@article{kermack1954a,
    author = "Kermack, K. A.",
    title = "A biometrical study of Micraster coranguinum and M. (Isomicraster) senonensis",
    year = "1954",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The echinoid Micraster shows one of the best examples of an evolutionary series among the invertebrates. The broad lines which this evolution took were demonstrated by Rowe in 1899. In the present paper the work of Rowe is extended and developed, using statistical methods where these are appropriate. In addition to the species considered by Rowe, the paper deals with the closely related species M. (Isomicraster) senonesis, and with the zones of the English Chalk above that of M. coranguinum. A sample of 516 specimens of M.coranguinum and M. (Isomicraster) senonesis was used for the biometrical studies. These specimens were collected by Rowe from Northfleet, Kent, and are now in the British Museum. Ten measurements, or as many of these as the state of preservation allowed, were made upon each specimen. Tests were made upon each of these ten sets of measurements to determine their accuracy and reproducibility. After a consideration of the results of these tests, three of the ten measurements were rejected. A discussion is given of the effects of errors of measurement on the interpretation of results. The validity of applying the conclusions reached from the study of a sample of fossil material to the original living community is dealt with in two stages: (a) a study of the degree to which the sample of fossils is representative of the fossil population, and (b) a discussion of the degree to which the fossil population is representative of the living population from which it was derived. Rowe’s sample shows a bias due to unrepresentative collection. The larger specimens are overrepresented, while M. senonensis, and the transitional forms between that species and M. coranguinum, are similarly over-represented with respect to M. coranguinum itself. Such bias is probably common to most palaeontological samples. The bias due to an ‘unrepresentative fossilization’ of the living population is shown to be much reduced if samples are compared on the basis of estimates of ‘shape’ parameters defined in terms of allometric growth, rather than, as is usual, on the basis of ‘size’ parameters such as means. Seven shape characters were considered, each defined by a pair of variates. These characters were: relative breadth, defined by the variates length and breadth; relative height, defined by the variates length and total height; relative height of the apical system, defined by the variates length and height of the apical system; degree of projection of the labrum, measured by the variates length and length to the tip of labrum; relative depth of anterior groove, measured by length and length to bottom of groove; degree of development of sub-anal fasciole, defined by length and area of fasciole; and degree of the posterior rise of the test, defined by the height and the apical height. In six of these seven characters the ranges of variation of the two species (M. coranguinum and M. senonensis) overlap. The exception is when the character ‘degree of development of the sub-anal fasciole’ is considered. On this basis the two species can be sharply separated—M. coranguinum having a well-developed fasciole, while in M. senonensis this is vestigial or absent. The intergrading between the two species in respect of the other six characters is possibly due to hybridization. A biometric study has also been made to investigate the differences between the anterior, unpaired, ambulacra in the two species. Here again there is complete intergrading. The study throws some light on the formation of a petal. It is suggested that the differences between the species are due to their occupying different ecological niches. These differences are not considered great enough to warrant placing the two species in separate subgenera. The sample was divided between the two species on the basis of the area of the sub-anal fasciole; and the equation of allometric growth (y = Bxa) was fitted by the method of Kermack \& Haldane (1950) to the pairs of variates defining each of the seven characters under consideration. In none of these seven cases did the estimates of a differ significantly for the two species. If, then, the values of a are assumed to be identical in both cases, the estimates of B so obtained differ significantly in the two species for five of the six pairs of variates considered. These differences between the two species would normally be obscured by the effects of allometric growth, M. senonensis being, on the average, larger than M. coranguinum. The changes in shape which occur during growth are important in elucidating the systematics of the genus. They show, for instance, that M. praecursor Rowe is a synonym for M. cortestudinarium Gold., the former author having been misled by the effects of allometric growth. His division of M. coranguinum into a narrow and a broad variety is indefensible for the same reason. The shape changes due to allometric growth are different from those seen in evolution. These echinoids do not show recapitulation. By the technique of partial correlation, it has been demonstrated that the seven characters under consideration are so related, in M.coranguinum, that specimens which are more advanced than the general level of evolution of their time in some of them will be behind it in others. The result is that the sum total of the characters in any individual ‘average up’ to a level of evolution characteristic of the time at which the individual lived. A discussion is given of the evolution and systematics of the English members of the genus Micraster. In southern England the main line of evolution of this genus passes through the lineage M. leskei— M. cortestudinarium— M. coranguinum. M. corbovis forms a branch phylum in the Turonian, and M. senonensis in the Senonian. In the north of England (the Northern Faunal Province of Wright 1952), the evolution of the genus follows a parallel, but not identical, line to that followed in the south. The northern forms culminate in M. glyphus and M. (Isomicraster) stollyei of the mucronata chalk. The study of the whole genus gives no grounds for assuming that these echinoids followed undeviating evolutionary trends, as some authors have supposed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1954.0001",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1954.0001",
    number = "649",
    openalex = "W2062801849",
    pages = "375-428",
    volume = "237",
    references = "doi101007bf02982279, doi101038114895a0, doi10108001621459193110503208, doi101086280573, doi101086394242, doi101086395888, doi101093biomet371230, doi1023072280633, doi1023072532815, openalexw2576146722"
}

@article{kermack1954a2,
    author = "Kermack, K. A",
    title = "A biometrical study of Micraster coranguinum and M. (Isomicraster) senonensis",
    year = "1954",
    journal = "Royal Society of London, Philosophical Transactions, Series B, v. 237, p. 375-428",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kermack, K. A., 1954, A biometrical study of Micraster coranguinum and M. (Isomicraster) senonensis: Royal Society of London, Philosophical Transactions, Series B, v. 237, p. 375-428.}"
}

@book{jarvick198019811,
    author = "Jarvick, E",
    title = "1981, Basic Structure and Evolution of Vertebrates",
    year = "1980",
    publisher = "London, Academic Press; 2 Volumes",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Jarvick, E., 1980, 1981, Basic Structure and Evolution of Vertebrates: London, Academic Press; 2 Volumes.}"
}

@book{king1980form3,
    author = "King, A. S. and McLelland, J",
    title = "Form and Function in Birds",
    year = "1980",
    publisher = "London, Academic Press, v. 1",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {King, A. S., and McLelland, J., 1980, Form and Function in Birds: London, Academic Press, v. 1.}"
}

@article{taylor1982population,
    author = "Taylor, G. K. and Marchant, J. H.",
    title = "Population changes for waterways birds, 1980–1981",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Bird Study",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00063658209476748",
    doi = "10.1080/00063658209476748",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2984680723",
    pages = "139-142",
    volume = "29",
    references = "doi10108000063657909476643, doi10108000063658009476677, doi10108000063658109476716"
}

@misc{lewin1983do4,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "Do ape-size legs mean ape-like gait?",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 221, p. 537- 538",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1983, Do ape-size legs mean ape-like gait?: Science, v. 221, p. 537- 538.}"
}

@article{doi101126science3363360,
    author = "Price, Trevor D. and Kirkpatrick, Mark and Arnold, Steven J.",
    title = "Directional Selection and the Evolution of Breeding Date in Birds",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "In many bird species, those pairs that breed earlier in the season have higher reproductive success than those that breed later. Since breeding date is known to be heritable, it is unclear why it does not evolve to an earlier time. Under assumptions outlined by Fisher, a model is developed that shows how breeding date may have considerable additive genetic variance, appear to be under directional selection, and yet not evolve. These results provide a general explanation for a persistent correlation of fitness with a variety of traits in natural populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3363360",
    doi = "10.1126/science.3363360",
    openalex = "W2044384189"
}

@incollection{holt2002biometrics,
    author = "Holt, Philip",
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2002",
    booktitle = "Best Practices",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420031409.ch10",
    doi = "10.1201/9781420031409.ch10"
}

@incollection{valchuk2002mental,
    author = "Valchuk, Tetiana and Wyrzykowski, Roman and Kompanets, Leonid",
    title = "Mental Characteristics of Person as Basic Biometrics",
    year = "2002",
    booktitle = "Lecture Notes in Computer Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-47917-1\_9",
    doi = "10.1007/3-540-47917-1\_9",
    openalex = "W1578929648",
    pages = "78-89",
    references = "doi10103710910000, doi101093oso97801951086060030004, doi1011092751325, doi10110934824823, doi1023071575492, doi1040189781599048499, openalexw1601336606"
}

@incollection{fleming2003biometrics,
    author = "Fleming, Stewart T.",
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2003",
    booktitle = "Current Security Management \& Ethical Issues of Information Technology",
    abstract = "This chapter discusses the current state of the art of biometric systems. The use of biometrics is an important new part of the design of secure computer systems. However, many users view such systems with deep suspicion and many designers do not carefully consider the characteristics of biometrics in their system designs. This chapter aims to review the current state of the art in biometrics, to conduct detailed study of the available technologies and systems and to examine end-user perceptions of such systems. A framework is discussed that aims to establish guidelines for the design of interactive systems that include biometrics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-93177-743-8.ch006",
    doi = "10.4018/978-1-93177-743-8.ch006",
    pages = "111-132"
}

@article{andbabenko2005biometrical,
    author = "Babenko, L.K. and Makarevitch, O.B. and Tumoian, E.P.",
    title = "BIOMETRICAL CRYPTOSYSTEMS. A WAY TO SECURED BIOMETRICS",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Vestnik Yuzhnogo nauchnogo tsentra",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.23885/1813-4289-2005-1-3-95-99",
    doi = "10.23885/1813-4289-2005-1-3-95-99",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2609971770",
    pages = "95-99",
    volume = "1"
}

@article{latta2005biometrics,
    author = "LATTA, STEVEN C.",
    title = "BIOMETRICS OF BIRDS THROUGHOUT THE GREATER CARIBBEAN BASIN",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "The Wilson Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1676/0043-5643(2005)117[0108:ol]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1676/0043-5643(2005)117[0108:ol]2.0.co;2",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2068733021",
    pages = "108-110",
    volume = "117",
    references = "doi101086282762, doi101098rspb20032621, doi101111j155856461983tb05633x, doi101126science28253951884, doi1023071368105, doi1023072408419, doi10230740168309, openalexw2473466405"
}

@incollection{coellocoello2007evolutionary,
    author = "Coello Coello, Carlos A.",
    title = "Evolutionary Algorithms: Basic Concepts and Applications in Biometrics",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Series in Machine Perception and Artificial Intelligence",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1142/9789812770677\_0012",
    doi = "10.1142/9789812770677\_0012",
    openalex = "W2407155508",
    pages = "289-320",
    references = "doi1010079780387367972, doi101007s1172100700020, doi1011093477484436, doi101109icsmc1997637339, doi101201978142001074933, doi107551mitpress10900010001, doi107551mitpress39270010001, openalexw1576818901, openalexw1595498733, openalexw2904250082"
}

@misc{crossref2007basic,
    title = "Basic Texas Birds",
    year = "2007",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7560/713499",
    doi = "10.7560/713499",
    openalex = "W3211214240"
}

@incollection{crossref2007biometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Understanding Surveillance Technologies",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/9780849383205.ch13",
    doi = "10.1201/9780849383205.ch13",
    pages = "733-765"
}

@article{crossref2008biometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Bankfachklasse",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03255482",
    doi = "10.1007/bf03255482",
    number = "12",
    pages = "30-31",
    volume = "30"
}

@inproceedings{li2010the,
    author = "Li, Panpan and Zhang, Renjin",
    title = "The evolution of biometrics",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "2010 International Conference on Anti-Counterfeiting, Security and Identification",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/icasid.2010.5551405",
    doi = "10.1109/icasid.2010.5551405",
    openalex = "W2149257720",
    pages = "253-256",
    references = "doi1010160031320386900178, doi1010160031320394900175, doi1010160031320395001395, doi1010160734189x89900510, doi101016s0167865502003860, doi10110934244676, doi10110934254061, doi1011095628669, doi101162jocn19913171"
}

@incollection{crossref2012biometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "Handbook of Surveillance Technologies, Third Edition",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/b11594-18",
    doi = "10.1201/b11594-18",
    pages = "741-775"
}

@misc{crossref2013biometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2013",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/b14333",
    doi = "10.1201/b14333"
}

@incollection{martin2014biometrics,
    author = "Martin, Luther",
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "Cyber Security and IT Infrastructure Protection",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-416681-3.00006-9",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-416681-3.00006-9",
    pages = "151-177"
}

@article{doi101111evo12706,
    author = "Bothwell, Emma and Montgomerie, Robert and Lougheed, Stephen C. and Martin, Paul R.",
    title = "Closely related species of birds differ more in body size when their ranges overlap-in warm, but not cool, climates",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Differences in body size are widely thought to allow closely related species to coexist in sympatry, but body size also varies as an adaptive response to climate. Here, we use a sister lineage approach to test the prediction that body size differences between closely related species of birds worldwide are greater for species whose ranges are sympatric rather than allopatric. We further test if body size differences among sympatric versus allopatric species vary with geography, evolutionary distance, and environmental temperatures. We find greater differences in size among sympatric compared with allopatric lineages, but only in closely related species that live where mean annual temperatures are above 25°C. These size differences in warm environments declined with the evolutionary distance between sister lineages. In species living in cooler regions, closely related allopatric and sympatric species did not differ significantly in size, suggesting either that colder temperatures constrain the evolutionary divergence of size in sympatry, or that the biotic selective pressures favoring size differences in sympatry are weaker in colder environments. Our results are consistent with suggestions by Wallace, Darwin, and Dobzhansky that climatic selective pressures are more important in cooler environments (e.g., high elevations and latitudes) whereas biotic selective pressures dominate in warm environments (e.g., lowland tropics).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12706",
    doi = "10.1111/evo.12706",
    openalex = "W1551415241",
    references = "doi1023072408419"
}

@misc{crossref2018biometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Internet",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473960367.n21",
    doi = "10.4135/9781473960367.n21"
}

@incollection{skågeby2018biometrics,
    author = "Skågeby, Jörgen",
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Big Data",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32001-4\_26-1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-319-32001-4\_26-1",
    pages = "1-2"
}

@article{doi103389feart201800252,
    author = "Agnolín, Federico L. and Motta, Matías J. and Egli, Federico Brissón and Coco, Gastón Lo and Novas, Fernando E.",
    title = "Paravian Phylogeny and the Dinosaur-Bird Transition: An Overview",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Frontiers in Earth Science",
    abstract = "Recent years witnessed the discovery of a great diversity of early birds as well as closely related non-avian theropods, which modified previous conceptions about the origin of birds and their flight. We here present a review of currently the taxonomic composition and main anatomical characteristics of those theropod families closely related with early birds, with the aim to analyze and discuss main phylogenetic hypotheses that compete some topics about the non-avian dinosaur-bird transition. We conclude that troodontid affinities of anchiornithines, and dromaeosaurids affinities of microraptorians and unenlagiids are dismissed in favor of sister group relationships with Avialae. After recodification of unenlagiids the topology of the TWiG phylogenetic scheme, results on a large polytomy at the base of Pennaraptora. Regarding character evolution, we found that: 1) presence of ossified sternum goes hand by hand with the presence of ossified uncinate processes; 2) presence of folded forelimbs in basal archosaurs indicates a widespread distribution among reptiles, contradicting previous proposals in that forelimb folding driven by propatagial and associated tendons was exclusive of the avian lineage; 3) in basal paravians and avialans as Archaeopteryx the wings are relatively large and wide, with relatively short rectricial feathers, and rounded alar contour, having a convex wing attack margin. These taxa exhibit restricted folding capabilities of forelimbs, preserving hands with flexor angles (respect to radius/ulna) no lesser than 90º. In more derived birds, instead, rectrices are notably elongate and the angle described between the hand and forearm is much less than 90º, indicating not only an increased folding capability of the forelimbs, but also increased variety of beat movements of the wing during flight. Because of the strong similarities on pectoral girdle conformation between ratites and basal avialans and paravians, it is possible to infer that main forelimb movements were similar in all these taxa, lacking the complex dorsoventral wing excursion characteristic of living neognathans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2018.00252",
    doi = "10.3389/feart.2018.00252",
    openalex = "W2911963001",
    references = "cau2018redescription, doi10103831635, doi10103835047056, doi101038nature01342, doi101038nature08322, doi101111j109583121976tb00244x, doi101126science28454232137, doi101127njgpm19821982440, doi101139cjes20170031, doi101139e93179, doi101146annurevearth251435, doi101371journalpone0126791, doi101371journalpone0137709, doi101590s000137652011000100008, doi105281zenodo16171435, doi105860choice343307, doi107717peerj2159, doi107717peerj4558, osmólska1982hulsanpes"
}

@article{bhalla2020the,
    author = "Bhalla, Ajay",
    title = "The latest evolution of biometrics",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Biometric Technology Today",
    abstract = "In recent years, organisations have increasingly turned to biometric systems to address the vulnerabilities in knowledge-based identity data. And there have been many areas of innovation: beyond the use of physical biometrics such as fingerprint, face or palm, vendors have developed systems that recognise behavioural traits, and have introduced new features such as liveness detection and the associated security processing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0969-4765(20)30109-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0969-4765(20)30109-0",
    number = "8",
    openalex = "W3088311574",
    pages = "5-8",
    volume = "2020",
    references = "doi1010160169207088900192, doi101049ietbmt20150018, doi101145954339954342, openalexw2625717657"
}

@article{doi101126sciadvaaw4486,
    author = "Rezende, Enrico L. and Bacigalupe, Leonardo D. and Nespolo, Roberto F. and Bozinovic, Francisco",
    title = "Shrinking dinosaurs and the evolution of endothermy in birds",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = "The evolution of endothermy represents a major transition in vertebrate history, yet how and why endothermy evolved in birds and mammals remains controversial. Here, we combine a heat transfer model with theropod body size data to reconstruct the evolution of metabolic rates along the bird stem lineage. Results suggest that a reduction in size constitutes the path of least resistance for endothermy to evolve, maximizing thermal niche expansion while obviating the costs of elevated energy requirements. In this scenario, metabolism would have increased with the miniaturization observed in the Early-Middle Jurassic (\textasciitilde 180 to 170 million years ago), resulting in a gradient of metabolic levels in the theropod phylogeny. Whereas basal theropods would exhibit lower metabolic rates, more recent nonavian lineages were likely decent thermoregulators with elevated metabolism. These analyses provide a tentative temporal sequence of the key evolutionary transitions that resulted in the emergence of small, endothermic, feathered flying dinosaurs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw4486",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.aaw4486",
    openalex = "W2997429867",
    references = "doi101038272333a0, doi101038nature13272, doi101073pnas251548698, doi101098rsbl20050378, doi101111j1469185x201000122x, doi101111j1469185x201000137x, doi101126science1253293, doi101126science493968, doi101371journalpbio1001853, doi101371journalpone0069361, doi101371journalpone0088834, doi1022179revmacn14372, doi1023071538742, doi107717peerj2159"
}

@incollection{scott2020evolution,
    author = "Scott, Graham",
    title = "Evolution of birds",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Essential Ornithology",
    abstract = "This chapter explores the evolutionary history of birds. It considers the dinosaur origins of birds and the evolution of the modern bird lineages. The development of the modern bird from its prehistoric, reptilian ancestors is analysed by discussion of important fossil specimens, particularly that of Archaeopteryx, and the development of both morphological and biomolecular phylogenies. Evolution by natural selection is explained, as are processes of evolutionary adaptation and speciation. The conservation implications of hybridization are considered and the classification and nomenclature of birds is introduced. Throughout the chapter examples of current research are presented alongside established classic studies to engage the reader and provide a route into the relevant scientific literature.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804741.003.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780198804741.003.0001",
    openalex = "W3107688190",
    pages = "1-20"
}

@misc{crossrefNonebiometrics,
    title = "Biometrics",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "SpringerReference",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/springerreference\_132",
    doi = "10.1007/springerreference\_132"
}