@article{doi101130gsab14227,
    author = "Newsom, John",
    title = "Clastic dikes",
    year = "1903",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/gsab-14-227",
    doi = "10.1130/gsab-14-227",
    openalex = "W4230665968"
}

@article{jenkins1925clastic,
    author = "Jenkins, O. P.",
    title = "Clastic dikes of eastern Washington and their geologic significance",
    year = "1925",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.s5-10.57.234",
    doi = "10.2475/ajs.s5-10.57.234",
    number = "57",
    openalex = "W2323071324",
    pages = "234-246",
    volume = "s5-10"
}

@article{doi1013063d93340816b111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Pierce, William Gamewell",
    title = "HEART MOUNTAIN AND SOUTH FORK THRUSTS, PARK COUNTY, WYOMING",
    year = "1941",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract: The Heart Mountain thrust sheet of northwestern Wyoming is traceable from Clark Fork Valley southward across Sunlight Basin and across the North and South forks of the Shoshone River. If it continues still farther southward into the northwestern part of the Wind River Basin, as appears possible, its linear extent is more than 90 miles. The thrust sheet moved eastward a distance of more than 36 miles, much of which was across the surface of the land. The South Fork thrust is beneath, and is older than, the Heart Mountain thrust. The rocks of the South Fork overthrust sheet are sedimentary formations of Jurassic and Cretaceous age, whereas those of the Heart Mountain thrust sheet are limestones and dolomites of Paleozoic age. A trough-like fold of the South Fork thrust sheet, which appears to have been downfolded after the thrusting, lies in the valley of the South Fork of the Shoshone River. It is 8 miles in length and bounded at both ends by transverse faults. The rocks in the trough have been folded into a syncline and a recumbent anticline presumably formed during the emplacement of the thrust. Northeastward from the South Fork of the Shoshone, the thrust extends as a low-angle fault into the Shoshone Reservoir, where it is thought that the inclination and trend change abruptly, and that the fault thence continues to the northwest up Rattlesnake Valley as a high- angle shear fault. On the basis of structural deformation, the Wasatch formation of this region is divisible into two units. The emplacement of the South Fork thrust followed the deposition of the earlier unit and the emplacement of the Heart Mountain thrust followed the deposition of the later unit. After the emplacement and partial erosion of the Heart Mountain thrust sheet the tuffaceous sediments and volcanic rocks comprising the “early basic breccia” of the region were deposited. Vertebrate fossils from beds below the Heart Mountain thrust and others from beds above the thrust indicate that the thrusting took place near the close of the lower Eocene. The South Fork thrust was formed some time earlier in the Eocene.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/3d933408-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/3d933408-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2081662506"
}

@article{anderson1944clastic,
    author = "Anderson, J. L.",
    title = "Clastic Dikes of the Chira and Verdun Formations Northwestern Peru",
    year = "1944",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/625215",
    doi = "10.1086/625215",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2013814971",
    pages = "250-263",
    volume = "52"
}

@article{doi101130gsab551431,
    author = "Lupher, Ralph L.",
    title = "Clastic dikes of the Columbia Basin region, Washington and Idaho",
    year = "1944",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/gsab-55-1431",
    doi = "10.1130/gsab-55-1431",
    openalex = "W1910964591"
}

@article{crossref1952structure,
    title = "Structure plan of clastic dikes",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union",
    abstract = "Conclusions drawn from field observations are that vertical sandstone dikes of the White River Badlands, South Dakota, originated as open fractures that were filled with debris supplied by erosion of overlying formations. One existing explanation is that the dikes formed in deep desiccation cracks which developed at the surface as the silts and clays of the Oligocene White River group became consolidated. Evidence from a recent study of a small area of clastic dikes is incompatible with the desiccation‐crack theory of origin. The pattern of intersecting dikes, when mapped, resembles a fracture system rather than having a hexagonal arrangement normally associated with desiccation cracks. Shear fractures appear on the map intersecting at angles of 54° to 71°, the acute bisectrix varying in strike from N 45°W to N 54°W. One dike occupies a major tension fracture, strikes N 50°W, and extends vertically through two beds of strikingly different lithology, a condition unlikely to occur with desiccation cracks. South of the area, normal faults of small vertical displacement, trending northwest, suggest minor regional tension, which may well have caused the development of a fracture pattern as displayed by the dikes. If these fractures were open at the surface, subsequent filling from above would follow, resulting in numerous intersecting clastic dikes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/tr033i006p00889",
    doi = "10.1029/tr033i006p00889",
    number = "6",
    openalex = "W2086665876",
    pages = "889-892",
    volume = "33",
    references = "doi101130gsab14227"
}

@article{doi101029tr033i006p00889,
    author = "Smith, Kenneth G. C.",
    title = "Structure plan of clastic dikes",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "Transactions American Geophysical Union",
    abstract = "Conclusions drawn from field observations are that vertical sandstone dikes of the White River Badlands, South Dakota, originated as open fractures that were filled with debris supplied by erosion of overlying formations. One existing explanation is that the dikes formed in deep desiccation cracks which developed at the surface as the silts and clays of the Oligocene White River group became consolidated. Evidence from a recent study of a small area of clastic dikes is incompatible with the desiccation‐crack theory of origin. The pattern of intersecting dikes, when mapped, resembles a fracture system rather than having a hexagonal arrangement normally associated with desiccation cracks. Shear fractures appear on the map intersecting at angles of 54° to 71°, the acute bisectrix varying in strike from N 45°W to N 54°W. One dike occupies a major tension fracture, strikes N 50°W, and extends vertically through two beds of strikingly different lithology, a condition unlikely to occur with desiccation cracks. South of the area, normal faults of small vertical displacement, trending northwest, suggest minor regional tension, which may well have caused the development of a fracture pattern as displayed by the dikes. If these fractures were open at the surface, subsequent filling from above would follow, resulting in numerous intersecting clastic dikes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/tr033i006p00889",
    doi = "10.1029/tr033i006p00889",
    openalex = "W2086665876",
    references = "doi101130gsab14227"
}

@article{doi1013060bda584016bd11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Pierce, William Gamewell",
    title = "Heart Mountain and South Fork Detachment Thrusts of Wyoming",
    year = "1957",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT In broad outline the Heart Mountain fault of Wyoming is a nearly horizontal thrust whose overriding sheet was derived from a source without any known roots, and whose frontal part has ridden across a former land surface. The suggestion is here made that this thrust and the near-by South Fork thrust are detachment thrusts or decollements, that is, they are sheets of sedimentary rocks which have broken loose along a basal shearing plane, have moved long distances probably by gravitational gliding, and have been deformed independently from the rocks below the fault plane. The present remnants of the Heart Mountain thrust sheet include more than 50 separate blocks which range in size from a few hundred feet to 5 miles across and which are scattered over a triangular area 30 miles wide and 60 miles long. The rock formations represented in the thrust blocks comprise a very limited stratigraphic range, none being older than the Bighorn dolomite (Ordovician) and none younger than the Madison limestone (Mississippian). The maximum stratigraphic thickness of the formations involved is 1,800 feet, but these include the most competent group of beds in the sedimentary sequence in this area. In the northwestern part of its known extent the Heart Mountain thrust plane follows the bedding of the rocks and lies at the base of the massive and resistant Bighorn dolomite and above the underlying Grove Creek formation (a thin unit at the top of the Cambrian sequence). Near the center of the area here described this bedding thrust plane changes abruptly to a shear plane that cuts stratigraphically upward across the Bighorn and younger formations; the thrust plane then passes southeastward onto and across a former land surface. The present thrust remnants on this surface are separated blocks that rest on rocks ranging in age from Paleozoic to Tertiary. In the area of the bedding thrust the displaced sheet was broken into numerous blocks which became detached from one another by movement, with large spaces or gaps separating them. Thus by tectonic denudation the thrust plane was exposed at the surface. Associated with the events accompanying the thrusting was the rapid formation of a stream channel deposit, here named the Crandall conglomerate. Next there followed the deposition of the “early basic breccia.” This blanket of volcanic rock, which is now in the process of being eroded, has preserved much of the geologic record pertaining to the development of the Heart Mountain thrust since middle Eocene time. The concept is here advanced that, near the close of early Eocene time, the Heart Mountain thrust originated as a detachment or shearing-off of strata at the base of the Bighorn dolomite. Near Dead Indian Hill the advancing southeastern edge of this bedding thrust sheet passed upward into a shear thrust and thence southeastward onto and across the land surface as an erosion thrust. The South Fork thrust sheet, which underlies and is slightly older than the Heart Mountain thrust sheet, likewise has the character of a detachment thrust in that the plane of the thrust sheet extends downward to a stratigraphic horizon in the Sundance formation, but goes no farther. In three test wells which started in the South Fork thrust sheet, the plane of the thrust was found at depths of 550 to 1,040 feet, and the beds below are essentially undeformed. Characteristic features of the South Fork thrust mass, which suggest a detachment thrust (decollement), are: (1) tightly folded anticlines and synclines and overturned, recumbent, and faulted folds; (2) the base of the thrust mass is in most places at or near a stratigraphic horizon; (3) so far as known, it has no “roots” from which it could have come as a deep-seated thrust; (4) the thrust mass contains no rocks from below the plane of detachment. Although the South Fork thrust mass reacted to deformation quite differently from the Heart Mountain thrust blocks, the differences are readily accounted for by the great lithologic differences of the rocks of the two sheets. To test further the proposed interpretation for the Heart Mountain and South Fork thrusts, additional field observations should be made to shed more light on the mechanics of the deformation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/0bda5840-16bd-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/0bda5840-16bd-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2120973411",
    references = "doi101029tr014i001p00238, doi101086622560, doi101086624734, doi101130001676061946571033oamott20co2, doi101130001676061956671295rogio20co2, doi101130gsab481257, doi101130gsab55165, doi1013063d93340816b111d78645000102c1865d, doi102475ajs2526321, openalexw1539670747"
}

@article{doi101086627491,
    author = "Hughes, C.J.",
    title = "The Heart Mountain Detachment Fault: A Volcanic Phenomenon?",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = {Conventional gravity tectonics alone do not account satisfactorily for the low-angle Heart Mountain detachment fault that is associated in space and time with the inception of volcanism in the Absaroka volcanic field. In the light of recent advances in knowledge of vesiculation and fluidization processes, it is here envisaged that voluminous volcanic gas was intruded laterally at a favored stratigraphic horizon below extremely massive limestone, effectively reducing friction so that an extensive but thin sheet of this limestone and overlying rocks were able to slide along a very gentle slope. Where the sheet cracked, gas and rluidized material escaped, and blocks of the hovering and sliding sheet abruptly came to rest. This hypothesis meets certain physical requirements imposed by depth of vesiculation and explains various puzzling major and minor structural features. Further discussion concerns possible analogies and prerequisites for "hovercraft" tectonics to occur.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/627491",
    doi = "10.1086/627491",
    openalex = "W1975167775",
    references = "doi101029tr014i001p00238, doi101093petrology5121, doi1010970001069419650800000018, doi101130001676061963741225rcdfnw20co2, doi10113000167606196576469rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606196879653lafial20co2, doi101130gsab481257, doi1013060bda584016bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi102475ajs263140, doi105962bhltitle62079"
}

@article{doi101086627492,
    author = "Pierce, William Gamewell and Nelson, Willis H.",
    title = "The Heart Mountain Detachment Fault: A Volcanic Phenomenon? A Discussion",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "Neither the dispersed nature of the Heart Mountain fault blocks nor the fault breccia are compatible with the hovercraft mechanism proposed by C. J. Hughes. The upper plate was not emplaced as a coherent sheet; it broke up into numerous blocks soon after movement began, and the blocks became widely separated before movement ceased. If they had been supported initially by high gas pressure, the pressure would have been lost long before the blocks came to rest. The fault breccia was examined at thirty localities; volcanic rock fragments were found only at one, and there they apparently were derived from rocks that are older than the faulting.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/627492",
    doi = "10.1086/627492",
    openalex = "W1968015896"
}

@article{doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2,
    author = "Nelson, Willis H. and Pierce, William Gamewell and Parsons, Willard H. and Brophy, Gerald P.",
    title = "Igneous Activity, Metamorphism, and Heart Mountain Faulting at White Mountain, Northwestern Wyoming",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2607:iamahm]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2607:iamahm]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2126432547"
}

@article{doi101130001676061974851413tdossc20co2,
    author = "Boulter, C.A.",
    title = "Tectonic Deformation of Soft Sedimentary Clastic Dikes from the Precambrian Rocks of Tasmania, Australia, with Particular Reference to Their Relations with Cleavages",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1413:tdossc>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1413:tdossc>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2019439789"
}

@article{openalexw2284748018,
    author = "Pierce, William Gamewell",
    title = "Principal Features of the Heart Mountain Fault and the Mechanism Problem",
    year = "1975",
    openalex = "W2284748018"
}

@incollection{doi101016b9780444415073500209,
    title = "Heart Mountain Fault and Absaroka Volcanism, Wyoming and Montana, U.S.A.",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "Developments in geotechnical engineering",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-41507-3.50020-9",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-444-41507-3.50020-9",
    openalex = "W164411557",
    references = "doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2"
}

@misc{doi1021727096853,
    author = "Black, Robert F.",
    title = "Clastic dikes of the Pasco Basin, Southeastern Washington. Final report",
    year = "1979",
    abstract = "Clastic dikes are planar features, commonly wedge shaped in cross section, with their apices mostly downward. They are filled with clastic sediments from clay to gravel in size. Three days were spent in the Pasco Basin examining clastic dikes in 10 localities. It was clear from the field observations, summarized in the text, that the features called clastic dikes are multigenetic. Previously proposed theories of origin of the initial fractures, involving earthquakes, desiccation, deep frost cracking, thermal contraction cracking of permafrost, and upward injection of groundwater are not considered primary modes of formation of most initial cracks observed. However, the mechanism of cracking is not yet fully understood. The bulk of material filling most observed fractures came from above during aperiodic and repeated widening and concurrent filling (under an aqueous environment). No evidence for horizontal compression of the dikes or their margins was observed, as from thermal changes or wetting and drying. A loading hypothesis from catastrophic scabland floods is outlined as a possible cause for many typical clastic dikes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2172/7096853",
    doi = "10.2172/7096853",
    openalex = "W207748296",
    references = "doi1010160033589476900375, doi1010160033589478900996, doi1011300091761319786567nefpfi20co2, doi101130gsab551431, doi101130spe144, doi101146annurevea04050176000451, jenkins1925clastic, openalexw268639061"
}

@article{doi103133pp1133,
    author = "Pierce, William Gamewell",
    title = "Clastic dikes of Heart Mountain fault breccia, northwestern Wyoming, and their significance",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "USGS professional paper",
    abstract = "Formation. Thus, calcibreccia dikes in the Cathedral Cliffs and Lamar River Formations show a sharp contact because the country rock solidified prior to fault movement, whereas calcibreccia dikes in the Wapiti Formation in many instances show a transitional or semifluid contact because the country rock was still unconsolidated or semifluid at the time of dike injection.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1133",
    doi = "10.3133/pp1133",
    openalex = "W98416624",
    references = "doi101029tr014i001p00238, doi101086627491, doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2, doi101130001676061977881667dawtmo20co2, doi1013060bda584016bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi103133pp729c, openalexw2284748018"
}

@misc{pierce1979clastic,
    author = "Pierce, W.G.",
    title = "Clastic dikes of Heart Mountain fault breccia, northwestern Wyoming, and their significance",
    year = "1979",
    booktitle = "Professional Paper",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1133",
    doi = "10.3133/pp1133"
}

@misc{pierce1979clastic1,
    author = "Pierce, W. G",
    title = "Clastic dikes of the Heart Mountain fault breccia, northwestern Wyoming, and their significance",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper, v. 1133; 25 pp",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Pierce, W. G., 1979, Clastic dikes of the Heart Mountain fault breccia, northwestern Wyoming, and their significance: United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper, v. 1133; 25 pp.}"
}

@article{pierce1980the,
    author = "PIERCE, WILLIAM G.",
    title = "The Heart Mountain break-away fault, northwestern Wyoming",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1980)91<272:thmbfn>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1980)91<272:thmbfn>2.0.co;2",
    number = "5",
    pages = "272",
    volume = "91"
}

@article{openalexw1588277311,
    author = "Hauge, Thomas A.",
    title = "The Heart Mountain Detachment Fault, Northwest Wyoming: Involvement of Absaroka Volcanic Rock",
    year = "1982",
    openalex = "W1588277311"
}

@article{doi10108011035898609453740,
    author = "Åmark, Max",
    title = "Clastic dikes formed beneath an active glacier",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar",
    abstract = "Abstract Clastic dikes (dykes) consisting of diamicton and sand were observed in a diamicton bed and in an underlying bed of gravel at a site in the province of Skåne, southern Sweden. In the diamicton bed, a clastic sill made up of laminated sand and gravel also occurs. Features resembling the observed dikes, but made up of only diamicton have been named till wedges. The dikes dip 45–90° and are parallel to each other in the horizontal plane. The largest dikes are 0.8–2.5 m wide and at least 4.0–5.5 m deep. The dikes and the sill were formed beneath an active glacier which fractured the bed. The dikes became infilled with drift from above. Although the dikes and the sill may have been produced when the glacier bed was unfrozen, it seems more likely that they were formed when frozen-bed conditions prevailed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/11035898609453740",
    doi = "10.1080/11035898609453740",
    openalex = "W2035461236",
    references = "doi101007978146133793516, doi1010160012825268901384, doi1010160033589476900375, doi10108011035897209453693, doi10108011035897309454225, doi10108020014422195911904377, doi101111j150238851979tb00802x, doi101139e74158, doi102475ajs2578545, doi1037570bgsd19782706"
}

@incollection{pierce1987heart,
    author = "Pierce, William G.",
    title = "Heart Mountain detachment fault and elastic dikes offault breccia, and Heart Mountain break-away fault, Wyoming and Montana",
    year = "1987",
    booktitle = "Rocky Mountain Section of the Geological Society of America",
    abstract = "This text includes two sites: the first is the Heart Mountain detachment fault and elastic dikes of fault breccia (Site 33 in Fig. 1); the second, located 1 mi (2 km)to the west of the first, is a related feature termed the Heart Mountain break-away fault (Site 33 in Fig. 1). If only one site can be examined, Site 33 should be selected: It is more accessible, and has better exposures and more features pertaining to the Heart Mountain fault. Site 33 (Fig. 1), showing the Heart Mountain detachment fault and elastic dikes, is situated 0.5 mi (0.8 km) due south of Silver Gate, Montana. It can be reached on foot by climbing a steep mountain slope (600-vertical ft (180-m) gain in 1,800 ft (540 m), beginning at the end of the road 1,000 ft (300 m) south of the Post Office. The site is on public land but at the outset 300 ft (100 m) of private land must be crossed when taking the most direct route. The owner of the undeveloped private land does not object to scientists crossing her land to reach Site 33.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0-8137-5402-x.147",
    doi = "10.1130/0-8137-5402-x.147",
    pages = "147-154"
}

@article{doi101111j136521171995tb00103x,
    author = "Forshee, E. J. and Yin, An",
    title = "Evolution of monolithological breccia deposits in supradetachment basins, Whipple Mountains, California",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Extensive sheets of monolithological breccia (megabreccia) within detachment‐fault systems of the North American Cordillera have been identified as large landslides. Although the origin of the megabreccia deposits is controversial, their spatial and temporal association with detachment‐fault systems implies a causal relationship between the initiation of such landslides and motion along detachment faults. Emplacement may have been catastrophic following seismic activity, or slow, as the result of gravity gliding. Nevertheless, comprehensive analysis of these deposits provides important constraints on the evolution of supradetachment basins by detailing the unroofing history, palaeotopography and palaeoseismicity of detachment‐fault systems. An extensive Miocene landslide deposit, the War Eagle landslide, in the north‐eastern Whipple Mountains, provides an opportunity for such an endeavour to elucidate: (1) the cause and timing of its initiation; (2) mechanism for its emplacement; (3) nature of the apparent association of the landslide with detachment‐fault development; and (4) role of the megabreccia in the development of supradetachment basins. Cross‐sections were drawn through the deposit to determine the geometry and kinematic development of the landslide. Additionally, a simple mechanical model based on limit equilibrium force balance was designed to explore physical mechanisms that controlled its creation. The results of this model combined with field relationships suggest that the Whipple detachment fault was active at an angle of less than 30° with displacement most likely accompanied by the release of seismic energy. Continued extensional evolution of the Whipple detachment fault caused tilting of the upper‐plate strata and the formation of numerous half and full grabens as well as roll‐over structures. Rocks from the lower plate were brought to the surface during the later stages of detachment‐fault activity thereby producing sufficient topographic relief for large landslides to be seismically activated. Increased pore‐fluid pressure in the footwall subjacent to the Whipple detachment fault probably aided landslide initiation. The landslide was emplaced onto the upper plate of the detachment fault, providing a significant amount of material into the evolving supradetachment basin. Although the rate of emplacement of the megabreccia remains uncertain, penetrative fracturing throughout the breccia sheet is evidence that emplacement occurred catastrophically. The results of this study indicate that Tertiary megabreccias were emplaced during continued detachment‐fault evolution, implying oversteepened topography and seismicity of these low‐angle systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.1995.tb00103.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2117.1995.tb00103.x",
    openalex = "W2020656358",
    references = "doi101007bf01239474, doi101007bf01241087, doi1010160191814182900219, doi101086627142, doi10113000167606195970115rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606196576469rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606197586129cdssgb20co2, doi10113000167606198293606lotrop20co2, doi101130mem153p7, doi101130spe108p1, doi101306bdff8858171811d78645000102c1865d, guth1982limitations"
}

@article{doi101130g220011,
    author = "Levi, T. and Weinberger, R. and Aı̈fa, Tahar and Eyal, Yehuda and Marco, Shmuel",
    title = "Earthquake-induced clastic dikes detected by anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Geology",
    abstract = "International audience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/g22001.1",
    doi = "10.1130/g22001.1",
    openalex = "W2016999140",
    references = "doi1010070306481286, doi1010160037073895000224, doi1010160040195181901438, doi101016jgca200307016, doi101016s001282529600044x, doi101016s0025322701001517, doi101016s0040195199001158, doi1011300091761319950230695pednmd23co2, doi1011440016764902025, openalexw1608779755"
}

@article{doi102113gsrocky442147,
    author = "Beutner, Edward C. and Hauge, Thomas A.",
    title = "Heart Mountain and South Fork fault systems: Architecture and evolution of the collapse of an Eocene volcanic system, northwest Wyoming",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Rocky Mountain geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/gsrocky.44.2.147",
    doi = "10.2113/gsrocky.44.2.147",
    openalex = "W2143506018",
    references = "doi1010160016003249901593, doi1010160377027384900027, doi101029jb088ib02p01153, doi101029jb089ib12p10087, doi101086627492, doi10113000167606195970115rofpim20co2, doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2, doi10113000167606197586129cdssgb20co2, doi101306m82813c9, doi101680geot195444143, doi103133gq1244, doi103133pp1133, doi105860choice281579, openalexw2912219260, pierce1979clastic, pierce1980the"
}

@article{doi101016jtecto201011012,
    author = "Levi, T. and Weinberger, R. and Eyal, Yehuda",
    title = "A coupled fluid-fracture approach to propagation of clastic dikes during earthquakes",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2010.11.012",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tecto.2010.11.012",
    openalex = "W1990789934",
    references = "doi1010160040195181901438, doi101016s0013795296000403, doi101016s0065215608701212, doi10102993jb01391, doi10111512899458, doi101146annurevea23050195001443, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992, doi105860choice331557, openalexw1587261652, openalexw1598440325"
}

@article{doi1010292009jb007113,
    author = "Goren, Liran and Aharonov, Einat and Anders, Mark H.",
    title = "The long runout of the Heart Mountain landslide: Heating, pressurization, and carbonate decomposition",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The Heart Mountain landslide of northwestern Wyoming is the largest subaerial landslide known. This Eocene age slide slid ∼50 km along a shallow 2° slope, posing a long‐standing enigma regarding its emplacement mechanism. We suggest here a mechanism for the catastrophic emplacement of the Heart Mountain landslide that is independent of slide triggering. The mechanism is a feedback between shear heating, thermal pressurization, and thermal decomposition of carbonates at the slide shear zone. Such a feedback arises when a porous, fluid‐filled shear zone heats up because of frictional sliding. If the shear zone is confined, the generated heat leads to pore pressure rise, which in turn reduces frictional resistance to sliding, leading to acceleration. Temperatures at the shear zone quickly reach the decomposition temperature of carbonates. Since the shear zone of the Heart Mountain slide is located within a dolomite layer, it is expected that thermal decomposition of dolomite occurred within the Heart Mountain shear zone. This prediction is supported by ample field evidence for carbonate decomposition during the emplacement. Simulation of the sliding dynamics of the Heart Mountain block, accounting for feedback between shear heating, thermal pressurization, and thermal decomposition of carbonates, successfully reproduce the travel distance of the Heart Mountain block. The simulation results also predict that the maximum sliding velocity ranged between tens of meters per second to more than 100 m s −1 (depending on model assumptions) and that the duration of sliding was of the order of a few tens of minutes, in agreement with previous assessments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jb007113",
    doi = "10.1029/2009jb007113",
    openalex = "W2037252849",
    references = "doi101007pl00012574, doi101016c20130193257, doi101017cbo9780511800955, doi1010292004jf000268, doi1010292005jb004006, doi1010292008jb005588, doi101086507612, doi101086656383, doi101111j1365246x1972tb06152x, doi101126science1139763, doi101130b26340, doi101130g220271, doi1013060bda584016bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi1015159781400885688, doi103133pp1133, openalexw1607401957, pierce1979clastic"
}

@article{doi101086656383,
    author = "Anders, Mark H. and Fouke, Bruce W. and Zerkle, Aubrey L. and Tavarnelli, Enrico and Álvarez, Walter and Harlow, George E.",
    title = "The Role of Calcining and Basal Fluidization in the Long Runout of Carbonate Slides: An Example from the Heart Mountain Slide Block, Wyoming and Montana, U.S.A.",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "In order to understand the movement of large rock masses or allochthons on low-angle surfaces, we have studied the 3400-km2 Heart Mountain slide block of northwestern Wyoming and southwestern Montana. The Heart Mountain slide block was initiated on a 2° gradient, with its toe thrust a minimum of 45 km across an early Eocene landscape. The slide block moved on a basal layer that ranges in thickness from a few tens of centimeters to several meters. This basal layer commonly has a concrete-like appearance of rounded, mixed-lithology grains in a fine-grained carbonate matrix, and in some locations it has features similar to sedimentary deposits, including both normal and inverse grading, flow banding, turbidite-like structures, and clastic dikes containing pieces of carbonized wood. Nowhere did we observe crosscutting relationships in the basal layer or overlying clastic dikes, as would be expected from incremental or noncatastrophic emplacement. Results from cathodoluminescence and δ18O, δ13C, and 87Sr/86Sr isotopic compositions from the basal layer support a single movement event followed by hydrothermal and meteoric fluids percolating through a permeable basal layer. These observations suggest that a catastrophic movement on the detachment resulted in frictional heating at the base of the slide. When the generated heat was at least 800°C, calcining of carbonates occurred, yielding calcium and magnesium oxide powders and carbon dioxide gas. The calcium oxide powder became mechanically fluidized by the pressurized carbon dioxide gas, leading to a reduced coefficient of friction at the base of the slide, which in turn permitted the long runout on such a low-angle surface. This mechanism might be applied to explain a wide range of catastrophic sliding events where carbonate rocks are involved.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/656383",
    doi = "10.1086/656383",
    openalex = "W2056326789",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900535, doi1010160016703790901288, doi1010160191814185901506, doi101016s0009254197001599, doi101016s0009254199000819, doi101017cbo9780511818516, doi101029tr014i001p00238, doi101086507612, doi101086627491, doi101098rspa19540186, doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2, doi10113000167606197586129cdssgb20co2, doi101130b26340, doi101130g220271, doi1013060bda584016bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi101680cc25929, doi102113gsrocky442147, openalexw1588277311, openalexw286951878, pierce1980the"
}

@article{doi101130l1871,
    author = "Maher, Harmon and Shuster, Robert",
    title = "Chalcedony vein horizons and clastic dikes in the White River Group as products of diagenetically driven deformation",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Lithosphere",
    abstract = "Chalcedony veins occur as local stratabound arrays at multiple levels within the fi ner-grained sediments of the White River Group, making up to 2\%-3\% of the outcrop volume. The veins are commonly deformed by small folds, faults with well-developed striae, and various foldfault combinations, and they also exhibit striae and slickenslides on vein walls. These indicate signifi cant vertical shortening of the veins. The combination of a stratabound distribution and vertical shortening is consistent with an origin by diagenetically driven deformation, where changes in clay and/or silica phases drive syneresis and associated dewatering and compaction. In this way, the chalcedony veins bear similarities in origin to stratabound polygonal normal fault systems seen in fi ne-grained marine strata. Smectite clays, silica phases, and clinoptolite in the White River Group are associated with diagenetic reactions that could produce syneresis. At different localities, vein strike distributions vary from being statistically random to highly organized. These distributions are also consistent with a syneresis origin, with local stress fi elds organizing the distribution into multiple coeval directions in some cases. Chalcedony veins locally occur inside and parallel to clastic dikes, clearly indicating that the veins were emplaced at the same time as or after the dikes. Thin-section textures from dike-vein composites indicate that vein formation occurred while the clastic fi ll was unlithifi ed and still mobile. These relationships, along with common orientations when in proximity, link clastic dike and chalcedony vein formation. Dikes also show complex strike orientation distributions that differ by locality. Internal dike features indicate multiple fi ll events with intervening lithifi cation. Evidence for vertical dike shortening suggests synchronous or later compaction. The clastic dikes are also postulated to result from syneresis. We suggest that chalcedony vein formation, silica mobilization, local uranium mineralization, and clastic dike formation are part of diagenetically driven fracture development that produced a fl uid fl ow network, initiating feedback relationships among diagenesis, dewatering, fl uid migration, and associated compaction. Given that the clastic dikes occur within the Sharps Formation, the event was Miocene or later.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/l187.1",
    doi = "10.1130/l187.1",
    openalex = "W2047107945",
    references = "crossref1952structure, doi1010160191814194901473, doi101016jjsg201010001, doi101016s0264817299000355, doi101029tr033i006p00889, doi101046j13652117199601536x, doi101111j13652117200300224x, doi101126science2394839471, doi1011300016760619981101242lbcfif23co2, doi101130spe70, doi10130608110909100, doi101346ccmn19930410202"
}

@article{doi102113gsrocky48163,
    author = "Hauge, Thomas A.",
    title = "South Fork Fault as a gravity slide: Its break-away, timing, and emplacement, northwestern Wyoming, U.S.A.: COMMENT",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Rocky Mountain geology",
    abstract = "Clarey's (2012) model for South Fork (SF) thrusting contains major errors as regards timing of emplacement, number of emplacement events, magnitude of displacement, and geometry of the SF allochthon. A model better supported by data: (1) has SF thrusting taking place before local emplacement of the Heart Mountain (HM) allochthon, rather than after; (2) has emplacement of the SF allochthon by multiple events rather than by a single catastrophic event; (3) envisions only gradual changes in the magnitude of displacement along strike of the SF thrust system, rather than abrupt doubling of displacement across tear faults; (4) regards the SF allochthon as segmented by tear faults only where it has moved across footwall lateral ramps, not in its hinterland; and (5) recognizes that the fault viewed by Clarey (2012) as a break-away to the SF system is instead a fault within the HM allochthon. Clarey's (2012) claim that SF thrusting postdated emplacement of the HM allochthon is based on his assertion that the HM detachment and overlying allochthon are folded above the SF frontal ramp, both on his section A–A′ and near the Castle fault. This argument is disproven by the geologic map of Pierce and Nelson (1969), which presents a much more complete picture of relevant relationships than is shown in Clarey (2012). Pierce and Nelson's (1969) cross section A–A′ is drawn where the preserved HM allochthon and the SF frontal ramp are in …",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/gsrocky.48.1.63",
    doi = "10.2113/gsrocky.48.1.63",
    openalex = "W2326560907",
    references = "doi102113gsrocky47155"
}

@article{openalexw3092008185,
    author = "Clarey, Timothy L.",
    title = "South Fork and Heart Mountain Faults: Examples of Catastrophic, Gravity-Driven “Overthrusts,” Northwest Wyoming, USA",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "DigitalCommons-Cedarville (Cedarville University)",
    abstract = "Overthrust faults have been a source of debate and discussion in creation literature for many years. Their interpretation demands a better explanation in a Flood context. Two fault systems are examined as analogies for an “overthrust” model. The South Fork Fault System (SFFS) and the Heart Mountain Fault System (HMFS) exhibit folding and faulting consistent with thin-skinned overthrust systems. Both systems moved catastrophically under the influence of gravity. The South Fork Fault system (SFFS, southwest of Cody, Wyoming, exhibits tear faults, tight folds, a triangle zone, and flat-ramp geometries along the leading edge of the system. Transport was southeast, down a gentle slope during early to middle Eocene time (Late Flood), approximately coeval with the Heart Mountain Fault system (HMFS). The SFFS detaches in lower Jurassic strata, rich in gypsum-anhydrite, overlain by about 1250 m of Jurassic through Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Movement between 5 km and 10 km to the southeast spread the allochthonous mass over an area exceeding 1400 km2. A break-away fault and an area of tectonic denudation mark the upper northwest part of the system. The exposed denuded surface was buried by additional Eocene-age volcanic rocks soon after slip. Catastrophic rear-loading during emplacement of HMFS may have initiated subsequent movement on the SFFS, with dehydration processes trapping water in a near frictionless anhydrite-water slurry. Rapid development of near-surface folds, as observed in the toe of the SFFS, could only have developed while the sediments were still unlithified.",
    openalex = "W3092008185",
    references = "doi101029jb088ib02p01153, doi10113000167606195970115rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606195970167rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606196576469rofpim20co2, doi101130001676061978891189motfb20co2, doi10113000167606198293606lotrop20co2, doi1011300016760619881001898tmpolo23co2, doi101130b26340, doi102113gsrocky47155, doi105860choice460896, guth1982limitations, openalexw2107320391, openalexw2965328582, openalexw641576879"
}

@article{doi101016jepsl201410051,
    author = "Mitchell, T. M. and Smith, Steven A. and Anders, Mark H. and Toro, Giulio Di and Nielsen, S. B. and Cavallo, Andrea and Beard, Andrew",
    title = "Catastrophic emplacement of giant landslides aided by thermal decomposition: Heart Mountain, Wyoming",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    abstract = "The Heart Mountain landslide of northwest Wyoming is the largest known sub-aerial landslide on Earth. During its emplacement more than 2000 km3 of Paleozoic sedimentary and Eocene volcanic rocks slid >45 km on a basal detachment surface dipping 2°, leading to 100 yr of debate regarding the emplacement mechanisms. Recently, emplacement by catastrophic sliding has been favored, but experimental evidence in support of this is lacking. Here we show in friction experiments on carbonate rocks taken from the landslide that at slip velocities of several meters per second CO2 starts to degas due to thermal decomposition induced by flash heating after only a few hundred microns of slip. This is associated with the formation of vesicular degassing rims in dolomite clasts and a crystalline calcite cement that closely resemble microstructures in the basal slip zone of the natural landslide. Our experimental results are consistent with an emplacement mechanism whereby catastrophic slip was aided by carbonate decomposition and release of CO2, allowing the huge upper plate rock mass to slide over a ‘cushion’ of pressurized material.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.10.051",
    doi = "10.1016/j.epsl.2014.10.051",
    openalex = "W2064144400",
    references = "doi1010292009jb007113, doi101086627491, doi101086656383, doi10113000917613200028971sgmbls20co2, doi101130b26340, doi101130g220271, doi101130g327341, doi102113gsrocky442147, openalexw2284748018"
}

@article{doi101086678279,
    author = "Malone, David H. and Craddock, John P. and Anders, Mark H. and Wulff, Andrew H.",
    title = "Constraints on the Emplacement Age of the Heart Mountain Slide, Northwestern Wyoming",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "The Heart Mountain slide is the largest terrestrial landslide deposit as yet recognized on Earth. The slide covers an area of at least 3400 km2, and the upper-plate rocks include 2–4 km of Paleozoic carbonate and Eocene volcanic rocks thrust out over 45 km of Eocene landscape. The precise age and duration of sliding is critical to emplacement models as well the slide’s effect on regional Eocene river systems. To address the timing issues, we sampled zircons from the basal fluidized layer 2 km from the slide’s breakaway fault (Silver Gate, MT) and 40-km downslope, nearer the slide’s toe (White Mountain, WY). Within this basal layer, we have identified mineral content and features consistent with a partially solidified magma. We interpret these observations to be consistent with the slide catastrophically dismembering an active magma body that mixed with the basal fault layer. The results yield remarkably similar U/Pb zircon crystallization ages at the proximal and distal locations: 48.78 ± 0.51 Ma at Silver Gate (n = 48) and 48.88 ± 0.22 Ma at White Mountain (n = 22). These zircon ages from the basal layer are tightly bracketed using various radiometric ages of Eocene Absaroka volcanic units involved in the movement phase of the slide and those deposited after emplacement, including detrital U/Pb zircon ages from the dissected Crandall Conglomerate river system. Our interpretation of the data is that the slide was catastrophically emplaced at 48.87 ± 0.20 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/678279",
    doi = "10.1086/678279",
    openalex = "W1977860230",
    references = "doi101086627491, doi101086627492, doi101086656383, doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2, doi101130g220271, doi101130g327341, doi102113gsrocky442147, openalexw2284748018"
}

@incollection{crossref2015impactfluidized,
    title = "Impact-Fluidized Clastic Dikes",
    year = "2015",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3\_100206",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3\_100206",
    openalex = "W4244012415",
    pages = "1023-1023"
}

@article{doi101086684253,
    author = "Swanson, Erika and Wernicke, Brian P. and Hauge, Thomas A.",
    title = "Episodic Dissolution, Precipitation, and Slip along the Heart Mountain Detachment, Wyoming",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "The Heart Mountain allochthon is among the largest landslide masses in the rock record. The basal fault, the Heart Mountain detachment, is an archetype for the mechanical enigma of brittle fracture and subsequent frictional slip on low-angle faults, both of which appear to occur at ratios of shear stress to normal stress far below those predicted by laboratory experiments. The location of the detachment near the base of thick cratonic carbonates, rather than within subjacent shales, is particularly enigmatic for frictional slip. A broad array of potential mechanisms for failure on this rootless fault have been proposed, the majority of which invoke single-event, catastrophic emplacement of the allochthon. Here, we present field, petrographic, and geochemical evidence for multiple slip events, including cross-cutting clastic dikes and multiple brecciation and veining events. Cataclasites along the fault show abundant evidence of pressure solution creep. Banded grains, which have been cited as evidence for catastrophic emplacement, are associated with stylolitic surfaces and alteration textures that suggest formation through the relatively slow processes of dissolution and chemical alteration rather than dynamic suspension in a fluid. Temperatures of formation of fault-related rocks, as revealed by clumped isotope thermometry, are low and incompatible with models of catastrophic emplacement. We propose that displacement along the gently dipping detachment was initiated near the base of the carbonates as localized patches of viscous yielding, engendered by pressure solution. This yielding, which occurred at very low ratios of shear stress to normal stress, induced local subhorizontal tractions along the base of the allochthon, raising shear stress levels (i.e., locally rotating the stress field) to the point where brittle failure and subsequent slip occurred along the detachment. Iteration of this process over geological time produced the observed multikilometer displacements. This concept does not require conditions and materials that are commonly invoked to resolve the stress paradox for low-angle faults, such as near-lithostatic fluid pressures or relative weakness of phyllosilicates in the brittle regime. Cyclic interaction of viscous creep (here by pressure solution) and brittle failure may occur under any fluid pressure conditions and within any rock type, and as such it may be an attractive mechanism for slip on “misoriented” fault planes in general.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/684253",
    doi = "10.1086/684253",
    openalex = "W2313521370",
    references = "doi101002jms1614, doi1010160016703786903960, doi1010160191814189900369, doi101016jepsl200708020, doi101016jgca200602011, doi101016jjsg201211010, doi10106311671982, doi10113000167606195970115rofpim20co2, doi10113000167606195970167rofpim20co2, doi1011300016760619881001666ssf23co2, doi101144gsjgs14050725, doi102113gsrocky442147, pierce1980the"
}

@article{doi101086692328,
    author = "Malone, David H. and Craddock, John P. and Schmitz, Mark D. and Kenderes, Stuart M. and Kraushaar, Ben and Murphey, Caelan J. and Nielsen, S. B. and Mitchell, T. M.",
    title = "Volcanic Initiation of the Eocene Heart Mountain Slide, Wyoming, USA",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "The Eocene Heart Mountain slide of northwest Wyoming covers an area of as much as 5000 km2 and includes allochthonous Paleozoic carbonate and Eocene volcanic rocks with a run-out distance of as much as 85 km. Recent geochronologic data indicated that the emplacement of the slide event occurred at ∼48.9 Ma, using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) extracted from U-Pb zircon ages from basal layer and injectite carbonate ultracataclasite (CUC). We now refine that age with U-Pb results from a lamprophyre diatreme that is temporally and spatially related to the CUC injectites. The ages for the lamprophyre zircons are 48.97 ± 0.36 Ma (LA-ICPMS) and 49.19 ±0.02 Ma (chemical abrasion isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry). Thus, the lamprophyre and CUC zircons are identical in age, and we interpret that the zircons in the CUC were derived from the lamprophyre during slide emplacement. Moreover, the intrusion of the lamprophyre diatreme provided the trigger mechanism for the Heart Mountain slide. Additional structural data are presented for a variety of calcite twinning strains, results from anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility for the lamprophyre and CUC injectites and alternating-field demagnetization on the lamprophyre, to help constrain slide dynamics. These data indicate that White Mountain experienced a rotation about a vertical axis and minimum of 35° of counterclockwise motion during emplacement.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/692328",
    doi = "10.1086/692328",
    openalex = "W2616130693",
    references = "doi101086684253, doi101130001676061972832607iamahm20co2, doi101130g327341"
}

@article{doi1010292018tc004984,
    author = "Swanson, Erika and Wernicke, Brian P. and Eiler, John M.",
    title = "Fluid Flow, Brecciation, and Shear Heating on Faults: Insights From Carbonate Clumped‐Isotope Thermometry",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Abstract Slip on gently dipping detachments in the brittle crust has been enigmatic for decades, because fracture mechanics laws predict frictional resistance is too great for sliding to occur, except under rather unusual circumstances. The Miocene Mormon Peak detachment in Nevada and the Eocene Heart Mountain detachment in Wyoming are two well‐studied examples of upper crustal, carbonate‐hosted low‐angle detachments, with highly debated slip processes. Both low‐angle faults were active during regional magmatism, and a number of proposed slip mechanisms involve magmatic fluids, frictional heating, or both. To address the role that magmatic fluids and frictional heating may have played in reducing friction, we measured clumped‐isotope ratios on 137 carbonate samples from these faults. The majority of fault breccias and gouges on the detachment slip surface record temperatures that are colder than the host rock. Surprisingly, samples from within 5 m of the Heart Mountain detachment average just 65 °C, and not a single sample (out of 37 measurements, excluding metamorphosed host rock at White Mountain) records a temperature greater than 90 °C. Along both faults, most samples are depleted in δ 18 O relative to the host rock, indicating that meteoric, not magmatic, fluids were present and interacting with the fault rock. However, a few samples preserve temperatures of over 160 °C, which, based on textural and geochemical criteria, are difficult to explain other than by frictional heating during slip. These temperatures are recorded in one sample directly on the Mormon Peak detachment slip surface and in two hanging wall localities above the Heart Mountain detachment.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2018tc004984",
    doi = "10.1029/2018tc004984",
    openalex = "W2885840649",
    references = "doi101086684253"
}

@article{doi105800gt20191020423,
    author = "Лунина, О. В.",
    title = "AN OVERVIEW OF CLASTIC DIKES: SIGNIFICANCE FOR EARTHQUAKE STUDY",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Geodynamics \& Tectonophysics",
    abstract = "Clastic dikes are often the only evidence of past disasters in poorly exposed areas and therefore their findings are extremely important for earthquake study. However, the variety of their origins greatly complicates the use of clastic dikes to assess the seismic hazards within the manifold environments. This paper systematizes main triggers, formation mechanisms and some matching indicative features of tabular and cylindrical bodies with an emphasis on the importance of revealing the injection dikes formed by fluidized injection of clastic material into the host sedimentary layers (from the bottom upwards) and associated with overpressure buildup and hydraulic fracturing. Based on the revision of known seismic liquefaction features and specific descriptions of the injection dikes, this overview defines 12 general and 12 individual geological and structural criteria (for study in sectional view), which make it possible to establish confidently the earthquake origin of the dikes caused by fluidization from seismic liquefaction. In addition, ground penetrating radar data correlating with trenching suggest indicative searching criteria of the injection dikes on radargrams, namely: a pipe‐shaped anomaly or a composite anomaly combining a tubular form in the lower part with an isometric – in the upper [i]; relatively high values of unipolar positive echoes on the trace of GPR signal [ii]; an occurrence of the same anomaly on adjacent parallel profiles located the first tens of meters apart [iii]; and stratigraphic disruptions of the radar events on the background of their continuous horizontal position [iv]. Finally, the paper illustrates that the clastic dikes can be successfully applied to determine the age and the recurrence interval, the epicenter location and a lower‐bound magnitude/intensity of paleoearthquakes, thus providing geological data for seismic hazard assessments in the regions, in which unconsolidated deposits capable to liquefaction are common.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5800/gt-2019-10-2-0423",
    doi = "10.5800/gt-2019-10-2-0423",
    openalex = "W2969971295",
    references = "doi101130gsab551431"
}

@article{lunina2019an,
    author = "Lunina, О. V.",
    title = "AN OVERVIEW OF CLASTIC DIKES: SIGNIFICANCE FOR EARTHQUAKE STUDY",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Geodynamics \& Tectonophysics",
    abstract = "Clastic dikes are often the only evidence of past disasters in poorly exposed areas and therefore their findings are extremely important for earthquake study. However, the variety of their origins greatly complicates the use of clastic dikes to assess the seismic hazards within the manifold environments. This paper systematizes main triggers, formation mechanisms and some matching indicative features of tabular and cylindrical bodies with an emphasis on the importance of revealing the injection dikes formed by fluidized injection of clastic material into the host sedimentary layers (from the bottom upwards) and associated with overpressure buildup and hydraulic fracturing. Based on the revision of known seismic liquefaction features and specific descriptions of the injection dikes, this overview defines 12 general and 12 individual geological and structural criteria (for study in sectional view), which make it possible to establish confidently the earthquake origin of the dikes caused by fluidization from seismic liquefaction. In addition, ground penetrating radar data correlating with trenching suggest indicative searching criteria of the injection dikes on radargrams, namely: a pipe‐shaped anomaly or a composite anomaly combining a tubular form in the lower part with an isometric – in the upper [i]; relatively high values of unipolar positive echoes on the trace of GPR signal [ii]; an occurrence of the same anomaly on adjacent parallel profiles located the first tens of meters apart [iii]; and stratigraphic disruptions of the radar events on the background of their continuous horizontal position [iv]. Finally, the paper illustrates that the clastic dikes can be successfully applied to determine the age and the recurrence interval, the epicenter location and a lower‐bound magnitude/intensity of paleoearthquakes, thus providing geological data for seismic hazard assessments in the regions, in which unconsolidated deposits capable to liquefaction are common.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5800/gt-2019-10-2-0423",
    doi = "10.5800/gt-2019-10-2-0423",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2969971295",
    pages = "483-506",
    volume = "10",
    references = "doi101002eqe4290170101, doi1010160040195175901390, doi101016jepsl201412020, doi101016jsedgeo200608004, doi101016jsedgeo201010003, doi101016jsedgeo201012010, doi101016s0013795296000403, doi101016s0040195100001189, doi101061ajgeb60000612, doi101111j136530911969tb01125x, jenkins1925clastic"
}

@article{doi101002esp5295,
    author = "Hamawi, Matanya and Goren, Liran and Mushkin, Amit and Levi, T.",
    title = "Rectangular drainage pattern evolution controlled by pipe cave collapse along clastic dikes, the Dead Sea Basin, Israel",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Earth Surface Processes and Landforms",
    abstract = "Abstract Rectangular drainage networks are characterized by right‐angle bends and confluences. The formation of such drainage patterns is commonly associated with orthogonal sets of fractures, making them an outstanding example for structurally controlled landscape evolution. However, this association remains largely circumstantial because little is known about how rectangular drainages mechanistically link to orthogonal fractures. We investigated these linkages in the hyper‐arid Ami'az Plain located within the Dead Sea Basin in Israel. The Ami'az Plain is penetrated by hundreds of sub‐vertical clastic dikes (mode‐I fractures infilled with sediments) and is also incised by a rectangular canyon system. Numerous caves extend from the banks and heads of the canyon system. Based on field surveys and analysis of high‐resolution airborne LiDAR data, we mapped the Ami'az Plain drainage network and its associated landforms, including sinkholes. Our analysis revealed that the subaerial tributaries of the canyon system and the strike of the clastic dikes show similar orientations. In addition, subsurface mapping with a ground‐based scanning LiDAR, together with field experiments, demonstrated that the caves and sinkholes in the Ami'az Plain are spatially associated with clastic dikes and that the caves formed through piping erosion along dikes. Based on these findings, we suggest that clastic dikes act as efficient infiltration pathways to the subsurface, where flow along clastic dikes induces internal erosion that forms pipe caves. The sinkholes form by collapses of cave roofs. Coalescence of sinkholes and seepage erosion where dikes intersect canyon heads generate new tributaries and act to extend existing ones. Fluvial erosion and subsequent bank collapse modify the canyon network. Our findings emphasize the critical role of subsurface erosion, caves and sinkholes in linking fractures to drainage pattern evolution, and provide a new process‐based framework to interpret rectangular drainage networks on Earth and possibly other planetary surfaces.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5295",
    doi = "10.1002/esp.5295",
    openalex = "W3214807552",
    references = "doi101002esp3302, doi1010160040195181901396, doi101016jtecto201011012, doi1010292003wr002496, doi1010292005jf000433, doi101029wr010i005p00969, doi10113000167606198596203spatdo20co2, doi101130001676062000112490riibma20co2, doi101177030913338000400204, doi1013065d25c26d16c111d78645000102c1865d, doi105194esurf212014"
}

@article{doi1010292022jb026185,
    author = "Zamani, Nina and Heij, Gerhard and Ferré, Eric C. and Murphy, Michael A. and Bagley, Brian",
    title = "High‐Velocity Slip and Thermal Decomposition of Carbonates: Example From the Heart Mountain Slide Ultracataclasites, Wyoming",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Abstract The Heart Mountain Slide in Wyoming is one of the largest known terrestrial gravity slides (3,500 km 2) formed ∼49 Ma ago by the nearly horizontal detachment of Paleozoic‐Eocene cover sliding on top of autochthonous formations. At the White Mountain locality, exposures offer an exceptional opportunity to investigate high strain rate/high velocity processes in carbonates. Here we use the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) of 274 samples to shed light on ultracataclastic deformation along this detachment. Contrary to predictions, the carbonate ultracataclasite displays a consistent AMS fabric, particularly in the upper ultracataclasite. The AMS in this unit is controlled primarily by magnetite formed through the breakdown of iron sulfides caused by frictional heating. Additional thermomagnetic experiments reveal that the new magnetic fabric began forming ∼250ºC and continued up to ∼400ºC when calcination of carbonate minerals caused a major drop in friction. The main cataclastic slip direction inferred from AMS is ∼N033°, at odds with the previously accepted NNW‐SSE direction. We validate these AMS fabrics through 3D shape preferred orientation analysis and micro X‐ray scanning of the same specimens. These results, however, may only represent cataclastic flow directions at the local scale as a result of synkinematic rotation of the White Mountain block. Alternatively, these results may call for a re‐evaluation of the large scale movement of the slide. Finally, this study demonstrates the usefulness of a magnetic approach in deciphering deformation processes in carbonates, particularly in high strain rate cases such as seismic faults.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2022jb026185",
    doi = "10.1029/2022jb026185",
    openalex = "W4377027483",
    references = "doi1010160040195181901104, doi101016s001282529600044x, doi1010292000jb900326, doi1010292001jb000487, doi1010292008gc001987, doi10102992rg00733, doi101029tr014i001p00238, doi101038nmeth2089, doi101086627491, doi101130g327341, doi101144gsjgs13330191, doi103133pp1133, doi105281zenodo, pierce1979clastic"
}

@article{doi1024872rmgjournal58139,
    author = "Maher, Harmon and Persinger, Emily",
    title = "Recurrent fill history of individual clastic dikes in the White River Group at Slim Buttes, South Dakota",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Rocky Mountain geology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Clastic dikes that occur within the terrestrial, Oligocene White River Group strata at localities throughout the Great Plains typically display internal mud to fine sand layers that are subparallel to the walls. Shrink-swell weathering usually obscures details of the internal layer geometry of the dikes. Recent work in the Slim Buttes area documents internal layer cross-cutting relationships that indicate tens or more of recurrent opening and injection events for thicker individual dikes. Evidence of significant dike-wall modification also exists. Source beds were unobserved despite adequate outcrops. Dikes are enclosed within the Oligocene Brule Formation. Some are truncated at or near the contact with the overlying Miocene Arikaree Group strata, constraining formation timing, whereas others have upper and lower tips within the Brule Formation. Dike strikes test as random in distribution. These dike attributes are consistent with repeated fracture opening and tip propagation from diagenetically driven shrinkage that induced episodic fluid flow which mobilized host-rock sediment (crack-fill instead of crack-seal). Sediment fill is proposed to have come from dike-wall erosion in branching tip regions during propagation events. In general, clastic dikes are polygenetic, and the diagenetically driven, recurrent formation mode evident in the White River Group examples can be considered in addition to standard injection models associated with overpressurized source beds or Neptunian infill.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.24872/rmgjournal.58.1.39",
    doi = "10.24872/rmgjournal.58.1.39",
    openalex = "W4381885257",
    references = "doi101130l1871, lunina2019an"
}

@article{doi101007s12371025012123,
    author = "Mogk, David W. and Mueller, Paul A. and Henry, Darrell J.",
    title = "The Geoheritage of the Beartooth Mountains, Montana and Wyoming, USA: Traversing Four Billion Years of Earth History",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Geoheritage",
    abstract = "Abstract The Beartooth Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, USA, record more than 4.0 billion years of Earth history. This area has inspired a century of geological research and contributed to the evolution of geological thought. This spectacular Alpine landscape supports diverse geoeducational and geotourism opportunities. Geologic features of the Beartooth Mountains include: (a) physiographic occurrence as a basement-cored, Laramide-style block uplift; (b) in the eastern Beartooth Mountains, preservation of Paleoarchean high-grade metamorphic gneisses and metasupracrustal rocks with peak metamorphism recorded at 6–8 kbar and up to 800 °C and crystallization ages of 3.5–3.0 Ga, with detrital zircons as old as 4.0 Ga; (c) in the main Beartooth Block, voluminous Mesoarchean calc-alkaline magmatic rocks dated at 2.82–2.79 Ga that formed in a continental magmatic arc environment; (d) in the South Snowy Block, tectonic accretion of a turbiditic metasedimentary sequence that was deposited and emplaced 2.9–2.8 Ga that preserves primary sedimentary structures, and with peak metamorphism of 3–4 kbar and 580 °C, and in the North Snowy Block, emplacement of an Alpine-style nappe complex prior to 2.55 Ga; (e) on the northern margin of the range in the Stillwater block, crystallization of the 2.71 Ga layered mafic-ultramafic Stillwater Complex which is host to Pt/Pd and Cr ore deposits and associated contact metamorphic aureole; (f) emplacement of Late Archean and Proterozoic mafic dikes at 2.5, 1.3 and 0.75 Ga; (g) near Beartooth Butte, deposition of lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks on the Great Unconformity with 2.8 Ga crystalline rocks overlain by 560 Ma Cambrian sedimentary rocks and preservation of some of the world’s oldest Devonian fish and terrestrial plant fossils; i) Eocene Absaroka volcanics, which hosts petrified forests, the Heart Mountain Detachment, and Au-Cu deposits; j) Pleistocene glacial deposits and periglacial landscapes; k) active basin-and-range style faulting; and l) active landsliding and floods. The natural heritage of the Beartooth Mountains has had a great influence on the people who live in this area and how they live in this landscape including habitation history of indigenous people and émigrés, development and exploitation of natural resources (mining, energy, water), impacts of geohazards (seismicity, floods, mass wasting), opportunities for geoeducation at all levels, as a destination for geotourism, and in consideration of contemporary policy questions related to conservation vs. preservation of public lands and climate change. The Archean rocks of the eastern Beartooth Mountains and the Stillwater Complex have both been recognized as “First Hundred Geological Heritage Sites” by the International Union of Geological Sciences. The Beartooth Mountains constitute a geoheritage region of international significance with many sites of interest for expert and novice geoscientists alike.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-025-01212-3",
    doi = "10.1007/s12371-025-01212-3",
    openalex = "W4416347722",
    references = "doi101086627492"
}