@misc{wegener1912die27, author = "Wegener, A", title = "Die enstehung der Kontinente", year = "1912", howpublished = "Geologische Rundschau, v. 3, p. 276-292", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Wegener, A., 1912, Die enstehung der Kontinente: Geologische Rundschau, v. 3, p. 276-292.}" } @article{doi101038190854a0, author = "Dietz, Robert S.", title = "Continent and Ocean Basin Evolution by Spreading of the Sea Floor", year = "1961", journal = "Nature", url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/190854a0", doi = "10.1038/190854a0", openalex = "W2078021456", references = "doi101038183882a0, doi101086625962, doi101126science13234411737, doi101130001676061951621263sgotgo20co2, doi101130001676061954651199mgonpd20co2, doi101130001676061955661149dotnpb20co2, doi101130001676061958691179domeio20co2, doi101130001676061959701399tacods20co2, doi102475ajs2379611, doi102475ajs24411772" } @article{doi101126science15437551405, author = "Vine, F. J.", title = "Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence", year = "1966", journal = "Science", abstract = "It is suggested that the entire history of the ocean basins, in terms of oceanfloor spreading,is contained frozen in the oceanic crust. Variations in the intensity and polarity of Earth's magnetic field are considered to be recorded in the remanent magnetism of the igneous rocks as they solidified and cooled through the Curie temperature at the crest of an oceanic ridge, and subsequently spread away from it at a steady rate. The hypothesis is supported by the extreme linearity and continuity of oceanic magnetic anomalies and their symmetry about the axes of ridges. If the proposed reversal time scale for the last 4 million years is combined with the model, computed anomaly profiles show remarkably good agreement with those observed, and one can deduce rates of spreading for all active parts of the midoceanic ridge system for which magnetic profilesor surveys are available. The rates obtained are in exact agreement with those needed to account for continental drift. An exceptionally high rate of spreading (approximately 4.5 cm/year) in the South Pacific enables one to deduce by extrapolation considerable details of the reversal time scale back to 11.5 million years ago. Again, this scale can be applied to other parts of the ridge system. Thus one isled to the suggestion that the crest of the East Pacific Rise in the northeast Pacific has been overridden and modified by the westward drift of North America, with the production of the anomalous width and unique features of the American cordillera in the western United States. The oceanicmagnetic anomalies also indicate that there was a change in derection of crustal spreading in this region during Pliocene time from eastwest to southeast-northwest. A profile from the crest to the boundary of the East Pacific Rise, and the difference between axial-zone and flank anomalies over ridges, suggest increase in the frequency of reversal of Earth's magnetic field, together, possibly, with decrease in its intensity, approximately 25 million years ago. Within the framework of ocean-floor spreading, it is suggested that magnetic anomaliesmay indicate the nature of oceanic fracture zones and distinguish the parts of the ridge system that are actively spreading. Thus data derived during the past year lend remarkable support to thehypothesis that magnetic anomalies may reveal the history of the ocean basins.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.154.3755.1405", doi = "10.1126/science.154.3755.1405", openalex = "W2014144720", references = "doi1010160011747166910783, doi101038199947a0, doi101038201591a0, doi101038207343a0, doi101038207907a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101126science14436261537, doi101126science1543747349, doi101126science15437531164, doi101144transglas183559" } @misc{wegener1966the28, author = "Wegener, A", title = "The Origin of Continents and Oceans [Translated from the 4th revised edition in German (1929) by J", year = "1966", howpublished = "Biram, with an introduction by B.C. King]. London. Methuen", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Wegener, A., 1966, The Origin of Continents and Oceans [Translated from the 4th revised edition in German (1929) by J. Biram, with an introduction by B.C. King]. London. Methuen.}" } @article{doi101017s0022112067001880, author = "Turcotte, Donald L. and Oxburgh, E. R.", title = "Finite amplitude convective cells and continental drift", year = "1967", journal = "Journal of Fluid Mechanics", abstract = "A solution is obtained for steady, cellular convection when the Rayleigh number and the Prandtl number are large. The core of each two-dimensional cell contains a highly viscous, isothermal flow. Adjacent to the horizontal boundaries are thin thermal boundary layers. On the vertical boundaries between cells thin thermal plumes drive the viscous flow. The non-dimensional velocities and heat transfer between the horizontal boundaries are found to be functions only of the Rayleigh number. The theory is used to test the hypothesis of large scale convective cells in the earth's mantle. Using accepted values of the Rayleigh number for the earth's mantle the theory predicts the generally accepted velocity associated with continental drift. The theory also predicts values for the heat flux to the earth's surface which are in good agreement with measurements carried out on the ocean floors.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112067001880", doi = "10.1017/s0022112067001880", openalex = "W2085845463" } @article{sykes1967mechanism22, author = "Sykes, L. R", title = "Mechanism of earthquakes and nature of faulting on the mid- oceanic ridges", year = "1967", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 72, p. 2131-2153", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sykes, L. R., 1967, Mechanism of earthquakes and nature of faulting on the mid- oceanic ridges: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 72, p. 2131-2153.}" } @article{doi101029jb073i006p02119, author = "Heirtzler, J. R. and Dickson, G. O. and Herron, E. M. and Pitman, Walter C. and Pichon, Xavier Le", title = "Marine magnetic anomalies, geomagnetic field reversals, and motions of the ocean floor and continents", year = "1968", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "This paper summarizes the results of the three previous papers in this series, which have shown the presence of a pattern of magnetic anomalies, bilaterally symmetric about the crest of the ridge in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. By assuming that the pattern is caused by a sequence of normally and reversely magnetized blocks that have been produced by sea floor spreading at the axes of the ridges, it is shown that the sequences of blocks correspond to the same geomagnetic time scale. An attempt is made to determine the absolute ages of this time scale using palcomagnetic and paleontological data. The pattern of opening of the oceans is discussed and the implications on continental drift are considered. This pattern is in good agreement with continental drift, in particular with the history of the break up of Gondwanaland.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb073i006p02119", doi = "10.1029/jb073i006p02119", openalex = "W2027477351", references = "doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, openalexw2978227140, sykes1967mechanism" } @article{doi101029jb073i012p03661, author = "Pichon, Xavier Le", title = "Sea-floor spreading and continental drift", year = "1968", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "A geometrical model of the surface of the earth is obtained in terms of rigid blocks in relative motion with respect to each other. With this model a simplified but complete and consistent picture of the global pattern of surface motion is given on the basis of data on sea-floor spreading. In particular, the vectors of differential movement in the ‘compressive’ belts are computed. An attempt is made to use this model to obtain a reconstruction of the history of spreading during the Cenozoic era. This history of spreading follows closely one previously advocated to explain the distribution of sediments in the oceans.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb073i012p03661", doi = "10.1029/jb073i012p03661", openalex = "W2138058376", references = "doi1010160025322764900489, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101029jz072i024p06261, doi101029rg004i004p00509, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, sykes1967mechanism" } @article{doi101029jb073i018p05855, author = "Isacks, Bryan L. and Oliver, Jack and Sykes, Lynn R.", title = "Seismology and the new global tectonics", year = "1968", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "A comprehensive study of the observations of seismology provides widely based strong support for the new global tectonics which is founded on the hypotheses of continental drift, sea-floor spreading, transform faults, and underthrusting of the lithosphere at island arcs. Although further developments will be required to explain certain part of the seismological data, at present within the entire field of seismology there appear to be no serious obstacles to the new tectonics. Seismic phenomena are generally explained as the result of interactions and other processes at or near the edges of a few large mobile plates of lithosphere that spread apart at the ocean ridges where new surficial materials arise, slide past one another along the large strike-slip faults, and converge at the island arcs and arc-like structures where surficial materials descend. Study of world seismicity shows that most earthquakes are confined to narrow continuous belts that bound large stable areas. In the zones of divergence and strike-slip motion, the activity is moderate and shallow and consistent with the transform fault hypothesis; in the zones of convergence, activity is normally at shallow depths and includes intermediate and deep shocks that grossly define the present configuration of the down-going slabs of lithosphere. Seismic data on focal mechanisms give the relative direction of motion of adjoining plates of lithosphere throughout the active belts. The focal mechanisms of about a hundred widely distributed shocks give relative motions that agree remarkably well with Le Pichon's simplified model in which relative motions of six large, rigid blocks of lithosphere covering the entire earth were determined from magnetic and topographic data associated with the zones of divergence. In the zones of convergence the seismic data provide the only geophysical information on such movements. Two principal types of mechanisms are found for shallow earthquakes in island arcs: The extremely active zone of seismicity under the inner margin of the ocean trench is characterized by a predominance of thrust faulting, which is interpreted as the relative motion of two converging plates of lithosphere; a less active zone in the trench and on the outer wall of the trench is characterized by normal faulting and is thought to be a surficial manifestation of the abrupt bending of the down-going slab of lithosphere. Graben-like structures along the outer walls of trenches may provide a mechanism for including and transporting sediments to depth in quantities that may be very significant petrologically. Large volumes of sediments beneath the inner slopes of many trenches may correspond, at least in part, to sediments scraped from the crust and deformed in the thrusting. Simple underthrusting typical of the main zone of shallow earthquakes in island arcs does not, in general, persist at great depth. The most striking regularity in the mechanisms of intermediate and deep earthquakes in several arcs is the tendency of the compressional axis to parallel the local dip of the seismic zone. These events appear to reflect stresses in the relatively strong slab of down-going lithosphere, whereas shearing deformations parallel to the motion of the slab are presumably accommodated by flow or creep in the adjoining ductile parts of the mantle. Several different methods yield average rates of underthrusting as high as 5 to 15 cm/yr for some of the more active arcs. These rates suggest that temperatures low enough to permit dehydration of hydrous minerals and hence shear fracture may persist even to depths of 700 km. The thickness of the seismic zone in a part of the Tonga arc where very precise hypocentral locations are available is less than about 20 km for a wide range of depths. Lateral variations in thickness of the lithosphere seem to occur, and in some areas the lithosphere may not include a significant thickness of the uppermost mantle. The lengths of the deep seismic zones appear to be a measure of the amount of under thrusting during about the last 10 m.y. Hence, these lengths constitute another ‘yardstick’ for investigations of global tectonics. The presence of volcanism, the generation of many tsunamis (seismic sea waves), and the frequency of occurrence of large earthquakes also seem to be related to underthrusting or rates of underthrusting in island arcs. Many island arcs exhibit a secondary maximum in activity which varies considerably in depth among the various arcs. These depths appear, however, to correlate with the rate of underthrusting, and the deep maxima appear to be located near the leading (bottom) part of the down-going slab. In some cases the down-going plates appear to be contorted, possibly because they are encountering a more resistant layer in the mantle. The interaction of plates of lithosphere appears to be more complex when all the plates involved are continents or pieces of continents than when at least one plate is an oceanic plate. The new global tectonics suggests new approaches to a variety of topics in seismology including earthquake prediction, the detection and accurate location of seismic events, and the general problem of earth structure.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb073i018p05855", doi = "10.1029/jb073i018p05855", openalex = "W2043546840", references = "doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jz070i016p03965, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, doi101785bssa0530010167, doi105408002213687121, sykes1967mechanism" } @article{lepinchon1968seafloor8, author = "Le Pinchon, X", title = "Sea-floor spreading and continental drift", year = "1968", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 73, p. 3661-3697", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Le Pinchon, X., 1968, Sea-floor spreading and continental drift: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 73, p. 3661-3697.}" } @article{doi101111j1365246x1969tb00259x, author = "McKenzie, Dan", title = "Speculations on the Consequences and Causes of Plate Motions", year = "1969", journal = "Geophysical Journal International", abstract = "Plate theory has successfully related sea floor spreading to the focal mechanisms of earthquakes and the deep structure of island arcs. It is used here to calculate the temperature distribution in the lithosphere thrust beneath island arcs, and to determine the flow and the stress elsewhere in the mantle. Comparison with observations demonstrates that earthquakes are restricted to those regions of the mantle which are colder than a definite temperature. The flow and the stress heating in the mantle can maintain the high heat flow anomaly observed behind island arcs. Plate theory also suggests a new approach to the convection problem. The most obvious mechanism causing surface motion is the force on the plates due to the sinking lithosphere. This does not appear to be the way in which the motions are maintained. However, the input of large volumes of cold material can control convection and cause general downward movements in the mantle near island arcs. This input of cold lithosphere must cease when the island arc tries to consume a continent, since the light continental crust cannot sink through the denser mantle. Attempts to assimilate continental crust in this way can produce fold mountains, and also permit a rearrangement of convection cells.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1969.tb00259.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1969.tb00259.x", openalex = "W2074105632", references = "crittenden1963effective, doi1010160016003266902705, doi101017cbo9780511800955, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038224125a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, doi101785bssa0590010369, doi1023072317984" } @article{doi101130001676061969801639totcam20co2, author = "Molnár, Péter and Sykes, Lynn R.", title = "Tectonics of the Caribbean and Middle America Regions from Focal Mechanisms and Seismicity", year = "1969", journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin", abstract = "Seismic data strongly support recent theories of tectonics in which large plates of lithosphere move coherently with respect to one another as nearly rigid bodies, spreading apart at ocean ridges, sliding past one another at transform faults, and underthrusting at island arcs. Boundaries between adjacent plates of lithosphere are defined by belts of high seismic activity. Redetermination of more than 600 hypocenters in the Middle America region and previous studies in the Galapagos and Caribbean regions define the boundaries of two relatively small, nearly aseismic plates in the region of interest. The first, the Cocos plate, is bordered by the East Pacific rise, the Galapagos rift zone, the north-trending Panama fracture zone near 82° W., and the Middle America arc; the second, the Caribbean plate, underlies the Caribbean Sea and is bounded by the Middle America arc, the Cayman trough, the West Indies arc, and the seismic zone through northern South America. Focal mechanisms of 70 earthquakes in these regions were determined to ascertain the relative motion of these two plates with respect to the surrounding regions or plates. The results show underthrusting of the Cocos plate beneath Mexico and Guatemala in a northeasterly direction and beneath the rest of Central America in a more north-northeasterly direction. The Cocos plate is spreading away from the rest of the Pacific floor at the East Pacific rise and at the Galapagos rift zone. Motion is right-lateral strike-slip along the Panama fracture zone, a transform fault connecting the Galapagos rift zone and the Middle America arc. At the same time, the Caribbean plate is moving easterly with respect to the Americas plate, which is here taken to include both North and South America and the western Atlantic. Left-lateral strike-slip motion along steeply dipping fault planes is observed on the Cayman trough. The Americas plate is underthrusting the Caribbean in a westerly direction at the Lesser Antilles and near Puerto Rico. Unlike the Lesser Antilles, however, motion at present is not perpendicular to the Puerto Rico trench but instead is almost parallel to the trench along nearly horizontal fault planes. Computations of rates of motion indicate that underthrusting is at a higher rate in southeastern Mexico and Guatemala than in western Mexico and that the Caribbean is moving at a lower rate relative to North America than is the Cocos plate.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1969)80[1639:totcam]2.0.co;2", doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1969)80[1639:totcam]2.0.co;2", openalex = "W1991156767" } @misc{fisher1969dating4, author = "Fisher, D", title = "Dating the spreading sea floor", year = "1969", howpublished = "New Scientist, v. 44, p. 185- 187", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fisher, D., 1969, Dating the spreading sea floor: New Scientist, v. 44, p. 185- 187.}" } @article{doi101029jb075i014p02625, author = "Dewey, John and Bird, John", title = "Mountain belts and the new global tectonics", year = "1970", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "Analysis of the sedimentary, volcanic, structural, and metamorphic chronology in mountain belts, and consideration of the implications of the new global tectonics (plate tectonics), strongly indicate that mountain belts are a consequence of plate evolution. It is proposed that mountain belts develop by the deformation and metamorphism of the sedimentary and volcanic assemblages of Atlantic-type continental margins. These assemblages result from the events associated with the rupture of continents and the expansion of oceans by lithosphere plate generation at oceanic ridges. The earliest assemblages thus developed are volcanic rocks and coarse clastic sediments deposited in fault-bounded troughs on a distending and segmenting continental crust, subsequently split apart and carried away from the ridge on essentially aseismic continental margins. As the continental margins move away from the ridge, nonvolcanic continental shelf and rise assemblages of orthoquartzite-carbonate, and lutite (shelf), and lutite, slump deposits, and turbidites (rise) accumulate. This kind of continental margin is transformed into an orogenic belt in one of two ways. If a trench develops near, or at, the continenal margin to consume lithosphere from the oceanic side, a mountain belt (cordilleran type) grows by dominantly thermal mechanisms related to the rise of calc-alkaline and basaltic magmas. Cordilleran-type mountain belts are characterized by paired metamorphic belts (blueschist on the oceanic side and high temperature on the continental side) and divergent thrusting and synorogenic sediment transport from the high-temperature volcanic axis. If the continental margin collides with an island arc, or with another continent, a collision-type mountain belt develops by dominantly mechanical processes. Where a continent/island arc collision occurs, the resulting mountains will be small (e.g., the Tertiary fold belt of northern New Guinea), and a new trench will develop on the oceanic side of the arc. Where a continent/continent collision occurs, the mountains will be large (e.g., the Himalayas), and the single trench zone of plate consumption is replaced by a wide zone of deformation. Collision-type mountain belts do not have paired metamorphic belts; they are characterized by a single dominant direction of thrusting and synorogenic sediment transport, away from the site of the trench over the underthrust plate. Stratigraphic sequences of mountain belts (geosynclinal sequences) match those asciated with present-day oceans, island arcs, and continental margins.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb075i014p02625", doi = "10.1029/jb075i014p02625", openalex = "W2111555634", references = "doi101007bf02597153, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038211676a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101093petrology23277, doi101111j1365246x1969tb00259x, doi101130001676061969802409mcatuo20co2, doi1013065d25c4a516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101785bssa0590010369" } @article{doi101029jb075i026p04939, author = "Dietz, Robert S. and Holden, John C.", title = "Reconstruction of Pangaea: Breakup and dispersion of continents, Permian to Present", year = "1970", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "We present a new continental drift reconstruction of the universal continent of Pangaea in the Permian plus a series of five world maps to depict the breakup and dispersion of continents with each subsequent geologic period, Triassic to Recent. Plate tectonics and sea-floor spreading are accepted as the guiding rationale. Also utilized are the morphologic fitting of continental margins and paleomagnetic pole positions. Rigor is imposed by the geometric requirements involved in presenting continental drift dispersion on maps in orderly time sequence and by following certain assumed rules of plate tectonics. The reconstructions were first made on a globe and then transferred to an Aitoff world projection. In the Permian, the Atlantic and Indian oceans were closed so that all the continents were configured into the universal landmass of Pangaea. The reconstruction is based largely on the morphologic best fit of continental margins to the 1000-fathom isobath, except for India, the east coast of which is placed against Antarctica, as dictated by plate tectonics. In the Triassic the breakup of Pangaea commenced. The southwest Indian Ocean rift was created, which split West Gondwana (South America and Africa) away from East Gondwana while a Y junction lifted India off Antarctica. An independent North Atlantic–Caribbean rift also formed, which lifted Laurasia (North America and Eurasia) off of South America and the bulge of Africa. In the Jurassic, northward and westward sea-floor spreading further opened the central North Atlantic and the Indian oceans. At the end of the period, a new rift incipiently split South America away from Africa. The Walvis mantle thermal center or ‘hot spot’ formed, which would subsequently provide an absolute geographic reference point for subsequent continental drift. In the Cretaceous, the motions already established continued. The North Atlantic rift grew northward, blocking out the Grand Banks and the western margin of Greenland. Spain rotated sinistrally, forming the Bay of Biscay. An offshoot rift split Madagascar from Africa, dropping off this subcontinent from Africa, which continued its northern flight. The northward trek of India continued, and Australia incipiently split away from Antarctica. During the Cenozoic, Antarctica rotated further westward. Australia experienced a remarkable flight northward, and New Zealand was split away from its east coast. The North and South Atlantic oceans continued to open; the rift that formerly passed west of Greenland now switched to the east and split Greenland away from northern Europe and extended through the Arctic Ocean. Africa moved slightly northward, continuing sinistral rotation. The Tethyan megashear became dextral for the first time, India collided with and underran Asia.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb075i026p04939", doi = "10.1029/jb075i026p04939", openalex = "W2147888187", references = "doi101038225139a0, doi101038scientificamerican046386" } @article{doi101038225521a0, author = "Dewey, John and HORSFIELD, BRENDA", title = "Plate Tectonics, Orogeny and Continental Growth", year = "1970", journal = "Nature", url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/225521a0", doi = "10.1038/225521a0", openalex = "W1972155686" } @article{meyerhoff1970continental10, author = "Meyerhoff, A. A", title = "Continental drift, I.,II", year = "1970", journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 78, p. 1-51, 406-444", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Meyerhoff, A. A., 1970, Continental drift, I.,II: Journal of Geology, v. 78, p. 1-51, 406-444.}" } @techreport{scholl1970peruchile18, author = "Scholl, D. W. et al", title = "Peru-Chile Trench sediments and sea-floor spreading", year = "1970", howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 1339-1360", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Scholl, D. W. et al., 1970, Peru-Chile Trench sediments and sea-floor spreading: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 1339-1360.}" } @article{keith1971oceanfloor6, author = "Keith, M. L", title = "Ocean-floor convergence", year = "1971", journal = "A contrary view of global tectonics: Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 249-276", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Keith, M. L., 1971, Ocean-floor convergence: A contrary view of global tectonics: Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 249-276.}" } @article{meyerhoff1971continental14, author = "Meyerhoff, A. A. and Teichert, C", title = "Continental drift, III", year = "1971", journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 79, p. 285-321", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Meyerhoff, A. A., and Teichert, C., 1971, Continental drift, III: Journal of Geology, v. 79, p. 285-321.}" } @article{doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, author = "McKenzie, Dan", title = "Active Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region", year = "1972", journal = "Geophysical Journal International", abstract = "Examination of more than 100 fault plane solutions for earthquakes within the Alpide belt between the Mid-Atlantic ridge and Eastern Iran shows that the deformation at present occurring is the result of small continental plates moving away from Eastern Turkey and Western Iran. This pattern of movement avoids thickening the continental crust over much of Turkey by consuming the Eastern Mediterranean sea floor instead. The rates of relative motion of two of the small plates involved, the Aegean and the Turkish plates, are estimated, but are only within perhaps 50 per cent of the true values. These estimates are then used to reconstruct the geometry of the Mediterranean 10 million years ago. The principal difference from the present geometry is the smooth curved coast which then formed the southern coast of Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey. This coast has since been distorted by the motion of the two small plates. Similar complications have probably been common in older mountain belts, and therefore local geological features may not have been formed by the motion between major plates.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1972.tb02351.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1972.tb02351.x", openalex = "W2155472085", references = "doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101029rg009i001p00103, doi101038207343a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038224125a0, doi101038226239a0, doi101111j1365246x1969tb00259x, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi10113000167606196071843peotca20co2, doi101144transed83387, doi101785bssa0590010369, sykes1967mechanism" } @incollection{doi101130mem132p7, author = "Morgan, W. Jason", title = "Plate Motions and Deep Mantle Convection", year = "1972", booktitle = "Memoir - Geological Society of America", abstract = "A scheme of deep mantle convection is proposed in which narrow plumes of deep material rise and then spread out radially in the asthenosphere. These vertical plumes spreading outward in the asthenosphere produce stresses on the bottoms of the lithospheric plates, causing them to move and thus providing the driving mechanism for continental drift. One such plume is beneath Iceland, and the outpouring of unusual lava at this spot produced the submarine ridge between Greenland and Great Britain as the Atlantic opened up. It is concluded that all the aseismic ridges, for example, the Walvis Ridge, the Ninetyeast Ridge, the...", url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/mem132-p7", doi = "10.1130/mem132-p7", openalex = "W2267527292" } @article{doi101306819a3e5016c511d78645000102c1865d, author = "Morgan, W. Jason", title = "Deep Mantle Convection Plumes and Plate Motions", year = "1972", journal = "AAPG Bulletin", abstract = "Abstract Evidence shows that volcanic island chains and aseismic ridges are formed by plate motion over fixed-mantle “hot-spots” (Iceland, Hawaii, Galapagos, etc.) and new arguments link these hot-spots with the driving mechanism of continental drift. It is assumed that the hot-spots are surface expressions of deep mantle plumes roughly 150 km in diameter, rising 2 m/year, and extending to the lowest part of the mantle. The rising material spreads out in the asthenosphere, producing stresses on the plate bottoms. Order-of-magnitude estimates show these stresses are sufficiently large to influence plate motion significantly. The total upward flow in the plumes is estimated at 500 cu km/year, which would require the entire mantle to overturn once each 2 billion years.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/819a3e50-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d", doi = "10.1306/819a3e50-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d", openalex = "W2085338101", references = "doi101038230042a0, doi101038scientificamerican046386" } @article{meyerhoff1972continental11, author = "Meyerhoff, A. A. and Meyerhoff, H. A", title = "Continental drift, IV", year = "1972", journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 34-60", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Meyerhoff, A. A., and Meyerhoff, H. A., 1972, Continental drift, IV: Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 34-60.}" } @article{meyerhoff1972continental13, author = "Meyerhoff, A. A. and Meyerhoff, H. A. and Briggs, R. S", title = "Continental drift, V", year = "1972", journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 663-692", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Meyerhoff, A. A., Meyerhoff, H. A., and Briggs, R. S., 1972, Continental drift, V: Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 663-692.}" } @techreport{meyerhoff1972the12, author = "Meyerhoff, A. A. and Meyerhoff, H. A", title = "The new global tectonics", year = "1972", howpublished = "Age of linear magnetic anomalies of ocean basins: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 56, p. 337-359", note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Meyerhoff, A. A., and Meyerhoff, H. A., 1972, "The new global tectonics": Age of linear magnetic anomalies of ocean basins: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 56, p. 337-359.}} } @techreport{vanhuene1972structure26, author = "Van Huene, R. E", title = "Structure of the continental margin and tectonism at the eastern Aleutian Trench", year = "1972", howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 3613-3626", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Van Huene, R. E., 1972, Structure of the continental margin and tectonism at the eastern Aleutian Trench: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 3613-3626.}" } @article{wesson1972objections30, author = "Wesson, P. S", title = "Objections to continental drift and plate tectonics", year = "1972", journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 185-187", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Wesson, P. S., 1972, Objections to continental drift and plate tectonics: Journal of Geology, v. 80, p. 185-187.}" } @article{doi101086627882, author = "Burke, Kevin and Dewey, John", title = "Plume-Generated Triple Junctions: Key Indicators in Applying Plate Tectonics to Old Rocks", year = "1973", journal = "The Journal of Geology", abstract = "Continental lithosphere-especially where stationary with respect to mantle plumes-is marked by plume-generated uplifts typically crested by volcanoes that rupture in three rifts at angles of about 120° to each other, perhaps because this configuration requires the least work. It is proposed that since the plate tectonic regime began, about years B.P., divergent plate motion has commonly begun at axial dikes emplaced in rifts formed in this way. A normal course of events is that two of the rifts meeting at a junction to open by plate accretion while the third rift becomes inactive as a failed arm. The evolution of 45 selected junctions, with ages ranging back to years B.P., illustrates a variety of ways in which triple junctions may develop. Bends in rifted Atlantic-type continental margins reflect the distribution of triple junctions at the time continents parted and plume traces on ocean floors lead away from these former triple junctions. Where oceans have closed by continental collision, rifts (failed arms) (aulacogens of Soviet authors), striking at high angles into orogenic belts, mark the location of former triple junctions. Reactivation of old rifts is common and new rifts have frequently developed on the sutures along which oceans have closed. Base metal mineralization, especially in the form of syngenetic copper ores, is a feature of some failed arms (Montana, Zambia, Coppermine) and others, which contain up to 10 km of marine sediment, possess some of the world's major petroleum deposits (Northern North Sea, Niger Delta, Gippsland Basin, Gulf of Suez, and Gulf of Sirte). Many of the world's great rivers flow down failed arms (Mississippi, Amazon, Niger, Zambezi, Limpopo, Rhine).", url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/627882", doi = "10.1086/627882", openalex = "W1979331501", references = "doi101029jb076i014p03179, doi101038211676a0, doi101038224125a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi10113000167606197283619ssitna20co2" } @techreport{tanner1973deepsea23, author = "Tanner, W. F", title = "Deep-sea trenches and the compression assumption", year = "1973", howpublished = "Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 57, p. 2195-2206", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Tanner, W. F., 1973, Deep-sea trenches and the compression assumption: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 57, p. 2195-2206.}" } @article{doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, author = "Minster, J. B. and Jordan, T. H. and Molnár, Péter and Haines, E. L.", title = "Numerical Modelling of Instantaneous Plate Tectonics", year = "1974", journal = "Geophysical Journal International", abstract = "Assuming lithospheric plates to be rigid, we systematically invert 68 spreading rates, 62 fracture zones trends and 10^6 earthquake slip vectors simultaneously to obtain a self-consistent model of instantaneous relative motions for eleven major plates. The inverse problem is linearized and solved iteratively by a maximum likelihood procedure. Because the uncertainties in the data are small, Gaussian statistics are shown to be adequate. The use of a linear theory permits (1) the calculation of the uncertainties in the various angular velocity vectors caused by uncertainties in the data, and (2) quantitative examination of the distribution of information within the data set. \n \nThe existence of a self-consistent model satisfying all the data is strong justification of the rigid plate assumption. Slow movement between North and South America is shown to be resolvable. \n \nWe then invert the trends of 20 linear island chains and aseismic ridges under the assumptions that they represent the directions of plate motions over a set of hot spots fixed with respect to each other. We conclude that these hot spots have had no significant relative motions in the last 10 My.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb00613.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb00613.x", openalex = "W2097800673", references = "doi101017s0305004100030401, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101038230042a0, doi101098rspa19530064, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130001676061970813513ioptft20co2, doi101139p63094, doi101306819a3e5016c511d78645000102c1865d, doi101785bssa0590010369" } @misc{kielanjaworowska1974migrations7, author = "Kielan-Jaworowska, Z", title = "Migrations of the multituberculata and the Late Cretaceous connections between Asia and North America", year = "1974", howpublished = "Annals of the South African Museum, v. 64, p. 231-243", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kielan-Jaworowska, Z., 1974, Migrations of the multituberculata and the Late Cretaceous connections between Asia and North America: Annals of the South African Museum, v. 64, p. 231-243.}" } @article{schopf1974permotriassic19, author = "Schopf, T. J. M", title = "Permo-Triassic extinctions", year = "1974", journal = "relations to sea floor spreading: Journal of Geology, v. 82, p. 129-143", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Schopf, T. J. M., 1974, Permo-Triassic extinctions: relations to sea floor spreading: Journal of Geology, v. 82, p. 129-143.}" } @misc{nevins1976continental15, author = "Nevins, S. E", title = "Continental drift, plate tectonics, and the Bible", year = "1976", howpublished = "ICR Impact Series, no. 32; i-iv", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nevins, S. E., 1976, Continental drift, plate tectonics, and the Bible: ICR Impact Series, no. 32; i-iv.}" } @techreport{donn1977model3, author = "Donn, W. L. and Shaw, D. M", title = "Model of climate evolution based on continental drift and polar wandering", year = "1977", howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 390-396", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Donn, W. L., and Shaw, D. M., 1977, Model of climate evolution based on continental drift and polar wandering: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 390-396.}" } @misc{irving1977drift5, author = "Irving, E", title = "Drift of the major continental blocks since the Devonian", year = "1977", howpublished = "Nature, v. 270, p. 304-309", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Irving, E., 1977, Drift of the major continental blocks since the Devonian: Nature, v. 270, p. 304-309.}" } @misc{tarling1977continental24, author = "Tarling, D. H. and Tarling, M. P", title = "Continental Drift", year = "1977", howpublished = "A Study of the Earth's Moving Surface [2nd ed.]: London, Bell", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Tarling, D. H., and Tarling, M. P., 1977, Continental Drift: A Study of the Earth's Moving Surface [2nd ed.]: London, Bell.}" } @book{doi101306ce1384, author = "Dickinson, William R. and Yarborough, Hunter", title = "Plate Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Accumulation", year = "1978", booktitle = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists eBooks", abstract = "The vertical tectonics inherent in the scheme of lateral motions of plates of lithosphere affords a coherent logic for the analysis of sedimentary basins. Subsidence may stem from crustal attenuation, thermotectonics, flexure of lithosphere, or combinations of these influences in space or time. Key facets of basin evolution include geometric configuration, the nature of the stratigraphic fill, the types of structural features, and the location of fluid hydrocarbons in space and time. Critical attributes favorable to hydrocarbon occurrence include the presence of organic-rich source beds, a history of thermal flux appropriate for thermal maturation, effective migration paths to allow concentration, and adequate reservoir capacity within suitable traps.Both divergent and convergent plate motions embody vertical tectonics within the zone of plate interaction, but pure transforms do not. At divergent plate junctures, which are associated with the generation of new oceanic lithosphere, crustal attenuation causes eventual subsidence that is delayed by thermotectonic effects but may later be enhanced by plate flexure under sedimentary loading that forces isostatic adjustment. At convergent plate junctures, which are associated with the consumption of old oceanic lithosphere, crustal thickening causes uplift of subduction complexes and of arc or collision orogens, but plate flexure associated with plate subduction and with tectonic or sedimentary loading induces subsidence in basins that lie along the flanks of orogenic belts. Most sedimentary basins can thus be grouped generally into those in rifted settings and those in orogenic settings. A given basin may occupy several settings of either kind sequentially in time, and gradational examples also occur.Basins in rifted settings include (1) infracratonic basins and (2) marginal aulacogens where continental separation is incomplete; (3) protoceanic rifts where the initial emplacement of fresh oceanic crust occurs; (4) miogeoclinal prisms of terrace, slope, and rise assemblages that mask rifted continental margins and (5) continental embankments where sedimentary progradation of the continental edge is important; (6) nascent ocean basins in which expansion by accretion of new lithosphere at midoceanic rise crests is dominant; (7) transtensional basins along complex transform systems where pull-apart or fault-wedge features occur; and (8) interarc basins formed as marginal seas behind intra-oceanic arc-trench systems from which remnant arc structures have been calved.Basins in orogenic settings include (9) oceanic trenches where plate consumption occurs, (10) slope basins formed above accretionary subduction complexes, and (11) forearc basins in the arc-trench gap related to subduction zones; pericratonic basins of (12) peripheral forelands adjacent to collision orogens, (13) retroarc forelands adjacent to arc orogens, and (14) broken forelands where differential basement deformation is significant; (15) transpressional basins along complex transform systems where wrench or fault-warp features occur; and (16) remnant ocean basins in which shrinkage by consumption of old lithosphere at bounding arc-trench systems is dominant.Useful for comparative basin analysis are plots of the following parameters against time: paleolatitude, subsidence rate (maximal or volumetric), net cumulative subsidence (maximal or volumetric), heat flux, geothermal gradient, and temperature at key source horixons.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/ce1384", doi = "10.1306/ce1384", openalex = "W1747712467" } @incollection{condie1982plate, author = "Condie, Kent C.", title = "Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift", year = "1982", booktitle = "Plate Tectonics \& Crustal Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-028076-9.50013-8", doi = "10.1016/b978-0-08-028076-9.50013-8", pages = "151-187" } @misc{pennington1983role16, author = "Pennington, W. D", title = "Role of shallow phase changes in the subduction of oceanic crust", year = "1983", howpublished = "Science, v. 220, p. 1045-1047", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Pennington, W. D., 1983, Role of shallow phase changes in the subduction of oceanic crust: Science, v. 220, p. 1045-1047.}" } @misc{snelling1983what21, author = "Snelling, A", title = "What about continental drift? Have the continents moved apart?", year = "1983", howpublished = "Ex Nihilo, v. 2, no. 1, p. 14-16; International Edition", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Snelling, A., 1983, What about continental drift? Have the continents moved apart?: Ex Nihilo, v. 2, no. 1, p. 14-16; International Edition.}" } @misc{chatterjee1984the2, author = "Chatterjee, S", title = "The drift of India", year = "1984", howpublished = "A conflict in plate tectonics: Memoirs of the Geological Society of France, v. 147, p. 43-48", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Chatterjee, S., 1984, The drift of India: A conflict in plate tectonics: Memoirs of the Geological Society of France, v. 147, p. 43-48.}" } @article{doi101111j1365246x1984tb01931x, author = "Jackson, James and McKenzie, Dan", title = "Active tectonics of the Alpine--Himalayan Belt between western Turkey and Pakistan", year = "1984", journal = "Geophysical Journal International", abstract = "Over 80 new fault plane solutions, combined with satellite imagery as well as both modern and historical observations of earthquake faulting, are used to investigate the active tectonics of the Middle East between western Turkey and Pakistan. The deformation of the western part of this region is dominated by the movement of continental material laterally away from the Lake Van region in eastern Turkey. This movement helps to avoid crustal thickening in the Van region, and allows some of the shortening between Arabia and Eurasia to be taken up by the thrusting of continental material over oceanic-type basement in the southern Caspian, Mediterranean, Makran and Black Sea. Thus central Turkey, bounded by the North and East Anatolian strike-slip faults, is moving west from the Van region and overrides the eastern Mediterranean at two intermediate depth seismic zones: one extending between Antalya Bay and southern Cyprus, and the other further west in the Hellenic Trench. The motion of northern Iran eastwards from the Van region is achieved mainly by a conjugate system of strike-slip faults and leads to the low angle thrusting of Iran over the southern Caspian Sea. The seismicity of the Caucasus shows predominantly shortening perpendicular to the regional strike, but there is also some minor elongation along the strike of the belt as the Causcasus overrides the Caspian and Black Seas. The deformation of the eastern part of this region is dominated by the shortening of Iran against the stable borders of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. The north-east direction of compression seen in Zagros is also seen in north-east Iran and the Kopet Dag, where the shortening is taken up by a combination of strike-slip and thrust faulting. Large structural as well as palaeomagnetic rotations are likely to have occurred in NE Iran as a result of this style of deformation. North-south strike-slip faults in southern Iran allow some movement of material away from the collision zone in NE Iran towards the Makran subduction zone, where genuinely intermediate depth seismicity is seen. Within this broad deforming belt large areas, such as central Turkey, NW Iran (Azerbaijan), central Iran and the southern Caspian, appear to be almost aseismic and therefore to behave as relatively rigid blocks surrounded by active belts 200-300 km wide. The motion of these blocks can usefully be described by poles of rotation. The poles presented in this paper predict motions consistent with those observed and also predict the opening of the Gulf of Iskenderun NE of Cyprus, the change within the Zagros mountains from strike-slip faulting in the NW to intense thrusting in the SE, and the relatively feeble seismicity in SE Iran (Baluchistan). This description also explains why the north-south structures along the Iran-Afghanistan border do not cut the east-west ranges of the Makran. Within the active belts surrounding the relatively aseismic blocks a continuum approach is needed for a description of the deformation, even though motions at the surface may be concentrated on faults. The evolution of fault systems within the active zones is controlled by geometric constraints, such as the requirement that simultaneously active faults do not, in general, intersect. Many of the active processes discussed in this paper, particularly large-scale rotations and lateral movement along the regional strike, are likely to have caused substantial complexities in older mountain belts and should be accounted for in any reconstructions of them.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1984.tb01931.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1984.tb01931.x", openalex = "W2133274607", references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010160012821x78900717, doi1010160040195178901403, doi101029jb088ib05p04183, doi101029rg016i004p00621, doi101139e81019, doi101144gsjgs13950605, doi1013062f918a8b16ce11d78645000102c1865d, openalexw1491817880" } @misc{menard1984evolution9, author = "Menard, W. H", title = "Evolution of ridges by asymmetrical spreading", year = "1984", howpublished = "Geology, v. 12, p. 177-180", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Menard, W. H., 1984, Evolution of ridges by asymmetrical spreading: Geology, v. 12, p. 177-180.}" } @misc{scotese1984paleozoic20, author = "Scotese, C. R", title = "Paleozoic Paleomagnetism and the Assembly of Pangaea, in Van der Voo, R., Scotese, C. R., and Bonhommet, N., eds., Plate Reconstruction from Paleozoic Paleomagnetism", year = "1984", howpublished = "Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union, v. 12, p. 1-10; 136 pp", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Scotese, C. R., 1984, Paleozoic Paleomagnetism and the Assembly of Pangaea, in Van der Voo, R., Scotese, C. R., and Bonhommet, N., eds., Plate Reconstruction from Paleozoic Paleomagnetism: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union, v. 12, p. 1-10; 136 pp.}" } @article{brettsurman1985a1, author = "Brett-Surman, M. K. and Paul, G. S", title = "A new family of bird-like dinosaurs linking Laurasia and Gondwanaland", year = "1985", journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 5, p. 133-138", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brett-Surman, M. K., and Paul, G. S., 1985, A new family of bird-like dinosaurs linking Laurasia and Gondwanaland: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, v. 5, p. 133-138.}" } @book{vanandel1985new25, author = "Van Andel, T. H", title = "New Views on an Old Planet", year = "1985", publisher = "Continental Drift and the History of the Earth: Cambridge, Mass., Cambridge University Press", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Van Andel, T. H., 1985, New Views on an Old Planet: Continental Drift and the History of the Earth: Cambridge, Mass., Cambridge University Press.}" } @misc{weisburd1985seeing29, author = "Weisburd, S", title = "Seeing' Continents Drift", year = "1985", howpublished = "Science News, v. 128, p. 388", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Weisburd, S., 1985, 'Seeing' Continents Drift: Science News, v. 128, p. 388.}" } @article{doi101144gslsp19860190107, author = "Tapponnier, P. and Peltzer, G. and Armijo, Rolando", title = "On the mechanics of the collision between India and Asia", year = "1986", journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications", abstract = "Summary Field studies of active faulting in S Tibet indicate that Quaternary extension has been taking place at a rate of ≃1 cm yr −1 in a direction of ≃ 100°. This implies that underthrusting in the Himalayas now absorbs less than half of the total convergence between rigid India and Asia, the rest being taken up primarily by strike-slip faulting N of the collision belt. En échelon right-lateral, strike-slip faults in S Tibet now allow this corresponding eastward displacement of the plateau with respect to India. The reproducible pattern of faulting obtained from plane-strain indentation experiments on unilaterally confined blocks of plasticine suggests that this extrusion process has occurred during most of the collision history. The Tertiary geological record in SE Asia corroborates a polyphase extrusion model, with displacements in excess of 1000–1500 km, in which India has successively pushed Sundaland, then Tibet and S China towards the ESE. Most of the Middle Tertiary movements may have occurred along the then left-lateral Red River-Ailao Shan Fault Zone, together with the opening of most of the eastern S China Sea. Regional geology, stratigraphy and deformation observed in Yunnan are consistent with this inference, as well as the timing, geometry and rates of sea-floor spreading in the S China Sea. Fast spreading (5 cm yr −1) in that sea implies that the Tibetan highlands formed mostly after 17 Ma BP. Sideways movements can also account for the existence of large, conjugate but asymmetric, Tertiary strike-slip faults within Sundaland and the formation of Middle Tertiary pull-apart and rift basins on the Sunda Shelf. Changing directions of opening are predicted in the Mergui and Andaman Basins and the lowlands of Burma, as well as large right-lateral displacements along the Shan Scarp. Most of Sundaland probably lay initially in a frontal position with respect to impinging India and the Shan Plateau may have been a Middle Tertiary analogue of the present Tibetan Plateau. In contrast with dominant overthrusting in the Himalayas, Tertiary strike-slip faulting, with more subordinate folding and thrusting, appears to have been important along and N of the Zangbo Suture. This difference must be accounted for in all models of formation of the Tibet Plateau. The surface of the indentation mark, left by the impaction of India onto the presumably simpler Early Tertiary margin of Asia (> 6 million km 2), implies that mountain building and strike-slip faulting have absorbed, perhaps alternately, roughly equal amounts of collisional shortening. Since analogous interplays of extrusion and thickening probably govern the evolution of most collision zones, the Tertiary tectonics of Asia may be the best guide to unravel the interactions between Palaeozoic and Precambrian plates, for which sea-floor spreading constraints are unattainable.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1986.019.01.07", doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.1986.019.01.07", openalex = "W2022909854", references = "doi1010160012821x81901898, doi101029gm023p0089, doi101029jb082i020p02905, doi101029jb083ib11p05361, doi101038264319a0, doi101038307017a0, doi101086627920, doi101111j1365246x1982tb04969x, doi101126science1894201419, doi1011300016760619799084aasrcm20co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, openalexw617865741" } @incollection{crossref1990continental, title = "Continental drift and plate tectonics", year = "1990", booktitle = "World Geomorphology", url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139170154.003", doi = "10.1017/cbo9781139170154.003", pages = "12-29" } @misc{sacks1990kinematics17, author = "Sacks, P. E. and Secor, D. T. and Jr", title = "Kinematics of Late Paleozoic continental collision between Laurentia and Gondwana", year = "1990", howpublished = "Science, v. 250, no. 4988, p. 1702-1705", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sacks, P. E., and Secor, D. T., Jr., 1990, Kinematics of Late Paleozoic continental collision between Laurentia and Gondwana: Science, v. 250, no. 4988, p. 1702-1705.}" } @article{doi101111j146783061992tb01904x, author = "Dobson, Jerome E.", title = "Spatial Logic In Paleogeography and the Explanation Of Continental Drift", year = "1992", journal = "Annals of the Association of American Geographers", abstract = "Abstract The scientific methods employed in paleogeography have followed two distinct logics. Spatial logic accepts morphology, spatial distribution, and spatial association as primary evidence of earth processes that must be tested through process-oriented research. Process logic accepts contemporary knowledge about individual earth processes, synthesizes general theory, and proposes spatial tests. Wegener's argument for continental drift, based on spatial logic, was rejected by most scientists from 1912 to 1960. Arguments for sea-floor spreading and plate tectonics, based on spatial logic, were accepted by most scientists from the 1960s to the present. Since the 1960s, process logic has dominated the search for mechanisms causing plate tectonics. Extension of spatial logic in this research finds previously undocumented continental fits among South America and Africa, South America and North America, and North America and Australia. This evidence suggests a new theoretical model of continental drift and plate tectonics, with circular plate motion caused by thermal convection and lateral plate motion caused by gravity.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01904.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01904.x", openalex = "W2127339408", references = "crossref1990continental" } @article{doi10102992jb02280, author = "Briais, A. and Patriat, Philippe and Tapponnier, Paul", title = "Updated interpretation of magnetic anomalies and seafloor spreading stages in the south China Sea: Implications for the Tertiary tectonics of Southeast Asia", year = "1993", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "We present the interpretation of a new set of closely spaced marine magnetic profiles that complements previous data in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the South China Sea (Nan Hai). This interpretation shows that seafloor spreading was asymmetric and confirms that it included at least one ridge jump. Discontinuities in the seafloor fabric, characterized by large differences in basement depth and roughness, appear to be related to variations in spreading rate. Between anomalies 11 and 7 (32 to 27 Ma), spreading at an intermediate, average full rate of ≈50 mm/yr created relatively smooth basement, now thickly blanketed by sediments. The ridge then jumped to the south and created rough basement, now much shallower and covered with thinner sediments than in the north. This episode lasted from anomaly 6b to anomaly 5c (27 to ≈16 Ma) and the average spreading rate was slower, ≈35 mm/yr. After 27 Ma, spreading appears to have developed first in the eastern part of the basin and to have propagated towards the southwest in two major steps, at the time of anomalies 6b‐7, and at the time of anomaly 6. Each step correlates with a variation of the ridge orientation, from nearly E‐W to NE‐SW, and with a variation in the spreading rate. Spreading appears to have stopped synchronously along the ridge, at about 15.5 Ma. From computed fits of magnetic isochrons, we calculate 10 poles of finite rotation between the times of magnetic anomalies 11 and 5c. The poles permit reconstruction of the Oligo‐Miocene movements of Southeast Asian blocks north and south of the South China Sea. Using such reconstructions, we test quantitatively a simple scenario for the opening of the sea in which seafloor spreading results from the extrusion of Indochina relative to South China, in response to the penetration of India into Asia. This alone yields between 500 and 600 km of left‐lateral motion on the Red River‐Ailao Shan shear zone, with crustal shortening in the San Jiang region and crustal extension in Tonkin. The offset derived from the fit of magnetic isochrons on the South China Sea floor is compatible with the offset of geological markers north and south of the Red River Zone. The first phases of extension of the continental margins of the basin are probably related to motion on the Wang Chao and Three Pagodas Faults, in addition to the Red River Fault. That Indochina rotated at least 12° relative to South China implies that large‐scale “domino” models are inadequate to describe the Cenozoic tectonics of Southeast Asia. The cessation of spreading after 16 Ma appears to be roughly synchronous with the final increments of left‐lateral shear and normal uplift in the Ailao Shan (18 Ma), as well as with incipient collisions between the Australian and the Eurasian plates. Hence no other causes than the activation of new fault zones within the India‐Asia collision zone, north and east of the Red River Fault, and perhaps increased resistance to extrusion along the SE edge of Sundaland, appear to be required to terminate seafloor spreading in the largest marginal basin of the western Pacific and to change the sense of motion on the largest strike‐slip fault of SE Asia.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92jb02280", doi = "10.1029/92jb02280", openalex = "W2048996866", references = "doi10102992jb01963, doi101029gm027p0023, doi101029jb093ib12p15085, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101144gslsp19860190107, openalexw617865741" } @article{doi10102992tc02641, author = "Royden, L. H.", title = "Evolution of retreating subduction boundaries formed during continental collision", year = "1993", journal = "Tectonics", abstract = "Retreating subduction boundaries, formed where the rate of subduction exceeds the rate of overall plate convergence, appear to be commonly developed features within regions of early or incomplete continent‐continent collision. They are characterized by regional extension within the overriding plate and, at their leading edge, by thin‐skinned arcuate thrust belts that are concave towards the overriding plate. As is illustrated by examples from the Mediterranean region, the formation of retreating subduction boundaries is intimately related to the process of continental collision. During the early stages of collision, retreating subduction boundaries are commonly formed by lateral ejection from zones of crustal shortening along the main collision boundary. Retreating plate boundaries can also form before the main collision, and the associated thrust belts emplaced as precollisional accretionary assemblages. Because the driving mechanism for retreating subduction boundaries appears to be gravity acting on a dense subducted slab (slab pull), subduction usually ceases when, and only when, thick buoyant continental crust enters the subduction zone. Thus differences in the evolution and duration of retreating subduction systems can be largely attributed to the size and configuration of the deep water regions available to be subducted. In some cases, retreating subduction boundaries may “escape” into the open ocean, where they form nearly isolated, local tectonic systems. In these systems the rate of subduction is approximately compensated by the rate of upper plate extension, and migration of the system across the oceanic region may be very rapid. For example, the Horseshoe Seamounts, located about 800 km offshore in the eastern North Atlantic, may be the active expression of an east dipping, westwardly migrating retreating subduction boundary that has evolved from the Betic Cordillera‐Rif system active in Miocene time and may now be progressing across the Atlantic at approximately 50 mm/yr. An analogous situation may be represented by the Scotia Arc system, a westward dipping retreating subduction system located between the South American and Antarctic plates, which may have “escaped” into the South Atlantic ocean from a zone of crustal shortening in the Andes and is now progressing across the Atlantic at a rate of about 80 mm/yr.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92tc02641", doi = "10.1029/92tc02641", openalex = "W2014494815", references = "doi101029tc005i002p00227, doi1011300016760619881001140olitts23co2, doi101130spe218p31" } @incollection{crossref1994continental, title = "Continental drift and plate tectonics", year = "1994", booktitle = "New Views on an Old Planet", url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139174114.011", doi = "10.1017/cbo9781139174114.011", pages = "109-129" } @article{doi1010292000jb000033, author = "Sella, G. and Dixon, Timothy H. and Mao, Ailin", title = "REVEL: A model for Recent plate velocities from space geodesy", year = "2002", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "We present a new global model for Recent plate velocities, REVEL, describing the relative velocities of 19 plates and continental blocks. The model is derived from publicly available space geodetic (primarily GPS) data for the period 1993–2000. We include an independent and rigorous estimate for GPS velocity uncertainties to assess plate rigidity and propagate these uncertainties to the velocity estimates. The velocity fields for North America, Eurasia, and Antarctica clearly show the effects of glacial isostatic adjustment, and Australia appears to depart from rigid plate behavior in a manner consistent with the mapped intraplate stress field. Two thirds of tested plate pairs agree with the NUVEL‐1A geologic (3 Myr average) velocities within uncertainties. Three plate pairs (Caribbean–North America, Caribbean–South America, and North America–Pacific) exhibit significant differences between the geodetic and geologic model that may reflect systematic errors in NUVEL‐1A due to the use of seafloor magnetic rate data that do not reflect the full plate rate because of tectonic complexities. Most other differences probably reflect real velocity changes over the last few million years. Several plate pairs (Arabia–Eurasia, Arabia–Nubia, Eurasia–India) move more slowly than the 3 Myr NUVEL‐1A average, perhaps reflecting long‐term deceleration associated with continental collision. Several other plate pairs, including Nazca–Pacific, Nazca–South America and Nubia–South America, are experiencing slowing that began ∼25 Ma, the beginning of the current phase of Andean crustal shortening.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jb000033", doi = "10.1029/2000jb000033", openalex = "W1983091118", references = "crétaux1998presentday, doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010160040195194900302, doi101016s0040195197002102, doi1010291999jb900236, doi1010291999jb900351, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102992jb01202, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995eo00198, doi10102995jb03048, doi10102996jb03736, doi10102996jb03860, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb087ib13p10656, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101029jb095ib13p22013, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101126science2655169195, openalexw3041301201" } @article{doi101144gslsp20021920110, author = "Grand, H. E. Le", title = "Plate tectonics, terranes and continental geology", year = "2002", journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications", abstract = "Abstract The ‘modern revolution’ in the Earth sciences is associated with the emergence of plate tectonics in the late 1960s. The assumption that the crust of the Earth was composed of a small number of rigid, non-deformable, mobile plates enabled a quantitative, kinematic description of current geological processes and reconstructions of past plate interactions. The simple model of plate theory c. 1970, for example its depiction of a subduction zone, has since undergone considerable refinement. However, some geologists, especially those concerned with questions of continental tectonics, contend that plate theory in its current form is of limited value in addressing questions of continental tectonics, and prefer to employ the concept of allochthonous terranes in characterizing, describing and interpreting regional geology. These geologists may understandably take the view that plate tectonics is a kinematic grand generalization but thus far not particularly useful in making sense of the rocks at the local level.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.2002.192.01.10", doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.2002.192.01.10", openalex = "W2142147460", references = "crossref2010continental" } @incollection{uyeda20026, author = "Uyeda, Seiya", title = "6 Continental drift, sea-floor spreading, and plate/plume tectonics", year = "2002", booktitle = "International Geophysics", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-6142(02)80209-1", doi = "10.1016/s0074-6142(02)80209-1", pages = "51-67" } @article{doi1010292001gc000252, author = "Bird, Peter", title = "An updated digital model of plate boundaries", year = "2003", journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems", abstract = "A global set of present plate boundaries on the Earth is presented in digital form. Most come from sources in the literature. A few boundaries are newly interpreted from topography, volcanism, and/or seismicity, taking into account relative plate velocities from magnetic anomalies, moment tensor solutions, and/or geodesy. In addition to the 14 large plates whose motion was described by the NUVEL‐1A poles (Africa, Antarctica, Arabia, Australia, Caribbean, Cocos, Eurasia, India, Juan de Fuca, Nazca, North America, Pacific, Philippine Sea, South America), model PB2002 includes 38 small plates (Okhotsk, Amur, Yangtze, Okinawa, Sunda, Burma, Molucca Sea, Banda Sea, Timor, Birds Head, Maoke, Caroline, Mariana, North Bismarck, Manus, South Bismarck, Solomon Sea, Woodlark, New Hebrides, Conway Reef, Balmoral Reef, Futuna, Niuafo'ou, Tonga, Kermadec, Rivera, Galapagos, Easter, Juan Fernandez, Panama, North Andes, Altiplano, Shetland, Scotia, Sandwich, Aegean Sea, Anatolia, Somalia), for a total of 52 plates. No attempt is made to divide the Alps‐Persia‐Tibet mountain belt, the Philippine Islands, the Peruvian Andes, the Sierras Pampeanas, or the California‐Nevada zone of dextral transtension into plates; instead, they are designated as “orogens” in which this plate model is not expected to be accurate. The cumulative‐number/area distribution for this model follows a power law for plates with areas between 0.002 and 1 steradian. Departure from this scaling at the small‐plate end suggests that future work is very likely to define more very small plates within the orogens. The model is presented in four digital files: a set of plate boundary segments; a set of plate outlines; a set of outlines of the orogens; and a table of characteristics of each digitization step along plate boundaries, including estimated relative velocity vector and classification into one of 7 types (continental convergence zone, continental transform fault, continental rift, oceanic spreading ridge, oceanic transform fault, oceanic convergent boundary, subduction zone). Total length, mean velocity, and total rate of area production/destruction are computed for each class; the global rate of area production and destruction is 0.108 m 2 /s, which is higher than in previous models because of the incorporation of back‐arc spreading.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2001gc000252", doi = "10.1029/2001gc000252", openalex = "W1676343945", references = "doi1010291999jb900351, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102992jb00132, doi10102993gl00128, doi10102993jb00782, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995jb00317, doi10102996jb03736, doi10102998tc02698, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb093ib12p15085, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x" } @article{doi1010292005jb004051, author = "Reilinger, Robert and McClusky, S. and Vernant, Philippe and Lawrence, Shawn and Ergintav, Semih and Çakmak, R. and Özener, Haluk and Kadirov, Fakhraddin and Guliev, I. S. and Stepanyan, Ruben and Nadariya, M. and Hahubia, Galaktion and Mahmoud, Salah and Sakr, Kamal and ArRajehi, Abdullah and Paradissis, Demitris and Al‐Aydrus, A. and Prilepin, Mikhail Tikhonovich and Гусева, Т.В. and Evren, Emre and Dmitrotsa, A. I. and Filikov, S. V. and Gomez, Francisco and Al-Ghazzi, R. and Karam, Gebran N.", title = "GPS constraints on continental deformation in the Africa‐Arabia‐Eurasia continental collision zone and implications for the dynamics of plate interactions", year = "2006", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres", abstract = "The GPS‐derived velocity field (1988–2005) for the zone of interaction of the Arabian, African (Nubian, Somalian), and Eurasian plates indicates counterclockwise rotation of a broad area of the Earth's surface including the Arabian plate, adjacent parts of the Zagros and central Iran, Turkey, and the Aegean/Peloponnesus relative to Eurasia at rates in the range of 20–30 mm/yr. This relatively rapid motion occurs within the framework of the slow‐moving (∼5 mm/yr relative motions) Eurasian, Nubian, and Somalian plates. The circulatory pattern of motion increases in rate toward the Hellenic trench system. We develop an elastic block model to constrain present‐day plate motions (relative Euler vectors), regional deformation within the interplate zone, and slip rates for major faults. Substantial areas of continental lithosphere within the region of plate interaction show coherent motion with internal deformations below ∼1–2 mm/yr, including central and eastern Anatolia (Turkey), the southwestern Aegean/Peloponnesus, the Lesser Caucasus, and Central Iran. Geodetic slip rates for major block‐bounding structures are mostly comparable to geologic rates estimated for the most recent geological period (∼3–5 Myr). We find that the convergence of Arabia with Eurasia is accommodated in large part by lateral transport within the interior part of the collision zone and lithospheric shortening along the Caucasus and Zagros mountain belts around the periphery of the collision zone. In addition, we find that the principal boundary between the westerly moving Anatolian plate and Arabia (East Anatolian fault) is presently characterized by pure left‐lateral strike slip with no fault‐normal convergence. This implies that “extrusion” is not presently inducing westward motion of Anatolia. On the basis of the observed kinematics, we hypothesize that deformation in the Africa‐Arabia‐Eurasia collision zone is driven in large part by rollback of the subducting African lithosphere beneath the Hellenic and Cyprus trenches aided by slab pull on the southeastern side of the subducting Arabian plate along the Makran subduction zone. We further suggest that the separation of Arabia from Africa is a response to plate motions induced by active subduction.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jb004051", doi = "10.1029/2005jb004051", openalex = "W1981165981", references = "doi1010160040195181902754, doi1010291999jb900351, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292002jb001862, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995eo00198, doi10102995jb00317, doi10102996jb03736, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038226239a0, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101111j1365246x1996tb05264x, doi101126science105978, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science29054981910, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101146annurevearth32101802120415, doi101146annurevearth33092203122711, doi101785bssa0750041135, doi102110pec85370211, doi102110pec85370227, openalexw304861154" } @article{doi101007s0001500812473, author = "Schmid, Stefan M. and Bernoulli, Daniel and Fügenschuh, Bernhard and Maţenco, Liviu and Schefer, Senecio and Schuster, Ralf and Tischler, Matthias and Ustaszewski, Kamil", title = "The Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic orogenic system: correlation and evolution of tectonic units", year = "2008", journal = "Swiss Journal of Geosciences", abstract = "A correlation of tectonic units of the Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic system of orogens, including the substrate of the Pannonian and Transylvanian basins, is presented in the form of a map. Combined with a series of crustal-scale cross sections this correlation of tectonic units yields a clearer picture of the three-dimensional architecture of this system of orogens that owes its considerable complexity to multiple overprinting of earlier by younger deformations. The synthesis advanced here indicates that none of the branches of the Alpine Tethys and Neotethys extended eastward into the Dobrogea Orogen. Instead, the main branch of the Alpine Tethys linked up with the Meliata-Maliac-Vardar branch of the Neotethys into the area of the present-day Inner Dinarides. More easterly and subsidiary branches of the Alpine Tethys separated Tisza completely, and Dacia partially, from the European continent. Remnants of the Triassic parts of Neotethys (Meliata-Maliac) are preserved only as ophiolitic mélanges present below obducted Jurassic Neotethyan (Vardar) ophiolites. The opening of the Alpine Tethys was largely contemporaneous with the Latest Jurassic to Early Cretaceous obduction of parts of the Jurassic Vardar ophiolites. Closure of the Meliata-Maliac Ocean in the Alps and West Carpathians led to Cretaceous-age orogeny associated with an eclogitic overprint of the adjacent continental margin. The Triassic Meliata-Maliac and Jurassic Western and Eastern Vardar ophiolites were derived from one single branch of Neotethys: the Meliata-Maliac-Vardar Ocean. Complex geometries resulting from out-of-sequence thrusting during Cretaceous and Cenozoic orogenic phases underlay a variety of multi-ocean hypotheses, that were advanced in the literature and that we regard as incompatible with the field evidence. The present-day configuration of tectonic units suggests that a former connection between ophiolitic units in West Carpathians and Dinarides was disrupted by substantial Miocene-age dislocations along the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone, hiding a former lateral change in subduction polarity between West Carpathians and Dinarides. The SW-facing Dinaridic Orogen, mainly structured in Cretaceous and Palaeogene times, was juxtaposed with the Tisza and Dacia Mega-Units along a NW-dipping suture (Sava Zone) in latest Cretaceous to Palaeogene times. The Dacia Mega-Unit (East and South Carpathian Orogen, including the Carpatho-Balkan Orogen and the Biharia nappe system of the Apuseni Mountains), was essentially consolidated by E-facing nappe stacking during an Early Cretaceous orogeny, while the adjacent Tisza Mega-Unit formed by NW-directed thrusting (in present-day coordinates) in Late Cretaceous times. The polyphase and multi-directional Cretaceous to Neogene deformation history of the Dinarides was preceded by the obduction of Vardar ophiolites onto to the Adriatic margin (Western Vardar Ophiolitic Unit) and parts of the European margin (Eastern Vardar Ophiolitic Unit) during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00015-008-1247-3", doi = "10.1007/s00015-008-1247-3", openalex = "W2052504895", references = "doi1010079781461323518, doi101016004019518690199x, doi101016jpalaeo200402033, doi10102990tc02623, doi10102996tc00433, doi101111j14401738200500478x, doi101126science29054981910, doi1023073060311, openalexw2184264297, openalexw2937684811, openalexw3093286468" } @article{doi101016jearscirev200801007, author = "Ali, Jason R. and Aitchison, Jonathan C.", title = "Gondwana to Asia: Plate tectonics, paleogeography and the biological connectivity of the Indian sub-continent from the Middle Jurassic through latest Eocene (166–35 Ma)", year = "2008", journal = "Earth-Science Reviews", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.01.007", doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.01.007", openalex = "W1975969841", references = "doi101016jtree200411006, doi101016s1367912001000694, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi10102994jb03098, doi101029jb082i005p00803, doi101029jb084ib12p06803, doi101038225139a0, doi101073pnas0511296103, doi101098rspb20042692, doi101126science1059412, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science23547931156, doi101126science2675199852, doi101126science28053661048, doi101146annurevearth281211, doi105860choice331556, openalexw2395298606, openalexw2989049194, openalexw623436458" } @article{doi1010292007gc001743, author = "Müller, R. Dietmar and Sdrolias, M. and Gaina, Carmen and Roest, W. R.", title = "Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust", year = "2008", journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems", abstract = "We present four companion digital models of the age, age uncertainty, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetries of the world's ocean basins as geographic and Mercator grids with 2 arc min resolution. The grids include data from all the major ocean basins as well as detailed reconstructions of back‐arc basins. The age, spreading rate, and asymmetry at each grid node are determined by linear interpolation between adjacent seafloor isochrons in the direction of spreading. Ages for ocean floor between the oldest identified magnetic anomalies and continental crust are interpolated by geological estimates of the ages of passive continental margin segments. The age uncertainties for grid cells coinciding with marine magnetic anomaly identifications, observed or rotated to their conjugate ridge flanks, are based on the difference between gridded age and observed age. The uncertainties are also a function of the distance of a given grid cell to the nearest age observation and the proximity to fracture zones or other age discontinuities. Asymmetries in crustal accretion appear to be frequently related to asthenospheric flow from mantle plumes to spreading ridges, resulting in ridge jumps toward hot spots. We also use the new age grid to compute global residual basement depth grids from the difference between observed oceanic basement depth and predicted depth using three alternative age‐depth relationships. The new set of grids helps to investigate prominent negative depth anomalies, which may be alternatively related to subducted slab material descending in the mantle or to asthenospheric flow. A combination of our digital grids and the associated relative and absolute plate motion model with seismic tomography and mantle convection model outputs represents a valuable set of tools to investigate geodynamic problems.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2007gc001743", doi = "10.1029/2007gc001743", openalex = "W2129333755", references = "doi101016s0012821x0100588x, doi1010291999rg000068, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292005jb004035, doi10102994jb00988, doi10102994jb01889, doi10102994jb03098, doi10102996jb01781, doi10102996jb03223, doi10102998eo00426, doi101038359123a0" } @misc{crossref2010continental, title = "Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics", year = "2010", booktitle = "Time Matters", url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444323252.ch8", doi = "10.1002/9781444323252.ch8", pages = "213-245" } @article{doi101016jearscirev201006002, author = "Handy, Mark R. and Schmid, Stefan M. and Bousquet, Romain and Kissling, Eduard and Bernoulli, Daniel", title = "Reconciling plate-tectonic reconstructions of Alpine Tethys with the geological–geophysical record of spreading and subduction in the Alps", year = "2010", journal = "Earth-Science Reviews", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.002", doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.06.002", openalex = "W2118755672", references = "doi1010079781461323518, doi101007s000240032468z, doi1010160012825289900020, doi101016004019518690199x, doi101016jearscirev200902004, doi101016s0012821x0100588x, doi1010291999tc900041, doi10102990tc02623, doi10102994tc02051, doi10102996tc00433, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb082i005p00803, doi101029jb089ib07p06003, doi101029tc005i002p00227, doi101038279590a0, doi101111j13653091200801019x, doi101126science29054981910, doi101130001676061973843137ptateo20co2, doi1011300016760619881001140olitts23co2, doi101144gslsp19890450115, doi1023073060311, openalexw2989049194" } @article{doi101111j1365246x200904491x, author = "DeMets, Charles and Gordon, Richard G. and Argus, Donald F.", title = "Geologically current plate motions", year = "2010", journal = "Geophysical Journal International", abstract = "We describe best-fitting angular velocities and MORVEL, a new closure-enforced set of angular velocities for the geologically current motions of 25 tectonic plates that collectively occupy 97 per cent of Earth's surface. Seafloor spreading rates and fault azimuths are used to determine the motions of 19 plates bordered by mid-ocean ridges, including all the major plates. Six smaller plates with little or no connection to the mid-ocean ridges are linked to MORVEL with GPS station velocities and azimuthal data. By design, almost no kinematic information is exchanged between the geologically determined and geodetically constrained subsets of the global circuit-MORVEL thus averages motion over geological intervals for all the major plates. Plate geometry changes relative to NUVEL-1A include the incorporation of Nubia, Lwandle and Somalia plates for the former Africa plate, Capricorn, Australia and Macquarie plates for the former Australia plate, and Sur and South America plates for the former South America plate. MORVEL also includes Amur, Philippine Sea, Sundaland and Yangtze plates, making it more useful than NUVEL-1A for studies of deformation in Asia and the western Pacific. Seafloor spreading rates are estimated over the past 0.78 Myr for intermediate and fast spreading centres and since 3.16 Ma for slow and ultraslow spreading centres. Rates are adjusted downward by 0.6-2.6 mm yr -1 to compensate for the several kilometre width of magnetic reversal zones. Nearly all the NUVEL-1A angular velocities differ significantly from the MORVEL angular velocities. The many new data, revised plate geometries, and correction for outward displacement thus significantly modify our knowledge of geologically current plate motions. MORVEL indicates significantly slower 0.78-Myr-average motion across the Nazca-Antarctic and Nazca-Pacific boundaries than does NUVEL-1A, consistent with a progressive slowdown in the eastward component of Nazca plate motion since 3.16 Ma. It also indicates that motions across the Caribbean-North America and Caribbean-South America plate boundaries are twice as fast as given by NUVEL-1A. Summed, least-squares differences between angular velocities estimated from GPS and those for MORVEL, NUVEL-1 and NUVEL-1A are, respectively, 260 per cent larger for NUVEL-1 and 50 per cent larger for NUVEL-1A than for MORVEL, suggesting that MORVEL more accurately describes historically current plate motions. Significant differences between geological and GPS estimates of Nazca plate motion and Arabia-Eurasia and India-Eurasia motion are reduced but not eliminated when using MORVEL instead of NUVEL-1A, possibly indicating that changes have occurred in those plate motions since 3.16 Ma. The MORVEL and GPS estimates of Pacific-North America plate motion in western North America differ by only 2.6 1.7 mm yr -1, 25 per cent smaller than for NUVEL-1A. The remaining difference for this plate pair, assuming there are no unrecognized systematic errors and no measurable change in Pacific-North America motion over the past 1-3 Myr, indicates deformation of one or more plates in the global circuit. Tests for closure of six three-plate circuits indicate that two, Pacific-Cocos-Nazca and Sur-Nubia-Antarctic, fail closure, with respective linear velocities of non-closure of 14 5 and 3 1 mm yr -1 (95 per cent confidence limits) at their triple junctions. We conclude that the rigid plate approximation continues to be tremendously useful, but-absent any unrecognized systematic errors-the plates deform measurably, possibly by thermal contraction and wide plate boundaries with deformation rates near or beneath the level of noise in plate kinematic data.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2009.04491.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.2009.04491.x", openalex = "W2098839042", references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292005jb004051, doi10102990eo00319, doi10102993jb00782, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102996jb03860, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib03p01071, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101046j1365246x200301917x, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101126science27753341956, doi101126science28053671245" } @incollection{crossref2013continental, title = "Continental Drift and Sea Floor Spreading, The Forerunners of Plate Tectonics", year = "2013", booktitle = "Special Publications", url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118777572.ch4", doi = "10.1002/9781118777572.ch4", pages = "31-39" } @article{doi101146annurevearth060115012211, author = "Müller, R. Dietmar and Seton, Maria and Zahirovic, Sabin and Williams, Simon and Matthews, Kara J. and Wright, Nicky M. and Shephard, Grace E. and Maloney, Kayla and Barnett‐Moore, Nicholas and Hosseinpour, Maral and Bower, Dan J. and Cannon, John", title = "Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup", year = "2016", journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences", abstract = "We present a revised global plate motion model with continuously closing plate boundaries ranging from the Triassic at 230 Ma to the present day, assess differences among alternative absolute plate motion models, and review global tectonic events. Relatively high mean absolute plate motion rates of approximately 9–10 cm yr −1 between 140 and 120 Ma may be related to transient plate motion accelerations driven by the successive emplacement of a sequence of large igneous provinces during that time. An event at ∼100 Ma is most clearly expressed in the Indian Ocean and may reflect the initiation of Andean-style subduction along southern continental Eurasia, whereas an acceleration at ∼80 Ma of mean rates from 6 to 8 cm yr −1 reflects the initial northward acceleration of India and simultaneous speedups of plates in the Pacific. An event at ∼50 Ma expressed in relative, and some absolute, plate motion changes around the globe and in a reduction of global mean plate speeds from about 6 to 4–5 cm yr −1 indicates that an increase in collisional forces (such as the India–Eurasia collision) and ridge subduction events in the Pacific (such as the Izanagi–Pacific Ridge) play a significant role in modulating plate velocities.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012211", doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012211", openalex = "W2178317302", references = "doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jearscirev201206007, doi101016jgloplacha201610002, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292007rg000227, doi10102994jb03098, doi10102996jb01781, doi101126science1151540, doi101126science1258213, openalexw2883478268" } @misc{fleagle2017plate, author = "Fleagle, John G.", title = "Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift", year = "2017", booktitle = "The International Encyclopedia of Primatology", abstract = "Plate tectonics, the study of the arrangements of continents and oceans on the surface of the earth, and their ongoing movements, separations, and collisions has revolutionized our understanding of earth history, and the biogeographical history of primate evolution. Primates, as well as all other organisms, have evolved on a dynamic, constantly changing earth in which the positions of the plates that make up continents, islands, and oceans are not static over geological time. They are sometimes growing, sometimes shrinking, sometimes joining, and sometimes separating. The changing positions of the plates over the past 60 million years of primate evolution provided the geographical and climatic background for dispersals and isolation of individual clades that have, in turn, influenced their radiations and/or extinctions due to competition or climate change. In addition, the interactions between plates have been responsible for most of the geological processes such as volcanism, uplift, and rifting that have led to the deposition of sediments containing the fossils that provide the basis of our understanding of primate evolution.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119179313.wbprim0247", doi = "10.1002/9781119179313.wbprim0247", pages = "1-4" } @article{doi1010292019jb018774, author = "Wang, Min and Shen, Zheng‐Kang", title = "Present‐Day Crustal Deformation of Continental China Derived From GPS and Its Tectonic Implications", year = "2020", journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth", abstract = "Abstract We process rigorously GPS data observed during the past 25 years from continental China to derive site secular velocities. Analysis of the velocity solution leads to the following results. (a) The deformation field inside the Tibetan plateau and Tien Shan is predominantly continuous, and large deformation gradients only exist perpendicular to the Indo‐Eurasian relative plate motion and are associated with a few large strike‐slip faults. (b) Lateral extrusions occur on both the east and west sides of the plateau. The westward extrusion peaks at \textasciitilde 6 mm/yr in the Pamir‐Hindu Kush region. A bell‐shaped eastward extrusion involves most of the plateau at a maximum rate of \textasciitilde 20 mm/yr between the Jiali and Ganzi‐Yushu faults, and the pattern is consistent with gravitational flow in southern and southeastern Tibet where the crust shows widespread dilatation at 10–20 nanostrain/yr. (c) The southeast borderland of Tibet rotates clockwise around the eastern Himalaya syntaxis, with sinistral and dextral shear motions along faults at the outer and inner flanks of the rotation terrane. The result suggests gravitational flow accomplished through rotation and translation of smaller subblocks in the upper crust. (d) Outside of the Tibetan plateau and Tien Shan, deformation field is block‐like. However, unnegligible internal deformation on the order of a couple of nanostrain/yr is found for all blocks. The North China block, under a unique tectonic loading environment, deforms and rotates at rates significantly higher than its northern and southern neighboring blocks, attesting its higher seismicity rate and earthquake hazard potential than its neighbors.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2019jb018774", doi = "10.1029/2019jb018774", openalex = "W2999289209", references = "doi101002grl50288, doi101007s0019000600303, doi1010160012821x81901898, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292005gl025546, doi1010292011jb008930, doi101038386061a0, doi101126science2765313788" }