to being biologically superior. However, the LSH has never been tested biomechanically. Here we present integration of experimental data from locomotion in extant archosaurs with inverse and predictive simulations of the same behaviours using musculoskeletal models, showing that we can reliably predict how extant archosaurs walk, run and jump. These simulations have been guiding predictive simulations of extinct archosaurs to estimate how they moved, and we show our progress in that endeavour. The musculoskeletal models used in these simulations can also be used for simpler analyses of form and function such as muscle moment arms, which inform us about more basic biomechanical similarities and differences between archosaurs. Placing all these data into an evolutionary and biomechanical context, we take a fresh look at the LSH as part of a critical review of competing hypotheses for why dinosaurs (and a few other archosaur clades) survived the Late Triassic extinctions. Early dinosaurs had some quantifiable differences in locomotor function and performance vs. some other archosaurs, but other derived dinosaurian features (e.g., metabolic or growth rates, ventilatory abilities) are not necessarily mutually exclusive from the LSH; or maybe even an opportunistic replacement hypothesis; in explaining dinosaurs’ success.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icac049",
    doi = "10.1093/icb/icac049",
    openalex = "W4281254995",
    references = "doi101002jmor20973, doi101038s4159802207074x, doi101111brv12638, doi101111pala12502, doi103389feart2021723973"
}

@incollection{crossrefNonebiomechanics,
    title = "Biomechanics",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1887/0750303689/b319c1",
    doi = "10.1887/0750303689/b319c1"
}