@incollection{crossref1959carnivores,
    title = "CARNIVORES",
    year = "1959",
    booktitle = "Mammals of the San Francisco Bay Region",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520319202-006",
    doi = "10.1525/9780520319202-006",
    pages = "41-53"
}

@incollection{bisseru1967carnivores,
    author = "BISSERU, B.",
    title = "CARNIVORES",
    year = "1967",
    booktitle = "Diseases of Man Acquired from his Pets",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-4832-0051-4.50007-2",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-1-4832-0051-4.50007-2",
    pages = "1-104"
}

@book{mech1970the5,
    author = "Mech, L. D",
    title = "The Wolf",
    year = "1970",
    publisher = "New York, Natural History Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mech, L. D., 1970, The Wolf: New York, Natural History Press.}"
}

@incollection{adams1971carnivores,
    author = "Adams, Thomas",
    title = "CARNIVORES",
    year = "1971",
    booktitle = "Mammals",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-747602-5.50008-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-747602-5.50008-3",
    pages = "151-189"
}

@article{doi101017s0094837300004966,
    author = "Gonyea, W. J.",
    title = "Behavioral implications of saber-toothed felid morphology",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "The claw equipped forelimbs have been shown to be an important hunting weapon for modern felids. In light of its functional importance, the claw retractile mechanism for modern felids was compared with that of the saber-toothed felids. In this regard, the functional anatomy of claw retraction for saber-toothed felids was found to be the same as that of modern forms. Body proportions of modern felids were also compared with saber-toothed felids and the relationship of their morphology to habitat structure and habitat utilization were studied. It was found that the relative body proportions for Hoplophoneus and Smilodon were similar to modern forest felids (dwellers of high structured dense forest), while Dinictis and Machairodus could probably compete in more open terrain (open woodland, meadow). It is postulated that saber-toothed felids used their claw equipped forelimbs to grasp and hold their prey as do modern felids. In this fashion, the enlarged upper canines could then be used to kill the victim, and this was probably done by a stab to the nape of the neck. It is also thought that Smilodon, like the modern lion, adapted to open habitats by forming prides.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0094837300004966",
    doi = "10.1017/s0094837300004966",
    openalex = "W2344967429"
}

@article{doi101086283325,
    author = "Radinsky, Leonard",
    title = "Evolution of Brain Size in Carnivores and Ungulates",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "The available data on relative brain size in fossil carnivores and ungulates provide no evidence for relatively larger brains in carnivores than in ungulates. Relative brain size of archaic ungulates was similar to that of modern basal insectivores and lower than that of contemporary ancestors of modern ungulates. Later archaic carnivores had brains similar in relative size to those of contemporary modern carnivore ancestors. The wide range of EQs seen among modern carnivores and ungulates suggests that caution should be used in attributing significance to differences in mean EQs of small fossil faunal samples. Elucidation of the biological significance of differences in relative brain size remains an outstanding problem.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/283325",
    doi = "10.1086/283325",
    openalex = "W2077318783"
}

@article{diamond1986animal,
    author = "Diamond, Jared M.",
    title = "Animal behaviour: How great white sharks, sabre-toothed cats and soldiers kill",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/322773a0",
    doi = "10.1038/322773a0",
    number = "6082",
    openalex = "W1966961974",
    pages = "773-774",
    volume = "322",
    references = "doi105962p226830"
}

@misc{diamond1986how2,
    author = "Diamond, J. M",
    title = "How great white sharks, sabre-toothed cats and soldiers kill",
    year = "1986",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 322, p. 773-774",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Diamond, J. M., 1986, How great white sharks, sabre-toothed cats and soldiers kill: Nature, v. 322, p. 773-774.}"
}

@misc{bryant1987all1,
    author = "Bryant, H. N",
    title = "All sabre-toothed carnivores aren't sharks",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 325, p. 488",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bryant, H. N., 1987, All sabre-toothed carnivores aren't sharks: Nature, v. 325, p. 488.}"
}

@article{doi10108002724634198710011651,
    author = "Valkenburgh, Blaire Van",
    title = "Skeletal indicators of locomotor behavior in living and extinct carnivores",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT In this paper, I assess the correspondence between locomotor function (climbing, digging, and running) and skeletal morphology in living carnivores. Published behavioral observations are used to assign fifty-three extant carnivore species to four broad locomotor categories: arboreal, scansorial, terrestrial, and semi-fossorial. Body weight and measurements of claw shape, relative size of fore and hind claws, olecranon size and orientation, astragalar shape, and manus and hindlimb proportions are presented for each species. The correspondence between locomotor type and morphologic indices is examined with bivariate and multivariate (discriminant function) analyses. Results demonstrate that osteological indices are good predictors of locomotor behavior among extant carnivores. Arboreal and scansorial carnivores exhibit relatively more curved claws, longer proximal phalanges, and shorter metatarsals than do terrestrial taxa; semi-fossorial carnivores differ from other locomotor types in having relatively long olecranon processes, and longer fore claws than hind claws. Bivariate plots suggest that some characters, such as astragalar shape, reflect ancestry more than function. Applicability of the indices to other species is shown with a sample of eight non-carnivores and six Oligocene predators, including three sabertooth cats, a bear-dog, and two creodonts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1987.10011651",
    doi = "10.1080/02724634.1987.10011651",
    openalex = "W1983370499",
    references = "doi101017s0094837300006813, doi101111j146979981983tb02087x, doi101201b1756026, doi101353book59141, doi102113gsrocky8specialpaper11, doi1023071296618, doi1023072403544, doi104159harvard9780674184404, doi105962bhlpart22969, doi105962p226830, openalexw1499955781, openalexw1501256052, openalexw1534787790"
}

@article{doi101111j146979981987tb02910x,
    author = "Valkenburgh, Blaire Van and Ruff, Christopher B.",
    title = "Canine tooth strength and killing behaviour in large carnivores",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Bending strength of upper canine teeth is examined among living canids, felids, hyaenids and several extinct species including sabretooth cats, borophagine dogs and the dire wolf, Canis dirus. The tooth is modelled as a cantilever with an elliptical cross‐section. Using beam theory, the bending strength of the upper canine is calculated given a constant force applied to the canine tip. Results indicate that felids and hyaenids have relatively stronger canines than canids, particularly in bending about the anteroposterior (AP) rather than the mediolateral axis. It is suggested that canine shape reflects the forces produced during killing and feeding. As shown by an analysis of jaw muscle moment arms, felids and hyaenids have relatively stronger bites than canids. Moreover, the canines of hyaenids and felids are perhaps more likely to contact bone during feeding and killing and consequently may be subjected to larger and more frequent bending moments about the AP axis. The canines of sabretooth cats are shown to be more similar in shape and strength characteristics to those of living canids than felids, whereas those of the borophagine dogs and the dire wolf are closer to modern hyaenas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb02910.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb02910.x",
    openalex = "W2097374716",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051630304, doi101017s0094837300006813, doi10108002724634198710011651, doi1023071378712, doi105962p226830, openalexw3205908402"
}

@misc{earle1987a3,
    author = "Earle, M",
    title = "A flexible body mass in social carnivores",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "American Naturalist, v. 129, p. 755-760",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Earle, M., 1987, A flexible body mass in social carnivores: American Naturalist, v. 129, p. 755-760.}"
}

@misc{lewin1987bottlenecked4,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "Bottlenecked Cheetahs",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 235, p. 1327",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1987, Bottlenecked Cheetahs: Science, v. 235, p. 1327.}"
}

@article{crossref1989sabretoothed,
    title = "Sabre-toothed Cincinnati",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Manufacturing Engineer",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1049/me:19890039",
    doi = "10.1049/me:19890039",
    number = "6",
    openalex = "W4241614018",
    pages = "6",
    volume = "68"
}

@article{doi101111j146979981990tb05680x,
    author = "Valkenburgh, Blaire Van and Teaford, Mark F. and Walker, Alan",
    title = "Molar microwear and diet in large carnivores: inferences concerning diet in the sabretooth cat, Smilodon fatalis",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Patterns of dental microwear provide some of the best indirect evidence of tooth use and diet in living and extinct species, and thus can supplement inferences based on gross morphology. In this paper, dental microwear features are examined in the extinct sabretooth cat Smilodon fatalis and among eight species of extant large carnivores, including felids, canids, hyaenids and a mustelid. Although all the living species are primarily carnivorous, some differ in the relative quantities of large bones consumed; hyaenas are the most frequent bone‐crushers and cheetahs the least. Because bone is harder than meat, interspecific differences in bone consumption are expected to be reflected by differences in microwear pattern. Scanning electron micrographs of the wear facet of the lower first molar (carnassial) were used to estimate the average density, size, shape and orientation of microwear features for each species. Results indicate that dietary differences are highlighted when features shorter than 30 μm in length are excluded from the analysis. When this is done, hyaenas are distinguished from other species by a combination of relatively few long features and a high proportion of pits to scratches. By contrast, the cheetah is characterized by a predominance of narrow features, relatively few of which are pits. Species of intermediate diet, such as the wolf, leopard, wild dog and wolverine, tend to be intermediate in pit density and feature shape. Comparisons of the carnivore microwear data with that published for primates reveal that the eight carnivores are most similar to frugivorous primates that specialize on relatively hard fruits. In addition, the orientation of microwear features is significantly more variable in carnivores than in the only comparably studied primate, the chimpanzee. This suggests that many of the microwear features on the carnassial are produced by food moving in directions other than occlusal pathways. The pattern of microwear features in the sabretooth cat is distinct from all of the sampled extant carnivores. Smilodon has relatively narrow, long features and an extremely low pit frequency. Thus Smilodon probably consumed less bone than does the cheetah and may have left behind significant amounts of bone and meat for scavengers. The sabretooth cat may have avoided bone in order to protect its long canines from breakage.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb05680.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb05680.x",
    openalex = "W2072418430",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051630304, doi105962p226830"
}

@article{doi101073pnas932514623,
    author = "Erickson, Gregory M.",
    title = "Incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs and the assessment of tooth replacement rates using growth line counts",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Dinosaur dentine exhibits growth lines that are tens of micrometers in width. These laminations are homologous to incremental lines of von Ebner found in extant mammal and crocodilian teeth (i.e., those of amniotes). The lines likely reflect daily dentine formation, and they were used to infer tooth development and replacement rates. In general, dinosaur tooth formation rates negatively correlated with tooth size. Theropod tooth replacement rates negatively correlated with tooth size, which was due to limitations in the dentine formation rates of their odontoblasts. Derived ceratopsian and hadrosaurian dinosaurs retained relatively rapid tooth replacement rates through ontogeny. The evolution of dental batteries in hadrosaurs and ceratopsians can be explained by dentine formation constraints and rapid tooth wear. In combination with counts of shed dinosaur teeth, tooth replacement rate data can be used to assess population demographics of Mesozoic ecosystems. Finally, it is of historic importance to note that Richard Owen appears to have been the first to observe incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs more than 150 years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.25.14623",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.93.25.14623",
    openalex = "W1964547681",
    references = "doi101002sici109746871996052282189aidjmor730co20, doi1010160003996979902218, doi1010160047248487900741, doi1010160300571278900155, doi101016s0016699588800664, doi101017s0022336000026706, doi101017s0094837300013956, doi10108002724634199610011297, johnston1979growth, openalexw2114586992, openalexw2268136853"
}

@article{doi1023071382725,
    author = "Valkenburgh, B. Van",
    title = "Feeding Behavior in Free-Ranging, Large African Carnivores",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Journal of Mammalogy",
    abstract = "Carnivores exhibit a diverse array of teeth, including peg-like incisors, elongate canines, blade-like carnassials, and rounded, bunodont molars, all of which are presumed to be adapted for particular functions, such as slicing flesh or cracking bones. The validity of these presumed correlations between form and function was explored in a field study of feeding behavior in four sympatric species of free-ranging African carnivores; African lion (Panthera leo), cheetah (Acinonyxjubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Based on videotapes of feeding behavior on carcasses of ungulates, the associations among use of teeth, motion of jaw, action of neck, use of paws, and type of food were compiled. There were significant interactions between use of teeth and type of food, and use of teeth and action of neck, in all species. Skin tended to be cut with the carnassials in association with a slight pull, whereas muscle was more likely to be pulled from the carcass by the incisors. Bones usually were cracked with the premolars in hyenas and the postcarnassial molars in wild dogs. Repeated chewing motions were most common in all species when eating the toughest foods, i.e., skin or muscle in combination with bone. The association between use of teeth and type of food was not perfect; sometimes skin was cut with incisors and bones were cracked with carnassials. This apparent lack of precision in use of teeth suggests that selection will likely favor specializations for particular functions in teeth other than those that are the primary tools for that purpose.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1382725",
    doi = "10.2307/1382725",
    openalex = "W2114279726"
}

@book{openalexw596245786,
    author = "Klimley, A. Peter and Ainley, David G.",
    title = "Great white sharks: the biology of Carcharodon carcharias",
    year = "1996",
    abstract = "Contributors. Acknowledgments. Introduction: A.P. Klimley and D.G. Ainley, White Shark Research in the Past: A Perspective. R.C. Murphy, A Plea for White Shark Conservation. Evolution: G. Hubell, Using Tooth Structure to Determine the Evolutionary History of the White Shark. S.P. Applegate and L. Espinosa-Arrubarrena, The Fossil History of Carcharodon and Its Possible Ancestor, Cretolamna: A Study in Tooth Identification. D.J. Long and B.M. Waggoner, Evolutionary Relationships of the White Shark: A Phylogeny of Lamniform Sharks Based on Dental Morphology. A.P. Martin, Systematics of the Lamnidae and the Origination Time of Carcharodon carcharias Inferred from the Comparative Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Sequences. M.D. Gottfried, L.J.V. Compagno, and S.C. Bowman, Size and Skeletal Anatomy of the Giant Megatooth Shark Carcharodon megalodon. R.W. Purdy, Paleoecology of Fossil White Sharks. Anatomy: H.F. Mollet and G.M. Cailliet, Using Allometry to Predict Body Mass from Linear Measurements of the White Shark. H.F. Mollet, G.M. Cailliet, A.P. Klimley, D.A. Ebert, A.D. Testi, and L.J.V. Compagno, A Review of Length Validation Methods and Protocols to Measure Large White Sharks. Physiology: K.J. Goldman, S.D. Anderson, J.E. McCosker, and A.P. Klimley, Temperature, Swimming Depth, and Movements of a White Shark at the South Farallon Islands, California. L.S. Demski and R.Gl. Northcutt, The Brain and Cranial Nerves of the White Shark: An Evolutionary Perspective. H.L. Pratt, Jr., Reproduction in the Male White Shark. S. Uchida, M. Toda, K. Teshima, and K. Yano, Pregnant White Sharks with Full-Term Embryos from Japan. M.P. Francis, Observations on a Pregnant White Shark with a Review of Reproductive Biology. Behavior: A.P. Klimley, P. Pyle, and S.D. Anderson, The Behavior of White Sharks and Their Pinniped Prey during Predatory Attacks. B.J. LeBoeuf and D.E. Crocker, Diving Behavior of Elephant Seals: Implications for Predator Avoidance. W.R. Strong, Jr., Repetitive Aerial Jaw Gaping: A Thwart-Induced Behavior in White Sharks. R.S. Collier, M. Marks, and R.W. Warner, White Shark Attacks on Inanimate Objects along the Pacific Coast of North America. S.D. Anderson, R.P. Henderson, P. Pyle, and D.G. Ainley, Observations of White Shark Reactions to Unbaited Decoys. W.R. Strong, Jr., Shape Discrimination and Visual Predatory Tactics in White Sharks. A.P. Klimley, P. Pyle, and S.D. Anderson, Tail Slap and Breach: Agonistic Displays among White Sharks? G.W. Barlow, Behavior of the White Shark: An Emerging Picture. Ecology and Distribution: D.J. Long, K.D. Hanni, P. Pyle, J. Roletto, R.E. Jones, and R. Bandar, White Shark Predation on Four Pinniped Species in Central California Waters: Geographic and Temporal Patterns Inferred from Wounded Carcasses. S.D. Anderson, A.P. Klimley, P. Pyle, and R.P. Henderson, Tidal Height and White Shark Predation at the South Farallon Islands, California. P. Pyle, S.D. Anderson, A.P. Klimley, and R.P. Henderson, Environmental Factors Affecting the Occurrence and Behavior of White Sharks at the Farallon Islands, California. D.J. Long and R.E. Jones, White Shark Predation and Scavenging on Cetaceans in the Eastern North Pacific Ocean. J.A. Ames, J.J. Geibel, F.E. Wendell, and C.A. Pattison, White Shark-Inflicted Wounds of Sea Otters in California, 1968-1992. D.J. Long, Records of White Shark-Bitten Leatherback Sea Turtles along the Central California Coast. I.K. Fergusson, Distribution and Autecology of the White Shark in the Eastern North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. O.B.F. Gadig and R.S. Rosa, Occurrence of the White Shark along the Brazilian Coast. G. Cliff, S.F.J. Dudley, and M.R. Jury, Catches of White Sharks in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and Environmental Influences. Population Biology: A.P. Klimley and S.D. Anderson, Residency Patterns of White Sharks at the South Farallon Islands, California. P. Pyle, S.D. Anderson, and D.G. Ainley, Trends in White Shark Predation at the South Farallon Islands, 1968-1993. C.A. Ferreira and T.P. Ferreira, Population Dynamics of White Sharks in South Africa. G. Cliff, R.P. Van Der Elst, A. Govender, T.K. Witthuhn, and E.M. Bullen, First Estimates of Mortality and Population Size on the South African Coast. W.R. Strong, Jr., B.D. Bruce, D.R. Nelson, and R.D. Murphy, Population Dynamics of White Sharks in Spencer Gulf, South Australia. G.M. Cailliet, An Evaluation of Methodologies to Study the Population Biology of White Sharks. Interactions with Humans: J.E. McCosker and R.N. Lea, White Shark Attacks in the Eastern Pacific Ocean: An Update and Analysis. M. Levine, Unprovoked Attacks by White Sharks off the South African Coast. J. West, White Shark Attacks in Australian Waters. G.H. Burgess and M. Callahan, Worldwide Patterns of White Shark Attacks on Humans. D.R. Nelson and W.R. Strong, Jr., Chemical Repellent Tests on White Sharks, with Comments on Repellent Delivery Methods. H.D. Baldridge, Jr., Comments on Means for Avoidance or Deterrence of White Shark Attacks on Humans. B. Heneman and M. Glazer, More Rare Than Dangerous: A Case Study of White Shark Conservation in California. Bibliography. Subject Index.",
    openalex = "W596245786"
}

@article{doi101017s0376892997000441,
    author = "Mishra, Charudutt",
    title = "Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Environmental Conservation",
    abstract = "Livestock depredation by the snow leopard, Uncia uncia, and the wolf, Canis lupus, has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict that hinders the conservation of these globally-threatened species throughout their range. This paper analyses the alleged economic loss due to livestock depredation by these carnivores, and the retaliatory responses of an agro-pastoral community around Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The three villages studied (80 households) attributed a total of 189 livestock deaths (18\% of the livestock holding) over a period of 18 months to wild predators, and this would amount to a loss per household equivalent to half the average annual per capita income. The financial compensation received by the villagers from the Government amounted to 3\% of the perceived annual loss. Recent intensification of the conflict seems related to a 37.7\% increase in livestock holding in the last decade. Villagers have been killing the wolf, though apparently not the snow leopard. A self-financed compensation scheme, and modification of existing livestock pens are suggested as area-specific short-term measures to reduce the conflict. The need to address the problem of increasing livestock holding in the long run is emphasized.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892997000441",
    doi = "10.1017/s0376892997000441",
    openalex = "W2135287012",
    references = "doi105860choice291525"
}

@article{doi10108002724634199910011190,
    author = "Antón, Mauricio and Galobart, Àngel",
    title = "Neck function and predatory behavior in the scimitar toothed cat Homotherium latidens (Owen)",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The morphology of the cervical vertebrae and skull structures associated with the neck musculature was studied in the felid sabertooth Homotherium latidens from the Spanish early Pleistocene site of Incarcal. Cervical anatomy of Homotherium was compared to that of modern pantherine cats, Smilodon, and other sabertoothed carnivores, and the relationship between neck function and killing behavior was investigated. Homotherium latidens possesses the structures associated with the canine shear-bite, as described in Smilodon. Our study of muscle insertion areas in the cervical vertebrae of Homotherium does not support previous statements about unusually strong scalenes and their role in stabbing. Instead, we see evidence of increased muscular control of various movements of the neck, including lateral flexion, depression and extension. These features, and the greater relative length of the neck in Homotherium and other machairodonts, are interpreted as adaptations for delivering a canine shear-bite in precise areas of the body of relatively large prey.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1999.10011190",
    doi = "10.1080/02724634.1999.10011190",
    openalex = "W1991092448",
    references = "doi101002jmor1052060111, doi1010160047248489900183, doi101017s0094837300006813, doi101098rstb19920117, doi101111j109636421998tb00582x, doi1023071296618, doi1023071378109, doi105860choice326223, openalexw1534787790, openalexw1933280692, openalexw2560671010"
}

@article{doi101086303189,
    author = "Palomares, Francisço and M., T.",
    title = "Interspecific Killing among Mammalian Carnivores",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "Interspecific killing among mammalian carnivores is common in nature and accounts for up to 68\% of known mortalities in some species. Interactions may be symmetrical (both species kill each other) or asymmetrical (one species kills the other), and in some interactions adults of one species kill young but not adults of the other. There is a positive significant relationship between the body masses of solitary killer species and body masses of their victim species, and grouping species kill larger victims than solitary species. Interactions and consumption of the victim appear more common when food is scarce or disputed. In response to killers, victim species may alter their use of space, activity patterns, and form groups. Consequences of interspecific killing include population reduction or even extinction, and reduction and enhancement of prey populations, and may therefore have important implications for conservation and management of carnivores and their prey.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/303189",
    doi = "10.1086/303189",
    openalex = "W2174648755",
    references = "doi101126science8290956, doi101146annureves12110181001301, doi101146annureves20110189001501, doi101353book59141, doi101515mamm19673111, doi107208chicago97802267365700010001, openalexw1550433756, ross1988late"
}

@article{doi101002jmor1073,
    author = "Shimada, Kenshu",
    title = "Dental homologies in lamniform sharks (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii)",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = {The dentitions of lamniform sharks are said to exhibit a unique heterodonty called the "lamnoid tooth pattern." The presence of an inflated hollow "dental bulla" on each jaw cartilage allows the recognition of homologous teeth across most modern macrophagous lamniforms based on topographic correspondence through the "similarity test." In most macrophagous lamniforms, three tooth rows are supported by the upper dental bulla: two rows of large anterior teeth followed by a row of small intermediate teeth. The lower tooth row occluding between the two rows of upper anterior teeth is the first lower anterior tooth row. Like the first and second lower anterior tooth rows, the third lower tooth row is supported by the dental bulla and may be called the first lower intermediate tooth row. The lower intermediate tooth row occludes between the first and second upper lateral tooth rows situated distal to the upper dental bulla, and the rest of the upper and lower tooth rows, all called lateral tooth rows, occlude alternately. Tooth symmetry cannot be used to identify their dental homology. The presence of dental bullae can be regarded as a synapomorphy of Lamniformes and this character is more definable than the "lamnoid tooth pattern." The formation of the tooth pattern appears to be related to the evolution of dental bullae. This study constitutes the first demonstration of supraspecific tooth-to-tooth dental homologies in nonmammalian vertebrates.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1073",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.1073",
    openalex = "W1979500189",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330400210, doi101002jmor1051670308, doi101016b9780126709506500035, doi101093icb172303, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040523, doi101111j109600311991tb00045x, doi101111j155856461982tb05453x, doi101146annureven10010165000525, doi1023072412482, doi1023072413454, doi105860choice321516, doi105860choice383310"
}

@misc{crossref2003carnivores,
    title = "Carnivores",
    year = "2003",
    booktitle = "Handbook of Laboratory Animal Management and Welfare",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470751077.ch14",
    doi = "10.1002/9780470751077.ch14",
    pages = "281-303"
}

@article{doi101017s002531540501218x,
    author = "Martin, Ralph and Hammerschlag, Neil and Collier, Ralph S. and Fallows, Chris",
    title = "predatory behaviour of white sharks (carcharodon carcharias) at seal island, south africa",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "between 1997 and 2003, there were 2088 natural predations by white sharks (carcharodon carcharias) on cape fur seals (arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) and 121 strikes on towed seal-shaped decoys were documented from observation vessels at seal island, south africa. white sharks at seal island appear to selectively target lone, incoming young of the year cape fur seals at or near the surface. most attacks lasted <1 min and consisted of a single breach, with predatory success rate decreasing rapidly with increasing duration and number of subsequent breaches. a white shark predatory ethogram, composed of four phases and 20 behavioural units, is presented, including four varieties of initial strike and 11 subsequent behaviour units not previously defined in the literature. behaviour units scored from 210 predatory attacks revealed that, for both successful and unsuccessful attacks, polaris breach was the most commonly employed initial strike, while surface lunge was the most frequent second event, closely followed by lateral snap. examination of video footage, still images, and tooth impressions in decoys indicated that white sharks at seal island bite prey obliquely using their anterolateral teeth via a sudden lateral snap of the jaws and not perpendicularly with their anterior teeth, as previously supposed. analysis of white shark upper tooth morphology and spacing suggest the reversed intermediate teeth of white sharks occur at the strongest part of the jaw and produce the largest wound. white shark predatory success at seal island is greatest (55\%) within one hour of sunrise and decreases rapidly with increasing ambient light; the sharks cease active predation on seals when success rate drops to ±40\%; this is the first evidence of cessation of foraging at unproductive times by any predatory fish. at seal island, white shark predatory success is significantly lower at locations where frequency of predation is highest, suggesting that white sharks may launch suboptimal strikes in areas of greatest intraspecific competition; this is the first evidence of social influence on predation in any elasmobranch. idiosyncratic predatory behaviours and elevated success rates of known individual white sharks at seal island suggest some degree of trial-and-error learning. a hypothetical decision tree is proposed that models predatory behaviour of white sharks attacking cape fur seals at the surface.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s002531540501218x",
    doi = "10.1017/s002531540501218x",
    openalex = "W2143630245",
    references = "doi101002jmor1073, doi101007bf00539785, doi101007s002270000489, doi101016b9780124150317500173, doi101016b9780124150317500288, doi101016s0003347289800302, doi101016s1095643301003336, doi10103830959, doi1023071445310, doi105281zenodo16136060, openalexw3217546838, openalexw570265017"
}

@incollection{adey2007carnivores,
    author = "Adey, Walter H. and Loveland, Karen",
    title = "Carnivores",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Dynamic Aquaria",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-370641-6.50025-x",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-370641-6.50025-x",
    pages = "267-279"
}

@article{doi10189000129658200788347bfaeat20co2,
    author = "Christiansen, Per and Wroe, Stephen",
    title = "BITE FORCES AND EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS TO FEEDING ECOLOGY IN CARNIVORES",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "The Carnivora spans the largest ecological and body size diversity of any mammalian order, making it an ideal basis for studies of evolutionary ecology and functional morphology. For animals with different feeding ecologies, it may be expected that bite force represents an important evolutionary adaptation, but studies have been constrained by a lack of bite force data. In this study we present predictions of bite forces for 151 species of extant carnivores, comprising representatives from all eight families and the entire size and ecological spectrum within the order. We show that, when normalized for body size, bite forces differ significantly between the various feeding categories. At opposing extremes and independent of genealogy, consumers of tough fibrous plant material and carnivores preying on large prey both have high bite forces for their size, while bite force adjusted for body mass is low among specialized insectivores. Omnivores and carnivores preying on small prey have more moderate bite forces for their size. These findings indicate that differences in bite force represent important adaptations to and indicators of differing feeding ecologies throughout carnivoran evolution. Our results suggest that the incorporation of bite force data may assist in the construction of more robust evolutionary and palaeontological analyses of feeding ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2007)88[347:bfaeat]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(2007)88[347:bfaeat]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2125453622",
    references = "doi101017s0094837300006813, doi10103835059070"
}

@article{doi101111j14697998200800494x,
    author = "Wroe, Stephen and Huber, Daniel R. and Lowry, Michael B. and McHenry, Colin R. and Moreno, Karen and Clausen, Philip and Ferrara, Toni L. and Cunningham, Eldon L. and Dean, Mason N. and Summers, Adam P.",
    title = "Three‐dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite?",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Abstract The notorious jaws of the white shark Carcharodon carcharias are widely feared, yet poorly understood. Neither its bite force, nor how such force might be delivered using relatively elastic cartilaginous jaws, have been quantified or described. We have digitally reconstructed the jaws of a white shark to estimate maximum bite force and examine relationships among their three‐dimensional geometry, material properties and function. We predict that bite force in large white sharks may exceed c. 1.8 tonnes, the highest known for any living species, and suggest that forces may have been an order of magnitude greater still in the gigantic fossil species Carcharodon megalodon. However, jaw adductor‐generated force in Carcharodon appears unremarkable when the predator's body mass is considered. Although the shark's cartilaginous jaws undergo considerably greater deformation than would jaws constructed of bone, effective bite force is not greatly diminished.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x",
    openalex = "W2100271771",
    references = "diamond1986animal, doi101016135045339597314f, doi101017s002531540501218x, doi10103835059070, doi101038415035b, doi10108800319155411009, doi101098rspb20042986, doi1016710272463420050250478r20co2, doi10189000129658200788347bfaeat20co2, doi105281zenodo16136060, doi105281zenodo3739898, doi105860choice326223, openalexw596245786"
}

@article{doi1039570560390207,
    author = "Hayward, Matt W. and Slotow, Rob",
    title = "Temporal Partitioning of Activity in Large African Carnivores: Tests of Multiple Hypotheses",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "South African Journal of Wildlife Research",
    abstract = "Africa's large predator guild (lion, Panthera leo; leopard, Panthera pardus; spotted hyaena, Crocuta crocuta; cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, and African wild dog, Lycaon pictus) occurs sympatrically with high dietary overlap. Temporal partitioning could facilitate coexistence, but there has been no study testing this or the factors that may Influence the evolution of predator activity patterns. The activity patterns of Africa's large predators were reviewed, using published sources, and the degree of activity overlap was assessed. Six hypotheses were made based on three hypotheses of factors driving the evolution of predator activity patterns: Increased foraging success, and scramble and Interference competition. All predators exhibited a degree of crepuscular behaviour, supporting hypotheses relating to increased hunting success. Nocturnal predators exhibit decreased activity at the darkest times of night due to visual limitations. There was no support for the hypothesis that predators would be active at the same time as their main prey species. Although all members of the guild suffer intraguild predation, only subordinate members exhibited scramble competition avoidance by minimizing activity at the same times as their intraguild predators. Subordinate predators (wild dogs and cheetahs), frequently reported as suffering from kleptoparasitism, minimize simultaneous activity with major kleptoparasites (lions and spotted hyaenas). These latter top predators have high dietary overlap; however, they do not avoid Interference competition by minimizing activity overlap. Thus, optimal activity patterns evolved to satisfy a diverse range of factors that differ amongst species. Competition avoidance is the primary cause of the temporal partitioning in activity between subordinate and top predators. Africa's carnivores have also evolved morphological adaptations to their activity patterns reflecting the length of time they have occurred in sympatry.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3957/056.039.0207",
    doi = "10.3957/056.039.0207",
    openalex = "W2136164167",
    references = "doi101017s0952836905007508"
}

@article{barras2011sabretoothed,
    author = "Barras, Colin",
    title = "Sabre-toothed squirrel scurried at dinosaurs' feet",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "New Scientist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(11)62700-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0262-4079(11)62700-0",
    number = "2837",
    openalex = "W2087924034",
    pages = "15",
    volume = "212"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0024971,
    author = "Andersson, Ki and Norman, David and Werdelin, Lars",
    title = "Sabretoothed Carnivores and the Killing of Large Prey",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = {Sabre-like canines clearly have the potential to inflict grievous wounds leading to massive blood loss and rapid death. Hypotheses concerning sabretooth killing modes include attack to soft parts such as the belly or throat, where biting deep is essential to generate strikes reaching major blood vessels. Sabretoothed carnivorans are widely interpreted as hunters of larger and more powerful prey than that of their present-day nonsabretoothed relatives. However, the precise functional advantage of the sabretooth bite, particularly in relation to prey size, is unknown. Here, we present a new point-to-point bite model and show that, for sabretooths, depth of the killing bite decreases dramatically with increasing prey size. The extended gape of sabretooths only results in considerable increase in bite depth when biting into prey with a radius of less than ∼10 cm. For sabretooths, this size-reversed functional advantage suggests predation on species within a similar size range to those attacked by present-day carnivorans, rather than "megaherbivores" as previously believed. The development of the sabretooth condition appears to represent a shift in function and killing behaviour, rather than one in predator-prey relations. Furthermore, our results demonstrate how sabretoothed carnivorans are likely to have evolved along a functionally continuous trajectory: beginning as an extension of a jaw-powered killing bite, as adopted by present-day pantherine cats, followed by neck-powered biting and thereafter shifting to neck-powered shear-biting. We anticipate this new insight to be a starting point for detailed study of the evolution of pathways that encompass extreme specialisation, for example, understanding how neck-powered biting shifts into shear-biting and its significance for predator-prey interactions. We also expect that our model for point-to-point biting and bite depth estimations will yield new insights into the behaviours of a broad range of extinct predators including therocephalians (gorgonopsian + cynodont, sabretoothed mammal-like reptiles), sauropterygians (marine reptiles) and theropod dinosaurs.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024971",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0024971",
    openalex = "W2123398789",
    references = "diamond1986animal, doi101017s0094837300006813, doi101017s0094837300011891, doi101017s0952836905007508, doi10103846266, doi101086282934, doi101111j00218790200400817x, doi1023071378712, doi105860choice291525, doi105860choice483867, openalexw3205908402"
}

@article{doi101111j14697998201100887x,
    author = "Bateman, Philip W. and Fleming, Patricia A.",
    title = "Big city life: carnivores in urban environments",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Abstract Cities may represent one of the most challenging environments for carnivorous mammals. For example, cities have a dearth of vegetation and other natural resources, coupled with increased habitat fragmentation and an abundance of roads as well as altered climate (e.g. temperature, light, rainfall and water runoff). It is therefore intriguing that several carnivore species have become established in cities across the globe. Medium‐sized carnivores such as the red fox, coyote, Eurasian badger and raccoon not only survive in cities but also have managed to exploit anthropogenic food sources and shelter to their significant advantage, achieving higher population densities than are found under natural conditions. In addition, although they may not live permanently within cities, even large carnivores such as bears, wolves and hyaenas derive significant benefit from living adjacent to urbanized areas. In this review, we examine the history of urban adaptation by mammalian carnivores, explore where they are living, what they eat, what kills them and the behavioural consequences of living in urban areas. We review the biology of urban carnivores, exploring traits such as body size and dietary flexibility. Finally, we consider the consequences of having populations of carnivores in urbanized areas, both for humans and for these charismatic mammals. In conclusion, in a time of massive environmental change across the globe, the continuing encroachment of urbanization upon wilderness areas is substantially reducing the availability of natural habitats for many species; therefore, understanding the biology of any taxon that is able to adapt to and exploit anthropogenically disturbed systems must aid us in both controlling and developing suitable conservation measures for the future of such species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00887.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00887.x",
    openalex = "W1714117876",
    references = "doi101371journalpbio0050022"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0052453,
    author = "DeSantis, Larisa R.G. and Schubert, Blaine W. and Scott, Jessica R. and Ungar, Peter S.",
    title = "Implications of Diet for the Extinction of Saber-Toothed Cats and American Lions",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = {The saber-toothed cat, Smilodon fatalis, and American lion, Panthera atrox, were among the largest terrestrial carnivores that lived during the Pleistocene, going extinct along with other megafauna ∼12,000 years ago. Previous work suggests that times were difficult at La Brea (California) during the late Pleistocene, as nearly all carnivores have greater incidences of tooth breakage (used to infer greater carcass utilization) compared to today. As Dental Microwear Texture Analysis (DMTA) can differentiate between levels of bone consumption in extant carnivores, we use DMTA to clarify the dietary niches of extinct carnivorans from La Brea. Specifically, we test the hypothesis that times were tough at La Brea with carnivorous taxa utilizing more of the carcasses. Our results show no evidence of bone crushing by P. atrox, with DMTA attributes most similar to the extant cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, which actively avoids bone. In contrast, S. fatalis has DMTA attributes most similar to the African lion Panthera leo, implying that S. fatalis did not avoid bone to the extent previously suggested by SEM microwear data. DMTA characters most indicative of bone consumption (i.e., complexity and textural fill volume) suggest that carcass utilization by the extinct carnivorans was not necessarily more complete during the Pleistocene at La Brea; thus, times may not have been "tougher" than the present. Additionally, minor to no significant differences in DMTA attributes from older (∼30-35 Ka) to younger (∼11.5 Ka) deposits offer little evidence that declining prey resources were a primary cause of extinction for these large cats.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052453",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0052453",
    openalex = "W2142038497",
    references = "doi101111j10963642200500194x"
}

@article{doi1018901200171,
    author = "Cozzi, Gabriele and Broekhuis, Femke and McNutt, J. Weldon and Turnbull, Lindsay A. and Macdonald, David W. and Schmid, Bernhard",
    title = "Fear of the dark or dinner by moonlight? Reduced temporal partitioning among Africa's large carnivores",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = {Africa is home to the last intact guild of large carnivores and thus provides the only opportunity to investigate mechanisms of coexistence among large predator species. Strong asymmetric dominance hierarchies typically characterize guilds of large carnivores; but despite this asymmetry, subdominant species may persist alongside their stronger counterparts through temporal partitioning of habitat and resources. In the African guild, the subdominant African wild dogs and cheetahs are routinely described as diurnal and crepuscular. These activity patterns have been interpreted to result from the need to avoid encounters with the stronger, nocturnal spotted hyenas and lions. However, the idea that diel activity patterns of carnivore species are strongly shaped by competition and predation has recently been challenged by new observations. In a three-year study in the Okavango Delta, we investigated daily activity patterns and temporal partitioning for wild dogs, cheetahs, spotted hyenas and lions by fitting radio collars that continuously recorded activity bursts, to a total of 25 individuals. Analysis of activity patterns throughout the 24-h cycle revealed an unexpectedly high degree of temporal overlap among the four species. This was mainly due to the extensive and previously undescribed nocturnal activity of wild dogs and cheetahs. Their nocturnal activity fluctuated with the lunar cycle, represented up to 40\% of the diel activity budget and was primarily constrained by moonlight availability. In contrast, the nocturnal activity patterns of lions and hyenas were unaffected by moonlight and remained constant over the lunar cycle. Our results suggest that other ecological factors such as optimal hunting conditions have shaped the diel activity patterns of subdominant, large predators. We suggest that they are "starvation driven" and must exploit every opportunity to obtain a meal. The benefits of activity on moonlit nights therefore offset the risks of encountering night-active predators and competitors.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/12-0017.1",
    doi = "10.1890/12-0017.1",
    openalex = "W2064153065",
    references = "doi101111j00218790200400817x, doi101126science1200043"
}

@article{crossref2013zoologger,
    title = "Zoologger: the pint-sized sabre-toothed opossum",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "New Scientist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(13)61854-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0262-4079(13)61854-0",
    number = "2927",
    openalex = "W4235908864",
    pages = "19",
    volume = "219"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0057872,
    author = "Athreya, Vidya and Odden, Morten and Linnell, John D. C. and Krishnaswamy, Jagdish and Karanth, Ullas",
    title = "Big Cats in Our Backyards: Persistence of Large Carnivores in a Human Dominated Landscape in India",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Protected areas are extremely important for the long term viability of biodiversity in a densely populated country like India where land is a scarce resource. However, protected areas cover only 5\% of the land area in India and in the case of large carnivores that range widely, human use landscapes will function as important habitats required for gene flow to occur between protected areas. In this study, we used photographic capture recapture analysis to assess the density of large carnivores in a human-dominated agricultural landscape with density >300 people/km(2) in western Maharashtra, India. We found evidence of a wide suite of wild carnivores inhabiting a cropland landscape devoid of wilderness and wild herbivore prey. Furthermore, the large carnivores; leopard (Panthera pardus) and striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) occurred at relatively high density of 4.8±1.2 (sd) adults/100 km(2) and 5.03±1.3 (sd) adults/100 km(2) respectively. This situation has never been reported before where 10 large carnivores/100 km(2) are sharing space with dense human populations in a completely modified landscape. Human attacks by leopards were rare despite a potentially volatile situation considering that the leopard has been involved in serious conflict, including human deaths in adjoining areas. The results of our work push the frontiers of our understanding of the adaptability of both, humans and wildlife to each other's presence. The results also highlight the urgent need to shift from a PA centric to a landscape level conservation approach, where issues are more complex, and the potential for conflict is also very high. It also highlights the need for a serious rethink of conservation policy, law and practice where the current management focus is restricted to wildlife inside Protected Areas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057872",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0057872",
    openalex = "W2030432553",
    references = "doi105860choice483867"
}

@article{doi101111evo12566,
    author = "Martín‐Serra, Alberto and Figueirido, Borja and Pérez‐Claros, Juan A. and Palmqvist, Paul",
    title = "Patterns of morphological integration in the appendicular skeleton of mammalian carnivores",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "We investigated patterns of evolutionary integration in the appendicular skeleton of mammalian carnivores. The findings are discussed in relation to performance selection in terms of organismal function as a potential mechanism underlying integration. Interspecific shape covariation was quantified by two-block partial least-squares (2B-PLS) analysis of 3D landmark data within a phylogenetic context. Specifically, we compared pairs of anatomically connected bones (within-limbs) and pairs of both serially homologous and functional equivalent bones (between-limbs). The statistical results of all the comparisons suggest that the carnivoran appendicular skeleton is highly integrated. Strikingly, the main shape covariation relates to bone robustness in all cases. A bootstrap test was used to compare the degree of integration between specialized cursorial taxa (i.e., those whose forelimbs are primarily involved in locomotion) and noncursorial species (i.e., those whose forelimbs are involved in more functions than their hindlimb) showed that cursors have a more integrated appendicular skeleton than noncursors. The findings demonstrate that natural selection can influence the pattern and degree of morphological integration by increasing the degree of bone shape covariation in parallel to ecological specialization.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12566",
    doi = "10.1111/evo.12566",
    openalex = "W1488216338",
    references = "doi101002jmor20084, doi101002jmor20303, doi101016016953479390024j, doi101016c20100662092, doi101038nrg2267, doi101086284325, doi101093sysbiosyt053, doi101111j155856461996tb02339x, doi1011861471214814129, doi1012019781315273075, doi101371journalpone0085574, doi10166612001, doi1023073488, doi104159harvard9780674184404, openalexw2611511275"
}

@article{doi101111jeb12340,
    author = "Meachen, Julie and O’Keefe, F. Robin and Sadleir, Rudyard W.",
    title = "Evolution in the sabre‐tooth cat, S milodon fatalis, in response to P leistocene climate change",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Journal of Evolutionary Biology",
    abstract = "The late Pleistocene was a time of environmental change, culminating in an extinction event. Few fossil localities record a temporal series of carnivore fossil populations from this interesting interval as well as Rancho La Brea (RLB). We analysed mandibles of Smilodon fatalis from RLB using 2-D geometric morphometrics to examine whether, and how, mandibular shape changes through time. Smilodon fatalis shows mandibular evolution with oscillations between a small, ancestral-type morph in pits 77 (≈37 Kybp) and 2051 (≈26 Kybp), a larger, more derived morph in pits 91 (≈28 Kybp) and 61-67 (≈13.6 Kybp), and an intermediate morph from pit 13 (≈17.7 Kybp). These oscillations end in pit 61-67, with greatest body size, and are estimated to have its widest gape and lowest bite force. Additionally, variation is lowest in pit 61-67, which was deposited concurrent with the Bølling–Allerød warming event, which may have important implications for the timing or conditions during the extinction event. Contra to a temporal Bergmann's rule, such rapid warming events appear to be correlated with larger, derived, morphologies whereas static, cooler, climates correlate with gracile, ancestral morphologies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12340",
    doi = "10.1111/jeb.12340",
    openalex = "W2012228860",
    references = "doi101111j109636421998tb00582x"
}

@article{doi101126science1241484,
    author = "Ripple, William J. and Estes, James A. and Beschta, Robert L. and Wilmers, Christopher C. and Ritchie, Euan G. and Hebblewhite, Mark and Berger, Joël and Elmhagen, Bodil and Letnic, Mike and Nelson, Michael and Schmitz, Oswald J. and Smith, Douglas W. and Wallach, Arian D. and Wirsing, Aaron J.",
    title = "Status and Ecological Effects of the World’s Largest Carnivores",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Large carnivores face serious threats and are experiencing massive declines in their populations and geographic ranges around the world. We highlight how these threats have affected the conservation status and ecological functioning of the 31 largest mammalian carnivores on Earth. Consistent with theory, empirical studies increasingly show that large carnivores have substantial effects on the structure and function of diverse ecosystems. Significant cascading trophic interactions, mediated by their prey or sympatric mesopredators, arise when some of these carnivores are extirpated from or repatriated to ecosystems. Unexpected effects of trophic cascades on various taxa and processes include changes to bird, mammal, invertebrate, and herpetofauna abundance or richness; subsidies to scavengers; altered disease dynamics; carbon sequestration; modified stream morphology; and crop damage. Promoting tolerance and coexistence with large carnivores is a crucial societal challenge that will ultimately determine the fate of Earth's largest carnivores and all that depends upon them, including humans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241484",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1241484",
    openalex = "W2042504207",
    references = "doi10103846266, doi101038nature01286, doi101126science1069349, doi101146annurevecolsys35021103105725, doi101371journalpbio1000210, doi1016410006356820040540123rconac20co2"
}

@article{crossref2015sabretoothed,
    title = "Sabre-toothed squirrel",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "New Scientist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(15)30044-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0262-4079(15)30044-0",
    number = "3014",
    openalex = "W4252593404",
    pages = "57",
    volume = "225"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1502554112,
    author = "Valkenburgh, Blaire Van and Hayward, Matt W. and Ripple, William J. and Meloro, Carlo and Roth, V. Louise",
    title = "The impact of large terrestrial carnivores on Pleistocene ecosystems",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Large mammalian terrestrial herbivores, such as elephants, have dramatic effects on the ecosystems they inhabit and at high population densities their environmental impacts can be devastating. Pleistocene terrestrial ecosystems included a much greater diversity of megaherbivores (e.g., mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths) and thus a greater potential for widespread habitat degradation if population sizes were not limited. Nevertheless, based on modern observations, it is generally believed that populations of megaherbivores (>800 kg) are largely immune to the effects of predation and this perception has been extended into the Pleistocene. However, as shown here, the species richness of big carnivores was greater in the Pleistocene and many of them were significantly larger than their modern counterparts. Fossil evidence suggests that interspecific competition among carnivores was relatively intense and reveals that some individuals specialized in consuming megaherbivores. To estimate the potential impact of Pleistocene large carnivores, we use both historic and modern data on predator-prey body mass relationships to predict size ranges of their typical and maximum prey when hunting as individuals and in groups. These prey size ranges are then compared with estimates of juvenile and subadult proboscidean body sizes derived from extant elephant growth data. Young proboscideans at their most vulnerable age fall within the predicted prey size ranges of many of the Pleistocene carnivores. Predation on juveniles can have a greater impact on megaherbivores because of their long interbirth intervals, and consequently, we argue that Pleistocene carnivores had the capacity to, and likely did, limit megaherbivore population sizes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1502554112",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1502554112",
    openalex = "W1884173164",
    references = "doi102110palo2011p11048r, doi1023073799111"
}

@article{doi101038ncomms10698,
    author = "Suraci, Justin P. and Clinchy, Michael and Dill, Lawrence M. and Roberts, Devin and Zanette, Liana",
    title = "Fear of large carnivores causes a trophic cascade",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = {The fear large carnivores inspire, independent of their direct killing of prey, may itself cause cascading effects down food webs potentially critical for conserving ecosystem function, particularly by affecting large herbivores and mesocarnivores. However, the evidence of this has been repeatedly challenged because it remains experimentally untested. Here we show that experimentally manipulating fear itself in free-living mesocarnivore (raccoon) populations using month-long playbacks of large carnivore vocalizations caused just such cascading effects, reducing mesocarnivore foraging to the benefit of the mesocarnivore's prey, which in turn affected a competitor and prey of the mesocarnivore's prey. We further report that by experimentally restoring the fear of large carnivores in our study system, where most large carnivores have been extirpated, we succeeded in reversing this mesocarnivore's impacts. We suggest that our results reinforce the need to conserve large carnivores given the significant "ecosystem service" the fear of them provides.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10698",
    doi = "10.1038/ncomms10698",
    openalex = "W2280527828",
    references = "doi101371journalpbio0050022, doi1018900012965820030841151bmiiim20co2"
}

@article{doi101098rsos160252,
    author = "Wolf, Christopher and Ripple, William J.",
    title = "Prey depletion as a threat to the world's large carnivores",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Royal Society Open Science",
    abstract = "), all of these species except the Ethiopian wolf have at least 50\% of their prey classified as declining. Of the 494 prey species in our analysis, an average of just 6.9\% of their ranges overlap protected areas. Together these results show the importance of a holistic approach to conservation that involves protecting both large carnivores directly and the prey upon which they depend.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160252",
    doi = "10.1098/rsos.160252",
    openalex = "W2505926880",
    references = "doi101093icbicm016"
}

@article{doi101111cobi12959,
    author = "van Eeden, Lily M. and Crowther, Mathew S. and Dickman, Chris R. and Macdonald, David W. and Ripple, William J. and Ritchie, Euan G. and Newsome, Thomas M.",
    title = "Managing conflict between large carnivores and livestock",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "Large carnivores are persecuted globally because they threaten human industries and livelihoods. How this conflict is managed has consequences for the conservation of large carnivores and biodiversity more broadly. Mitigating human-predator conflict should be evidence-based and accommodate people's values while protecting carnivores. Despite much research into human and large-carnivore coexistence strategies, there have been few attempts to document the success of conflict-mitigation strategies on a global scale. We conducted a meta-analysis of global research on conflict mitigation related to large carnivores and humans. We focused on conflicts that arise from the threat large carnivores pose to livestock. We first used structured and unstructured searching to identify replicated studies that used before-after or control-impact design to measure change in livestock loss as a result of implementing a management intervention. We then extracted relevant data from these studies to calculate an overall effect size for each intervention type. Research effort and focus varied among continents and aligned with the histories and cultures that shaped livestock production and attitudes toward carnivores. Livestock guardian animals most effectively reduced livestock losses. Lethal control was the second most effective control, although its success varied the most, and guardian animals and lethal control did not differ significantly. Financial incentives have promoted tolerance of large carnivores in some settings and reduced retaliatory killings. We suggest coexistence strategies be location-specific, incorporate cultural values and environmental conditions, and be designed such that return on financial investment can be evaluated. Improved monitoring of mitigation measures is urgently required to promote effective evidence-based policy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12959",
    doi = "10.1111/cobi.12959",
    openalex = "W2618410637",
    references = "doi105860choice483867"
}

@incollection{barun2019carnivores,
    author = "Barun, Arijana and Simberloff, Daniel",
    title = "Carnivores",
    year = "2019",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520948433-026",
    doi = "10.1525/9780520948433-026",
    pages = "95-100"
}

@article{doi101038s41467020197390,
    author = "Amini, Shahrouz and Razi, Hajar and Seidel, Ronald and Werner, D. and White, William T. and Weaver, James C. and Dean, Mason N. and Fratzl, Peter",
    title = "Shape-preserving erosion controlled by the graded microarchitecture of shark tooth enameloid",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "The teeth of all vertebrates predominantly comprise the same materials, but their lifespans vary widely: in stark contrast to mammals, shark teeth are functional only for weeks, rather than decades, making lifelong durability largely irrelevant. However, their diets are diverse and often mechanically demanding, and as such, their teeth should maintain a functional morphology, even in the face of extremely high and potentially damaging contact stresses. Here, we reconcile the dilemma between the need for an operative tooth geometry and the unavoidable damage inherent to feeding on hard foods, demonstrating that the tooth cusps of Port Jackson sharks, hard-shelled prey specialists, possess unusual microarchitecture that controls tooth erosion in a way that maintains functional cusp shape. The graded architecture in the enameloid provokes a location-specific damage response, combining chipping of outer enameloid and smooth wear of inner enameloid to preserve an efficient shape for grasping hard prey. Our discovery provides experimental support for the dominant theory that multi-layered tooth enameloid facilitated evolutionary diversification of shark ecologies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19739-0",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-020-19739-0",
    openalex = "W3108923835",
    references = "doi101016jarchoralbio201801013"
}

@article{doi101111joa13248,
    author = "Cohen, Karly E. and Weller, Hannah I. and Summers, Adam P.",
    title = "Not your father’s homodonty—stress, tooth shape, and the functional homodont",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "Teeth tell the tale of interactions between predator and prey. If a dental battery is made up of teeth that look similar, they are morphologically homodont, but if there is an unspecified amount of regional specialization in size or shape, they are morphologically heterodont. These are vague terms with no useful functional implication because morphological homodonty does not necessarily equal functional homodonty. Teeth that look the same may not function the same. Conical teeth are prevalent in fishes, superficially tasked with the simple job of puncture. There is a great deal of variation in the shape and placement of conical teeth. Anterior teeth may be larger than posterior ones, larger teeth may be surrounded by small ones, and patches of teeth may all have the same size and shape. Such variations suggest that conical dentitions might represent a single morphological solution for different functional problems. We are interested in the concept of homodonty and using the conical tooth as a model to differentiate between tooth shape and performance. We consider the stress that a tooth can exert on prey as stress is what causes damage. To create a statistical measure of functional homodonty, stress was calculated from measurements of surface area, position, and applied force. Functional homodonty is then defined as the degree to which teeth along the jaw all bear/exert similar stresses despite changes in shape. We find that morphologically heterodont teeth are often functionally homodont and that position is a better predictor of performance than shape. Furthermore, the arrangement of teeth affects their function, such that there is a functional advantage to having several smaller teeth surrounding a singular large tooth. We demonstrate that this arrangement of teeth is useful to grab, rather than tear, prey upon puncture, with the smaller teeth dissipating large stress forces around the larger tooth. We show that measurements of how shape affects stress distribution in response to loading give us a clearer picture of the evolution of conically shaped teeth.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13248",
    doi = "10.1111/joa.13248",
    openalex = "W3042882721",
    references = "doi101016jarchoralbio201801013"
}

@article{grinham2020functional,
    author = "Grinham, Luke R.",
    title = "Functional diversity in morphologically similar sabre-toothed carnivores",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Communications Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-020-01361-x",
    doi = "10.1038/s42003-020-01361-x",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W3094026204",
    volume = "3",
    references = "lautenschlager2020morphological"
}

@article{lautenschlager2020morphological,
    author = "Lautenschlager, Stephan and Figueirido, Borja and Cashmore, Daniel D. and Bendel, Eva-Maria and Stubbs, Thomas L.",
    title = "Morphological convergence obscures functional diversity in sabre-toothed carnivores",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The acquisition of elongated, sabre-like canines in multiple vertebrate clades during the last 265 Myr represents a remarkable example for convergent evolution. Due to striking superficial similarities in the cranial skeleton, the same or similar skull and jaw functions have been inferred for sabre-toothed species and interpreted as an adaptation to subdue large-bodied prey. However, although some sabre-tooth lineages have been classified into different ecomorphs (dirk-tooths and scimitar-tooths) the functional diversity within and between groups and the evolutionary paths leading to these specializations are unknown. Here, we use a suite of biomechanical simulations to analyse key functional parameters (mandibular gape angle, bending strength, bite force) to compare the functional performance of different groups and to quantify evolutionary rates across sabre-tooth vertebrates. Our results demonstrate a remarkably high functional diversity between sabre-tooth lineages and that different cranial function and prey killing strategies evolved within clades. Moreover, different biomechanical adaptations in coexisting sabre-tooth species further suggest that this functional diversity was at least partially driven by niche partitioning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.1818",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2020.1818",
    number = "1935",
    openalex = "W3091553854",
    pages = "20201818",
    volume = "287",
    references = "doi101016jcub201808012, doi101038nature10516, doi101093icbicm016, doi101093sysbiosyq085, doi101093sysbiosyv080, doi101111j15585646201101289x, doi101111j2041210x201100169x, doi101126science1161833, doi101371journalpbio0050022, doi101371journalpone0024971, doi1023071378379, lautenschlager2020morphological, openalexw2183707334"
}

@article{doi101016jquascirev2022107471,
    author = "Antón, Mauricio and Siliceo, Gema and Pastor, Juan Francisco and Salesa, Manuel J.",
    title = "Concealed weapons: A revised reconstruction of the facial anatomy and life appearance of the sabre-toothed cat Homotherium latidens (Felidae, Machairodontinae)",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Quaternary Science Reviews",
    abstract = "Homotherium is one of the sabre-toothed felid genera with a more extensive overlap in space and time with species of our own genus Homo, who must have been familiar with the animal, but now we only have its fossil remains to infer its life appearance. A revised reconstruction of the soft tissue and life appearance of Homotherium latidens is proposed here on the basis of new observations on the anatomy of extant carnivorans and a re-evaluation of the fairly preserved skull and mandible from the classical Late Pliocene site of Perrier (France). This fossil specimen provides some of the best information available about the morphology of the skull and mandible. Like other large early specimens of Homotherium, it has enormous upper canines relative to skull size and high-crowned enough to protrude beyond the lips in the living animal. On the other hand, observations of facial expressions in living big cats and dissected specimens show that, contrary to previous conclusions, the soft tissue around the mouth and the lower lip in particular can cover the upper canines of large felids, even when those are considerably high-crowned. Such observations lead us to propose a revised hypothesis about the life appearance of Homotherium and other sabre-toothed carnivorans, where the upper canines may have been covered in life when the mouth was completely closed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107471",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107471",
    openalex = "W4223616626",
    references = "doi101111j109636421998tb00582x"
}

@article{doi101098rsos220701,
    author = "Pollock, Tahlia I. and Panagiotopoulou, Olga and Hocking, David P. and Evans, Alistair R.",
    title = "Taking a stab at modelling canine tooth biomechanics in mammalian carnivores with beam theory and finite-element analysis",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Royal Society Open Science",
    abstract = "Canine teeth are vital to carnivore feeding ecology, facilitating behaviours related to prey capture and consumption. Forms vary with specific feeding ecologies; however, the biomechanics that drive these relationships have not been comprehensively investigated. Using a combination of beam theory analysis (BTA) and finite-element analysis (FEA) we assessed how aspects of canine shape impact tooth stress, relating this to feeding ecology. The degree of tooth lateral compression influenced tolerance of multidirectional loads, whereby canines with more circular cross-sections experienced similar maximum stresses under pulling and shaking loads, while more ellipsoid canines experienced higher stresses under shaking loads. Robusticity impacted a tooth's ability to tolerate stress and appears to be related to prey materials. Robust canines experience lower stresses and are found in carnivores regularly encountering hard foods. Slender canines experience higher stresses and are associated with carnivores biting into muscle and flesh. Curvature did not correlate with tooth stress; however, it did impact bending during biting. Our simulations help identify scenarios where canine forms are likely to break and pinpoint areas where this breakage may occur. These patterns demonstrate how canine shape relates to tolerating the stresses experienced when killing and feeding, revealing some of the form-function relationships that underpin mammalian carnivore ecologies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.220701",
    doi = "10.1098/rsos.220701",
    openalex = "W4306774171",
    references = "doi101016jcub201803042, doi101016jcub201808012"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20221627,
    author = "Chatar, Narimane and Fischer, Valentin and Tseng, Z. Jack",
    title = "Many-to-one function of cat-like mandibles highlights a continuum of sabre-tooth adaptations",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Cat-like carnivorans are a textbook example of convergent evolution, with distinct morphological differences between taxa with short or elongated upper canines, the latter often being interpreted as an adaptation to bite at large angles and subdue large prey. This interpretation of the sabre-tooth condition is reinforced by a reduced taxonomic sampling in some studies, often focusing on highly derived taxa or using simplified morphological models. Moreover, most biomechanical analyses focus on biting scenarios at small gapes, ideal for modern carnivora but ill-suited to test for subduction of large prey by sabre-toothed taxa. In this contribution, we present the largest three-dimensional collection-based muscle-induced biting simulations on cat-like carnivorans by running a total of 1074 analyses on 17 different taxa at three different biting angles (30°, 60° and 90°) including both morphologies. While our results show a clear adaptation of extreme sabre-toothed taxa to bite at larger angles in terms of stress distribution, other performance variables display surprising similarities between all forms at the different angles tested, highlighting a continuous rather than bipolar spectrum of hunting methods in cat-like carnivorans and demonstrating a wide functional disparity and nuances of the sabre-tooth condition that cannot simply be characterized by specialized feeding biomechanics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.1627",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2022.1627",
    openalex = "W4311579502",
    references = "doi101016jcub201808012, doi101093bioinformaticsbty633, doi101093icb452256, doi101098rspb20042986, doi101098rspb20221627, doi1011112041210x12628, doi101111j00218790200400817x, doi101111j2041210x201100169x, doi101111j2041210x201200223x, doi101111pala12142, doi101146annurevearth271463, doi101371journalpone0024971, doi1018637jssv021i12, lautenschlager2020morphological"
}

@article{brits2023fossil,
    author = "Brits, Elsabé",
    title = "Fossil of sabre-toothed mammal ancestor discovered",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Nature Africa",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/d44148-023-00156-6",
    doi = "10.1038/d44148-023-00156-6",
    openalex = "W4381615388"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20231400,
    author = "Schwab, Julia A. and Figueirido, Borja and Martín‐Serra, Alberto and van der Hoek, Julien and Flink, Therese and Kort, Anne E. and Núñez, Juan Miguel Esteban and Jones, Katrina E.",
    title = "Evolutionary ecomorphology for the twenty-first century: examples from mammalian carnivores",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Carnivores (cats, dogs and kin) are a diverse group of mammals that inhabit a remarkable range of ecological niches. While the relationship between ecology and morphology has long been of interest in carnivorans, the application of quantitative techniques has resulted in a recent explosion of work in the field. Therefore, they provide a case study of how quantitative techniques, such as geometric morphometrics (GMM), have impacted our ability to tease apart complex ecological signals from skeletal anatomy, and the implications for our understanding of the relationships between form, function and ecological specialization. This review provides a synthesis of current research on carnivoran ecomorphology, with the goal of illustrating the complex interaction between ecology and morphology in the skeleton. We explore the ecomorphological diversity across major carnivoran lineages and anatomical systems. We examine cranial elements (skull, sensory systems) and postcranial elements (limbs, vertebral column) to reveal mosaic patterns of adaptation related to feeding and hunting strategies, locomotion and habitat preference. We highlight the crucial role that new approaches have played in advancing our understanding of carnivoran ecomorphology, while addressing challenges that remain in the field, such as ecological classifications, form-function relationships and multi-element analysis, offering new avenues for future research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.1400",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2023.1400",
    openalex = "W4389146523",
    references = "doi101098rspb20221627"
}

@article{doi101002ar25451,
    author = "Figueirido, Borja and Tucker, Shane and Lautenschlager, Stephan",
    title = "Comparing cranial biomechanics between Barbourofelis fricki and Smilodon fatalis: Is there a universal killing‐bite among saber‐toothed predators?",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "The Anatomical Record",
    abstract = "Saber-tooths, extinct apex predators with long and blade-like upper canines, have appeared iteratively at least five times in the evolutionary history of vertebrates. Although saber-tooths exhibit a relatively diverse range of morphologies, it is widely accepted that all killed their prey using the same predatory behavior. In this study, we CT-scanned the skull of Barbourofelis fricki and compared its cranial mechanics using finite element analysis (FEA) with that of Smilodon fatalis. Our aim was to investigate potential variations in killing behavior between two dirk-toothed sabretooths from the Miocene and Pleistocene of North America. The study revealed that B. fricki had a stoutly-built skull capable of withstanding stress in various prey-killing scenarios, while the skull of S. fatalis appeared less optimized for supporting stress, which highlights the highly derived saber-tooth morphology of the former. The results may indicate that B. fricki was more of a generalist in prey-killing compared to S. fatalis, which experiences lower stresses under stabbing loads. We hypothesize that morphological specialization in saber-tooths does not necessarily indicate ecological specialization. Our results support the notion that morphological convergence among saber-toothed cats may obscure differences in hunting strategies employed to dispatch their prey. Our findings challenge the assumption of the universally assumed canine-shear biting as the prey-killing behavior of all saber-toothed cats. However, further research involving a wider range of dirk and scimitar-toothed forms could provide additional insights into the diversity of cranial biomechanics within this fascinating group of extinct mammalian predators.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.25451",
    doi = "10.1002/ar.25451",
    openalex = "W4394785034",
    references = "doi1010800272463420211923523, doi101098rspb20221627"
}

@article{doi101002ar25458,
    author = "Shelbourne, Caitlin D. and Lautenschlager, Stephan",
    title = "Morphological diversity of saber‐tooth upper canines and its functional implications",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "The Anatomical Record",
    abstract = "Elongated upper canine teeth, commonly known as saber-teeth, have evolved three times within the sub-order Feliformia. The species that wielded them flourished throughout the Cenozoic and have historically been separated into two morphological groups: the dirk-tooths with longer, flatter canines, and the scimitar-tooths with shorter, serrated teeth. However, quantitative morphological analysis has not been conducted on these teeth to determine the true amount of diversity within the group, and how the upper canine morphology of extant feliforms compared to their extinct relatives has also not been explored. Using Geometric Morphometric analysis, it is shown that saber-tooth upper canine morphology is exceptionally diverse, with no extant clade having all its members occupy the same morphospace based on tooth length and curvature. Instead, a neutral basal morphospace is observed for all groups and diversification from this basal position is seen as species become more derived. A distinct and consistent scimitar tooth morphology is also not observed within the morphospace. When compared with extant taxa, several saber-tooth species are seen to be morphologically similar to extant feliforms, several of which exhibit novel dietary strategies in comparison to the obligate carnivore felids. Biomechanical analyses of different actual and theoretical tooth shapes demonstrate that saber-teeth upper canines further represent a functional compromise between sharpness, curvature, and length on the one hand, and robustness and material investment on the other.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.25458",
    doi = "10.1002/ar.25458",
    openalex = "W4395010556",
    references = "doi101098rspb20221627"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0295002,
    author = "Maho, Tea and Reisz, Robert R.",
    title = "Exceptionally rapid tooth development and ontogenetic changes in the feeding apparatus of the Komodo dragon",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Dental developmental and replacement patterns in extinct amniotes have attracted a lot of attention. Notable among these are Paleozoic predatory synapsids, but also Mesozoic theropod dinosaurs, well known for having true ziphodonty, strongly serrated carinae with dentine cores within an enamel cap. The Komodo dragon, Varanus komodoensis, is the only extant terrestrial vertebrate to exhibit true ziphodonty, making it an ideal model organism for gaining new insights into the life history and feeding behaviours of theropod dinosaurs and early synapsids. We undertook a comparative dental histological analysis of this extant apex predator in combination with computed tomography of intact skulls. This study allowed us to reconstruct the dental morphology, ontogeny, and replacement patterns in the largest living lizard with known feeding behaviour, and apply our findings to extinct taxa where the behaviour is largely unknown. We discovered through computed tomography that V. komodoensis maintains up to five replacement teeth per tooth position, while histological analysis showed an exceptionally rapid formation of new teeth, every 40 days. Additionally, a dramatic ontogenetic shift in the dental morphology of V. komodoensis was also discovered, likely related to changes in feeding preferences and habitat. The juveniles have fewer dental specializations, lack true ziphodonty, are arboreal and feed mostly on insects, whereas the adults have strongly developed ziphodonty and are terrestrial apex predators with defleshing feeding behaviour. In addition, we found evidence that the ziphodont teeth of V. komodoensis have true ampullae (interdental folds for strengthening the serrations), similar to those found only in theropod dinosaurs. Comparisons with other species of Varanus and successive outgroup taxa reveal a complex pattern of dental features and adaptations, including the evolution of snake-like tongue flicking used for foraging for prey. However, only the Komodo dragon exhibits this remarkable set of dental innovations and specializations among squamates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295002",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0295002",
    openalex = "W4391594830",
    references = "doi101098rsbl20200750"
}

@article{doi101515mt20230319,
    author = "Feng, Yanan and Yu, Xiaodong and Gao, Weicheng and Wang, Junfeng and Jia, Wentao and Jiao, Jianhua",
    title = "An improved white shark optimizer algorithm used to optimize the structural parameters of the oil pad in the hydrostatic bearing",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Materials Testing",
    abstract = "Abstract An improved white shark optimizer (MWSO) algorithm has been proposed. The algorithm adopts an improved tent chaotic mapping strategy to enhance the diversity of the initial population of white sharks, introduces the balance pool strategy of the EO algorithm to improve the convergence speed and accuracy of the algorithm, applies adaptive t-distribution dynamic selection probability perturbation to the global optimal solution, and adjusts the exploration and development ability of the algorithm at different iteration periods. MWSO, WSO, and seven excellent metaheuristic algorithms are tested and compared on 23 classic test functions and the CEC2017 test suite, and two non-parametric tests, a Wilcoxon rank sum test with a significance level of 0.05 and Friedman test, are conducted. The statistical results indicate that the proposed MWSO is significantly superior to other algorithms. In addition, nine algorithms are applied for the first time to optimize the structural parameters of the oil sealing edge of oil pads in response to the issue of the bearing capacity of hydrostatic bearings. This not only further verified the superiority of MWSO, but also provided new ideas for the optimization of hydrostatic bearings.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2023-0319",
    doi = "10.1515/mt-2023-0319",
    openalex = "W4399366780",
    references = "doi101111j14697998200800494x"
}

@article{doi101016jcub202411059,
    author = "Pollock, Tahlia I. and Deakin, William J. and Chatar, Narimane and Carmona, Pablo S. Milla and Rovinsky, Douglass and Panagiotopoulou, Olga and Parker, William M. G. and Adams, Justin W. and Hocking, David P. and Donoghue, Philip C. J. and Rayfield, Emily J. and Evans, Alistair R.",
    title = "Functional optimality underpins the repeated evolution of the extreme “saber-tooth” morphology",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    abstract = {"Saber teeth"-elongate, blade-like canines-are a classic example of convergence, having evolved repeatedly throughout mammalian history. Within canine teeth, there is a trade-off between the aspects of shape that improve food fracture and those that increase tooth strength. Optimal morphologies strike a balance between these antagonistic functional criteria. The extreme saber-tooth morphology is thought to confer functional advantage for more specialized predatory adaptations and optimization; however, the adaptive bases underpinning their evolution remain unclear. To determine whether saber-tooth shape reflects selection for functionally optimal morphologies, we generated a morphospace of the 3D shape of 70 non-saber and 25 saber-tooth species, a subset of which were used to quantify functional metrics of puncture performance and breakage resistance. These data were combined using a Pareto rank-ratio algorithm to evaluate optimality. We demonstrate that extreme saber-tooth morphologies are functionally optimal, occupying a localized peak in our optimality landscape. Unlike other optimal canine morphologies, extreme saber teeth optimize puncture performance at the expense of breakage resistance. This identifies functional optimality as a key driver underpinning the repeated evolution of this iconic tooth.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.11.059",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2024.11.059",
    openalex = "W4406214272",
    references = "doi101098rspb20221627"
}

@article{doi101111joa14240,
    author = "Chen, Donglei",
    title = "Lungfish‐like antero‐labial tooth addition and amphibian‐like enameloid‐enamel transition in the coronoid of a Devonian stem actinopterygian",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "New teeth are predominantly initiated lingually or postero-lingually to the old teeth in vertebrates. Osteichthyan dentitions typically consist of linear rows of shedding teeth, but internal to the marginal jawbones osteichthyans primitively have an extra dental arcade, in which teeth are sometimes spread out into a field and not organized in rows. The tooth plates of lungfish are specialized from the jawbones of the inner dental arcade, but the teeth are arranged in radial tooth rows with new teeth added at the anterior and labial end of the rows and without shedding the old teeth, distinct from other osteichthyan dentitions. Actinopterygian teeth can be recognized by a cap of enameloid, while sarcopterygian teeth are only coated by enamel. An enameloid cap is also borne by the unicuspid larval teeth in some amphibians, but it is covered by enamel and eventually disappears in the bicuspid adult teeth. In early osteichthyans, old teeth are often not completely resorbed and shed, and the overlapping relationship of their remnants buried in the bone records the sequence of developmental events. Using synchrotron microtomography, this ontogenetic record of a coronoid tooth field of a Devonian stem actinopterygian is visualized in 3D. As a component of the inner dental arcade, the coronoid displays initial radial non-shedding tooth rows followed by radial shedding tooth rows that are later transformed into linear shedding tooth rows. The teeth are always added antero-labially and replaced labially to keep pace with the labial bone apposition and lingual bone remodeling, which causes the shift of the tooth competent zone. These provide a clue to the evolution of the radial non-shedding dentition with antero-labial tooth addition in lungfish. The tooth patterning process suggests that the superficial disorder of the tooth field is an epiphenomenon of the ever-changing local developing environment of each tooth bud: due to the retention of old tooth bases, a tooth position that has been replaced in place can at some point drift to a site between the adjacent tooth positions, splitting or merging, and then continue being replaced in situ. Primary teeth are capped by enameloid, but replacement teeth bear enamel crests without an enameloid cap. This demonstrates that the transition from enameloid capping to enamel coating through tooth replacement can happen in actinopterygians too, as one of the mechanisms for a dentition to change tooth shape. All these unexpected observations indicate that, during ontogeny, the states of dental characters, such as lingual/labial tooth initiation, linear/radial tooth rows, in situ/cross-position tooth replacement and enameloid/enamel, can be switched and the capacity to produce these characters can be suspended or reactivated; the tremendous dental diversity can thus be attributed to the manipulation in time and space of relatively few dental developmental processes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.14240",
    doi = "10.1111/joa.14240",
    openalex = "W4408464379",
    references = "doi101098rsbl20200750"
}