@article{blackwell1949community,
    author = "Blackwell, Gordon W.",
    title = "Community Structure and Community Organization",
    year = "1949",
    journal = "Journal of Educational Sociology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2264636",
    doi = "10.2307/2264636",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2795904317",
    pages = "176",
    volume = "23"
}

@article{fuchs1956competitive,
    author = "Fuchs, Victor R.",
    title = "Competitive Structure and Inter-Industry Competition",
    year = "1956",
    journal = "Political Science Quarterly",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2145000",
    doi = "10.2307/2145000",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2318951970",
    pages = "90-96",
    volume = "71"
}

@incollection{crossref1957v,
    title = "V. Competitive Structure and Inter-Industry Competition",
    year = "1957",
    booktitle = "The Economics of the Fur Industry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7312/fuch93396-007",
    doi = "10.7312/fuch93396-007",
    openalex = "W4234051825",
    pages = "99-111"
}

@article{doi101086282146,
    author = "Hairston, Nelson G. and Smith, Frederick E. and Slobodkin, Lawrence B.",
    title = "Community Structure, Population Control, and Competition",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "In summary, then, our general conclusions are: (1) Populations of producers, carnivores, and decomposers are limited by their respective resources in the classical density-dependent fashion. (2) Interspecific competition must necessarily exist among the members of each of these three trophic levels. (3) Herbivores are seldom food-limited, appear most often to be predator-limited, and therefore are not likely to compete for common resources.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/282146",
    doi = "10.1086/282146",
    openalex = "W2004827430",
    references = "beauchamp1932competitive, doi101101sqb195702201017, doi101101sqb195702201021, doi101111j155856461957tb02883x, doi101111j174966321948tb39854x, doi1023071395, doi1023071485, doi1023071931600, doi1023071943584, doi1023072240"
}

@article{debach1966the3,
    author = "DeBach, P",
    title = "The competitive displacement and coexistance principles",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Annual Review of Entomology, v. 11, p. 183-212",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {DeBach, P., 1966, The competitive displacement and coexistance principles: Annual Review of Entomology, v. 11, p. 183-212.}"
}

@article{doi1023071936888,
    author = "Paine, Robert T.",
    title = "The Pisaster‐Tegula Interaction: Prey Patches, Predator Food Preference, and Intertidal Community Structure",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "The herbivorous gastropod Tegula funebralis is not highly ranked in a food preference hierarchy of its major predator, the starfish Pisaster ochraceus, and exhibits a persistent broad overlap with it in the rocky intertidal zone at Mukkaw Bay, Washington. Observations on Tegula over a 5—yr period indicate that it settles high intertidally, lives there for 5—6 yr, and then tends to migrate lower into contact with Pisaster. Tegula lays down an annual growth line permitting it to be aged and a growth curve constructed. Analysis of relative growth and reproduction indicates that beyond a certain size (16 mm) large individuals perform less well in the upper than those in the lower intertidal zone. Pisaster consumes 25—28\% of the adult Tegula per year in the area of spatial overlap, based on analysis of the age structure of 6—17 yr old Tegula, and by direct estimates of the percentage of the standing crop consumed annually. The relationship between Pisaster and sex ratio, relative energy limitation and reproductive output (fitness) of Tegula is discussed for three subpopulations. It is suggested that the implied results of the interaction is typical of that between a major predator and one of its less preferred prey. The prominent zonation exhibited by preferred prey, the observed intimacy of association of predator and less preferred prey, and the zoogeographic homogeneity of the Pacific rocky coastline community are discussed in relation to three intermeshing ecological processes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1936888",
    doi = "10.2307/1936888",
    openalex = "W2029732055",
    references = "doi101071zo9540001, doi101086282400, doi101086282586, doi101126science150369228, doi1023071439791, doi1023071539653, doi1023071932529, doi1023071935526, doi105479si03629236931, openalexw331418603"
}

@article{dayton1971competition,
    author = "Dayton, Paul K.",
    title = "Competition, Disturbance, and Community Organization: The Provision and Subsequent Utilization of Space in a Rocky Intertidal Community",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = "An understanding of community structure should be based on evidence that the growth and regulation of the component populations in the community are affected in a predictable manner by natural physical disturbances and by interactions with other species in the community. This study presents an experimental evaluation of the effects of such disturbances and competitive interactions on populations of sessile organisms in the rocky intertidal community, for which space can be demonstrated to be the most important limiting resource. This research was carried out at eight stations on the Washington coastline which have been ranked according to an exposure/desiccation gradient and subjected to comparable manipulation and observation. Physical variables such as wave exposure, battering by drift logs, and desiccation have important effects on the distribution and abundance of many of the sessile species in the community. In particular, wave exposure and desiccation have a major influence on the distribution patterns of all the algae and of the anemone Anthopleura elegantissima. The probability of damage from drift logs is very high in areas where logs have accumulated along the intertidal. Log damage and wave exposure have complementary effects in the provision of free space in a mussel bed, as wave shock enlarges a patch created by log damage by wrenching the mussels from the substratum at the periphery of the bare patch. Competition for primary space results in clear dominance hierarchies, in which barnacles are dominant over algae. Among the barnacles, Balanus cariosus is dominant over both B. glandula and Chthamalus dalli; B. glandula is dominant over C. dalli. The mussel Mytilus californianus requires secondary space (certain algae, barnacles, or byssal threads) for larval settlement, but is capable of growing over all other sessile species and potentially is the competitive dominant of space in the community.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1948498",
    doi = "10.2307/1948498",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W1974072473",
    pages = "351-389",
    volume = "41",
    references = "connell1961effects, doi101086282400, doi101086282455, doi101126science1473655250, doi1023071931746, doi1023071933500, doi1023071936888, doi1023071942327, doi1023073498751, doi102307jctvx5wbbh"
}

@misc{dayton1971competition2,
    author = "Dayton, P. K",
    title = "Competition, disturbance and community organization",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "the provision and subsequent utilization of space in a rocky intertidal community: Ecological Monographs, v. 41, p. 351-389",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dayton, P. K., 1971, Competition, disturbance and community organization: the provision and subsequent utilization of space in a rocky intertidal community: Ecological Monographs, v. 41, p. 351-389.}"
}

@book{cody1973competition1,
    author = "Cody, M. L",
    title = "Competition and Community Structure",
    year = "1973",
    publisher = "Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cody, M. L., 1973, Competition and Community Structure: Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.}"
}

@article{doi101086283073,
    author = "Menge, Bruce A. and Sutherland, John P.",
    title = "Species Diversity Gradients: Synthesis of the Roles of Predation, Competition, and Temporal Heterogeneity",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = {We suggest that the "predation" and "competition" hypotheses of community organization and species diversity are complementary. Maintenance of high diversity by competition appears to be relatively more important at higher trophic levels, while maintenance of high diversity by predation seems relatively more important at lower trophic levels. Further, predation is probably the dominant organizing interaction in trophically complex communities, while competition is probably the dominant organizing interaction in trophically simple communities. These hypotheses are supported on a local scale by experimental studies in the rocky intertidal communities of New England and the West Coast. A probable consequence of its greater temporal heterogeneity (i.e., a less stable, less predictable, and more stressful environment) is that the East Coast is trophically more simple and has an increased incidence of competitive exclusion. As a result, diversity is lower on the East Coast compared with the West Coast. A similar interpretation is possible for differences in diversity along other gradients of temporal heterogeneity such as the shallow to deep-sea soft-sediment communities. In structurally simple environments, competition reduces diversity through competitive exclusion. On the other hand, predation first increases and then decreases diversity in spatially simple environments, presumably because refuges are few and hence overexploitation of a resource is more probable. In structurally complex environments, competition may increase diversity through increased habitat specialization. Such environments undoubtedly have more refuges and reduce predator foraging efficiency, both of which may allow the coexistence of more species. Predator-mediated escapes by primary producers from herbivores may explain the apparent importance of interspecific competition in certain primary producer associations.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/283073",
    doi = "10.1086/283073",
    openalex = "W2052231134",
    references = "connell1961effects, doi101086282272, doi101086282379, doi1023071942321, doi1023071942327, doi1023071950746"
}

@article{doi1023071942563,
    author = "Menge, Bruce A.",
    title = "Organization of the New England Rocky Intertidal Community: Role of Predation, Competition, and Environmental Heterogeneity",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = {The influences of predation, competition, biological disturbance, exposure to wave action, and inclination and heterogeneity of the substratum on the structure of the rocky intertidal community of New England were studied with a combination of experiments and observations at six areas in Maine and Massachusetts from 1972—1975. Several aspects of community structure (seasonal utilization of primary and canopy space, relative abundances of predators, trophic structure, species richness) were determined at five areas spanning a wave exposure gradient. Primary space at exposed areas was dominated by the barnacle Balanus balanoides (high intertidal) and the mussel Mytilus edulis (mid—intertidal). Fucoid algae and mobile carnivores and herbivores were scarce and species numbers were low at these areas. The availability of free primary space is usually <10\% at exposed areas, except in late winter and early spring when large areas of substratum are cleared of animals by storms, and up to 90\% of the primary space may be free of sessile species. The only obvious similarity in community structure at exposed and protected areas is the usual dominance of the high intertidal by B. balanoides. The mid—intertidal of protected areas is usually characterized by a relatively large proportion of free primary space (40\%—90\%), a luxuriant fucoid canopy (Fucus spp. or Ascophyllum nodosum), relatively dense populations of carnivores and herbivores, and relatively high species richness. The primary prey of the only common intertidal predator at these areas, the snail Thais lapillus, are M. edulis and B. balanoides. The relative simplicity of this system permitted a relatively simple experimental design. Stainless steel mesh cages (3 ° 10 ° 10 cm) were used to exclude Thais and test for competition for space between B. balanoides and M. edulis; sideless cages tested for shading effects of cages, and undisturbed areas served as controls. Replicated experiments were established at points along a vertical gradient (high— to mid—intertidal) at each area. To detect variations in the effects of competition and predation in different microhabitats, cage sets were established on surfaces differing in substratum inclination, substratum heterogeneity, and algal canopy. Finally, some experiments were designed to determine possible effects of biological disturbance from herbivore activity. The major factors influencing community "structure" within the high intertidal zone are apparently largely those factors affecting the population ecology of B. balanoides, i.e., intraspecific competition, and various physical stresses. Neither predation nor interspecific competition had a significant influence on patterns of space utilization within this zone. However, the lower distributional limit of B. balanoides is evidently determined at the more exposed areas by competition for space with M. edulis and at less exposed areas by predation by Thais. The angle of inclination in the high intertidal has little effect on observed patterns of space occupancy; however, the effect of substratum heterogeneity is to extend the range of Mytilus and Thais upward. As an apparent result of such heterogeneity, the interface between the high— and mid—intertidal is a patchy mosaic of Balanus, Mytilus, and bare space. The mid—intertidal of exposed areas is structured primarily by interspecific competition. Space cleared experimentally or naturally in late winter (March) is rapidly occupied by B. balanoides (April—June). However, mussels settle in summer (at least June—September) and usually outcompete barnacles by August—October on horizontal and inclined substrata. If mussels are excluded, barnacles persist, which supports the hypothesis that M. edulis outcompete B. balanoides for space. The rate of interspecific competition is slowed on vertical substrata, and B. balanoides may monopolize space on these substrata for up to 2 yr before M. edulis outcompete them. Predators have no effect on space utilization at exposed areas. However, primary space utilization on all substrata in the mid—intertidal at protected areas is determined largely by predators. My experiments indicate that only when Thais are excluded does interspecific competition occur between barnacles and mussels. Otherwise, predation usually prevents either species from monopolizing primary space. Disturbance from fucoid whiplash inhibits B. balanoides settlement but does not alter the eventual outcome of the experiments. Herbivore disturbance may also inhibit barnacle settlement but this effect was detected only at artificially high herbivore densities. If B. balanoides are removed before M. edulis settle, the latter fail to monopolize space on relatively flat, bare rock, indicating space dominance by mussels is at least partly dependent on either the presence of a competitor or substratum irregularity or both. The results of experiments where three—way competition between barnacles, mussels, and Fucus spp. occurred indicated the survival of the latter is inhibited by mussels and enhanced by barnacles. The scarcity of fucoids at exposed areas may be a result of competition with mussels. Since many of the species present at relatively protected areas are directly or indirectly dependent on free primary space, observed variations in local species richness are evidently partly a function of the activity of Thais. Although this system is structurally very simple and occurs in a relatively harsh physical environment, its organization is characterized by strong interactions which have a powerful influence on observed structural patterns. A key problem in the development of a general theory of community organization is understanding the mechanism(s) behind variations in the effectiveness of predators along gradients of environmental rigor.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942563",
    doi = "10.2307/1942563",
    openalex = "W2122296071",
    references = "doi1023071942321"
}

@article{doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x,
    author = "Grubb, P. J.",
    title = "THE MAINTENANCE OF SPECIES‐RICHNESS IN PLANT COMMUNITIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REGENERATION NICHE",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "SUMMARY According to ‘Gause's hypothesis’ a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities. Most plant communities are longer‐lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all‐important to the argument presented. Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species‐richness: differences in life‐form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence‐relationships, differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression, fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species, the ability of certain species‐pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition, the production of substances more toxic to the producer‐species than to the other species, differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore‐sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven‐age structure of many populations. The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species‐rich communities known. In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance. The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2. The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components: the habitat niche, the life‐form niche, the phenological niche, and the regeneration niche. A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche. All stages in the regeneration‐cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages: Production of viable seed (including the sub‐stages of flowering, pollination and seed‐set), dispersal, in space and time, germination, establishment, and further development of the immature plant. In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes: the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species‐richness in plant communities, the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread, the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation, the co‐incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and the importance of regeneration‐studies for conservation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.1977.tb01347.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185x.1977.tb01347.x",
    openalex = "W2119259345",
    references = "doi101038242344a0, doi101086282070, doi101086282687, doi101093biomet3812196, doi101111j155856461969tb03489x, doi101126science1473655250, doi1015159780691206912, doi1023071218190, doi1023071929601, doi1023072256497, doi1023072258550, doi1023072989767, openalexw1532540194"
}

@article{doi1023071942484,
    author = "Sousa, Wayne P.",
    title = "Experimental Investigations of Disturbance and Ecological Succession in a Rocky Intertidal Algal Community",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = "Mechanisms of ecological succession were investigated by field experiments in a rocky intertidal algal community in southern California. The study site was algal—dominated boulder field in the low intertidal zone. The major form of natural disturbance which clears space in this system is the overturning of boulders by wave action. Algal populations recolonize cleared surfaces either through vegetative regrowth of surviving individuals or by recruitment from spores. Boulders which are experimentally cleared and concrete blocks are colonized within the first month by a mat of the green alga, Ulva. In the fall and winter of the first year after clearing, several species of perennial red algae including Gelidium coulteri, Gigartina leptorhynchos, Rhodoglossum affine, and Gigartina canaliculata colonize the surface. If there is no intervening disturbance, Gigartina canaliculata gradually dominates the community holding 60—90\% of the cover after a period of 2 to 3 years. If undisturbed, this monoculture persists through vegetative reproduction, resisting invasion by all other species. During succession diversity increases initially as species colonize a bare surface but declines later as one species monopolizes the space. Several contemporary theories concerning the mechanisms of ecological succession were tested. The early successional alga, Ulva, was found to inhibit the recruitment of perennial red algae. This competition for settling space is an important feature of the successional process. Ulva is the best competitor for this space; it reproduces throughout the year and quickly becomes established on newly cleared substrates. As long as these early colonists remain healthy and undamaged, they preempt colonization by perennial red algae which have highly seasonal recruitment and slower growth. Selective grazing on Ulva by the crab, Pachygrapsus crassipes, breaks this inhibition and accelerates succession to a community of long—lived red algae. Grazing by small molluscs, especially limpets, has no long—term effect on the successional sequence. Their grazing temporarily enhances the recruitment of the barnacle, Chthamalus fissus, by clearing space in the mat of algal sporelings and diatoms which develops on recently denuded rock surfaces. Where locally abundant, middle successional red algae also slow the invasion and growth of the late successional dominant, Gigartina canaliculata. This alga replaces middle successional species because it is less susceptible to damage by desiccation and overgrowth by epiphytes. The results of this study do not support either the classical facilitation model or the tolerance (competitive) model of ecological succession. Once early colonists secure the available space/light, they resist rather than facilitate the invasion of subsequent colonists. Early colonists are not killed by direct interference competition with late successional species which grow up through their canopy; rather, early colonists can successfully inhibit the recruitment and growth of these species. Successional sequences occur because species which dominate early in a succession are more susceptible to the rigors of the physical environment and to attacks by natural enemies than late successional species. Late species colonize and grow to maturity when early species are killed and space is opened. Only late in a successional sequence, when large clearings become a mosaic of small openings, does direct competition with surrounding adult plants of late successional species contribute to the decline in cover of the remaining early species. Studies of succession in a number of terrestrial and marine communities lend support to this inhibition model.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942484",
    doi = "10.2307/1942484",
    openalex = "W2081634090",
    references = "dayton1971competition, doi101007bf00275587, doi101007bf00345739, doi101073pnas7172744, doi101086283241, doi101086409052, doi101126science1643877262, doi101201b1756026, doi1023071933500, doi1023071942223, doi1023071942321, doi1023071942565, doi1023072257643, doi1023072420377"
}

@article{doi1023072259756,
    author = "Harper, John L. and Tilman, David",
    title = "Resource Competition and Community Structure.",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2259756",
    doi = "10.2307/2259756",
    openalex = "W2335728124"
}

@article{doi101111j109583121984tb00145x,
    author = "Jeffries, Michael and Lawton, John H.",
    title = "Enemy free space and the structure of ecological communities",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "We define ‘enemy free space’ as ways of living that reduce or eliminate a species' vulnerability to one or more species of natural enemies. Many aspects of species' niches, in ecological and evolutionary time have apparently been moulded by interactions with natural enemies for enemy free space. We review a large number of examples. Yet many ecologists continue to think and write as though classical resource based competition for food or space is the primary determinant of species' niches. Often it is not. The recognition that the struggle for enemy free space is an important component of many species' ecologies may have important consequences for studies of community convergence, limits to species packing, and the ratio of predator species to prey species in natural communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb00145.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb00145.x",
    openalex = "W2153698084",
    references = "doi101038116461b0, doi1023071936888"
}

@article{doi1023074549,
    author = "Hassell, M. P. and Tilman, David",
    title = "Resource Competition and Community Structure",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4549",
    doi = "10.2307/4549",
    openalex = "W3025136633"
}

@article{mcauliffe1984competition,
    author = "McAuliffe, Joseph R.",
    title = "Competition for Space, Disturbance, and the Structure of a Benthic Stream Community",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "Interspecific competition for space limits the distribution and abundance of many benthic insects on stones in a western Montana stream. The sessile caddisfly larva Leucotrichia pictipes is territorial and aggressively eliminates conspecifics and other species from its foraging territories. Territoriality produces an intraspecific pattern of regular spacing and negative spatial associations between Leucotrichia and several other sessile insects: Parargyractis confusalis, Rhetanytarsus sp. and Eukiefferiella sp. Experimental removals of Leucotrichia resulted in higher densities of other sessile species and several mobile insects, including Baetis, Glossosoma, and Simulium. These insects show broad microhabitat overlap with Leucotrichia; competition with Leucotrichia limits their distributions and abundances within otherwise suitable microhabitats. Leucotrichia is the only species that monopolizes large areas of space. Physical disturbances interrupt the formation of competitive monopolies by Leucotrichia. During seasonal reduced flows, Leucotrichia is eliminated from stones and boulders in shallow water. Greater densities of a short—lived sessile species with multiple annual generations occupy this ephemeral spatial resource. On permanently submerged stones, Leucotrichia competitively affects a large part of the benthic fauna. On small stones that overturn with higher frequencies during flooding, Leucotrichia densities are reduced and species' abundance are highly equitable. Larger, more stable substrates with greater densities of Leucotrichia are characterized by lower species evenness.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1938063",
    doi = "10.2307/1938063",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W1996922079",
    pages = "894-908",
    volume = "65",
    references = "dayton1971competition, doi101086282505, doi101086283366, doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x, doi1015159780691206912, doi1023071268795, doi1023073808399, openalexw1500291103, openalexw1979335362, openalexw2077454220"
}

@article{doi101073pnas82113707,
    author = "Gaines, Steven D. and Roughgarden, Joan",
    title = "Larval settlement rate: A leading determinant of structure in an ecological community of the marine intertidal zone",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Field studies demonstrate that the population structure of the barnacle Balanus glandula differs between locations of high and low larval settlement rate. These observations, together with results from a model for the demography of an open, space-limited population, suggest that the settlement rate may be a more important determinant of rocky intertidal community structure than is presently realized. Locations with a low larval settlement rate exhibit a generally low abundance of barnacles that varies slightly within years and greatly between years, reflecting yearly differences in settlement. Locations with a high-settlement rate exhibit a generally high abudance of barnacles. However, the abundance varies greatly within years with a significant oscillatory component (period, 30 weeks) and only slightly between years regardless of yearly differences in settlement. At the low-settlement location mortality of barnacles is independent of the area occupied by barnacles. At the high-settlement location mortality is cover-dependent due to increased predation by starfish on areas of high barnacle cover. In both locations the cover-independent component of mortality does not vary with age during the first 60 weeks. As assumed in the demographic model, the kinetics of larval settlement can be described as a process in which the rate of settlement to a quadrat is proportional to the fraction of vacant space within the quadrat. Generalizations that the highest species diversity in a rocky intertidal community is found at locations of intermediate disturbance, and that competition causes zonation between species of the barnacle genera Balanus and Chthamalus, seem to apply only to locations with high-settlement rates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.82.11.3707",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.82.11.3707",
    openalex = "W2016744291",
    references = "doi1010079783642701573, doi1010160302352475900389, doi101038260204c0, doi101073pnas7172744, doi101111j155856461980tb04043x, doi101126science2194583419, doi1023072407184, doi102475ajs2785766, hartnoll1975chemoreception, openalexw2273005662, openalexw560961838"
}

@article{doi101086284741,
    author = "Menge, Bruce A. and Sutherland, John P.",
    title = "Community Regulation: Variation in Disturbance, Competition, and Predation in Relation to Environmental Stress and Recruitment",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "We present a model of community regulation that incorporates the effects of abiotic disturbance, predation, competition, and recruitment density. We assume that mobile organisms (i.e., consumers) are more strongly affected by environmental stress than are sessile organisms and that food-web complexity decreases with increasing stress. The model makes three predictions under conditions of high recruitment. First, in stressful environments, consumers have no effect because they are absent or inactive, and competition for space is prevented. Both mobile and sessile organisms are regulated directly by environmental stress. Second, in moderate environments, consumers are still ineffective, but sessile organisms are less affected by stress and frequently attain high densities, leading to competition for space. Finally, in benign environments, consumers prevent competition for space unless the prey can escape a predation bottleneck and reach a high abundance. A reduction in recruitment density reduces the importance of competition for a given level of environmental stress. At top trophic levels, low recruitment slows the rate of population increase, and competition should be less intense even in benign environments. In stressful environments, severe conditions should keep the density of consumers low regardless of recruitment density. Abiotic stress should regulate mobile consumers over a wider range of the environmental gradient with low rather than with high recruitment. At low trophic levels, the importance of competition (including escape competition) should decline with reduced recruitment density regardless of the level of stress. With low recruitment, lower trophic levels should be regulated by physical factors at the severe end of the environmental gradient and by predation at the benign end of the gradient. This model also predicts that when competition for space leads to exclusion and recruitment is high, the relationships between diversity and either predation (the predation hypothesis) or disturbance (the intermediate-disturbance hypothesis) are distinct, not equivalent as is often assumed. We suggest that physical disturbance is distinct from predation (considered equivalent to, but distinct from, biological disturbance). Diversity is low in harsh environments because of the intolerance of all but opportunistic and highly resistant species to such conditions. With environmental moderation, diversity increases because of the intermediate-disturbance effect, decreases because of the competitive-exclusion effect, increases because of the prevention of competitive exclusion by moderate predation, and decreases because of the local extinction of prey by severe predation. Thus, with high recruitment, a bimodal diversity curve is predicted along the axis of environmental stress. If competition permits coexistence or recruitment is low, the diversity curve is predicted to be unimodal. The model should be applicable in all habitats, although some predictions may be altered by differences in the importance of omnivory in terrestrial versus aquatic interaction webs. Testing the model will be difficult, but it is feasible; it will require quantification of local environmental gradients, recruitment densities, food-web structure, and spatial structure. Predictions can be made on the basis of these observations and tested by the determination of community organization using experiments that simultaneously evaluate the effects of the major processes structuring the community. Partial tests from marine habitats support some predictions of the model, but further testing is needed, particularly in nonmarine habitats.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284741",
    doi = "10.1086/284741",
    openalex = "W2064346432",
    references = "doi101073pnas82113707, doi101086283381, doi101086283817, doi101086284133, doi101146annureves12110181002201, doi101146annureves16110185001413, doi1023071936969, doi1023072937268, openalexw1484524608"
}

@article{doi101086284839,
    author = "Milchunas, D. G. and Sala, Osvaldo E. and Lauenroth, W. K.",
    title = "A Generalized Model of the Effects of Grazing by Large Herbivores on Grassland Community Structure",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "Current disturbance models do not adequately account for the wide range of responses by grassland plant communities to grazing by large generalist herbivores. The evolutionary history of grazing, an important factor in the response of grasslands to grazing, has not been explicitly addressed. Grazing history alone, however, is not a good predictor of plant-herbivore interactions. Interactions occur along gradients of convergent to divergent selection pressures with increasing environmental moisture and of intolerance to tolerance of grazing with increasingly long evolutionary histories of grazing. We suggest that feedback mechanisms between plants and grazing animals are well developed in grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing. Feedback mechanisms are manifest in the rapid switching capabilities (of plant species and modes of competition) of subhumid grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing and divergent selection pressures. Switching capabilities do not exist in semiarid grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing and convergent selection pressures. Rather, for heavily grazed dominant species dominance increases. Feedback mechanisms are not well developed in systems with short evolutionary histories of grazing. In these cases, the differences in response to grazing by semiarid and subhumid situations arise primarily from differences in the grazing tolerance of plants adapted to semiaridity or of plants adapted to competition for light and from the different effects of grazing on canopy structure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284839",
    doi = "10.1086/284839",
    openalex = "W1985963733",
    references = "doi101086284105, doi101086284531, doi101146annureves15110184002033"
}

@article{doi1023071467400,
    author = "Townsend, Colin R.",
    title = "The Patch Dynamics Concept of Stream Community Ecology",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of the North American Benthological Society",
    abstract = "Stream ecologists are faced with the problem of recognizing patterns in community organization and explaining the processes that determine these patterns. I argue that streams conform reasonably closely to the patch dynamics explanation of community organization which emphasizes temporal phenomena and focusses on the importance of history and chance. Even where competition or predation have been shown to play a role in shaping stream communities, the temporal phenomena of disturbance and colonization are invariably also of fundamental importance. In most cases, temporal variation is probably the factor of overriding significance, and species with weedy characteristics are a particularly prominent feature of streams. I highlight the critical role played by refugia as sources of recolonization after spates, and therefore as buffers against disturbance. A theoretical framework based on the patch dynamics view of community ecology may provide a unifying theme in stream ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1467400",
    doi = "10.2307/1467400",
    openalex = "W2065634928",
    references = "mcauliffe1984competition"
}

@article{doi101111j144299931993tb00438x,
    author = "Clarke, K.R.",
    title = "Non‐parametric multivariate analyses of changes in community structure",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Ecology",
    abstract = "Abstract In the early 1980s, a strategy for graphical representation of multivariate (multi‐species) abundance data was introduced into marine ecology by, among others, Field, et al. (1982). A decade on, it is instructive to: (i) identify which elements of this often‐quoted strategy have proved most useful in practical assessment of community change resulting from pollution impact; and (ii) ask to what extent evolution of techniques in the intervening years has added self‐consistency and comprehensiveness to the approach. The pivotal concept has proved to be that of a biologically‐relevant definition of similarity of two samples, and its utilization mainly in simple rank form, for example ‘sample A is more similar to sample B than it is to sample C’. Statistical assumptions about the data are thus minimized and the resulting non‐parametric techniques will be of very general applicability. From such a starting point, a unified framework needs to encompass: (i) the display of community patterns through clustering and ordination of samples; (ii) identification of species principally responsible for determining sample groupings; (iii) statistical tests for differences in space and time (multivariate analogues of analysis of variance, based on rank similarities); and (iv) the linking of community differences to patterns in the physical and chemical environment (the latter also dictated by rank similarities between samples). Techniques are described that bring such a framework into place, and areas in which problems remain are identified. Accumulated practical experience with these methods is discussed, in particular applications to marine benthos, and it is concluded that they have much to offer practitioners of environmental impact studies on communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1993.tb00438.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1442-9993.1993.tb00438.x",
    openalex = "W2099053943",
    references = "doi10100797894009919727, doi10103711774000, doi101111jbi14281, doi101214aos1176344552, doi1023071402637, doi1023071938672, doi1023071942268, doi1041359781412985130, openalexw2751793438"
}

@article{doi1023071939377,
    author = "Tilman, David",
    title = "Competition and Biodiversity in Spatially Structured Habitats",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "All organisms, especially terrestrial plants and other sessile species, interact mainly with their neighbors, but neighborhoods can differ in composition because of dispersal and mortality. There is increasingly strong evidence that the spatial structure created by these forces profoundly influences the dynamics, composition, and biodiversity of communities. Nonspatial models predict that no more consumer species can coexist at equilibrium than there are limiting resources. In contrast, a similar model that includes neighborhood competition and random dispersal among sites predicts stable coexistence of a potentially unlimited number of species on a single resource. Coexistence occurs because species with sufficiently high dispersal rates persist in sites not occupied by superior competitors. Coexistence requires limiting similarity and two—way or three—way interspecific trade—offs among competitive ability, colonization ability, and longevity. This spatial competition hypothesis seems to explain the coexistence of the numerous plant species that compete for a single limiting resource in the grasslands of Cedar Creek Natural History Area. It provides a testable, alternative explanation for other high diversity communities, such as tropical forests. The model can be tested (1) by determining if coexisting species have the requisite trade—offs in colonization, competition, and longevity, (2) by addition of propagules of propagules to determine if local species abundances are limited by dispersal, and (3) by comparisons of the effects on biodiversity of high rates of propagule addition for species that differ in competitive ability.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1939377",
    doi = "10.2307/1939377",
    openalex = "W2159641034",
    references = "doi101038359826a0, doi101086282687, doi101086283366, doi101093besa153237, doi101093biomet3812196, doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x, doi101126science20343871299, doi101146annureves11110180001313, doi1015159780691206912, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023073544021, doi1023075503, openalexw1612551514"
}

@article{doi1018900012965819970781958cafasa20co2,
    author = "Callaway, Ragan M. and Walker, Lawrence R.",
    title = "COMPETITION AND FACILITATION: A SYNTHETIC APPROACH TO INTERACTIONS IN PLANT COMMUNITIES",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "Interactions among organisms take place within a complex milieu of abiotic and biotic processes, but we generally study them as solitary phenomena. Complex combinations of negative and positive interactions have been identified in a number of plant communities. The importance of these two processes in structuring plant communities can best be understood by comparing them along gradients of abiotic stress, consumer pressure, and among different life stages, sizes, and densities of the interacting species. Here, we discuss the roles of life stage, physiology, indirect interactions, and the physical environment on the balance of competition and facilitation in plant communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1958:cafasa]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1958:cafasa]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2084253034",
    references = "doi101007bf02912621, doi1010160169534794900884, doi101086283241, doi101086284133, doi101086284165, doi101086285357, doi1018900012965819970781966tiofac20co2, doi1023072937039, doi105860choice260924, doi105860choice330294, doi105962bhltitle56234, openalexw2169917233"
}

@article{doi101086303378,
    author = "Webb, Campbell O.",
    title = "Exploring the Phylogenetic Structure of Ecological Communities: An Example for Rain Forest Trees",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "Because of the correlation expected between the phylogenetic relatedness of two taxa and their net ecological similarity, a measure of the overall phylogenetic relatedness of a community of interacting organisms can be used to investigate the contemporary ecological processes that structure community composition. I describe two indices that use the number of nodes that separate taxa on a phylogeny as a measure of their phylogenetic relatedness. As an example of the use of these indices in community analysis, I compared the mean observed net relatedness of trees (≥10 cm diameter at breast height) in each of 28 plots (each 0.16 ha) in a Bornean rain forest with the net relatedness expected if species were drawn randomly from the species pool (of the 324 species in the 28 plots), using a supertree that I assembled from published sources. I found that the species in plots were more phylogenetically related than expected by chance, a result that was insensitive to various modifications to the basic methodology. I tentatively infer that variation in habitat among plots causes ecologically more similar species to co-occur within plots. Finally, I suggest a range of applications for phylogenetic relatedness measures in community analysis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/303378",
    doi = "10.1086/303378",
    openalex = "W2057819145",
    references = "doi101126science20343871299, doi1015159781400860180203, doi1023071446122, doi1023072399846, doi102307jctt1xp3v3r, doi105860choice392183"
}

@article{doi101073pnas122653799,
    author = "Girvan, Michelle and Newman, M. E. J.",
    title = "Community structure in social and biological networks",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "A number of recent studies have focused on the statistical properties of networked systems such as social networks and the Worldwide Web. Researchers have concentrated particularly on a few properties that seem to be common to many networks: the small-world property, power-law degree distributions, and network transitivity. In this article, we highlight another property that is found in many networks, the property of community structure, in which network nodes are joined together in tightly knit groups, between which there are only looser connections. We propose a method for detecting such communities, built around the idea of using centrality indices to find community boundaries. We test our method on computer-generated and real-world graphs whose community structure is already known and find that the method detects this known structure with high sensitivity and reliability. We also apply the method to two networks whose community structure is not well known--a collaboration network and a food web--and find that it detects significant and informative community divisions in both cases.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.122653799",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.122653799",
    openalex = "W1971421925",
    references = "doi101007bf02289026, doi101017cbo9780511815478, doi10103830918, doi10103835065725, doi10103843601, doi101073pnas982404, doi101086jar3343629752, doi101126science2865439509, doi1023072075047, doi1023072583863, doi1023073033543"
}

@article{doi101103physreve69026113,
    author = "Newman, Michelle G. and Girvan, Michelle",
    title = "Finding and evaluating community structure in networks",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Physical Review E",
    abstract = {We propose and study a set of algorithms for discovering community structure in networks-natural divisions of network nodes into densely connected subgroups. Our algorithms all share two definitive features: first, they involve iterative removal of edges from the network to split it into communities, the edges removed being identified using any one of a number of possible "betweenness" measures, and second, these measures are, crucially, recalculated after each removal. We also propose a measure for the strength of the community structure found by our algorithms, which gives us an objective metric for choosing the number of communities into which a network should be divided. We demonstrate that our algorithms are highly effective at discovering community structure in both computer-generated and real-world network data, and show how they can be used to shed light on the sometimes dauntingly complex structure of networked systems.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.69.026113",
    doi = "10.1103/physreve.69.026113",
    openalex = "W2095293504",
    references = "doi10103830918, doi10103835065725, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101103revmodphys7447, doi101137s003614450342480, doi1023072075047, doi1023072583863, doi1023073033543, openalexw2011039300, openalexw3145128584"
}

@article{doi101103physreve69066133,
    author = "Newman, M. E. J.",
    title = "Fast algorithm for detecting community structure in networks",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Physical Review E",
    abstract = "Many networks display community structure--groups of vertices within which connections are dense but between which they are sparser--and sensitive computer algorithms have in recent years been developed for detecting this structure. These algorithms, however, are computationally demanding, which limits their application to small networks. Here we describe an algorithm which gives excellent results when tested on both computer-generated and real-world networks and is much faster, typically thousands of times faster, than previous algorithms. We give several example applications, including one to a collaboration network of more than 50,000 physicists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.69.066133",
    doi = "10.1103/physreve.69.066133",
    openalex = "W2089458547",
    references = "doi10103835065725, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101073pnas982404, doi101086jar3343629752, doi101093acprofoso97801985159060010001, doi101103physreve69026113, doi101103revmodphys7447, doi101137s003614450342480, doi1023072075047, openalexw2612166593"
}

@article{doi101103physreve70066111,
    author = "Clauset, Aaron and Newman, M. E. J. and Moore, Cristopher",
    title = "Finding community structure in very large networks",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Physical Review E",
    abstract = "The discovery and analysis of community structure in networks is a topic of considerable recent interest within the physics community, but most methods proposed so far are unsuitable for very large networks because of their computational cost. Here we present a hierarchical agglomeration algorithm for detecting community structure which is faster than many competing algorithms: its running time on a network with n vertices and m edges is O (md log n) where d is the depth of the dendrogram describing the community structure. Many real-world networks are sparse and hierarchical, with m approximately n and d approximately log n, in which case our algorithm runs in essentially linear time, O (n log(2) n). As an example of the application of this algorithm we use it to analyze a network of items for sale on the web site of a large on-line retailer, items in the network being linked if they are frequently purchased by the same buyer. The network has more than 400 000 vertices and 2 x 10(6) edges. We show that our algorithm can extract meaningful communities from this network, revealing large-scale patterns present in the purchasing habits of customers.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.70.066111",
    doi = "10.1103/physreve.70.066111",
    openalex = "W2047940964",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511815478, doi10103830918, doi10103835065725, doi101073pnas0400054101, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101103physreve69026113, doi101103physreve69066133, doi101103revmodphys7447, doi101137s003614450342480, doi1023072075047, openalexw3145128584"
}

@article{doi101038nature03607,
    author = "Palla, Gergely and Derényi, Imre and Farkas, Illés J. and Vicsek, Tamás",
    title = "Uncovering the overlapping community structure of complex networks in nature and society",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03607",
    doi = "10.1038/nature03607",
    openalex = "W2164928285",
    references = "doi10103830918, doi101038415141a, doi101073pnas0400054101, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101103physreve69066133, doi101103revmodphys7447, doi101126science1073374, doi101126science2865439509, doi1023072075047, openalexw2612166593"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0601602103,
    author = "Newman, M. E. J.",
    title = "Modularity and community structure in networks",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {Many networks of interest in the sciences, including social networks, computer networks, and metabolic and regulatory networks, are found to divide naturally into communities or modules. The problem of detecting and characterizing this community structure is one of the outstanding issues in the study of networked systems. One highly effective approach is the optimization of the quality function known as "modularity" over the possible divisions of a network. Here I show that the modularity can be expressed in terms of the eigenvectors of a characteristic matrix for the network, which I call the modularity matrix, and that this expression leads to a spectral algorithm for community detection that returns results of demonstrably higher quality than competing methods in shorter running times. I illustrate the method with applications to several published network data sets.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601602103",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0601602103",
    openalex = "W2151936673",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511815478, doi10103830918, doi101073pnas0400054101, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101090cbms092, doi101103physreve69026113, doi101103physreve69066133, doi101103physreve70066111, doi101103revmodphys7447, doi101126science2865439509, doi101126science2985594824, doi101137s003614450342480"
}

@article{doi101103physreve74036104,
    author = "Newman, M. E. J.",
    title = "Finding community structure in networks using the eigenvectors of matrices",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Physical Review E",
    abstract = {We consider the problem of detecting communities or modules in networks, groups of vertices with a higher-than-average density of edges connecting them. Previous work indicates that a robust approach to this problem is the maximization of the benefit function known as "modularity" over possible divisions of a network. Here we show that this maximization process can be written in terms of the eigenspectrum of a matrix we call the modularity matrix, which plays a role in community detection similar to that played by the graph Laplacian in graph partitioning calculations. This result leads us to a number of possible algorithms for detecting community structure, as well as several other results, including a spectral measure of bipartite structure in networks and a centrality measure that identifies vertices that occupy central positions within the communities to which they belong. The algorithms and measures proposed are illustrated with applications to a variety of real-world complex networks.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.74.036104",
    doi = "10.1103/physreve.74.036104",
    openalex = "W2015953751",
    references = "doi101016jphysrep200510009, doi10103830918, doi101038nature03607, doi101073pnas0400054101, doi101073pnas0601602103, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101086225469, doi101103physreve69026113, doi101103physreve69066133, doi101103physreve70066111, doi101126science2865439509, doi101137s003614450342480, doi101145324133324140, doi1023073033543"
}

@article{doi101128aem0199606,
    author = "Lozupone, Catherine and Hamady, Micah and Kelley, Scott T. and Knight, Rob",
    title = "Quantitative and Qualitative β Diversity Measures Lead to Different Insights into Factors That Structure Microbial Communities",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "The assessment of microbial diversity and distribution is a major concern in environmental microbiology. There are two general approaches for measuring community diversity: quantitative measures, which use the abundance of each taxon, and qualitative measures, which use only the presence/absence of data. Quantitative measures are ideally suited to revealing community differences that are due to changes in relative taxon abundance (e.g., when a particular set of taxa flourish because a limiting nutrient source becomes abundant). Qualitative measures are most informative when communities differ primarily by what can live in them (e.g., at high temperatures), in part because abundance information can obscure significant patterns of variation in which taxa are present. We illustrate these principles using two 16S rRNA-based surveys of microbial populations and two phylogenetic measures of community beta diversity: unweighted UniFrac, a qualitative measure, and weighted UniFrac, a new quantitative measure, which we have added to the UniFrac website (http://bmf.colorado.edu/unifrac). These studies considered the relative influences of mineral chemistry, temperature, and geography on microbial community composition in acidic thermal springs in Yellowstone National Park and the influences of obesity and kinship on microbial community composition in the mouse gut. We show that applying qualitative and quantitative measures to the same data set can lead to dramatically different conclusions about the main factors that structure microbial diversity and can provide insight into the nature of community differences. We also demonstrate that both weighted and unweighted UniFrac measurements are robust to the methods used to build the underlying phylogeny.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01996-06",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.01996-06",
    openalex = "W2145664556",
    references = "doi101038260204c0, doi101086321317, doi101093bioinformaticsbtg180, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi1023071218190, doi105860choice421547, openalexw2032279931"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0706851105,
    author = "Rosvall, Martin and Bergstrom, Carl T.",
    title = "Maps of random walks on complex networks reveal community structure",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "To comprehend the multipartite organization of large-scale biological and social systems, we introduce an information theoretic approach that reveals community structure in weighted and directed networks. We use the probability flow of random walks on a network as a proxy for information flows in the real system and decompose the network into modules by compressing a description of the probability flow. The result is a map that both simplifies and highlights the regularities in the structure and their relationships. We illustrate the method by making a map of scientific communication as captured in the citation patterns of >6,000 journals. We discover a multicentric organization with fields that vary dramatically in size and degree of integration into the network of science. Along the backbone of the network-including physics, chemistry, molecular biology, and medicine-information flows bidirectionally, but the map reveals a directional pattern of citation from the applied fields to the basic sciences.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706851105",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0706851105",
    openalex = "W2164998314",
    references = "doi101002j153873051948tb01338x, doi1010160005109878900055, doi101016s016975529800110x, doi101038nature03607, doi10106313067010, doi101073pnas122653799, doi101103physreve69026113, doi101103physreve69066133, doi101103physreve70066111, doi101137s003614450342480, openalexw1599334980"
}

@incollection{chave2009iii2,
    author = "Chave, Jérôme",
    title = "III.2 Competition, Neutrality, and Community Organization",
    year = "2009",
    booktitle = "The Princeton Guide to Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400833023.264",
    doi = "10.1515/9781400833023.264",
    openalex = "W2506633309",
    pages = "264-273"
}

@article{doi10108015427951200910129177,
    author = "Leskovec, Jure and Lang, Kevin and Dasgupta, Anirban and Mahoney, Michael W.",
    title = "Community Structure in Large Networks: Natural Cluster Sizes and the Absence of Large Well-Defined Clusters",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Internet Mathematics",
    abstract = {A large body of work has been devoted to defining and identifying clusters or communities in social and information networks, i.e., in graphs in which the nodes represent underlying social entities and the edges represent some sort of interaction between pairs of nodes. Most such research begins with the premise that a community or a cluster should be thought of as a set of nodes that has more and/or better connections between its members than to the remainder of the network. In this paper, we explore from a novel perspective several questions related to identifying meaningful communities in large social and information networks, and we come to several striking conclusions. Rather than defining a procedure to extract sets of nodes from a graph and then attempting to interpret these sets as "real" communities, we employ approximation algorithms for the graph-partitioning problem to characterize as a function of size the statistical and structural properties of partitions of graphs that could plausibly be interpreted as communities. In particular, we define the \_network community profile plot\_, which characterizes the "best" possible community—according to the conductance measure—over a wide range of size scales. We study over one hundred large real-world networks, ranging from traditional and online social networks, to technological and information networks and web graphs, and ranging in size from thousands up to tens of millions of nodes. Our results suggest a significantly more refined picture of community structure in large networks than has been appreciated previously. Our observations agree with previous work on small networks, but we show that large networks have a very different structure. In particular, we observe tight communities that are barely connected to the rest of the network at very small size scales (up to ≈ 100 nodes); and communities of size scale beyond ≈ 100 nodes gradually "blend into" the expander-like core of the network and thus become less "community-like," with a roughly inverse relationship between community size and optimal community quality. This observation agrees well with the so-called Dunbar number, which gives a limit to the size of a well-functioning community. However, this behavior is not explained, even at a qualitative level, by any of the commonly used network-generation models. Moreover, it is exactly the opposite of what one would expect based on intuition from expander graphs, low-dimensional or manifold-like graphs, and from small social networks that have served as test beds of community-detection algorithms. The relatively gradual increase of the network community profile plot as a function of increasing community size depends in a subtle manner on the way in which local clustering information is propagated from smaller to larger size scales in the network. We have found that a generative graph model, in which new edges are added via an iterative "forest fire" burning process, is able to produce graphs exhibiting a network community profile plot similar to what we observe in our network data sets.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/15427951.2009.10129177",
    doi = "10.1080/15427951.2009.10129177",
    openalex = "W2146591355",
    references = "doi101016s1389128699000407, doi101073pnas0706851105, doi101103physreve76036106"
}

@article{doi101111j14610248201001509x,
    author = "Mayfield, Margaret M. and Levine, Jonathan M.",
    title = "Opposing effects of competitive exclusion on the phylogenetic structure of communities",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Though many processes are involved in determining which species coexist and assemble into communities, competition is among the best studied. One hypothesis about competition's contribution to community assembly is that more closely related species are less likely to coexist. Though empirical evidence for this hypothesis is mixed, it remains a common assumption in certain phylogenetic approaches for inferring the effects of environmental filtering and competitive exclusion. Here, we relate modern coexistence theory to phylogenetic community assembly approaches to refine expectations for how species relatedness influences the outcome of competition. We argue that two types of species differences determine competitive exclusion with opposing effects on relatedness patterns. Importantly, this means that competition can sometimes eliminate more different and less related taxa, even when the traits underlying the relevant species differences are phylogenetically conserved. Our argument leads to a reinterpretation of the assembly processes inferred from community phylogenetic structure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01509.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01509.x",
    openalex = "W1897178287",
    references = "doi101016jppees200710001, doi101016jtree200409003, doi101038nature08251, doi101073pnas5161207, doi101086282505, doi101086284133, doi101086285357, doi101086303378, doi101111j14610248200600996x, doi101111j14610248200801229x, doi101111j14610248200901314x, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi101146annurevecolsys36102803095431, doi1023072402622, doi1023074072271"
}

@article{doi101126science1184819,
    author = "Mucha, Peter J. and Richardson, Thomas and Macon, K. T. and Porter, Mason A. and Onnela, Jukka-Pekka",
    title = "Community Structure in Time-Dependent, Multiscale, and Multiplex Networks",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Network science is an interdisciplinary endeavor, with methods and applications drawn from across the natural, social, and information sciences. A prominent problem in network science is the algorithmic detection of tightly connected groups of nodes known as communities. We developed a generalized framework of network quality functions that allowed us to study the community structure of arbitrary multislice networks, which are combinations of individual networks coupled through links that connect each node in one network slice to itself in other slices. This framework allows studies of community structure in a general setting encompassing networks that evolve over time, have multiple types of links (multiplexity), and have multiple scales.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1184819",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1184819",
    openalex = "W2074617510",
    references = "doi101103physreve74036104"
}

@article{doi101103physreve83016107,
    author = "Karrer, Brian and Newman, M. E. J.",
    title = "Stochastic blockmodels and community structure in networks",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Physical Review E",
    abstract = "Stochastic blockmodels have been proposed as a tool for detecting community structure in networks as well as for generating synthetic networks for use as benchmarks. Most blockmodels, however, ignore variation in vertex degree, making them unsuitable for applications to real-world networks, which typically display broad degree distributions that can significantly affect the results. Here we demonstrate how the generalization of blockmodels to incorporate this missing element leads to an improved objective function for community detection in complex networks. We also propose a heuristic algorithm for community detection using this objective function or its non-degree-corrected counterpart and show that the degree-corrected version dramatically outperforms the uncorrected one in both real-world and synthetic networks.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.83.016107",
    doi = "10.1103/physreve.83.016107",
    openalex = "W2119998616",
    references = "doi101103physreve78046110"
}

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys110411160411,
    author = "HilleRisLambers, Janneke and Adler, Peter B. and Harpole, W. Stanley and Levine, Jonathan M. and Mayfield, Margaret M.",
    title = "Rethinking Community Assembly through the Lens of Coexistence Theory",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "Although research on the role of competitive interactions during community assembly began decades ago, a recent revival of interest has led to new discoveries and research opportunities. Using contemporary coexistence theory that emphasizes stabilizing niche differences and relative fitness differences, we evaluate three empirical approaches for studying community assembly. We show that experimental manipulations of the abiotic or biotic environment, assessments of trait-phylogeny-environment relationships, and investigations of frequency-dependent population growth all suggest strong influences of stabilizing niche differences and fitness differences on the outcome of plant community assembly. Nonetheless, due to the limitations of these approaches applied in isolation, we still have a poor understanding of which niche axes and which traits determine the outcome of competition and community structure. Combining current approaches represents our best chance of achieving this goal, which is fundamental to conceptual ecology and to the management of plant communities under global change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110411-160411",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110411-160411",
    openalex = "W2098490582",
    references = "doi101016jtree200409011, doi101038nature08251, doi101086283164, doi101111j14610248200600996x, doi101111j14610248201001509x, doi101126science1169640, doi1018901012641"
}

@article{doi1011111365243512425,
    author = "Gerhold, Pille and Cahill, James F. and Winter, Marten and Bartish, Igor V. and Prinzing, Andréas",
    title = "Phylogenetic patterns are not proxies of community assembly mechanisms (they are far better)",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Functional Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary The subdiscipline of ‘community phylogenetics’ is rapidly growing and influencing thinking regarding community assembly. In particular, phylogenetic dispersion of co‐occurring species within a community is commonly used as a proxy to identify which community assembly processes may have structured a particular community: phylogenetic clustering as a proxy for abiotic assembly, that is habitat filtering, and phylogenetic overdispersion as a proxy for biotic assembly, notably competition. We challenge this approach by highlighting (typically) implicit assumptions that are, in reality, only weakly supported, including (i) phylogenetic dispersion reflects trait dispersion; (ii) a given ecological function can be performed only by a single trait state or combination of trait states; (iii) trait similarity causes enhanced competition; (iv) competition causes species exclusion; (v) communities are at equilibrium with processes of assembly having been completed; (vi) assembly through habitat filtering decreases in importance if assembly through competition increases, such that the relative balance of the two can be thus quantified by a single parameter; and (vii) observed phylogenetic dispersion is driven predominantly by local and present‐day processes. Moreover, technical sophistication of the phylogenetic‐patterns‐as‐proxy approach trades off against sophistication in alternative, potentially more pertinent approaches to directly observe or manipulate assembly processes. Despite concerns about using phylogenetic dispersion as a proxy for community assembly processes, we suggest there are underappreciated benefits of quantifying the phylogenetic structure of communities, including (i) understanding how coexistence leads to the macroevolutionary diversification of habitat lineage‐pools (i.e. phylogenetic‐patterns‐as‐result approach); and (ii) understanding the macroevolutionary contingency of habitat lineage‐pools and how it affects present‐day species coexistence in local communities (i.e. phylogenetic‐patterns‐as‐cause approach). We conclude that phylogenetic patterns may be little useful as proxy of community assembly. However, such patterns can prove useful to identify and test novel hypotheses on (i) how local coexistence may control macroevolution of the habitat lineage‐pool, for example through competition among close relatives triggering displacement and diversification of characters, and (ii) how macroevolution within the habitat lineage‐pool may control local coexistence of related species, for example through origin of close relatives that can potentially enter in competition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12425",
    doi = "10.1111/1365-2435.12425",
    openalex = "W2125535068",
    references = "doi101016jtree200409011, doi101086282505, doi101086283817, doi101086660020, doi101111j14610248200400608x, doi101111j14610248200901314x, doi101146annurevearth261379, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi1023072256497, doi105962bhltitle4489, openalexw2273605253"
}