@article{doi101152ajplegacy193712011,
    author = "Winslow, C.‐E. A. and Herrington, L. P. and Gagge, A. P.",
    title = "PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY TO VARYING ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURES",
    year = "1937",
    journal = "American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content",
    abstract = "General object of present experiments. The fact that the human body ad-justs itself to low environmental temperatures chiefly by constriction of the peripheral blood vessels, and to high atmospheric temperatures chiefly by increased secretion of sweat has long been a truism of physiology. We know 1, that physical regulation through constriction or dilatation of vessels is essentially a change in conductivity over the gradient between environ-mental and internal body temperature (Kleiber, 1932, Burton, 1934); and 2, that various segments of the body play relatively different roles in the elimination of heat (Maddock and Coller, 1933; Freeman, 1934). It has generally been assumed that insensible evaporative loss for subjects at rest is a roughly constant proportion of the total heat loss within the zone of thermal neutrality (Soderstrom and DuBois, 1917; Benedict and Root, 1926), provided the hydration of the body is normal (Manchester, 1931), the subjects not pathological (Lazlo and Schurmeyer, 1931), the humidity constant (Wiley and Newburgh, 1931), and the subjects in a post-absorp-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1937.120.1.1",
    doi = "10.1152/ajplegacy.1937.120.1.1",
    openalex = "W2336773552"
}

@article{doi101152physrev1947274511,
    author = "Kleiber, Max",
    title = "BODY SIZE AND METABOLIC RATE",
    year = "1947",
    journal = "Physiological Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1947.27.4.511",
    doi = "10.1152/physrev.1947.27.4.511",
    openalex = "W2097813267"
}

@article{doi1023071538740,
    author = "Scholander, P. F. and Walters, Vladimir and Hock, Raymond J. and Irving, Laurence",
    title = "BODY INSULATION OF SOME ARCTIC AND TROPICAL MAMMALS AND BIRDS",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Biological Bulletin",
    abstract = "Insulation measurements on raw skins from 16 arctic and 16 tropical mammals are given. There is, as would be expected, a good correlation between the thickness of the fur and the insulation. The smaller arctic mammals (weasels, lemmings) have much less insulation than the larger and overlap many of the tropical forms. From the size of a fox to the size of a moose there is no correlation between insulation and body size, they all have about the same insulation per surface area. When submerged in ice water, seal blubber retains about the same good insulation, as compared with measurements taken in 0° C. air. In the polar bear, heat transfer through the fur increases 25-50 times when submerged, because of complete wetting of the skin surface and absence of blubber. The beaver is slightly better off when submerged, as it retains an insulating layer of air in the fur next to the skin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1538740",
    doi = "10.2307/1538740",
    openalex = "W1952779397"
}

@article{doi101242jeb371186,
    author = "Church, N. S.",
    title = "Heat Loss and the Body Temperatures of Flying Insects",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The natural internal temperature gradients during flight were reproduced in various medium and large insects by mounting freshly killed specimens in a wind tunnel and heating them with a high-frequency electric current. The heat flow from the flight muscles to other parts of the body and from the body were investigated. Comparison of dead and living insects showed that most of the heat transfer within the body is by conduction; circulation of the haemolymph during flight contributes little to the heat flow. The temperature excess is high throughout the pterothorax in a large insect; where there are no subcutaneous air sacs it is only about 10\% less at the surface of the pterothorax than at the centre. Only about 5-15\% of the heat generated in the flight muscles is conducted to the prothorax, head, abdomen and appendages, which remain near the temperature of the air. Usually not more than 10-15\% of the heat escapes from the pterothorax by long-wave radiation in a large insect flying under a clear sky. Smaller insects lose relatively more of their heat by radiation. Radiation increases with the insect’s temperature but it is never sufficient to give much protection against overheating. Ordinarily 60-80\% of the heat is dissipated from the surface of the pterothorax by convection. In convection from a naked insect the relationships between heat loss, the surface temperature excess, size, and wind speed are nearly the same as in convection from a smooth cylinder or sphere, if allowance is made for turbulence in the air flow over the insect. In dragonflies and denuded bees and moths heated in proportion to their pterothoracic volumes in a constant wind, the temperature excess was proportional to the 1·3-1·5 power of the average diameter of the pterothorax. The coats of hair on bumble-bees, hawk moths, and noctuid moths are excellent insulators against convective heat loss. At normal flying speeds they increase the temperature excess by 50-100\% or more--in a large hawk moth probably by at least 8 or 9° C. The insulating value of a coat depends mostly on its density and on the size of the insect, and less on the length of the hair. In dragonflies the pterothorax is insulated nearly as effectively by the subcutaneous air sacs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.37.1.186",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.37.1.186",
    openalex = "W2913503931"
}

@article{doi101086physzool36330152307,
    author = "Bartholomew, George A. and Tucker, Vance A.",
    title = "Control of Changes in Body Temperature, Metabolism, and Circulation by the Agamid Lizard, Amphibolurus barbatus",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Physiological Zoology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.36.3.30152307",
    doi = "10.1086/physzool.36.3.30152307",
    openalex = "W2327944913"
}

@article{doi101038204355a0,
    author = "Mackay, R. Stuart",
    title = "Galapagos Tortoise and Marine Iguana Deep Body Temperatures Measured by Radio Telemetry",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/204355a0",
    doi = "10.1038/204355a0",
    openalex = "W1966725475"
}

@article{doi101086physzool37330152398,
    author = "Heath, James E.",
    title = "Head-Body Temperature Differences in Horned Lizards",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Physiological Zoology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.37.3.30152398",
    doi = "10.1086/physzool.37.3.30152398",
    openalex = "W2290233138"
}

@article{doi101086physzool37430152753,
    author = "Bartholomew, George A. and Tucker, Vance A.",
    title = "Size, Body Temperature, Thermal Conductance, Oxygen Consumption, and Heart Rate in Australian Varanid Lizards",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Physiological Zoology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.37.4.30152753",
    doi = "10.1086/physzool.37.4.30152753",
    openalex = "W2255952903",
    references = "doi101086281295, doi101086physzool29130152379, doi101086physzool31230155383, doi101086physzool33230152297, doi101086physzool36330152307, doi101086physzool36330152308, doi101098rstb19030001, openalexw195142154"
}

@article{brattstrom1965body,
    author = "Brattstrom, Bayard H.",
    title = "Body Temperatures of Reptiles",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "American Midland Naturalist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2423461",
    doi = "10.2307/2423461",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2018686700",
    pages = "376",
    volume = "73",
    references = "doi101038scientificamerican0459105, doi101086physzool34230152688, doi101086physzool36330152307, doi101111j155856461949tb00021x, doi101111j155856461961tb03132x, doi101126science122315873, doi101126science1353504670, doi1023071441115, doi1023071932171, doi1023071948638, openalexw1892056552"
}

@article{doi1023071440991,
    author = "Licht, Paul",
    title = "The Relation between Preferred Body Temperatures and Testicular Heat Sensitivity in Lizards",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Copeia",
    abstract = "The range of temperatures preferred by each species appears to be critically adjusted to a level compatible with the maximum tolerable temerature for the testes. However, continuous exposures even to preferred temperatures may be detrimental to both reproductive and somatic tissues. Loss of appetite and weight at high temperatures indicates a general systemic disorder, and spermatogenic failure may result from this rather than from heat per se. The lizards' use of high temperatures is evidently restricted by both systemic and reproductive heat sensitivities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1440991",
    doi = "10.2307/1440991",
    openalex = "W2312515487",
    references = "doi101086281249"
}

@article{doi101242jeb44177,
    author = "Tucker, Vance A.",
    title = "Oxygen Transport by the Circulatory System of the Green Iguana (Iguana Iguana) at Different Body Temperatures",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Oxygen consumption, stroke volume, heart rate and the difference in oxygen contents of arterial and venous blood (AV difference) were measured in the resting iguana at body temperatures of 20, 30 and 38° C. Oxygen consumption increased by a factor of 4·4 as temperature changed from 20 to 38° C. This increase was accomplished by a decrease in stroke volume by a factor of 0·5, and increases in heart rate and A V difference by factors of 4-1 and 2-2, respectively. During activity increases in oxygen consumption at a given temperature were accompanied by increases in heart rate and A V difference, but stroke volume did not change consistently. The percentage saturation of arterial blood with oxygen in the iguana may differ in the right and left systemic arches. In some lizards, both arches carried equally saturated blood, but in others the left arch carried blood containing less oxygen than the right arch. An hypothesis is presented concerning the function of the double systemic arches and incompletely divided ventricles of lizards. These structures may be a device for permitting increased cardiac output associated with thermoregulation to bypass the lungs while maintaining a supply of well-oxygenated blood to the head. Data on oxygen capacity, percentage saturation of blood with oxygen, haematocrit and pH of iguana blood are included in this study. This study was supported by a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship. I am indebted to Prof. W. R. Dawson, who provided laboratory facilities and advice to make this study possible.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.44.1.77",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.44.1.77",
    openalex = "W2345293171"
}

@article{doi1023071366368,
    author = "Lasiewski, Robert C. and Dawson, William R.",
    title = "A Re-Examination of the Relation between Standard Metabolic Rate and Body Weight in Birds",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Ornithological Applications",
    abstract = {An exponential relation exists between standard energy metabolism and body weight in organisms that is described by the generalized equation: Metabolic Rate = a (Body Weight) b (a) where a and b are empirically derived constants.This equation can be rewritten in the more convenient logarithmic form: log Metabolic Rate = log a + b log Body Weight (b) recognizable as a mathematical expression of a straight line.Hemmingsen (1950, 1960) has reviewed the relation of energy metabolism to body size in all organisms, and argues that a b-value of 0.75 best describes the existing data for unicellular organisms, plants, poikilothermal and homeothermal animals.However, the observed limits of b are 0.63-1.0among individual groups (Zeuthen, 1953, and others).Despite recent increased interest in avian bioenergetics, a definitive statement concerning the relationship between metabolic rate and body weight in birds has been lacking.Several formulas for this relationship have been presented.Brody and Proctor (1932) fitted the following equation to data on avian body weight and metabolism: log M = log 89 + 0.64 log W (c) where M is in kcal/day and W is in kilograms.This expression, in which the regression coefficient (b) of 0.64 differs markedly from those obtained from mammals (0.73-0.76) by Brody and Proctor (1932), Kleiber (1932, 1947), Benedict (1938), and Brody (1945), has been generally accepted for birds until recently.King and Farner (1961) have commented that "on theoretical grounds there seems to be no reason to believe a priori that the relationship of metabolic rate and body weight should be very different in the homoiotherm classes."With many more metabolic values than were available previously, King and Farner re-analyzed the relationship, using more rigorous criteria for including data in their computations.They obtained the following equation: log M = log 74.3 + 0.744 log W * 0.074.(d) King and Farner believe that this equation is superior to that of Brody and Proctor (1932) in predicting the metabolic rates of birds weighing more than 0.1 kg.However, they concluded that it does not adequately portray the metabolism-weight relationship for smaller birds.Equation (d) is statistically indistinguishable from Kleiber' s (1947) equation for mammals, and it is therefore doubtful that the metabolism-weight relationship for birds weighing more than 0.1 kg really differs from that in mammals.King and Farner (1961) discuss the possibility that the avian relationship may be curvilinear in the lower ranges of body weight, since small birds have higher metabolic rates than predicted by their equation.Virtually all of the small birds (< 0.1 kg) are passerines, whereas all but two of the species weighing more than 0.1 kg belong to other orders.Dawson and Lasiewski have suggested (see Lasiewski, 1963; Lasiewski et al., 1964) that passerines as a group show the same weight-regression coefficient as nonpasserines, but have a higher metabolism per unit weight than nonpasserines of comparable size.Documentation of this suggestion required additional data on large passerines and small nonpasserines.Now that these are available, it is},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1366368",
    doi = "10.2307/1366368",
    openalex = "W2335031573",
    references = "doi101152physrev1947274511, openalexw195142154"
}

@article{doi101146annurevph30030168003233,
    author = "Hammel, H. T. and Pierce, JH",
    title = "Regulation of Internal Body Temperature",
    year = "1968",
    journal = "Annual Review of Physiology",
    abstract = "Macrophage polarization refers to how macrophages have been activated at a given point in space and time. Polarization is not fixed, as macrophages are sufficiently plastic to integrate multiple signals, such as those from microbes, damaged tissues, and...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.30.030168.003233",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ph.30.030168.003233",
    openalex = "W2174431287",
    references = "doi101002jcp1030570302, doi1010160010406x65903208, doi101086physzool35330152807, doi101111j155856461961tb03132x, doi1023071441115"
}

@article{doi101152ajplegacy197021941104,
    author = "Taylor, CR and Schmidt‐Nielsen, Knut and Raab, JL",
    title = "Scaling of energetic cost of running to body size in mammals",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1970.219.4.1104",
    doi = "10.1152/ajplegacy.1970.219.4.1104",
    openalex = "W2107249086",
    references = "doi101007bf01661859, doi1010160010406x70910066, doi101038scientificamerican056970, doi101111j174817161961tb02232x, doi101152jappl1963182367, doi101152jappl196520119, doi103733hilgv06n11p315, openalexw1562852527, openalexw195142154, openalexw2566063334"
}

@article{doi101139e72031,
    author = "Russell, Dale A.",
    title = "Ostrich Dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of Western Canada",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences",
    abstract = "The family Ornithomimidae is defined on the basis of the skeletal morphology of the three genera Ornithomimus, Struthiomimus, and Dromiceiomimus known in continental strata in Alberta, which are temporally equivalent to the Upper Campanian substage. At least two genera occur in Canadian Lance (Upper Maestrichtian) equivalent strata, but cannot be identified at present. A group of more primitive ornithomimoid theropods is represented else-where by the late Jurassic Elaphrosaurus and early Cretaceous Archaeornithomimus.Ornithomimid attributes include a general body form which parallels that of the ratites; elongate forelimbs, a kinetic skull, enormous eyes, a relatively highly evolved brain, and possibly a secondary palate and supertemporal fenestrae which were nearly encircled by alae of the squamosal. A reconstruction of the myology of the thigh indicates that ornithomimids were extremely fleet, but lacked the agility characteristic of modern large ground birds. They probably subsisted on small, soft-bodied animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/e72-031",
    doi = "10.1139/e72-031",
    openalex = "W2140641637",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051140102, doi1010160031018271900447, doi105962bhltitle14474, openalexw1879660213, openalexw3208547338"
}

@article{spotila1973a,
    author = "Spotila, James R. and Lommen, Paul W. and Bakken, George S. and Gates, David M.",
    title = "A Mathematical Model for Body Temperatures of Large Reptiles: Implications for Dinosaur Ecology",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/282842",
    doi = "10.1086/282842",
    number = "955",
    openalex = "W1999252436",
    pages = "391-404",
    volume = "107",
    references = "doi1010160010406x65903208, doi1010160010406x7090592x, doi101086281249, doi101086282714, doi101086physzool36330152307, doi101086physzool37330152398, doi101111j155856461949tb00021x, doi101111j155856461968tb03995x, doi1023071948545, openalexw1892056552"
}

@misc{spotila1973a2,
    author = "Spotila, J. R. et al",
    title = "A mathematical model for body temperatures of large reptiles",
    year = "1973",
    howpublished = "Implications for dinosaur ecology: American Naturalist, v. 107, p. 391-404",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Spotila, J. R. et al., 1973, A mathematical model for body temperatures of large reptiles: Implications for dinosaur ecology: American Naturalist, v. 107, p. 391-404.}"
}

@incollection{dawson1975on,
    author = "Dawson, William R.",
    title = "On the Physiological Significance of the Preferred Body Temperatures of Reptiles",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "Ecological Studies",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87810-7\_25",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-87810-7\_25",
    openalex = "W2050769086",
    pages = "443-473",
    references = "brattstrom1965body, doi101086physzool36330152307, doi101086physzool37330152398, doi101086physzool37430152753, doi101111j109636421961tb00220x, doi101113jphysiol2014280446, doi101126science122315873, doi101126science15838041050, doi1023071948545, openalexw1892056552, openalexw2983381470"
}

@article{doi101086283042,
    author = "Wilson, David Sloan",
    title = "The Adequacy of Body Size as a Niche Difference",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/283042",
    doi = "10.1086/283042",
    openalex = "W1979636148",
    references = "doi101126science1774045222"
}

@article{doi1010800072139519769989773,
    author = "Wiggins, Virgil D.",
    title = "Fossil oculata pollen from Alaska",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Geoscience and Man",
    abstract = {Abstract Fossil pollen of the morphological type "oculata" have been encountered in sediments of Upper Cretaceous and Palaeocene age in Alaska. These Alaskan assemblages contain most of the species described by other authors in the United States, Canada, and the USSR. In addition, several new Alaskan species have been encountered. These taxa are evaluated here morphologically and biostratigraphically, with particular reference to pollen wall and aperture morphology, the Campanian‐Maastrichtian and Maastrichtian‐Palaeocene age boundaries, and regional distribution. All species are allocated to the genera Azonia Samoilovitch 1961, Wodehouseia Stanley 1961, and Singularia Samoilovitch 1961; and the genus Azonia is emended. Ten new species of Azonia and Wodehouseia are described: Azonia cribrata, A. parva, A. sufflata, Wodehouseia avita, W. bella, W. capil‐lata, W. edmontonicola, W. octospina, W. quad‐rispina, and W, vestivirgata. Three new subspecies are described: Azonia fabacea subsp. reticulata, A. fabacea subsp. rugulosa, and Wodehouseia fimbriata subsp. constricta. Seven new combinations are made also: Azonia calvata (Samoilovitch), A. hirsuta (Samoilovitch), A. jacutense (Samoilovitch), A, ob‐liquus (Chlonova), Wodehouseia asper (Samoilovitch), W. excelsa (Samoilovitch), and W. elegans (Samoilovitch).},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00721395.1976.9989773",
    doi = "10.1080/00721395.1976.9989773",
    openalex = "W2010430271",
    references = "doi1010160025322766900089, doi1010160031018270900945, doi101016003101827590053x, doi1010800072139519759989755, doi101130spe127p1, doi101139e72101, doi1013065d25c69316c111d78645000102c1865d, openalexw2131708958, openalexw3120634208, openalexw633916747"
}

@article{doi1023071936926,
    author = "Huey, Raymond B. and Pianka, Eric R.",
    title = "Seasonal Variation in Thermoregulatory Behavior and Body Temperature of Diurnal Kalahari Lizards",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "We discuss seasonal variation in thermoregulatory behavior and its consequences on body temperature for 12 species of diurnal lizards in the southern Kalahari semidesert of Africa and also evaluate several methods of attempting to document thermoregulatory behavior using a descriptive data base. Lizards vary time of activity among seasons, which limits the variation in ambient conditions actually experienced. Ground—dwelling lizards and probably arboreal lizards move nonrandomly with respect to sun and shade; thus the percentage of lizards in sun in inversely proportional to air temperature. Arboreal lizards shift to higher perches at midday in summer and to logs or ground in winter thus decreasing and increasing incident heat loads, respectively. Both juveniles and adults of 3 species, only juveniles of 2 species, and only adults in 1 species are active in winter: both adults and juveniles of 6 species brumate [= hibernate]. Mean body temperature (T b) varies within days and among months and is positively correlated with corresponding mean air temperature (T a) in almost all species. Nonetheless, correlation and regression analysis suggests that thermoregulatory behaviors reduce the impact of variations in ambient conditions on Kalahari lizards. The mean T b of different species reflect evolutionary relationships. In summer, mean T b is proportional to the percentage of lizards in sun and with the tendency of lizards to be active only in summer. Thus, lizards with inferred low optimal temperatures are active during more months of the year.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1936926",
    doi = "10.2307/1936926",
    openalex = "W2074094096",
    references = "doi1023071441115"
}

@article{doi101086410790,
    author = "Coombs, Walter P.",
    title = "Theoretical Aspects of Cursorial Adaptations in Dinosaurs",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "The Quarterly Review of Biology",
    abstract = "A theoretical review of the physical constraints on cursorial animals provides a list of the morphological correlates of superior running ability, with emphasis on osteological features. This list includes the following adaptations: relatively long limbs; small forelimbs (bipeds only); freely rotating scapula (quadrupeds only); hinge-like joints; short and massive proximal limb elements; long and slender distal limb elements; radius-ulna and tibia-fibula which are reduced to single elements; manus and pes with pronounced median symmetery; digitigrade to unguligrade stance; interlocked or fused metapodials; reduced or lost inner and outer digits, and snap ligaments sometimes present. These adaptations are ubiquitous among phylogenetically diverse animals which run and may be regarded as inevitable in any cursor. Theoretical arguments predict a lower speed potential for very large and very small animals, and this conclusion is supported by empirical data which point to an optimum body mass of about 50 kg for a cursor. By utilizing these findings and a system of four levels of running ability (graviportal, mediportal, subcursorial, cursorial), it is possible to evaluate the running potential of dinosaurs. Quadrupedal dinosaurs had fewer cursorial features than bipeds, and large bipeds had fewer than small bipeds. Sauropods and stegosaurs were graviportal; ankylosaurs and large ceratopsians were low to intermediate grade mediportal; prosauropods were high-grade mediportal; large ornithopods were subcursorial; and large theropods were subcursorial to cursorial. Small ceratopsians were dynamic bipeds and were high-grade subcursorial. Small bipedal ornithischians and small theropods were cursorial and were the fastest of the dinosaurs, but were probably not as fast as the best modern runners.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/410790",
    doi = "10.1086/410790",
    openalex = "W2011000302",
    references = "doi1010160031018275900279, doi101038246313a0, doi101093jaoac201142a, doi101111j174966321912tb55164x, doi101130spe40p1, doi1023071292217, doi1023072376, doi104095101672, doi105479si00963801361666197, openalexw1534787790, openalexw2409934689, openalexw3146596760, russell1969a, welles1954new"
}

@article{doi101017s0094837300016900,
    author = "Erben, H. K. and Hoefs, J. and Wedepohl, K. H.",
    title = "Paleobiological and isotopic studies of eggshells from a declining dinosaur species",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "Late Cretaceous dinosaur eggshells from southern France and the Spanish Pyrenees, presumably belonging to the sauropod Hypselosaurus priscus Matheron, are almost exclusively composed of primary calcite. Besides normal development of these eggshells, there appear two kinds of pathologic tendencies: bi- or multi-shells (infrequent), and shells with a reduced thickness (increasing in frequency until, in the uppermost horizon, they represent more than 90\% of the sample). The extinction of the species is attributed primarily to the consequences of thinning of the eggshells. The physiological mechanisms producing pathologic dinosaur eggshells are evaluated in the light of homologous phenomena occurring in living birds and reptiles. On this basis, it is concluded that in the late Maastrichtian populations of “Hypselosaurus,” pathologic eggshells were caused by hormonal imbalances of the vasotocin and of the estrogen levels. On the same basis it is postulated that the teratological shell repetition led to embryo suffocation and that the pathological reduction in shell thickness caused shell breakage and dehydration of the embryo. The lethal results are evident from the frequent absence of “resorption craters” in the mammillary knobs of pathologic shells, a fact which indicates either lack of fertilization of the eggs or the perishing of the embryo prior to the calcification of its skeletal bones. A change in environmental conditions is the ultimate factor which caused hormonal imbalances and extinction. Such a change is indicated by a shift of the mean oxygen isotopic composition (δ 18 O) of eggshell carbonates from −0.6\% o to −5.3\% o, and by changes in Sr. Information of palaeo-climate is primarily derived from eggshells of living birds and reptiles. The correlation between temperature and oxygen isotopic composition of waters (and related carbonates) is less distinct than for marine carbonates. δ 13 C ranges from −16.5 to −4.5 of eggshells of extant species indicate food from “normal” C 3 metabolism and from C 4 metabolism of plants in a dry climate. “Hypselosaurus” populations probably consumed “normal” C 3 plants. Using isotopic calibration of eggshell carbonates for the interpretation of δ 13 C and δ 18 O values of dinosaur eggshells, a slight change from higher to lower temperatures or a change from a dry to a more humid climate during the time from Lower (and Middle) to Late Maastrichtian can be assumed. The latter explanation is favored because the exceptionally high Sr in the Early Maastrichtian eggshells could be a potential indicator of co-existing evaporites.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0094837300016900",
    doi = "10.1017/s0094837300016900",
    openalex = "W1774427581",
    references = "doi1010160016703758900334, doi1010160016703764900225, doi1010160016703778901990, doi1010160016703781902441, doi101016s0016703760800063, doi101104pp473380, doi101111j1474919x1962tb08690x, doi101111j155856461968tb03995x, doi101111j215334901964tb00181x, doi101126science13334651702, doi103402tellusav16i48993"
}

@book{doi101017cbo9780511608551,
    author = "Peters, Robert H.",
    title = "The Ecological Implications of Body Size",
    year = "1983",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "It is generally recognized that larger animals eat more, live longer, have larger offspring, and so on; but it is unusual to see these commonplace observations as a basis for scientific biology. A large number of empirically based relationships describe biological rates as simple functions of body size; and other such relations predict the intrinsic rate of population growth, animal speed, animal density, territory size, prey size, physiology, and morphology. Such equations almost always exist for mammals and birds, often for other vertebrates and invertebrates, sometimes for protozoa, algae, and bacteria, and occasionally even for plants. There are too many organisms to measure all aspects of the biology of every species of population, so scientists must depend on generalizations. Body size relations represent our most extensive and powerful assemblage of generalizations, but they have never been organized for use in ecology. This book represents the largest single compilation of interspecific size relations, and instructs the reader on the use of these relationships; their comparison, combination, and criticism. Both strengths and weaknesses of our current knowledge are discussed in order to indicate the many possible directions for further research. This important volume will therefore provide a point of departure toward a new applied ecology, giving quantitative solutions to real questions. It will interest advanced students of ecology and comparative physiology as well as professional biologists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511608551",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9780511608551",
    openalex = "W2015823673"
}

@article{doi101126science2244651867,
    author = "Bohor, B. F. and Foord, Eugene E. and Modreski, Peter J. and Triplehorn, Don M.",
    title = "Mineralogic Evidence for an Impact Event at the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "A thin claystone layer found in nonmarine rocks at the palynological Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in eastern Montana contains an anomalously high value of iridium. The nonclay fraction is mostly quartz with minor feldspar, and some of these grains display planar features. These planar features are related to specific crystallographic directions in the quartz lattice. The shocked quartz grains also exhibit asterism and have lowered refractive indices. All these mineralogical features are characteristic of shock metamorphism and are compelling evidence that the shocked grains are the product of a high velocity impact between a large extraterrestrial body and the earth. The shocked minerals represent silicic target material injected into the stratosphere by the impact of the projectile.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.224.4651.867",
    doi = "10.1126/science.224.4651.867",
    openalex = "W2038487387",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, doi101007bf00377477, doi101016001910356990061x, doi101126science21445271341, doi101130spe127p65, doi101130spe190p305, doi101130spe190p423, doi102475ajs2639786"
}

@article{doi101086284330,
    author = "Stevenson, R. D.",
    title = "Body Size and Limits to the Daily Range of Body Temperature in Terrestrial Ectotherms",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "A nonequilibrium heat-transfer model is used to calculate the extreme range of body temperatures available to ectotherms of different masses. At about 1 kg a transition occurs in the amplitudes imposed on a terrestrial ectotherm's potential range in body temperature by the daily cycling of the thermal environment. Animals smaller than 1 kg can choose a wide range of temperatures, whereas animals larger than 1 kg experience smaller ranges in Tb. The range in Tb that small insects experience is limited by the range in Ta, which, however, can be large in the boundary layer of perching surfaces. Data from the literature indicate that ectotherms in the range of sizes from 0.01 to 1 kg have limited ranges of Tb (about 30⚬ C). The model predicts that it could be as large as 55⚬ C, 15⚬ C greater than the range of lethal temperatures of reptiles. That the observed range is only about half of that predicted reaffirms our understanding of the importance of behavioral thermoregulation for these animals. Body size appears to limit the range of available Tb of ectotherms larger than 10 kg. The model is also used to calculate how much higher Tb could be than Ta for an animal exposed to high solar radiation and to low wind speed. For dry-skinned ectotherms, the difference increases about 4.5⚬ C for each 10-fold increase in body mass. For example, the maximum difference between Tb and Ta is 3⚬ C for a 10-6 kg ectotherm but 30⚬ C for a 1-kg ectotherm. Data from the literature generally support the quantitative predictions of the model. The size of a terrestrial ectotherm will determine which behavioral options are useful for controling Tb. Small insects (10 mg) cannot elevate Tb above Ta but they can control Tb by spatial movements. Ectotherms smaller than 1 kg can heat quickly to temperatures at which they can be active when the thermal environment is suitable for only short periods each day. When conditions are extreme these opportunists must retreat quickly. Because of their thermal inertia, ectotherms larger than 10 kg have a smaller range of body temperatures from which to choose. If the mean operative temperatures are appropriate, however, large ectotherms can use their thermal inertia to be active over longer time periods during the day and in more extreme environments for the same range of body temperature than can smaller animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284330",
    doi = "10.1086/284330",
    openalex = "W2063920976",
    references = "doi1010079781468499179, doi101007bf00379617, doi1010160022519376900631, doi101016s0006349576857116, doi101038scientificamerican0459105, doi10106313128494, doi101126science18441401001, doi1023071934960, doi1023071936926, doi1023071937714, doi1023071948545, spotila1973a"
}

@article{doi101086284369,
    author = "Demment, Montague W. and Soest, P.J. Van",
    title = "A Nutritional Explanation for Body-Size Patterns of Ruminant and Nonruminant Herbivores",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = {The gut capacity of mammalian herbivores increases linearly with body weight. This relationship, coupled with the change in basal metabolism with weight, produces an MR/GC ratio (metabolic requirement/gut capacity) that decreases with increasing body size. Since the retention of a food particle within the gut is proportional to this ratio, the extent to which food particles are digested will be related to body size. Plant material is made up of chemical components that react differently to digestive enzymes. The fiber fraction of plant material (i.e., cell wall) is digested slowly and exclusively by microbial symbiotes. A positive relationship probably exists between the fiber content of plant parts and their biomass in the environment. This relationship is used to describe a resource axis on which digestion rate is the scaling variable. In response to this resource axis and metabolic requirements, the fiber content of the diet of herbivores increases with body size. Ruminants are the predominant medium-sized herbivores in East Africa, while nonruminants are mainly small or very large animals. Small herbivores are constrained to rapid passage of ingesta by their high MR/GC ratio. In response, they have evolved hindgut fermentation and feed selectively on rapidly digestible (i.e., low-fiber) foods. Both responses contribute to loss of nutrients (synthesized by gut microbes) in the feces, and thus contribute to coprophagy in this group. To eat a diet higher in fiber, the herbivore must increase its body size. The reduced MR/GC ratio of medium-sized herbivores allows the evolution of gut structures that selectively delay the passage of ingesta. Selective delay results from the rumination process because the probability of passage is tied to particle size. This process produces more efficient fiber digestion in ruminants than that in nonruminants of similar size. Rumination, however, is advantageous over only a limited range of body sizes. The lower limits of ruminant body size are set by maximal fermentation rates. Foregut fermentation will not only digest the cell wall, but also use many of the soluble nutrients before their direct absorption is possible. Therefore, ruminants must rely almost entirely on the production of microbial volatile fatty acids (VFA) for energy and postruminal digestion of microbes for other nutrients. With decreasing body size, the increasing rate at which energy must be produced per unit volume of the rumen cannot be matched by a concomitant increase in the fermentation rate of forages. Nonruminants are favored by the more efficient energy transfer of enzymatic digestion in the foregut of the low-fiber foods often required by small animals. The upper limits may be imposed by two factors. First, rumination rates (g cell wall ruminated per unit time) increase with body size more slowly than does the cell-wall content of the diet. Using the case of the African buffalo, we arrived at calculations which suggest that sufficient intake of a high-fiber diet cannot be maintained to provide the energy necessary to support larger body sizes. Second, with increased body size the very low MR/GC ratio allows very long retention times. A point in body size is reached (600-1200 kg) at which retention times are sufficient to achieve relatively complete digestion of the potentially digestible component of forages, regardless of whether the herbivore possesses a selective delay mechanism of the rumen or the "perfect mixing" of the nonruminant model. Because of the small body size of early ruminants, the evolution of the rumen was probably initiated by selection for the detoxification or synthetic capabilities of foregut fermentation. The foregut then was preadapted for development as a structure for the selective delay of forages when the grasslands expanded. Changing body size is postulated as a mechanism for differentiating the feeding requirements of herbivores. The fiber composition of plant material is the scaling variable for a resource axis for herbivores. Large herbivores can extract more energy from plant material than can smaller herbivores, but cannot concentrate on the rapidly digestible foods used by small animals because these foods are rare. Therefore, if competition is important in structuring herbivore communities, then body size is probably a factor that contributes to feeding differences.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284369",
    doi = "10.1086/284369",
    openalex = "W2005524388",
    references = "caswell1973photosynthetic, doi101016c2013012555x, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101086282264, doi101086282851, doi101086282909, doi101086283042, doi101111j155856461976tb00957x, doi101152ajplegacy197021941104, doi1023071942313, doi1023073488, doi105860choice324505, openalexw1562852527"
}

@article{brouwers1987dinosaurs,
    author = "Brouwers, Elisabeth M. and Clemens, William A. and Spicer, Robert A. and Ager, Thomas A. and Carter, L. David and Sliter, William V.",
    title = "Dinosaurs on the North Slope, Alaska: High Latitude, Latest Cretaceous Environments",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Abundant skeletal remains demonstrate that lambeosaurine hadrosaurid, tyrannosaurid, and troodontid dinosaurs lived on the Alaskan North Slope during late Campanian—early Maestrichtian time (about 66 to 76 million years ago) in a deltaic environment dominated by herbaceous vegetation. The high ground terrestrial plant community was a mild- to cold-temperate forest composed of coniferous and broad leaf trees. The high paleolatitude (about 70° to 85° North) implies extreme seasonal variation in solar insolation, temperature, and herbivore food supply. Great distances of migration to contemporaneous evergreen floras and the presence of both juvenile and adult hadrosaurs suggest that they remained at high latitudes year-round. This challenges the hypothesis that short-term periods of darkness and temperature decrease resulting from a bolide impact caused dinosaurian extinction.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.237.4822.1608",
    doi = "10.1126/science.237.4822.1608",
    number = "4822",
    pages = "1608-1610",
    volume = "237"
}

@article{doi101111j109583121987tb01990x,
    author = "Damuth, John",
    title = "Interspecific allometry of population density in mammals and other animals: the independence of body mass and population energy-use",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "Journal Article Interspecific allometry of population density in mammals and other animals: the independence of body mass and population energy-use Get access JOHN DAMUTH JOHN DAMUTH 1Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. 20560, U.S.A Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, Volume 31, Issue 3, July 1987, Pages 193–246, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb01990.x Published: 28 June 2008 Article history Received: 23 October 1986 Accepted: 30 January 1987 Published: 28 June 2008",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb01990.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb01990.x",
    openalex = "W2152454003",
    references = "doi101086283547, doi101086284330, doi1023072937268"
}

@misc{parrish1987cretaceous1,
    author = "Parrish, J. T. et al",
    title = "Cretaceous vertebrates from Alaska - implications for dinosaur ecology",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 19, no. 5, p. 326; Abstracts, 40th Annual Meeting, Rocky Mountain Section, GSA",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Parrish, J. T. et al., 1987, Cretaceous vertebrates from Alaska - implications for dinosaur ecology: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 19, no. 5, p. 326; Abstracts, 40th Annual Meeting, Rocky Mountain Section, GSA.}"
}

@article{parrish1987late,
    author = "Parrish, J. Michael and Parrish, Judith Totman and Hutchison, J. Howard and Spicer, Robert A.",
    title = "Late Cretaceous Vertebrate Fossils from the North Slope of Alaska and Implications for Dinosaur Ecology",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "PALAIOS",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3514763",
    doi = "10.2307/3514763",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2317865496",
    pages = "377",
    volume = "2",
    references = "davies1987duckbill, doi1010160012825283900016, doi101038274661a0, doi101038324148a0, doi101086284369, doi101086284406, doi101130spe40p1, doi101146annurevea05050177001535, doi1023071444927, doi1023072937268, doi102475ajs2628975, doi104095105049, doi105479si00963801361666197, openalexw2204429280"
}

@article{doi10108002724634198810011681,
    author = "Jenkins, Farish A. and Schaff, Charles R.",
    title = "The Early Cretaceous mammal Gobiconodon (Mammalia, Triconodonta) from the Cloverly Formation in Montana",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Gobiconodon ostromi, sp. nov., described from two partial skeletons collected from the Cloverly Formation in southcentral Montana, is closely related to Gobiconodon borissiaki Trofimov (1978) from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia. The unusual dental characters of this new form are enlarged caniniform incisors, reduced canines, and replacement of the molariform teeth that lie distal to the presumptive premolars. Despite the fact that the molariform occlusal pattern is the same as in Amphilestes of the Middle Jurassic and the overall structure of the molariform teeth is comparable to that in amphilestid triconodonts, the dentition is otherwise so anomalous that Gobiconodon is assigned to a new family. The scapula possesses a supraspinous fossa and an apparently large coracoid. The humerus exhibits large deltopectoral and medial crests, and protuberant epicondyles; the planes of the proximal and distal halves of this bone are substantially offset. The pelvis conforms to a generalized mammalian pattern. A deep fossa of unknown function occurs on the dorsal surface of the lesser trochanter; the greater trochanter extends distally well down onto the shaft. A spur-like bone appears to represent an extratarsal element. In overall body size, Gobiconodon ostromi, sp. nov., is comparable to Didelphis virginiana but in its limb and vertebral proportions is more robust.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.1988.10011681",
    doi = "10.1080/02724634.1988.10011681",
    openalex = "W2041142773",
    references = "doi101002aja1001370304, doi101002jmor1051670308, doi101002jmor1051850203, doi101098rstb19760022, doi101111j109636421981tb01127x, doi101111j109636421985tb01500x, doi101111j1469185x1968tb00966x, doi105281zenodo16386718, doi105962bhltitle3460, openalexw1539913220"
}

@article{doi101146annureves20110189000525,
    author = "LaBarbera, Michael",
    title = "Analyzing Body Size as a Factor in Ecology and Evolution",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
    abstract = "Species distribution models (SDMs) are numerical tools that combine observations of species occurrence or abundance with environmental estimates. They are used to gain ecological and evolutionary insights and to predict distributions across landscapes,...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.000525",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.000525",
    openalex = "W2162076213",
    references = "doi101086404940, doi101111j1469185x1966tb01624x, doi101111j155856461949tb00010x, doi101111j155856461973tb05912x, doi101139e83050, doi1023072412740, doi1023072527939"
}

@article{paul1989late,
    author = "Paul, Gregory S. and Parrish, J. T. and Parrish, J. M. and Hutchison, J. H. and Spicer, R. A.",
    title = "Late Cretaceous Vertebrate Fossils from the North Slope of Alaska and Implications for Dinosaur Ecology: Comment \& Reply",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "PALAIOS",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3514779",
    doi = "10.2307/3514779",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2330431635",
    pages = "298",
    volume = "4",
    references = "brouwers1987dinosaurs, doi101017s0022336000018862, doi101038333547a0, doi101126science23547931156, doi101126science239483510b, doi101126science239483511, doi10113000917613198614703pefcnp20co2, doi1011300091761319880160022lctvan23co2, doi1023071563593"
}

@article{doi101086285558,
    author = "Brown, James H. and Marquet, Pablo A. and Taper, Mark L.",
    title = "Evolution of Body Size: Consequences of an Energetic Definition of Fitness",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "We develop a general model for the effect of body size on fitness. We define fitness as reproductive power, the rate of conversion of energy into offspring. Reproductive power is assumed to be limited by a two-step process: first, the rate of acquisition of energy from the environment, which scales allometrically as body mass raised to approximately the 0.75 power, and then the rate of conversion of energy into offspring, which scales as mass to approximately the -0.25 power. The model predicts (1) the distinctive right-skewed shape of the frequency distribution of logarithms of body sizes among species that is observed in a wide variety of organisms from bacteria to mammals; (2) a taxon-specific optimal body size, which for mammals is approximately 100 g and is supported by data on the body sizes of mammals on islands; and (3) that in each taxon the relationships between such life-history and ecological characteristics as longevity, clutch size, home range size, and population density will change both slope and sign on either side of the optimal size. An energetic definition of fitness has the potential to unify areas of ecology and evolutionary biology that have previously used models based on different currencies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/285558",
    doi = "10.1086/285558",
    openalex = "W2035571842",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101038290699a0, doi101073pnas86147, doi101086282063, doi101086282637, doi101086284369, doi101086409052, doi101111j155856461973tb05912x, doi105860choice295104, openalexw1558456135, openalexw2080618944, openalexw2130289872"
}

@article{doi101126science2665186779,
    author = "Norell, Mark A. and Clark, James M. and Demberelyin, Dashzeveg and Rhinchen, Barsbold and Chiappe, Luis M. and Davidson, Amy R. and McKenna, Malcolm C. and Altangerel, Perle and Novacek, Michael J.",
    title = "A Theropod Dinosaur Embryo and the Affinities of the Flaming Cliffs Dinosaur Eggs",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "An embryonic skeleton of a nonavian theropod dinosaur was found preserved in an egg from Upper Cretaceous rocks in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. Cranial features identify the embryo as a member of Oviraptoridae. Two embryo-sized skulls of dromaeosaurids, similar to that of Velociraptor, were also recovered in the nest. The eggshell microstructure is similar to that of ratite birds and is of a type common in the Djadokhta Formation at the Flaming Cliffs (Bayn Dzak). Discovery of a nest of such eggs at the Flaming Cliffs in 1923, beneath the Oviraptor philoceratops holotype, suggests that this dinosaur may have been a brooding adult.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.266.5186.779",
    doi = "10.1126/science.266.5186.779",
    openalex = "W2086035298",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051000302, doi1010160195667191900155, doi10108002724634198710011638, doi10108002724634199510011250, doi101111j174966321940tb57047x, doi101139e93196, doi1023073514816, doi105281zenodo16171435, openalexw2131558500, openalexw633579066, sues1977dentaries"
}

@article{doi1023071467069,
    author = "Zimmerman, Linda C. and O′Connor, Michael and Bulova, Susan J. and Spotila, James R. and Kemp, Stanley J. and Salice, Christopher J.",
    title = "Thermal Ecology of Desert Tortoises in the Eastern Mojave Desert: Seasonal Patterns of Operative and Body Temperatures, and Microhabitat Utilization",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Herpetological Monographs",
    abstract = "We monitored meteorological variables, daily and seasonal patterns of body temperature, corresponding operative temperatures, and microhabitat utilization by desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) during the 1991 and 1992 activity seasons of tortoises in the eastern Mojave desert.We studied tortoises in enclosures of natural habitat at the Desert Tortoise Conservation Center (DTCC) near Las Vegas, Nevada and a population of free-ranging tortoises in a field site adjacent to the DTCC.Air, ground and operative temperatures coincided with daily and monthly patterns of incident solar radiation.Variation in body temperature was primarily a consequence of microhabitat selection, principally use of burrows.During July-October, in the morning, body temperatures of tortoises in burrows were cooler than those of individuals on the surface.During midday, tortoises remained in burrows where body temperatures were cooler than extreme surface operative temperatures.While tortoises remained in burrows during much of the day, tortoises typically did not sleep in burrows at night.Microhabitat utilization was dictated by avoidance of extreme temperatures during midday, and microhabitat selection corresponded qualitatively to maintenance of energy and water balances.Effective conservation efforts to preserve habitat of desert tortoises will focus upon managing variables associated with integrity of burrows.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1467069",
    doi = "10.2307/1467069",
    openalex = "W4235602676",
    references = "doi1010160010406x7090592x"
}

@article{doi1010160016703795002504,
    author = "Bryant, J. Daniel and Froelich, Philip N.",
    title = "A model of oxygen isotope fractionation in body water of large mammals",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    abstract = "A model is proposed for oxygen isotope fractionation in body water of terrestrial, herbivorous mammals larger than 1 kg. The goal of this model is to estimate the oxygen isotopic composition (δ 18O) of intake water in order to reconstruct paleoclimate from the δ 18O of fossil biogenic phosphate. The principal oxygen inputs are liquid water, atmospheric O2, and oxygen in food. The principal outputs are water (liquid and vapor) and CO2. Body mass-dependent scaling equations are used to assign O2, H2O, and CO2 fluxes. The model predicts that the δ 18O of body water is higher than the δ 18O of intake water and approaches the δ18O of intake water with increasing body size, as observed in empirical data. This reflects the increasing importance of liquid water flux relative to atmospheric O2, CO2, and water vapor flux at larger size (i.e., water flux increases relatively faster than metabolic rate and surface area with increasing body size). These results suggest that the largest fossil taxa should be used for paleoclimate reconstruction because (1) potential errors are smallest at large body sizes and (2) drinking water forms a larger proportion of the oxygen intake. Paleoclimate reconstruction based on the δ 18O of biogenic phosphates can thus be corrected for body-mass fractionation effects, a significant cause of previously uncharacterized interspecific variation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(95)00250-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7037(95)00250-4",
    openalex = "W1971490401",
    references = "doi101016001670378490259x, doi1023072937268, doi105860choice290302"
}

@article{doi1023072411166,
    author = "Wikelski, Martin and Trillmich, Fritz",
    title = "Body Size and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Marine Iguanas Fluctuate as a Result of Opposing Natural and Sexual Selection: An Island Comparison",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = {Body size is often assumed to represent the outcome of conflicting selection pressures of natural and sexual selection. Marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) populations in the Galápagos exhibit 10-fold differences in body mass between island populations. There is also strong sexual size dimorphism, with males being about twice as heavy as females. To understand the evolutionary processes shaping body size in marine iguanas, we analyzed the selection differentials on body size in two island populations (max. male mass 900 g in Genovesa, 3500 g in Santa Fé). Factors that usually confound any evolutionary analysis of body sizes-predation, interspecific food competition, reproductive role division-are ruled out for marine iguanas. We show that, above hatchlings, mortality rates increased with body size in both sexes to the same extent. This effect was independent of individual age. The largest animals (males) of each island were the first to die once environmental conditions deteriorated (e.g., during El Niños). This sex-biased mortality was the result of sexual size dimorphism, but at the same time caused sexual size dimorphism to fluctuate. Mortality differed between seasons (selection differentials as low as -1.4) and acted on different absolute body sizes between islands. Both males and females did not cease growth when an optimal body size for survival was reached, as demonstrated by the fact that individual adult body size phenotypically increased in each population under favorable environmental conditions beyond naturally selected limits. But why did marine iguanas grow "too large" for survival? Due to lek mating, sexual selection constantly favored large body size in males (selection differentials up to +0.77). Females only need to reach a body size sufficient to produce surviving offspring. Thereafter, large body size of females was less favored by fertility selection than large size in males. Resulting from these different selection pressures on male and female size, sexual size dimorphism was mechanistically caused by the fact that females matured at an earlier age and size than males, whereafter they constantly allocated resources into eggs, which slowed growth. The observed allometric increase in sexual size dimorphism is explained by the fact that the difference between these selective processes becomes larger as energy abundance in the environment increases. Because body size is generally highly heritable, these selective processes are expected to lead to genetic differences in body size between islands. We propose a common-garden experiment to determine the influence of genetic factors and phenotypic reaction norms of final body size.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2411166",
    doi = "10.2307/2411166",
    openalex = "W2088796601",
    references = "doi1010160010406x65903208"
}

@article{doi101016s0031018297001089,
    author = "Markwick, Paul",
    title = "Fossil crocodilians as indicators of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic climates: implications for using palaeontological data in reconstructing palaeoclimate",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(97)00108-9",
    doi = "10.1016/s0031-0182(97)00108-9",
    openalex = "W2092060384",
    references = "doi10100797814899503456, doi10100797894011125435, doi1010160031018265900131, doi101016003101829290096n, doi101016003192018990263x, doi1010160195667191900155, doi101017s0094837300006060, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi1010719781486309702, doi101098rstb19930109, doi101126science19142321131, doi101126science24148691043, doi10113000917613198614535scaia20co2, doi101146annurevph57030195000441, doi102110pec88010071, doi1023071444927, doi1023071563593, doi1023073514444, doi1023073514548, doi1023073669094, doi102973odpprocsr1192001991, openalexw2983381470, openalexw575222456, spotila1973a"
}

@article{doi101111j109636421998tb02533x,
    author = "Norman, David",
    title = "On Asian ornithopods (Dinosauria: Ornithischia). 3. A new species of iguanodontid dinosaur",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "The holotype of the Mongolian species of ornithopod dinosaur Iguanodon orientalis from the Early Cretaceous (Barremian-Aptian of Khamarin Khural) has been shown to have been established on holotype material that is non-diagnostic, but appears to be closely similar osteologically to the Western European species I. bernissartensis.Additional material collected from the locality known as Khuren Dukh (Dornogov′, Mongolia), which had previously been referred to I. orientalis has been re-examined and shown to represent a new genus and species (Altirhinus kurzanovi gen.et sp.nov) of ornithopod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous (Late Aptian/Early Albian).The anatomy of this new ornithopod is described; it shows a number of similarities to the known species of Iguanodon, but also demonstrates features which are in some instances unique to this taxon, while others seem to be either convergent upon, or transformational with respect to, the more derived hadrosaurid ornithopods of the Late Cretaceous.Palaeogeographic evidence is corroborative in that it suggests contemporaneous, albeit episodic, links between the Northern Hemisphere landmasses during the Barremian-Albian interval; these explain the appearance of very 'European' large ornithopods (Iguanodon) in Asia in Barremian/Aptian times as a consequence of land-based dispersal.Subsequent isolation of Asia from the European 'domain' during the late Early Cretaceous (Albian) may be responsible for the appearance of derived forms such as Altirhinus, and is suggestive of an Asian centre of origin for the family Hadrosauridae in middle Cretaceous times; this contradicts an earlier vicariance-biogeographic model of ornithopod evolution.The cranial anatomical modifications seen in this new taxon: vertical expansion of the dorsal nasal cavity, lateral expansion and lowering of the cropping beak relative to the jaw line, increase in the number of replacement teeth (but no significant miniaturization of the crowns) and the trend toward formation of a more integrated battery of cheek teeth, seen to varying degrees in several mid-Cretaceous ornithopods are commented upon; they can be interpreted within the context of an evolutionary trend culminating in the cranial complexity seen in the terminal lineage of ornithopods represented by the Late Cretaceous Hadrosauridae.Functionally, some of these changes can be correlated with what can be interpreted as 'improvements' to the efficiency of food gathering and processing which might represent increased niche partitioning and/or responses to increasingly tough and abrasive (xeric adapted) foliage; others, notably the modifications to the nasal cavity (perhaps associated with providing space for a countercurrent moisture conserving turbinal system), are suggestive of a biological response to increasingly seasonal/xeric conditions in the middle of the Cretaceous Period or changes in the floral composition of these times.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1998.tb02533.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1096-3642.1998.tb02533.x",
    openalex = "W2012583184",
    references = "doi1010160195667191900155, doi101038277560a0, doi101086284406, doi101098rspl18870117, doi101130spe40p1, doi10129879781933789439, doi1023071005355, doi1023071292217, doi1023075209, doi102475ajss319111253, doi102475ajss321125417, doi105860choice331556, doi105962p313819, ostrom2020stratigraphy"
}

@article{doi101126science28454232137,
    author = "Sereno, Paul C.",
    title = "The Evolution of Dinosaurs",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The ascendancy of dinosaurs on land near the close of the Triassic now appears to have been as accidental and opportunistic as their demise and replacement by therian mammals at the end of the Cretaceous. The dinosaurian radiation, launched by 1-meter-long bipeds, was slower in tempo and more restricted in adaptive scope than that of therian mammals. A notable exception was the evolution of birds from small-bodied predatory dinosaurs, which involved a dramatic decrease in body size. Recurring phylogenetic trends among dinosaurs include, to the contrary, increase in body size. There is no evidence for co-evolution between predators and prey or between herbivores and flowering plants. As the major land masses drifted apart, dinosaurian biogeography was molded more by regional extinction and intercontinental dispersal than by the breakup sequence of Pangaea.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5423.2137",
    doi = "10.1126/science.284.5423.2137",
    openalex = "W1974320804",
    references = "brouwers1987dinosaurs, coria1995a, doi101007978364268836217, doi10100797836426953391, doi1010160031018272900491, doi1010160031018282900852, doi1010160198025483901334, doi101017s0022336000026706, doi101017s0094837300004310, doi101017s0094837300026543, doi10103820167, doi101038248168a0, doi101038277560a0, doi10103831927, doi10103832642, doi10103834356, doi101038378774a0, doi101038385247a0, doi101038387390a0, doi10108002724634199010011815, doi10108002724634199110011386, doi10108002724634199210011473, doi10108002724634199310011490, doi10108002724634199410011523, doi10108002724634199510011250, doi10108002724634199810011101, doi10108002724634199810011115, doi101093oso97801985491780010001, doi101098rstb19950125, doi101111j109636421998tb00569x, doi101111j1469185x1997tb00024x, doi101111j155856461973tb05912x, doi101111j155856461996tb04496x, doi101111j174966321940tb57047x, doi101111j216409471940tb00068x, doi101126science2645160828, doi101126science2725264986, doi101126science27953581915, doi101126science28053661048, doi101126science28253921298, doi101126science2845414616, doi101127njgpa210199841, doi101139e93187, doi101146annurevea03050175000415, doi101146annurevearth251435, doi1015159780691224244, doi1023071292217, doi1023073514751, doi1023073515466, openalexw1528487914, rowe1989a, sereno1997the"
}

@article{doi1016690883135120010160482ttoaco20co2,
    author = "Ryan, Michael J. and Russell, Anthony P. and Eberth, David A. and Currie, Philip J.",
    title = "The Taphonomy of a Centrosaurus (Ornithischia: Certopsidae) Bone Bed from the Dinosaur Park Formation (Upper Campanian), Alberta, Canada, with Comments on Cranial Ontogeny",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Palaios",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1669/0883-1351(2001)016<0482:ttoaco>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1669/0883-1351(2001)016<0482:ttoaco>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2179225693",
    references = "brinkman1990paleooecology, doi1010160031018288900855, doi101016003101829090202i, doi101017s0094837300005820, doi101038114085a0, doi101038282296a0, doi101093nqs5vi146318i, doi101111j109636421997tb00340x, doi101126science11282807, doi101139e93016, doi101306c1ea47bb16c911d78645000102c1865d, doi102113gsrocky8specialpaper11, doi1023071296618, doi1023072531613, doi1023075209, doi105962bhlpart22969, eberth1990stratigraphy, openalexw2259418280, openalexw2591879035, openalexw568618627, parrish1987late"
}

@article{doi101093icb433376,
    author = "Wikelski, Martin",
    title = "Body Size, Performance and Fitness in Galapagos Marine Iguanas",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Integrative and Comparative Biology",
    abstract = "Complex organismal traits such as body size are influenced by innumerable selective pressures, making the prediction of evolutionary trajectories for those traits difficult. A potentially powerful way to predict fitness in natural systems is to study the composite response of individuals in terms of performance measures, such as foraging or reproductive performance. Once key performance measures are identified in this top-down approach, we can determine the underlying physiological mechanisms and gain predictive power over long-term evolutionary processes. Here we use marine iguanas as a model system where body size differs by more than one order of magnitude between island populations. We identified foraging efficiency as the main performance measure that constrains body size. Mechanistically, foraging performance is determined by food pasture height and the thermal environment, influencing intake and digestion. Stress hormones may be a flexible way of influencing an individual's response to low-food situations that may be caused by high population density, famines, or anthropogenic disturbances like oil spills. Reproductive performance, on the other hand, increases with body size and is mediated by higher survival of larger hatchlings from larger females and increased mating success of larger males. Reproductive performance of males may be adjusted via plastic hormonal feedback mechanisms that allow individuals to assess their social rank annually within the current population size structure. When integrated, these data suggest that reproductive performance favors increased body size (influenced by reproductive hormones), with an overall limit imposed by foraging performance (influenced by stress hormones). Based on our mechanistic understanding of individual performances we predicted an evolutionary increase in maximum body size caused by global warming trends. We support this prediction using specimens collected during 1905. We also show in a common-garden experiment that body size may have a genetic component in iguanids. This 'performance paradigm' allows predictions about adaptive evolution in natural populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/43.3.376",
    doi = "10.1093/icb/43.3.376",
    openalex = "W2124767268",
    references = "doi1010160010406x65903208"
}

@article{doi1016660022336020030770822mbatho20co2,
    author = "Clarke, Julia",
    title = "Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Paleontology",
    abstract = "The debate on avian ancestry: phylogeny, function, and fossils / Lawrence M. Witmer -- Cladistic approaches to the relationships of birds to other theropod dinosaurs / James M. Clark, Mark A. Norell and Peter J. Makovicky -- The enigmatic birdlike dinosaur Avimimus portentosus: comments and a pictorial atlas / Patricia Vickers-Rich, Luis M. Chiappe and Sergei Kurzanov -- The Cretaceous short-armed Alvarezsauridae: Mononykus and its kin / Luis M. Chiappe, Mark A. Norell and James M. Clark -- Alvarezsaurid relationships reconsidered / Fernando E. Novas and Diego Pol -- Archaeopterygidae (Upper Jurassic of Germany) / Andrzej Elzanowski -- The discovery and study of Mesozoic birds in China / Zhou Zhonghe and Hou Lianhai -- Sinornis santensis (Aves: Enantiornithes) from the early Cretaceous of northeastern China / Paul C. Sereno, Rao Chenggang and Li Jianjun -- The birds from the Lower Cretaceous of Las Hoyas (Province of Cuenca, Spain) / Jose L. Sanz... [et al.] -- Nogueromis gonzalezi (Aves: Ornithothoraces) from the early Cretaceous of Spain / Luis M. Chiappe and Antonio Lacasa-Ruiz -- Skeletal morphology and systematics of the Cretaceous Euenantiornithes (Ornithothoraces: Enantiornithes) / Luis M. Chiappe and Cyril A. Walker -- Vorona berivotrensis, a primitive bird from the late Cretaceous of Madagascar / Catherine A. Forster... [et al.] -- Osteology of the flightless Patagopteryx deferrariisi from the late Cretaceous of Patagonia (Argentina) / Luis M. Chiappe -- Enaliornis, an early Cretaceous hesperornithiform bird from England, with comments on other Hesperornithiformes / Peter M. Galton and Larry D. Martin -- The Mesozoic radiation of Neornithes / Sylvia Hope -- A review of avian Mesozoic fossil feathers / Alexander W.A. Kellner -- The track record of Mesozoic birds and pterosaurs: an ichnological and paleoecological perspective / Martin G. Lockley and Emma C. Rainforth -- Bone microstructure of early birds / Anusuya Chinsamy -- Locomotor evolution on the line to modern birds / Stephen M. Gatesy -- Basal bird phylogeny: problems and solutions / Luis M. Chiappe.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1666/0022-3360(2003)077<0822:mbatho>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1666/0022-3360(2003)077<0822:mbatho>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W4301871956",
    references = "doi101038292051a0"
}

@article{doi1016660094837320040300082dadani20co2,
    author = "Feild, Taylor S. and Arens, Nan Crystal and Doyle, James A. and Dawson, Todd E. and Donoghue, Michael J.",
    title = "Dark and disturbed: a new image of early angiosperm ecology",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "Better understanding of the functional biology of early angiosperms may clarify eco- logical factors surrounding their origin and early radiation. Phylogenetic studies identify Ambor- ella, Nymphaeales (water lilies), Austrobaileyales, and Chloranthaceae as extant lineages that branched before the radiation of core angiosperms. Among living plants, these lineages may rep- resent the best models for the ecology and physiology of early angiosperms. Here we combine phylogenetic reconstruction with new data on the morphology and ecophysiology of these plants to infer early angiosperm function. With few exceptions, Amborella, Austrobaileyales, and Chlor- anthaceae share ecophysiological traits associated with shady, disturbed, and wet habitats. These features include low and easily light-saturated photosynthetic rates, leaf anatomy related to the capture of understory light, small seed size, and clonal reproduction. Some Chloranthaceae, how- ever, possess higher photosynthetic capacities and seedlings that recruit in canopy gaps and other sunny, disturbed habitats, which may have allowed Cretaceous Chloranthaceae to expand into more diverse environments. In contrast, water lilies possess ecophysiological features linked to aquatic, sunny habitats, such as absence of a vascular cambium, ventilating stems and roots, and floating leaves tuned for high photosynthetic rates in full sun. Nymphaeales may represent an early radiation into such aquatic environments. We hypothesize that the earliest angiosperms were woody plants that grew in dimly lit, disturbed forest understory habitats and/or shady streamside settings. This ecology may have restricted the diversity of pre-Aptian angiosperms and living basal lineages. The vegetative flexibility that evolved in the understory, however, may have been a key factor in their diversification in other habitats. Our inferences based on living plants are consistent with many aspects of the Early Cretaceous fossil record and can be tested with further study of the anatomy, chemistry, and sedimentological context of Early Cretaceous angiosperm fossils.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0082:dadani>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0082:dadani>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2124939233",
    references = "doi10100797814899498998, doi101007bf02858880, doi101038274661a0, doi101111j001438202002tb00137x, doi10166600948373200026103tap20co2"
}

@article{doi101002jmor10406,
    author = "Bybee, Paul J. and Lee, Andrew H. and Lamm, Ellen‐Thérèse",
    title = "Sizing the Jurassic theropod dinosaur Allosaurus: Assessing growth strategy and evolution of ontogenetic scaling of limbs",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "Allosaurus is one of the most common Mesozoic theropod dinosaurs. We present a histological analysis to assess its growth strategy and ontogenetic limb bone scaling. Based on an ontogenetic series of humeral, ulnar, femoral, and tibial sections of fibrolamellar bone, we estimate the ages of the largest individuals in the sample to be between 13-19 years. Growth curve reconstruction suggests that maximum growth occurred at 15 years, when body mass increased 148 kg/year. Based on larger bones of Allosaurus, we estimate an upper age limit of between 22-28 years of age, which is similar to preliminary data for other large theropods. Both Model I and Model II regression analyses suggest that relative to the length of the femur, the lengths of the humerus, ulna, and tibia increase in length more slowly than isometry predicts. That pattern of limb scaling in Allosaurus is similar to those in other large theropods such as the tyrannosaurids. Phylogenetic optimization suggests that large theropods independently evolved reduced humeral, ulnar, and tibial lengths by a phyletic reduction in longitudinal growth relative to the femur.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10406",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.10406",
    openalex = "W2075051078",
    references = "crossref1976allosaurus, doi101017s0952836904004844, doi10103831635, doi101038nature02699, doi101038nature03635, doi101086284325, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101126science17940791201, doi101126science2725264986, doi101126science28253921298, doi101242jeb00841, doi1016690883135120010160482ttoaco20co2, doi1016710272463420000200115lbhoth20co2, doi1016710272463420030230373oocsta20co2, doi1034191b109, doi105281zenodo13315375, houck1990allometric, openalexw2611511275"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0001230,
    author = "Sereno, Paul C. and Wilson, Jeffrey A. and Witmer, Lawrence M. and Whitlock, John A. and Maga, Abdoulaye and Idé, Oumarou and Rowe, Timothy A.",
    title = "Structural Extremes in a Cretaceous Dinosaur",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Fossils of the Early Cretaceous dinosaur, Nigersaurus taqueti, document for the first time the cranial anatomy of a rebbachisaurid sauropod. Its extreme adaptations for herbivory at ground-level challenge current hypotheses regarding feeding function and feeding strategy among diplodocoids, the larger clade of sauropods that includes Nigersaurus. We used high resolution computed tomography, stereolithography, and standard molding and casting techniques to reassemble the extremely fragile skull. Computed tomography also allowed us to render the first endocast for a sauropod preserving portions of the olfactory bulbs, cerebrum and inner ear, the latter permitting us to establish habitual head posture. To elucidate evidence of tooth wear and tooth replacement rate, we used photographic-casting techniques and crown thin sections, respectively. To reconstruct its 9-meter postcranial skeleton, we combined and size-adjusted multiple partial skeletons. Finally, we used maximum parsimony algorithms on character data to obtain the best estimate of phylogenetic relationships among diplodocoid sauropods. Nigersaurus taqueti shows extreme adaptations for a dinosaurian herbivore including a skull of extremely light construction, tooth batteries located at the distal end of the jaws, tooth replacement as fast as one per month, an expanded muzzle that faces directly toward the ground, and hollow presacral vertebral centra with more air sac space than bone by volume. A cranial endocast provides the first reasonably complete view of a sauropod brain including its small olfactory bulbs and cerebrum. Skeletal and dental evidence suggests that Nigersaurus was a ground-level herbivore that gathered and sliced relatively soft vegetation, the culmination of a low-browsing feeding strategy first established among diplodocoids during the Jurassic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001230",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0001230",
    openalex = "W2111030938",
    references = "doi10100797844317693306, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017s0094837300007557, doi101038274661a0, doi101038nature02048, doi101046j10963642200200029x, doi101073pnas932514623, doi10108002724634199810011115, doi101126science1118806, doi101525california97805202462320010001, doi105860choice260307, doi105962bhltitle102117, doi105962bhltitle60562, doi105962p234818, larsson2000forebrain, openalexw2983381470, openalexw2989049194"
}

@article{doi101671027246342841073,
    author = "Holliday, Casey M. and Witmer, Lawrence M.",
    title = "Cranial kinesis in dinosaurs: intracranial joints, protractor muscles, and their significance for cranial evolution and function in diapsids",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Different forms of intracranial mobility, including streptostyly, pleurokinesis, and prokinesis, have been postulated for many dinosaurs. The basis for inferring kinesis typically has included the presence of presumably synovial intracranial joints (otic and basal joints) and various ad hoc ‘sliding joints’ (many without modern parallels), whereas the protractor musculature that would have powered movement at these joints has received little attention. No study has reviewed the evidence underlying these inferences, and the functional mechanisms and evolution of kinesis among dinosaurs have remained unclear. We analyzed the relevant musculoskeletal structures in extant diapsids and extinct dinosaurs to evaluate in general the morphological support for inferences of cranial kinesis in dinosaurs. Four criteria (synovial otic joints, synovial basal joints, protractor muscles, and permissive kinematic linkages) were considered necessary but individually insufficient for the inference of kinesis. Assessing these criteria across dinosaurs reveals that synovial otic and basal joints are almost universally present (even in widely acknowledged akinetic taxa), and most taxa retained protractor musculature. However, unlike fully kinetic extant birds and squamates, almost all dinosaurs lacked the kinematic linkages that would have permitted movement (reduced palatal and temporal articulations, additional flexion zones). Thus, synovial basal and otic joints and protractor musculature are diapsid plesiomorphies, and, in the absence of permissive kinematic linkages, most formulations of nonavian dinosaur kinesis are currently problematic. Alternatively, persistent synovial joints may simply be cartilaginous sites that facilitate cranial growth during ontogeny.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1073",
    doi = "10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1073",
    openalex = "W2147338974",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051110306, doi101086284406, doi101093auk12041206, doi101098rstb19910056, doi101111j10963642200600245x, openalexw1607828269, openalexw1879660213"
}

@article{longrich2008a,
    author = "LONGRICH, NICK",
    title = "A NEW, LARGE ORNITHOMIMID FROM THE CRETACEOUS DINOSAUR PARK FORMATION OF ALBERTA, CANADA: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF DISSOCIATED DINOSAUR REMAINS",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Palaeontology",
    abstract = "Only two ornithomimid genera, Ornithomimus and Struthiomimus, are currently known from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. However, a number of ornithomimid elements from Alberta’s Dinosaur Park Formation (Upper Campanian), cannot be assigned to either Ornithomimus or Struthiomimus. These bones, including a frontal, caudal vertebrae, and unguals of the manus and the pes, come from animals significantly larger than any previously known Judithian ornithomimid. The frontal exhibits several unusual features, including transverse expansion over the prefrontals, and extreme reduction of the supratemporal fossae. Caudal vertebrae are characterized by neural arches that are posteriorly shifted and transversely expanded. Manual unguals possess a highly concave articular surface, a flexor tubercle divided by a sulcus, and a broad claw. Pedal unguals display highly concave articular surfaces, and a ridge‐like flexor tubercle dividing a deep ventral fossa. Although it is difficult to know whether these elements represent a single taxon, this is currently the most parsimonious hypothesis. This study demonstrates how isolated dinosaur bones can extend our knowledge of dinosaur faunas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00791.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00791.x",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W1984804423",
    pages = "983-997",
    volume = "51",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511608377011, doi101139e72031, doi1016660022336020030770822mbatho20co2, doi102475ajss32313381, doi105860choice393984, doi105860choice434677, doi105860choice435902, openalexw3190253505, openalexw3215057009, openalexw337536883, openalexw607142922, smith1990osteology"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0904000106,
    author = "McNab, Brian K.",
    title = "Resources and energetics determined dinosaur maximal size",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Some dinosaurs reached masses that were approximately 8 times those of the largest, ecologically equivalent terrestrial mammals. The factors most responsible for setting the maximal body size of vertebrates are resource quality and quantity, as modified by the mobility of the consumer, and the vertebrate's rate of energy expenditure. If the food intake of the largest herbivorous mammals defines the maximal rate at which plant resources can be consumed in terrestrial environments and if that limit applied to dinosaurs, then the large size of sauropods occurred because they expended energy in the field at rates extrapolated from those of varanid lizards, which are approximately 22\% of the rates in mammals and 3.6 times the rates of other lizards of equal size. Of 2 species having the same energy income, the species that uses the most energy for mass-independent maintenance of necessity has a smaller size. The larger mass found in some marine mammals reflects a greater resource abundance in marine environments. The presumptively low energy expenditures of dinosaurs potentially permitted Mesozoic communities to support dinosaur biomasses that were up to 5 times those found in mammalian herbivores in Africa today. The maximal size of predatory theropods was approximately 8 tons, which if it reflected the maximal capacity to consume vertebrates in terrestrial environments, corresponds in predatory mammals to a maximal mass less than a ton, which is what is observed. Some coelurosaurs may have evolved endothermy in association with the evolution of feathered insulation and a small mass.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904000106",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0904000106",
    openalex = "W2133871943",
    references = "doi101017s0022336000018862, doi101666080251"
}

@article{doi101080089129632010500379,
    author = "Varricchio, David J.",
    title = "A distinct dinosaur life history?",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Historical Biology",
    abstract = "Five factors, mobile terrestrial lifestyle, oviparity, parental care, multi-year maturation and juvenile sociality, contribute to a distinct life history for Mesozoic dinosaurs in comparison to extant archosaurs and mammals. Upright, para-sagittal gait reflects several synapomorphies of Dinosauria, and wide histological sampling suggests that multi-year maturation typified dinosaurs across a range of body sizes. Fossil support for juvenile sociality exceeds that for either oviparity or parental care. Implications of these factors include temporal segregation of adults for an extended, perhaps months-long reproductive cycle; spatial separation of adults and perhaps hatchlings to suitable nesting sites; increased likelihood for territoriality; reduced potential for long migrations; intraspecific niche segregation by age; population and community structure and macroevolutionary patterns. Fossil evidence for oviparity, parental care and juvenile sociality consists of combinations of adults, juveniles, embryos, eggs or traces and emphasises the importance of bonebeds and taphonomy in understanding dinosaur life-history strategies. Oviparity and parental care, predicted for dinosaurs by their extant phylogenetic bracket, have the least fossil support and cautions against overextending parsimonious interpretations to extinct taxa with the risk of obscuring novel or intermediate behaviours. Given the great diversity of Mesozoic dinosaurs, the proposed life history is hypothesised to represent only a general tendency.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2010.500379",
    doi = "10.1080/08912963.2010.500379",
    openalex = "W1998041136",
    references = "doi101002ar20991, doi101016jpalaeo200901002, doi101017s0022336000018862, doi10108002724634199910011125, doi10108008912960903450505, doi101111j15023931200900187x, reid1984primary"
}

@article{doi101111j1469185x201000137x,
    author = "Sander, P. Martin and Christian, Andreas and Clauß, Marcus and Fechner, Regina and Gee, Carole T. and Griebeler, Eva-Maria and Gunga, Hanns‐Christian and Hummel, Jürgen and Mallison, Heinrich and Perry, Steven F. and Preuschoft, Holger and Rauhut, Oliver W. M. and Remes, Kristian and Tütken, Thomas and Wings, Oliver and Witzel, U.",
    title = "Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: the evolution of gigantism",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "The herbivorous sauropod dinosaurs of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods were the largest terrestrial animals ever, surpassing the largest herbivorous mammals by an order of magnitude in body mass. Several evolutionary lineages among Sauropoda produced giants with body masses in excess of 50 metric tonnes by conservative estimates. With body mass increase driven by the selective advantages of large body size, animal lineages will increase in body size until they reach the limit determined by the interplay of bauplan, biology, and resource availability. There is no evidence, however, that resource availability and global physicochemical parameters were different enough in the Mesozoic to have led to sauropod gigantism.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00137.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00137.x",
    openalex = "W2090710319",
    references = "amiot2006oxygen, christiansen2004mass, crossref1998encyclopedia, doi101002jez513, doi1010079789400904095, doi101016jpalaeo200901002, doi101016jtree200508012, doi101017cbo9780511565441, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101017cbo9781139167826, doi101017s0094837300009866, doi101017s0094837300021321, doi101017s1464793101005735, doi101021j150446a008, doi101038262207a0, doi101038344858a0, doi10103835086558, doi101046j10963642200200029x, doi101073pnas0708903105, doi101073pnas251548698, doi10108002724634199410011538, doi10108002724634199510011575, doi10108002724634199810011115, doi10108002724634199910011178, doi101098rsbl20070254, doi101098rspb20080715, doi101098rstb19950125, doi101111j109636421985tb00871x, doi101111j109636421998tb00569x, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101126science1118806, doi101139e93176, doi101146annurevecolsys36102003152631, doi101146annureves26110195002305, doi101242jeb029009, doi101371journalpone0001230, doi101371journalpone0006924, doi1015159781400881376, doi101525california97805202420980030015, doi101525california97805202420980030031, doi101525california97805202462320010001, doi1016660094837320000260466lhotts20co2, doi1016660094837320030290105dbttoo20co2, doi1016660094837320080340247ositlb20co2, doi1016710272463420000200115lbhoth20co2, doi1022179revmacn7344, doi1023072407154, doi1023073889325, doi102475ajss319111253, doi10560219780801881206, doi105860choice271523, doi105860choice304997, doi105860choice326223, doi105860choice353642, doi105860choice490282, martinsander2006bone, openalexw1025856234, openalexw114509570, openalexw1504554173, openalexw1534857865, openalexw1558456135, openalexw1585246501, openalexw1607828269, openalexw2318111898, openalexw2618301958, openalexw2983381470, openalexw3015256845, openalexw575222456, seymour1976dinosaurs"
}

@article{doi101111j1469185x201000139x,
    author = "Mannion, Philip D. and Upchurch, Paul and Carrano, Matthew T. and Barrett, Paul M.",
    title = "Testing the effect of the rock record on diversity: a multidisciplinary approach to elucidating the generic richness of sauropodomorph dinosaurs through time",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "The accurate reconstruction of palaeobiodiversity patterns is central to a detailed understanding of the macroevolutionary history of a group of organisms. However, there is increasing evidence that diversity patterns observed directly from the fossil record are strongly influenced by fluctuations in the quality of our sampling of the rock record; thus, any patterns we see may reflect sampling biases, rather than genuine biological signals. Previous dinosaur diversity studies have suggested that fluctuations in sauropodomorph palaeobiodiversity reflect genuine biological signals, in comparison to theropods and ornithischians whose diversity seems to be largely controlled by the rock record. Most previous diversity analyses that have attempted to take into account the effects of sampling biases have used only a single method or proxy: here we use a number of techniques in order to elucidate diversity. A global database of all known sauropodomorph body fossil occurrences (2024) was constructed. A taxic diversity curve for all valid sauropodomorph genera was extracted from this database and compared statistically with several sampling proxies (rock outcrop area and dinosaur-bearing formations and collections), each of which captures a different aspect of fossil record sampling. Phylogenetic diversity estimates, residuals and sample-based rarefaction (including the first attempt to capture 'cryptic' diversity in dinosaurs) were implemented to investigate further the effects of sampling. After 'removal' of biases, sauropodomorph diversity appears to be genuinely high in the Norian, Pliensbachian-Toarcian, Bathonian-Callovian and Kimmeridgian-Tithonian (with a small peak in the Aptian), whereas low diversity levels are recorded for the Oxfordian and Berriasian-Barremian, with the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary seemingly representing a real diversity trough. Observed diversity in the remaining Triassic-Jurassic stages appears to be largely driven by sampling effort. Late Cretaceous diversity is difficult to elucidate and it is possible that this interval remains relatively under-sampled. Despite its distortion by sampling biases, much of sauropodomorph palaeobiodiversity can be interpreted as a reflection of genuine biological signals, and fluctuations in sea level may account for some of these diversity patterns.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00139.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185x.2010.00139.x",
    openalex = "W2009772623",
    references = "doi101038274661a0, doi101073pnas0606028103, doi10108008912969009386535, doi101098rspb20091845, doi101371journalpone0001230, doi101525california97805202420980010001, doi101525california97805202420980030015, doi101666070341, doi105860choice435907, foote1996perspective, smith2007marine"
}

@article{doi101126science1194830,
    author = "Smith, Felisa A. and Boyer, Alison G. and Brown, James H. and Costa, Daniel P. and Dayan, Tamar and Ernest, S. K. Morgan and Evans, Alistair R. and Fortelius, Mikael and Gittleman, John L. and Hamilton, Marcus J. and Harding, Larisa E. and Lintulaakso, Kari and Lyons, S. Kathleen and McCain, Christy M. and Okie, Jordan G. and Saarinen, Juha and Sibly, Richard M. and Stephens, Patrick R. and Theodor, Jessica M. and Uhen, Mark D.",
    title = "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size of Terrestrial Mammals",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The extinction of dinosaurs at the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary was the seminal event that opened the door for the subsequent diversification of terrestrial mammals. Our compilation of maximum body size at the ordinal level by sub-epoch shows a near-exponential increase after the K/Pg. On each continent, the maximum size of mammals leveled off after 40 million years ago and thereafter remained approximately constant. There was remarkable congruence in the rate, trajectory, and upper limit across continents, orders, and trophic guilds, despite differences in geological and climatic history, turnover of lineages, and ecological variation. Our analysis suggests that although the primary driver for the evolution of giant mammals was diversification to fill ecological niches, environmental temperature and land area may have ultimately constrained the maximum size achieved.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194830",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1194830",
    openalex = "W2078822756",
    references = "doi101017s0022336000059126, doi101038324148a0, doi101038nature03102, doi101038nature06277, doi101073pnas251548698, doi101371journalpbio0050022"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0013120,
    author = "Holliday, Casey M. and Ridgely, Ryan C. and Sedlmayr, Jayc C. and Witmer, Lawrence M.",
    title = "Cartilaginous Epiphyses in Extant Archosaurs and Their Implications for Reconstructing Limb Function in Dinosaurs",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = {Extinct archosaurs, including many non-avian dinosaurs, exhibit relatively simply shaped condylar regions in their appendicular bones, suggesting potentially large amounts of unpreserved epiphyseal (articular) cartilage. This "lost anatomy" is often underappreciated such that the ends of bones are typically considered to be the joint surfaces, potentially having a major impact on functional interpretation. Extant alligators and birds were used to establish an objective basis for inferences about cartilaginous articular structures in such extinct archosaur clades as non-avian dinosaurs. Limb elements of alligators, ostriches, and other birds were dissected, disarticulated, and defleshed. Lengths and condylar shapes of elements with intact epiphyses were measured. Limbs were subsequently completely skeletonized and the measurements repeated. Removal of cartilaginous condylar regions resulted in statistically significant changes in element length and condylar breadth. Moreover, there was marked loss of those cartilaginous structures responsible for joint architecture and congruence. Compared to alligators, birds showed less dramatic, but still significant changes. Condylar morphologies of dinosaur limb bones suggest that most non-coelurosaurian clades possessed large cartilaginous epiphyses that relied on the maintenance of vascular channels that are otherwise eliminated early in ontogeny in smaller-bodied tetrapods. A sensitivity analysis using cartilage correction factors (CCFs) obtained from extant taxa indicates that whereas the presence of cartilaginous epiphyses only moderately increases estimates of dinosaur height and speed, it has important implications for our ability to infer joint morphology, posture, and the complicated functional movements in the limbs of many extinct archosaurs. Evidence suggests that the sizes of sauropod epiphyseal cartilages surpassed those of alligators, which account for at least 10\% of hindlimb length. These data suggest that large cartilaginous epiphyses were widely distributed among non-avian archosaurs and must be considered when making inferences about locomotor functional morphology in fossil taxa.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013120",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0013120",
    openalex = "W2009995050",
    references = "crossref1976allosaurus, crossref1997the, doi1010160031018282900050, doi1010160166223685901973, doi101017cbo9781139167826, doi101038229172a0, doi101038nature01657, doi10108002724634199810011115, doi101111j146979981983tb04266x, doi101126science26251422020, doi101130spe40p1, doi1016660094837320000260450fpindi20co2, doi1016660094837320050310676aohmma20co2, doi102475ajss319111253, doi105860choice290302, doi105860choice326223, doi105962bhltitle102117, doi105962bhltitle60562, openalexw2473973115, openalexw2983381470"
}

@article{doi101016jtree201103005,
    author = "Gardner, Janet L. and Peters, Anne and Kearney, Michael and Joseph, Leo and Heinsohn, Robert",
    title = "Declining body size: a third universal response to warming?",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.005",
    openalex = "W1983501589",
    references = "doi101016jygcen200804017, doi101146annurevecolsys110308120159, doi1023071948545"
}

@article{doi101080089129632010543952,
    author = "Zanno, Lindsay E. and Makovicky, Peter J.",
    title = "On the earliest record of Cretaceous tyrannosauroids in western North America: implications for an Early Cretaceous Laurasian interchange event",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Historical Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract The sudden appearance of Asian dinosaur clades within Lower Cretaceous strata of western North America has long been recognised as a biotic dispersion event related to initial establishment of a Beringian land bridge. To date, uncertainty exists regarding the timing of the Early Cretaceous Laurasian interchange event (EKLInE) and the pattern of associated biotic dispersal. Here, we report a tyrannosauroid premaxillary tooth (FMNH PR 2750) from the Cloverly Formation, Wyoming, USA, that pushes back the earliest Cretaceous record of the clade in North America. Although fragmentary, the tooth is consistent with mounting evidence for a pre-108 Ma initiation of EKLInE and earliest Albian emplacement of Beringia. Previous authors have considered the Aptian/Albian of western North America a depauperate dinosaur fauna, characterised by regional extinction and diversity decline. Documentation of Albian tyrannosauroids in the region indicates a more dynamic ecosystem than previously appreciated and marks an early start to faunal mixing between immigrant and endemic dinosaur clades. Finally, we find that the enamel microstructure of FMNH PR 2750 conforms to the morphotype of tyrannosaurids, yet exhibits poor columnar differentiation. This morphology bolsters prior interpretations on the phylogenetic utility of enamel microstructure and suggests a trend of increasing enamel complexity within Tyrannosauroidea. Keywords: dinosaurpaleobiogeographyBeringiaenamel microstructureCloverly Formation Acknowledgements We thank A. Shinya and L. Herzog for specimen preparation, B. Strack for SEM assistance, X. Xing, M. Norell, P. Currie, M. Henderson, S. Hutt and others for comparative material access. T. Carr and several anonymous reviewers provided constructive critiques. Fieldwork was supported by the Ferro and Meeker families and was conducted under BLM permit 02-WY-70. LEZ is supported by the John Caldwell-Meeker Fellowship; this research was supported by National Science Foundation EAR 0228607 to PJM.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/08912963.2010.543952",
    doi = "10.1080/08912963.2010.543952",
    openalex = "W2062301388",
    references = "longrich2008a"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0025186,
    author = "Campione, Nicolás E. and Evans, David C.",
    title = "Cranial Growth and Variation in Edmontosaurs (Dinosauria: Hadrosauridae): Implications for Latest Cretaceous Megaherbivore Diversity in North America",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "The well-sampled Late Cretaceous fossil record of North America remains the only high-resolution dataset for evaluating patterns of dinosaur diversity leading up to the terminal Cretaceous extinction event. Hadrosaurine hadrosaurids (Dinosauria: Ornithopoda) closely related to Edmontosaurus are among the most common megaherbivores in latest Campanian and Maastrichtian deposits of western North America. However, interpretations of edmontosaur species richness and biostratigraphy have been in constant flux for almost three decades, although the clade is generally thought to have undergone a radiation in the late Maastrichtian. We address the issue of edmontosaur diversity for the first time using rigorous morphometric analyses of virtually all known complete edmontosaur skulls. Results suggest only two valid species, Edmontosaurus regalis from the late Campanian, and E. annectens from the late Maastrichtian, with previously named taxa, including the controversial Anatotitan copei, erected on hypothesized transitional morphologies associated with ontogenetic size increase and allometric growth. A revision of North American hadrosaurid taxa suggests a decrease in both hadrosaurid diversity and disparity from the early to late Maastrichtian, a pattern likely also present in ceratopsid dinosaurs. A decline in the disparity of dominant megaherbivores in the latest Maastrichtian interval supports the hypothesis that dinosaur diversity decreased immediately preceding the end Cretaceous extinction event.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025186",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0025186",
    openalex = "W2153077072",
    references = "doi101016b9780127784601x50005, doi101017s0094837300014056, doi101038277560a0, doi101038358059a0, doi101080027246342010483632, doi101080089129632012688589, doi101093bioinformaticsbtg287, doi101093bioinformaticsbtm069, doi101093sysbio24137, doi101098rspb20090352, doi101098rspl18870117, doi101111j10963642200400130x, doi101111j10963642200900617x, doi101130spe40p1, doi101371journalpone0007626, doi102110palo2009p09103r, doi1023071005355, doi102475ajss319111253, gilmore1924a, russell2002synopsis, sloan1986gradual"
}

@article{doi102113geoarabia160429,
    author = "Powell, J. H. and Moh’d, Basem K.",
    title = "Evolution of Cretaceous to Eocene alluvial and carbonate platform sequences in central and south Jordan",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "GeoArabia",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The Cretaceous to Eocene succession in central and south Jordan is characterised by passive continental margin depositional sequences, which pass upward from alluvial/paralic to carbonate shelf and pelagic ramp settings. Detailed section logging and outcrop mapping have produced robust lithostratigraphic and lithofacies schemes that can be correlated throughout the region and in the subsurface. These schemes are set in a sequence-stratigraphic context in relation to the evolution sedimentation on the Arabian and Levant plates. Three major megasequences are described (Kurnub, Ajlun and Belqa), and these are further subdivided into large-scale depositional sequences separated by regional sequence boundaries that represent maximum flooding surfaces. There is close correspondence between maximum flooding surfaces recording major sea-level rise with those derived for the Arabian and Levant plates, although there are some discrepancies with the precise timing of global sea-level fluctuations. An upward change from braided to meandering stream fluvial environments in central and south Jordan during the Early Cretaceous, reflects a decreasing geomorphological gradient of the alluvial plain, declining siliciclastic sediment flux, and increased floodplain accommodation, associated with a regional Late Albian (second-order) rise in relative sea-level. The Late Albian to Early Cenomanian marine transgression across the coastal alluvial plain marks a major sequence boundary. During Cenomanian to Turonian times a rimmed carbonate-shelf was established, characterised by skeletal carbonates showing small-scale, upward-shallowing cycles (fourth- to fifth-order parasequences) ranging from subtidal to intertidal facies, arranged into parasequence sets. Rimmed carbonate shelf sequences pass laterally to coeval coastal/alluvial plain facies to the south and east. Eustatic (third-order) fluctuations in relative sea level during the Cenomanian and Early Turonian resulted in deposition of ammonite-rich wackestones and organic-rich marls, during high sea-level stands (maximum flooding surfaces). Progradational sabkha/salina facies passing landwards to fluvial siliciclastics were deposited during an Early Turonian sea-level low stand, marks a regional sequence boundary, above which a highstand carbonate platform was established. A second-order, regional rise in sea level and marine transgression during the Early Coniacian marks a Type 2 sequence boundary, and subsequent drowning of the rimmed carbonate shelf by Late Coniacian times. Sedimentation during the Santonian to Maastrichtian was characterised by a hemi-pelagic chalk-chert-phosphorite lithofacies association, deposited in shallow to moderate water depths on a homoclinal ramp setting, although thicker coeval sequences were deposited in extensional rifts. The marked change in sedimentation from rimmed carbonate shelf to pelagic ramp is attributed to Neo-Tethyan mid-oceanic rifting, tilting, intracratonic deformation and subsidence of the platform; this is reflected in changes in biogenic productivity and ocean currents. Oceanic upwelling and high organic productivity resulted in the deposition of phosphorite together with giant oyster banks, the latter developing within oxygenated wave-base on the inner ramp. Chalk hardgrounds, sub-marine erosion surfaces, and gravitational slump folds indicate depositional hiatus and tectonic instability on the ramp. In the Early Maastrichtian, deeper-water chalk-marl, locally organic-rich, was deposited in density-stratified, anoxic basins, that were partly fault controlled. Pulsatory marine onlap (highstand sequences) during the Eocene is manifested in pelagic chalk and chert with a paucity of benthic macro-fauna, indicating a highly stressed, possibly hypersaline, and density-stratified water column. Comparison with global and regional relative sea-level curves enable regionally induced tectonic factors (hinterland uplift and ocean spreading) to be deduced, against a background of global sea-level rise, changing oceanic chemistry/productivity and climatic change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/geoarabia160429",
    doi = "10.2113/geoarabia160429",
    openalex = "W81898466",
    references = "doi101017s0016756800008268, doi1023071796493"
}

@article{doi105860choice490282,
    title = "Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: understanding the life of giants",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "List of Contributors Preface List of Institutional Abbreviations Introduction 1. Sauropod Biology and the Evolution of Gigantism: What Do We Know? / Marcus Clauss Part 1. Nutrition 2. Sauropod Feeding and Digestive Physiology / Jurgen Hummel and Marcus Clauss 3. Dietary Options for the Sauropod Dinosaurs from an Integrated Botanical and Paleobotanical Perspective / Carole T. Gee 4. The Diet of Sauropod Dinosaurs: Implications of Carbon Isotope Analysis on Teeth, Bones, and Plants / Thomas Tutken Part 2. Physiology 5. Structure and Function of the Sauropod Respiratory System / Steven F. Perry, Thomas Breuer, and Nadine Pajor 6. Reconstructing Body Volume and Surface Area of Dinosaurs Using Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry / Stefan Stoinski, Tim Suthau, and Hanns-Christian Gunga 7. Body Mass Estimation, Thermoregulation, and Cardiovascular Physiology of Large Sauropods / Bergita Ganse, Alexander Stahn, Stefan Stoinski, Tim Suthau, and Hanns-Christian Gunga Part 3. Construction 8. How to Get Big in the Mesozoic: The Evolution of the Sauropodomorph Body Plan / Oliver W. M. Rauhut, Regina Fechner, Kristian Remes, and Katrin Reis 9. Characterization of Sauropod Bone Structure / Maitena Dumont, Anke Pyzalla, Aleksander Kostka, and Andras Borbely 10. Finite Element Analyses and Virtual Syntheses of Biological Structures and Their Application to Sauropod Skulls / Ulrich Witzel, Julia Mannhardt, Rainer Goessling, Pascal de Micheli, and Holger Preuschoft 11. Walking with the Shoulder of Giants: Biomechanical Conditions in the Tetrapod Shoulder Girdle as a Basis for Sauropod Shoulder Reconstruction / Bianca Hohn 12. Why So Huge? Biomechanical Reasons for the Acquisition of Large Size in Sauropod and Theropod Dinosaurs / Holger Preuschoft, Bianca Hohn, Stefan Stoinski, and Ulrich Witzel 13. Plateosaurus in 3D: How CAD Models and Kinetic-Dynamic Modeling Bring an Extinct Animal to Life / Heinrich Mallison 14. Rearing Giants: Kinetic-Dynamic Modeling of Sauropod Bipedal and Tripodal Poses / Heinrich Mallison 15. Neck Posture in Sauropods / Andreas Christian and Gordon Dzemski Part 4. Growth 16. The Life Cycle of Sauropod Dinosaurs / Eva-Maria Griebeler and Jan Werner 17. Sauropod Bone Histology and Its Implications for Sauropod Biology / P. Martin Sander, Nicole Klein, Koen Stein, and Oliver Wings Part 5. Epilogue 18. Skeletal Reconstruction of Brachiosaurus brancai in the Museum fur Naturkunde, Berlin: Summarizing 70 Years of Sauropod Research / Kristian Remes, David M. Unwin, Nicole Klein, Wolf-Dieter Heinrich, and Oliver Hampe Appendix: Compilation of Published Body Mass Data for a Variety of Basal Sauropodomorphs and Sauropods Index",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.49-0282",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.49-0282",
    openalex = "W293512402",
    references = "amiot2006oxygen, christiansen2004mass, doi101002mmng200900004, doi1010160012825273900287, doi1010160031018275900279, doi1010160375650595000240, doi101016b9780126764604500081, doi101016jpalaeo200401006, doi101016jpalaeo200901002, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101017cbo9781139167826, doi101017s009483730000676x, doi101017s0094837300009866, doi101038229172a0, doi101038262207a0, doi10103835086558, doi101038nature00930, doi101038nature04633, doi101046j10963642200200029x, doi101073pnas251548698, doi101073pnas932514623, doi10108002724634199910011178, doi101111j1469185x201000137x, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101126science1138709, doi101242jeb02443, doi101525california97805202462320010001, doi1016660094837320000260734aaateo20co2, doi1016660094837320030290105dbttoo20co2, doi1016660094837320030290243vpasat20co2, doi1016660094837320080340247ositlb20co2, doi101666080251, doi1016710272463420020220766tehits20co2, doi1023071310735, doi1023073515313, doi104039ent912935, doi105860choice271523, doi105860choice324505, doi105962bhltitle118957, martinsander2006bone, openalexw1534857865, openalexw1558456135, openalexw1590241584, openalexw2473973115, openalexw2729191089, openalexw603337959, seymour1976dinosaurs"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1210460109,
    author = "Forster, Jack and Hirst, Andrew G. and Atkinson, David",
    title = "Warming-induced reductions in body size are greater in aquatic than terrestrial species",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {Most ectothermic organisms mature at smaller body sizes when reared in warmer conditions. This phenotypically plastic response, known as the "temperature-size rule" (TSR), is one of the most taxonomically widespread patterns in biology. However, the TSR remains a longstanding life-history puzzle for which no dominant driver has been found. We propose that oxygen supply plays a central role in explaining the magnitude of ectothermic temperature-size responses. Given the much lower oxygen availability and greater effort required to increase uptake in water vs. air, we predict that the TSR in aquatic organisms, especially larger species with lower surface area-body mass ratios, will be stronger than in terrestrial organisms. We performed a meta-analysis of 1,890 body mass responses to temperature in controlled experiments on 169 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species. This reveals that the strength of the temperature-size response is greater in aquatic than terrestrial species. In animal species of ∼100 mg dry mass, the temperature-size response of aquatic organisms is 10 times greater than in terrestrial organisms (-5.0\% °C(-1) vs. -0.5\% °C(-1)). Moreover, although the size response of small (<0.1 mg dry mass) aquatic and terrestrial species is similar, increases in species size cause the response to become increasingly negative in aquatic species, as predicted, but on average less negative in terrestrial species. These results support oxygen as a major driver of temperature-size responses in aquatic organisms. Further, the environment-dependent differences parallel latitudinal body size clines, and will influence predicted impacts of climate warming on food production, community structure, and food-web dynamics.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210460109",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1210460109",
    openalex = "W1970457066",
    references = "doi101016s0169534797010586, doi101038nclimate1259, doi101086284330, doi101111j1469185x200900097x"
}

@article{doi101186174170071060,
    author = "Campione, Nicolás E. and Evans, David C.",
    title = "A universal scaling relationship between body mass and proximal limb bone dimensions in quadrupedal terrestrial tetrapods",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "BMC Biology",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: Body size is intimately related to the physiology and ecology of an organism. Therefore, accurate and consistent body mass estimates are essential for inferring numerous aspects of paleobiology in extinct taxa, and investigating large-scale evolutionary and ecological patterns in the history of life. Scaling relationships between skeletal measurements and body mass in birds and mammals are commonly used to predict body mass in extinct members of these crown clades, but the applicability of these models for predicting mass in more distantly related stem taxa, such as non-avian dinosaurs and non-mammalian synapsids, has been criticized on biomechanical grounds. Here we test the major criticisms of scaling methods for estimating body mass using an extensive dataset of mammalian and non-avian reptilian species derived from individual skeletons with live weights. RESULTS: Significant differences in the limb scaling of mammals and reptiles are noted in comparisons of limb proportions and limb length to body mass. Remarkably, however, the relationship between proximal (stylopodial) limb bone circumference and body mass is highly conserved in extant terrestrial mammals and reptiles, in spite of their disparate limb postures, gaits, and phylogenetic histories. As a result, we are able to conclusively reject the main criticisms of scaling methods that question the applicability of a universal scaling equation for estimating body mass in distantly related taxa. CONCLUSIONS: The conserved nature of the relationship between stylopodial circumference and body mass suggests that the minimum diaphyseal circumference of the major weight-bearing bones is only weakly influenced by the varied forces exerted on the limbs (that is, compression or torsion) and most strongly related to the mass of the animal. Our results, therefore, provide a much-needed, robust, phylogenetically corrected framework for accurate and consistent estimation of body mass in extinct terrestrial quadrupeds, which is important for a wide range of paleobiological studies (including growth rates, metabolism, and energetics) and meta-analyses of body size evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-10-60",
    doi = "10.1186/1741-7007-10-60",
    openalex = "W2053913541",
    references = "christiansen2004mass, doi101016jympev200706018, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101017s1464793106007007, doi101086284325, doi101093bioinformaticsbtg412, doi101093sysbio41118, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101111j251761611995tb02031x, doi101126science1061967, doi101159000452856, doi103998mpub9690664, doi105860choice290302, doi105860choice490282, openalexw1558456135, openalexw2611511275"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0037122,
    author = "Benson, Roger and Rich, Thomas H. and Vickers-Rich, Patricia and Hall, Mike",
    title = "Theropod Fauna from Southern Australia Indicates High Polar Diversity and Climate-Driven Dinosaur Provinciality",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "The Early Cretaceous fauna of Victoria, Australia, provides unique data on the composition of high latitude southern hemisphere dinosaurs. We describe and review theropod dinosaur postcranial remains from the Aptian-Albian Otway and Strzelecki groups, based on at least 37 isolated bones, and more than 90 teeth from the Flat Rocks locality. Several specimens of medium- and large-bodied individuals (estimated up to \textasciitilde 8.5 metres long) represent allosauroids. Tyrannosauroids are represented by elements indicating medium body sizes (\textasciitilde 3 metres long), likely including the holotype femur of Timimus hermani, and a single cervical vertebra represents a juvenile spinosaurid. Single specimens representing medium- and small-bodied theropods may be referrable to Ceratosauria, Ornithomimosauria, a basal coelurosaur, and at least three taxa within Maniraptora. Thus, nine theropod taxa may have been present. Alternatively, four distinct dorsal vertebrae indicate a minimum of four taxa. However, because most taxa are known from single bones, it is likely that small-bodied theropod diversity remains underestimated. The high abundance of allosauroids and basal coelurosaurs (including tyrannosauroids and possibly ornithomimosaurs), and the relative rarity of ceratosaurs, is strikingly dissimilar to penecontemporaneous dinosaur faunas of Africa and South America, which represent an arid, lower-latitude biome. Similarities between dinosaur faunas of Victoria and the northern continents concern the proportional representatation of higher clades, and may result from the prevailing temperate-polar climate of Australia, especially at high latitudes in Victoria, which is similar to the predominant warm-temperate climate of Laurasia, but distinct from the arid climate zone that covered extensive areas of Gondwana. Most dinosaur groups probably attained a near-cosmopolitan distribution in the Jurassic, prior to fragmentation of the Pangaean supercontinent, and some aspects of the hallmark 'Gondwanan' fauna of South America and Africa may therefore reflect climate-driven provinciality, not vicariant evolution driven by continental fragmentation. However, vicariance may still be detected at lower phylogenetic levels.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037122",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0037122",
    openalex = "W2083980191",
    references = "carpenter2005the, crossref1976allosaurus, doi1010160012821x89900186, doi101016jtoxlet200611011, doi10103831635, doi101038416816a, doi10108002724634199910011178, doi101080147720192010488045, doi101126science13334591105, doi101126science28454232137, doi101139e05044, doi101590s000137652011000100008, doi105281zenodo13315375, doi105281zenodo16171435, doi105860choice331556, doi105860choice393984"
}

@article{doi101111zoj12029,
    author = "Mannion, Philip D. and Upchurch, Paul and Barnes, Rosie N. and Mateus, Octávio",
    title = "Osteology of the Late Jurassic Portuguese sauropod dinosaur Lusotitan atalaiensis (Macronaria) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "Titanosauriforms represent a diverse and globally distributed clade of neosauropod dinosaurs, but their inter-relationships remain poorly understood. Here we redescribe Lusotitan atalaiensis from the Late Jurassic Lourinhã Formation of Portugal, a taxon previously referred to Brachiosaurus. The lectotype includes cervical, dorsal, and caudal vertebrae, and elements from the forelimb, hindlimb, and pelvic girdle. Lusotitan is a valid taxon and can be diagnosed by six autapomorphies, including the presence of elongate postzygapophyses that project well beyond the posterior margin of the neural arch in anterior-to-middle caudal vertebrae. A new phylogenetic analysis, focused on elucidating the evolutionary relationships of basal titanosauriforms, is presented, comprising 63 taxa scored for 279 characters. Many of these characters are heavily revised or novel to our study, and a number of ingroup taxa have never previously been incorporated into a phylogenetic analysis. We treated quantitative characters as discrete and continuous data in two parallel analyses, and explored the effect of implied weighting. Although we recovered monophyletic brachiosaurid and somphospondylan sister clades within Titanosauriformes, their compositions were affected by alternative treatments of quantitative data and, especially, by the weighting of such data. This suggests that the treatment of quantitative data is important and the wrong decisions might lead to incorrect tree topologies. In particular, the diversity of Titanosauria was greatly increased by the use of implied weights. Our results support the generic separation of the contemporaneous taxa Brachiosaurus, Giraffatitan, and Lusotitan, with the latter recovered as either a brachiosaurid or the sister taxon to Titanosauriformes. Although Janenschia was recovered as a basal macronarian, outside Titanosauria, the sympatric Australodocus provides body fossil evidence for the pre-Cretaceous origin of titanosaurs. We recovered evidence for a sauropod with close affinities to the Chinese taxon Mamenchisaurus in the Late Jurassic Tendaguru beds of Africa, and present new information demonstrating the wider distribution of caudal pneumaticity within Titanosauria. The earliest known titanosauriform body fossils are from the late Oxfordian (Late Jurassic), although trackway evidence indicates a Middle Jurassic origin. Diversity increased throughout the Late Jurassic, and titanosauriforms did not undergo a severe extinction across the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary, in contrast to diplodocids and non-neosauropods. Titanosauriform diversity increased in the Barremian and Aptian–Albian as a result of radiations of derived somphospondylans and lithostrotians, respectively, but there was a severe drop (up to 40\%) in species numbers at, or near, the Albian/Cenomanian boundary, representing a faunal turnover whereby basal titanosauriforms were replaced by derived titanosaurs, although this transition occurred in a spatiotemporally staggered fashion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/zoj.12029",
    doi = "10.1111/zoj.12029",
    openalex = "W1572867283",
    references = "doi101002jez513, doi101016jgr201212009, doi101017s0094837300026543, doi101038nature04633, doi101046j10963642200200029x, doi101073pnas1011369108, doi10108002724634199910011178, doi101080027246342012671204, doi101080147720192011630927, doi101093oso97801985052350010001, doi101111j109600311993tb00209x, doi101111j109600312003tb00376x, doi101111j10960031200800217x, doi101111j109636421998tb00569x, doi101111j1469185x200900107x, doi101111j1469185x201100190x, doi101139e93176, doi101144001676492006032, doi10129879781933789439, doi101371journalpone0001230, doi101371journalpone0006190, doi101371journalpone0006924, doi101371journalpone0017114, doi101525california97805202420980010001, doi101525california97805202420980030015, doi101525california97805202462320010001, doi10167102724634200727931dtftco20co2, doi1023071292217, doi1023073889325, doi102475ajss31695411, doi102475ajss319111253, doi104202app20080049, doi104202app20110051, doi105281zenodo16171435, martinsander2006bone, openalexw1025856234, openalexw2294506137, openalexw2611511275, openalexw3114518543, openalexw603337959, openalexw70084438, ostrom2020stratigraphy"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0081917,
    author = "Myhrvold, Nathan",
    title = "Revisiting the Estimation of Dinosaur Growth Rates",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Previous growth-rate studies covering 14 dinosaur taxa, as represented by 31 data sets, are critically examined and reanalyzed by using improved statistical techniques. The examination reveals that some previously reported results cannot be replicated by using the methods originally reported; results from new methods are in many cases different, in both the quantitative rates and the qualitative nature of the growth, from results in the prior literature. Asymptotic growth curves, which have been hypothesized to be ubiquitous, are shown to provide best fits for only four of the 14 taxa. Possible reasons for non-asymptotic growth patterns are discussed; they include systematic errors in the age-estimation process and, more likely, a bias toward younger ages among the specimens analyzed. Analysis of the data sets finds that only three taxa include specimens that could be considered skeletally mature (i.e., having attained 90\% of maximum body size predicted by asymptotic curve fits), and eleven taxa are quite immature, with the largest specimen having attained less than 62\% of predicted asymptotic size. The three taxa that include skeletally mature specimens are included in the four taxa that are best fit by asymptotic curves. The totality of results presented here suggests that previous estimates of both maximum dinosaur growth rates and maximum dinosaur sizes have little statistical support. Suggestions for future research are presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081917",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0081917",
    openalex = "W2021100037",
    references = "doi101021ci0342472, doi1010510004636120041335, doi10108001621459197610480949, doi10109701psy000012769223278a9, doi1011770049124104268644, doi1012019780429246593, doi1023072532810, doi1023072669574, doi1023073803117, doi105860choice326223"
}

@article{doi1011112041210x12226,
    author = "Campione, Nicolás E. and Evans, David C. and Brown, Caleb M. and Carrano, Matthew T.",
    title = "Body mass estimation in non‐avian bipeds using a theoretical conversion to quadruped stylopodial proportions",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Methods in Ecology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Summary Body mass is strongly related to both physiological and ecological properties of living organisms. As a result, generating robust, broadly applicable models for estimating body mass in the fossil record provides the opportunity to reconstruct palaeobiology and investigate evolutionary ecology on a large temporal scale. A recent study provided strong evidence that the minimum circumference of stylopodial elements (humerus and femur) is conservatively associated with body mass in living quadrupeds. Unfortunately, this model is not directly applicable to extinct bipeds, such as non‐avian dinosaurs. This study presents a new equation that mathematically corrects the quadruped equation for use in bipeds. It is derived from the systemic difference in the circumference‐to‐area scaling relationship of two circles (hypothetical quadruped) and one circle (hypothetical biped), which represent the cross‐section of the main weight‐bearing limb bones. When applied to a newly constructed data set of femoral circumferences and body masses in living birds, the new equation reveals errors that are significantly lower than other published equations, but significantly higher than the error inherent in the avian data set. Such errors, however, are expected given the unique overall femoral circumference–body mass scaling relationship found in birds. Body mass estimates for a sample of bipedal dinosaurs using the new model are consistent with recent estimates based on volumetric life reconstructions, but, in contrast, this equation is simpler to use, with the concomitant potential to provide a wider set of body mass estimates for extinct bipeds. Although it is evident that no one estimation model is flawless, the combined use of the corrected quadrupedal equations and the previously published quadrupedal equation offer a consistent approach with which to estimate body masses in both quadrupeds and bipeds. These models have implications for conducting large‐scale macroevolutionary analyses of body size throughout the evolutionary history of terrestrial vertebrates, and, in particular, across major changes in body plan, such as the evolution of bipedality in archosaurs and quadrupedality in dinosaurs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12226",
    doi = "10.1111/2041-210x.12226",
    openalex = "W2003789729",
    references = "christiansen2004mass, doi101002jmor10470, doi101002sici10968644199602992345aidajpa930co2x, doi101016jpalaeo201206027, doi101016s0022519384800314, doi101086285558, doi101111evo12150, doi101111j109636421985tb00871x, doi101111j109636422001tb01314x, doi101111j1469185x201100190x, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101111j2041210x201100153x, doi101126science1061967, doi101126science17940791201, doi101152jappl1975394619, doi101186174170071060, doi101371journalpbio1001853, doi101371journalpone0051925, doi101371journalpone0081917, doi101371journalpone0082000"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0088834,
    author = "Werner, Jan and Griebeler, Eva Maria",
    title = "Allometries of Maximum Growth Rate versus Body Mass at Maximum Growth Indicate That Non-Avian Dinosaurs Had Growth Rates Typical of Fast Growing Ectothermic Sauropsids",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "We tested if growth rates of recent taxa are unequivocally separated between endotherms and ectotherms, and compared these to dinosaurian growth rates. We therefore performed linear regression analyses on the log-transformed maximum growth rate against log-transformed body mass at maximum growth for extant altricial birds, precocial birds, eutherians, marsupials, reptiles, fishes and dinosaurs. Regression models of precocial birds (and fishes) strongly differed from Case's study (1978), which is often used to compare dinosaurian growth rates to those of extant vertebrates. For all taxonomic groups, the slope of 0.75 expected from the Metabolic Theory of Ecology was statistically supported. To compare growth rates between taxonomic groups we therefore used regressions with this fixed slope and group-specific intercepts. On average, maximum growth rates of ectotherms were about 10 (reptiles) to 20 (fishes) times (in comparison to mammals) or even 45 (reptiles) to 100 (fishes) times (in comparison to birds) lower than in endotherms. While on average all taxa were clearly separated from each other, individual growth rates overlapped between several taxa and even between endotherms and ectotherms. Dinosaurs had growth rates intermediate between similar sized/scaled-up reptiles and mammals, but a much lower rate than scaled-up birds. All dinosaurian growth rates were within the range of extant reptiles and mammals, and were lower than those of birds. Under the assumption that growth rate and metabolic rate are indeed linked, our results suggest two alternative interpretations. Compared to other sauropsids, the growth rates of studied dinosaurs clearly indicate that they had an ectothermic rather than an endothermic metabolic rate. Compared to other vertebrate growth rates, the overall high variability in growth rates of extant groups and the high overlap between individual growth rates of endothermic and ectothermic extant species make it impossible to rule out either of the two thermoregulation strategies for studied dinosaurs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088834",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0088834",
    openalex = "W2078078033",
    references = "doi101007s1205200901334, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101038nature05634, doi101038nature11631, doi101093icesjms392175, doi101093jxb102290, doi101152physrev1947274511, doi101890039000, doi1023073802723, doi1023075403, openalexw3086315876"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0098605,
    author = "Mallon, Jordan C. and Anderson, Jason S.",
    title = "The Functional and Palaeoecological Implications of Tooth Morphology and Wear for the Megaherbivorous Dinosaurs from the Dinosaur Park Formation (Upper Campanian) of Alberta, Canada",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Megaherbivorous dinosaurs were exceptionally diverse on the Late Cretaceous island continent of Laramidia, and a growing body of evidence suggests that this diversity was facilitated by dietary niche partitioning. We test this hypothesis using the fossil megaherbivore assemblage from the Dinosaur Park Formation (upper Campanian) of Alberta as a model. Comparative tooth morphology and wear, including the first use of quantitative dental microwear analysis in the context of Cretaceous palaeosynecology, are used to infer the mechanical properties of the foods these dinosaurs consumed. The phylliform teeth of ankylosaurs were poorly adapted for habitually processing high-fibre plant matter. Nevertheless, ankylosaur diets were likely more varied than traditionally assumed: the relatively large, bladed teeth of nodosaurids would have been better adapted to processing a tougher, more fibrous diet than the smaller, cusp-like teeth of ankylosaurids. Ankylosaur microwear is characterized by a preponderance of pits and scratches, akin to modern mixed feeders, but offers no support for interspecific dietary differences. The shearing tooth batteries of ceratopsids are much better adapted to high-fibre herbivory, attested by their scratch-dominated microwear signature. There is tentative microwear evidence to suggest differences in the feeding habits of centrosaurines and chasmosaurines, but statistical support is not significant. The tooth batteries of hadrosaurids were capable of both shearing and crushing functions, suggestive of a broad dietary range. Their microwear signal overlaps broadly with that of ankylosaurs, and suggests possible dietary differences between hadrosaurines and lambeosaurines. Tooth wear evidence further indicates that all forms considered here exhibited some degree of masticatory propaliny. Our findings reveal that tooth morphology and wear exhibit different, but complimentary, dietary signals that combine to support the hypothesis of dietary niche partitioning. The inferred mechanical and dietary patterns appear constant over the 1.5 Myr timespan of the Dinosaur Park Formation megaherbivore chronofauna, despite continual species turnover.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098605",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0098605",
    openalex = "W2033356851",
    references = "brinkman1990paleooecology, doi1010029780470750711, doi101002jmor10372, doi101016jpalaeo201206024, doi101017cbo9780511564345, doi101046j14429993200101070x, doi101080089129632012688589, doi101086653688, doi101093behecoarh107, doi101111j14429993200101070ppx, doi101139e78109, doi101186147267851314, doi101371journalpone0067182, doi1016690883135120010160482ttoaco20co2, doi101671027246342003231apfast20co2, doi1023072291098, doi105860choice326223, doi105962bhltitle115853, openalexw1540596182, openalexw2138825607, openalexw2183707334, openalexw575814759"
}

@article{doi101017pab201519,
    author = "Woodward, Holly N. and Fowler, Elizabeth A. Freedman and Farlow, James O. and Horner, John R.",
    title = "Maiasaura, a model organism for extinct vertebrate population biology: a large sample statistical assessment of growth dynamics and survivorship",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "Abstract Fossil bone microanalyses reveal the ontogenetic histories of extinct tetrapods, but incomplete fossil records often result in small sample sets lacking statistical strength. In contrast, a histological sample of 50 tibiae of the hadrosaurid dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum allows predictions of annual growth and ecological interpretations based on more histologic data than any previous large sample study. Tibia length correlates well (R 2 >0.9) with diaphyseal circumference, cortical area, and bone wall thickness, thereby allowing longitudinal predictions of annual body size increases based on growth mark circumference measurements. With an avian level apposition rate of 86.4 μm/day, Maiasaura achieved over half of asymptotic tibia diaphyseal circumference within its first year. Mortality rate for the first year was 89.9\% but a seven year period of peak performance followed, when survivorship (mean mortality rate=12.7\%) was highest. During the third year of life, Maiasaura attained 36\% (x=1260 kg) of asymptotic body mass, growth rate was decelerating (18.2 μm/day), cortical vascular orientation changed, and mortality rate briefly increased. These transitions may indicate onset of sexual maturity and corresponding reallocation of resources to reproduction. Skeletal maturity and senescence occurred after 8 years, at which point the mean mortality rate increased to 44.4\%. Compared with Alligator, an extant relative, Maiasaura exhibits rapid cortical increase early in ontogeny, while Alligator cortical growth is much lower and protracted throughout ontogeny. Our life history synthesis of Maiasaura utilizes the largest histological sample size for any extinct tetrapod species thus far, demonstrating how large sample microanalyses strengthen paleobiological interpretations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/pab.2015.19",
    doi = "10.1017/pab.2015.19",
    openalex = "W2141333795",
    references = "doi1010079781489953919, doi1010079781489957405, doi101016jannpal200803002, doi101016jbone201008023, doi101016jcrpv200510006, doi101017s0952836904004844, doi101029sc005p0175, doi101038313131a0, doi101038nature11264, doi101086395888, doi101093jxb102290, doi101126science1180219, doi101186174170071060, doi101242jeb00841, doi101371journalpone0016574, doi101371journalpone0029958, doi101371journalpone0081917, doi102113gsrocky8specialpaper11, doi1023072403875, doi1023073515313, horner2011dinosaur, köhler2012seasonal"
}

@article{doi101016jjtherbio201610004,
    author = "Barroso, Frederico M. and Carretero, Miguel Á. and dos Reis-Silva, Francisco and Sannolo, Marco",
    title = "Assessing the reliability of thermography to infer internal body temperatures of lizards",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Thermal Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.10.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.10.004",
    openalex = "W2545859345",
    references = "doi101086physzool37330152398"
}

@article{doi101098rsbl20150947,
    author = "Hone, David W. E. and Farke, Andrew A. and Wedel, Matt",
    title = "Ontogeny and the fossil record: what, if anything, is an adult dinosaur?",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Biology Letters",
    abstract = "Identification of the ontogenetic status of an extinct organism is complex, and yet this underpins major areas of research, from taxonomy and systematics to ecology and evolution. In the case of the non-avialan dinosaurs, at least some were reproductively mature before they were skeletally mature, and a lack of consensus on how to define an 'adult' animal causes problems for even basic scientific investigations. Here we review the current methods available to determine the age of non-avialan dinosaurs, discuss the definitions of different ontogenetic stages, and summarize the implications of these disparate definitions for dinosaur palaeontology. Most critically, a growing body of evidence suggests that many dinosaurs that would be considered 'adults' in a modern-day field study are considered 'juveniles' or 'subadults' in palaeontological contexts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0947",
    doi = "10.1098/rsbl.2015.0947",
    openalex = "W2279103404",
    references = "carr1999craniofacial, doi101007s0001501000242, doi101017pab201519, doi10103835086558, doi101038nature04633, doi101073pnas0708903105, doi101073pnas1313334111, doi10108002724634199610011283, doi10108002724634199910011161, doi101080027246342010483632, doi101093sysbio24137, doi101098rsbl20070254, doi101111j109636421997tb00340x, doi101111j15023931201100300x, doi101146annurevearth060313054858, doi101371journalpone0021376, doi1016660094837320010270039coosea20co2, doi1016660094837320040300253chopom20co2, doi1016660094837320080340247ositlb20co2, doi1016690883135120010160482ttoaco20co2, doi1016710272463420000200115lbhoth20co2, doi10167102724634200727350asoitp20co2, doi1016710390290119, doi1023071564148, erickson2014on, martinsander2006bone"
}

@article{doi101111ele12686,
    author = "Sinclair, Brent J. and Marshall, Katie E. and Sewell, Mary A. and Levesque, Danielle L. and Willett, Christopher S. and Slotsbo, Stine and Dong, Yun‐Wei and Harley, Christopher D. G. and Marshall, David J. and Helmuth, Brian and Huey, Raymond B.",
    title = "Can we predict ectotherm responses to climate change using thermal performance curves and body temperatures?",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = ", to develop a framework within which empiricists can place their work within these limitations, and to facilitate the application of thermal physiology to understanding the biological implications of climate change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12686",
    doi = "10.1111/ele.12686",
    openalex = "W2525809904",
    references = "doi101086285141, doi101086409470, doi101086527502, doi101093icb322194"
}

@article{doi107717peerj1589,
    author = "Foth, Christian and Hedrick, Brandon P. and Ezcurra, Martín D.",
    title = "Cranial ontogenetic variation in early saurischians and the role of heterochrony in the diversification of predatory dinosaurs",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "PeerJ",
    abstract = "Non-avian saurischian skulls underwent at least 165 million years of evolution and shapes varied from elongated skulls, such as in the theropod Coelophysis, to short and box-shaped skulls, such as in the sauropod Camarasaurus. A number of factors have long been considered to drive skull shape, including phylogeny, dietary preferences and functional constraints. However, heterochrony is increasingly being recognized as an important factor in dinosaur evolution. In order to quantitatively analyse the impact of heterochrony on saurischian skull shape, we analysed five ontogenetic trajectories using two-dimensional geometric morphometrics in a phylogenetic framework. This allowed for the comparative investigation of main ontogenetic shape changes and the evaluation of how heterochrony affected skull shape through both ontogenetic and phylogenetic trajectories. Using principal component analyses and multivariate regressions, it was possible to quantify different ontogenetic trajectories and evaluate them for evidence of heterochronic events allowing testing of previous hypotheses on cranial heterochrony in saurischians. We found that the skull shape of the hypothetical ancestor of Saurischia likely led to basal Sauropodomorpha through paedomorphosis, and to basal Theropoda mainly through peramorphosis. Paedomorphosis then led from Orionides to Avetheropoda, indicating that the paedomorphic trend found by previous authors in advanced coelurosaurs may extend back into the early evolution of Avetheropoda. Not only are changes in saurischian skull shape complex due to the large number of factors that affected it, but heterochrony itself is complex, with a number of possible reversals throughout non-avian saurischian evolution. In general, the sampling of complete ontogenetic trajectories including early juveniles is considerably lower than the sampling of single adult or subadult individuals, which is a major impediment to the study of heterochrony on non-avian dinosaurs. Thus, the current work represents an exploratory analysis. To better understand the cranial ontogeny and the impact of heterochrony on skull evolution in saurischians, the data set that we present here must be expanded and complemented with further sampling from future fossil discoveries, especially of juvenile individuals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1589",
    doi = "10.7717/peerj.1589",
    openalex = "W646810876",
    references = "doi101038ncomms4788, doi101098rspb20140497, doi101111j10963642201000620x, doi101371journalpone0088834, doi1022179revmacn14372"
}

@article{doi107717peerj1872,
    author = "Prieto‐Márquez, Albert and Erickson, Gregory M. and Ebersole, Jun A.",
    title = "Anatomy and osteohistology of the basal hadrosaurid dinosaur Eotrachodon from the uppermost Santonian (Cretaceous) of southern Appalachia",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "PeerJ",
    abstract = "The cranial and postcranial anatomy of the basal hadrosaurid dinosaur Eotrachodon orientalis, from the uppermost Santonian of southern Appalachia (southeastern U.S.A.), is described in detail. This animal is the only known pre-Campanian non-lambeosaurine hadrosaurid, and the most complete hadrosauroid known from Appalachia. E. orientalis possesses a mosaic of plesiomorphic and derived characters in the context of Hadrosauroidea. Characters shared with basal hadrosauroids include a short and sloping maxillary ectopterygoid shelf, caudally prominent maxillary jugal process, one functional tooth per alveolus on the maxillary occlusal plane, a jugal rostral process with a shallow caudodorsal margin and medioventrally facing articular facet, a vertical dentary coronoid process with a poorly expanded apex, and tooth crowns with accessory ridges. Derived characters shared with other hadrosaurids include a circumnarial depression compartmented into three fossae (as in brachylophosaurins and Edmontosaurus), a thin everted premaxillary oral margin (as in Gryposaurus, Prosaurolophus, and Saurolophus), and a maxilla with a deep and rostrocaudally extensive rostrodorsal region with a steeply sloping premaxillary margin (as in Gryposaurus). Eotrachodon orientalis differs primarily from the other hadrosauroid from the Mooreville Chalk of Alabama, Lophorhothon atopus, in having a slender and crestless nasal whose caudodorsal margin is not invaded by the circumnarial depression. Hadrosaurus foulkii, the only other known hadrosaurid from Appalachia, is distinct from E. orientalis in having dentary teeth lacking accessory ridges and a dorsally curved shaft of the ischium. A histological section of the tibia of the E. orientalis holotype (MSC 7949) suggests that this individual was actively growing at the time of death and, thus, had the potential to become a larger animal later in development.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1872",
    doi = "10.7717/peerj.1872",
    openalex = "W2337568842",
    references = "doi101017pab201519, doi101146annurevearth060313054858, doi101371journalpone0045712, doi101371journalpone0141304, doi1016710390290428, doi104202app20110051, erickson2014on"
}

@article{doi101111pala12329,
    author = "Benson, Roger and Hunt, Gene and Carrano, Matthew T. and Campione, Nicolás E.",
    title = "Cope's rule and the adaptive landscape of dinosaur body size evolution",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Palaeontology",
    abstract = "Abstract The largest known dinosaurs weighed at least 20 million times as much as the smallest, indicating exceptional phenotypic divergence. Previous studies have focused on extreme giant sizes, tests of Cope's rule, and miniaturization on the line leading to birds. We use non‐uniform macroevolutionary models based on Ornstein–Uhlenbeck and trend processes to unify these observations, asking: what patterns of evolutionary rates, directionality and constraint explain the diversification of dinosaur body mass? We find that dinosaur evolution is constrained by attraction to discrete body size optima that undergo rare, but abrupt, evolutionary shifts. This model explains both the rarity of multi‐lineage directional trends, and the occurrence of abrupt directional excursions during the origins of groups such as tiny pygostylian birds and giant sauropods. Most expansion of trait space results from rare, constraint‐breaking innovations in just a small number of lineages. These lineages shifted rapidly into novel regions of trait space, occasionally to small sizes, but most often to large or giant sizes. As with Cenozoic mammals, intermediate body sizes were typically attained only transiently by lineages on a trajectory from small to large size. This demonstrates that bimodality in the macroevolutionary adaptive landscape for land vertebrates has existed for more than 200 million years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12329",
    doi = "10.1111/pala.12329",
    openalex = "W2766635059",
    references = "doi101007b97636, doi101007s0026501010296, doi101016jpalaeo201206027, doi101017pab201615, doi101038229172a0, doi10103844766, doi101038nature04633, doi101038ncomms7987, doi101038srep06196, doi101073pnas0708903105, doi101073pnas1302642110, doi10108010635150490445706, doi101086284325, doi101093bioinformaticsbtg412, doi101098rspb20122526, doi101098rspb20171219, doi101109tac19741100705, doi1011112041210x12226, doi101111j1469185x201000137x, doi101111j1469185x201100190x, doi101111j2041210x201100169x, doi101111j2041210x201200223x, doi101126scienceaag1772, doi101146annurevearth060313054858, doi101186174170071060, doi101198tech2003s146, doi101371journalpbio1001853, doi101371journalpone0007390, doi101371journalpone0033539, doi101371journalpone0044318, doi101371journalpone0051925, doi1022179revmacn14372, erickson2014on, martinsander2006bone, openalexw1550095290, openalexw2473973115, openalexw3086315876"
}

@article{doi101126sciadv1701144,
    author = "Wintrich, Tanja and Hayashi, Shoji and Houssaye, Alexandra and Nakajima, Yasuhisa and Sander, P. Martin",
    title = "A Triassic plesiosaurian skeleton and bone histology inform on evolution of a unique body plan",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = "). For nearly two centuries, plesiosaurians were thought to appear suddenly in the earliest Jurassic after the end-Triassic extinctions. We describe the first Triassic plesiosaurian, from the Rhaetian of Germany, and compare its long bone histology to that of later plesiosaurians sampled for this study. The new taxon is recovered as a basal member of the Pliosauridae, revealing that diversification of plesiosaurians was a Triassic event and that several lineages must have crossed into the Jurassic. Plesiosaurian histology is strikingly uniform and different from stem sauropterygians. Histology suggests the concurrent evolution of fast growth and an elevated metabolic rate as an adaptation to cruising and efficient foraging in the open sea. The new specimen corroborates the hypothesis that open ocean life of plesiosaurians facilitated their survival of the end-Triassic extinctions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1701144",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.1701144",
    openalex = "W2773038171",
    references = "doi101038nature11264, doi101093sysbiosyw033, doi101126scienceaaa3716, doi101371journalpone0011613, doi101371journalpone0031838, doi101371journalpone0088834, köhler2012seasonal"
}

@article{doi101016jneuron201802022,
    author = "Tan, Chan Lek and Knight, Zachary A.",
    title = "Regulation of Body Temperature by the Nervous System",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Neuron",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.02.022",
    doi = "10.1016/j.neuron.2018.02.022",
    openalex = "W2796279370",
    references = "doi101038272333a0, doi101126science493968"
}

@article{doi101038s41467019089972,
    author = "Chiarenza, Alfio Alessandro and Mannion, Philip D. and Lunt, Daniel J. and Farnsworth, Alex and Jones, Lewis A. and Kelland, Sarah-Jane and Allison, Peter A.",
    title = "Ecological niche modelling does not support climatically-driven dinosaur diversity decline before the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "In the lead-up to the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction, dinosaur diversity is argued to have been either in long-term decline, or thriving until their sudden demise. The latest Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian [83-66 Ma]) of North America provides the best record to address this debate, but even here diversity reconstructions are biased by uneven sampling. Here we combine fossil occurrences with climatic and environmental modelling to quantify latest Cretaceous North American dinosaur habitat. Ecological niche modelling shows a Campanian-to-Maastrichtian habitability decrease in areas with present-day rock-outcrop. However, a continent-wide projection demonstrates habitat stability, or even a Campanian-to-Maastrichtian increase, that is not preserved. This reduction of the spatial sampling window resulted from formation of the proto-Rocky Mountains and sea-level regression. We suggest that Maastrichtian North American dinosaur diversity is therefore likely to be underestimated, with the apparent decline a product of sampling bias, and not due to a climatically-driven decrease in habitability as previously hypothesised.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08997-2",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-019-08997-2",
    openalex = "W2919866498",
    references = "doi101016jecolmodel201312012, doi101016jpalaeo201602033, doi101038nature15697, doi101038ncomms1815, doi101073pnas0901637106, doi101073pnas1521478113, doi10108008912969009386535, doi101111ecog03049, doi101111j13652664200601214x, doi101111j14724642201000725x, doi101111pala12329, doi101126science3287615, doi1012019781315140919, doi101371journalpone0079420, doi1018900721531, doi1023071931034, doi103897zookeys4698439, lehman1987late"
}

@article{doi101130b350741,
    author = "Vickers, Madeleine L. and Price, Gregory D. and Jerrett, Rhodri and Sutton, Paul and Watkinson, Matthew P. and Fitzpatrick, Meriel E.J.",
    title = "The duration and magnitude of Cretaceous cool events: Evidence from the northern high latitudes",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract The Early Cretaceous (145–100 Ma) was characterized by long-term greenhouse climates, with a reduced equatorial to polar temperature gradient, although an increasingly large body of evidence suggests that this period was punctuated by episodic global “cold snaps.” Understanding climate dynamics during this high-atmospheric CO2 period of Earth’s history may have significant impact on how we understand climatic feedbacks and predict future global climate changes under an anthropogenically-driven high-pCO2 atmosphere. This study utilizes facies analysis to constrain the paleobathymetry of Lower Cretaceous glendonites—a pseudomorph after ikaite, a mineral that forms naturally at 7 °C or lower—from two paleo-high-latitude (60–70°N) sites in Svalbard, Arctic Norway, to infer global climatic changes during the Early Cretaceous. The original ikaite formed in the offshore transition zone of a shallow marine shelf at water depths of 60°N, spans the late Berriasian to earliest Barremian (at least 8.6 m.y.), significantly prolonging the duration of the previously hypothesized Valanginian cold snap (associated with the “Weissert Event”). Widespread glendonites occur again in late Aptian and extend to the early Albian, in both hemispheres, corroborating other proxy evidence for late Aptian cooling. The glendonites from Svalbard suggest that Cretaceous cold episodes were characterized with high latitude (>60°N) shallow water temperatures that are consistent with the existence of a small northern polar ice cap at this time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b35074.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b35074.1",
    openalex = "W2941927218",
    references = "doi1010079783642964466, doi1010079789401107396, doi1010160012825285900017, doi1010160016703784903673, doi101029eo066i037p00643, doi1023073514634, openalexw101633874, openalexw1558677347, openalexw2346667465"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20202258,
    author = "Cullen, Thomas M. and Canale, Juan I. and Apesteguı́a, Sebastián and Smith, Nathan D. and Hu, Dongyu and Makovicky, Peter J.",
    title = "Osteohistological analyses reveal diverse strategies of theropod dinosaur body-size evolution",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The independent evolution of gigantism among dinosaurs has been a topic of long-standing interest, but it remains unclear if gigantic theropods, the largest bipeds in the fossil record, all achieved massive sizes in the same manner, or through different strategies. We perform multi-element histological analyses on a phylogenetically broad dataset sampled from eight theropod families, with a focus on gigantic tyrannosaurids and carcharodontosaurids, to reconstruct the growth strategies of these lineages and test if particular bones consistently preserve the most complete growth record. We find that in skeletally mature gigantic theropods, weight-bearing bones consistently preserve extensive growth records, whereas non-weight-bearing bones are remodelled and less useful for growth reconstruction, contrary to the pattern observed in smaller theropods and some other dinosaur clades. We find a heterochronic pattern of growth fitting an acceleration model in tyrannosaurids, with allosauroid carcharodontosaurids better fitting a model of hypermorphosis. These divergent growth patterns appear phylogenetically constrained, representing extreme versions of the growth patterns present in smaller coelurosaurs and allosauroids, respectively. This provides the first evidence of a lack of strong mechanistic or physiological constraints on size evolution in the largest bipeds in the fossil record and evidence of one of the longest-living individual dinosaurs ever documented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.2258",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2020.2258",
    openalex = "W3110230871",
    references = "doi101016jcub201408034, doi101017s0094837300006588, doi101017s0094837300021308, doi101029sc005p0175, doi101038nature02699, doi101038ncomms3827, doi101073pnas0708903105, doi101098rspb20122526, doi101126sciadvaax6250, doi101126science1225376, doi101126science1258750, doi101146annurevearth060313054858, doi101186174170071060, doi101186s1289801601068, doi101371journalpone0033539, doi1016710272463420000200115lbhoth20co2, doi10560219780801881206, doi105860choice490282, erickson2014on"
}

@article{doi101111brv12638,
    author = "Campione, Nicolás E. and Evans, David C.",
    title = "The accuracy and precision of body mass estimation in non‐avian dinosaurs",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Inferring the body mass of fossil taxa, such as non-avian dinosaurs, provides a powerful tool for interpreting physiological and ecological properties, as well as the ability to study these traits through deep time and within a macroevolutionary context. As a result, over the past 100 years a number of studies advanced methods for estimating mass in dinosaurs and other extinct taxa. These methods can be categorized into two major approaches: volumetric-density (VD) and extant-scaling (ES). The former receives the most attention in non-avian dinosaurs and advanced appreciably over the last century: from initial physical scale models to three-dimensional (3D) virtual techniques that utilize scanned data obtained from entire skeletons. The ES approach is most commonly applied to extinct members of crown clades but some equations are proposed and utilized in non-avian dinosaurs. Because both approaches share a common goal, they are often viewed in opposition to one another. However, current palaeobiological research problems are often approach specific and, therefore, the decision to utilize a VD or ES approach is largely question dependent. In general, biomechanical and physiological studies benefit from the full-body reconstruction provided through a VD approach, whereas large-scale evolutionary and ecological studies require the extensive data sets afforded by an ES approach. This study summarizes both approaches to body mass estimation in stem-group taxa, specifically non-avian dinosaurs, and provides a comparative quantitative framework to reciprocally illuminate and corroborate VD and ES approaches. The results indicate that mass estimates are largely consistent between approaches: 73\% of VD reconstructions occur within the expected 95\% prediction intervals of the ES relationship. However, almost three quarters of outliers occur below the lower 95\% prediction interval, indicating that VD mass estimates are, on average, lower than would be expected given their stylopodial circumferences. Inconsistencies (high residual and per cent prediction deviation values) are recovered to a varying degree among all major dinosaurian clades along with an overall tendency for larger deviations between approaches among small-bodied taxa. Nonetheless, our results indicate a strong corroboration between recent iterations of the VD approach based on 3D specimen scans suggesting that our current understanding of size in dinosaurs, and hence its biological correlates, has improved over time. We advance that VD and ES approaches have fundamentally (metrically) different advantages and, hence, the comparative framework used and advocated here combines the accuracy afforded by ES with the precision provided by VD and permits the rapid identification of discrepancies with the potential to open new areas of discussion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12638",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12638",
    openalex = "W3082346069",
    references = "doi101016jcub201706071, doi101016jpalaeo201206027, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101038417070a, doi101038srep06196, doi101086303327, doi101098rsbl20120263, doi101098rspb20060443, doi101098rspb20171219, doi1011112041210x12226, doi101111evo12150, doi101111j17447429200700272x, doi101111j2041210x201100153x, doi101111pala12329, doi101126science1061967, doi101152physrev1947274511, doi101371journalpone0044318, doi101371journalpone0051925, doi101371journalpone0081917, doi101371journalpone0082000, doi107717peerj857, openalexw1558456135, openalexw195142154, openalexw2593733766, openalexw260994251, pontzer2009biomechanics"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0232410,
    author = "Takasaki, Ryuji and Fiorillo, Anthony R. and Tykoski, Ronald S. and Kobayashi, Yoshitsugu",
    title = "Re-examination of the cranial osteology of the Arctic Alaskan hadrosaurine with implications for its taxonomic status",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Hadrosaurid fossils from the Liscomb Bonebed (Prince Creek Formation, North Slope, Alaska) were the first dinosaur bones discovered from the Arctic. While the Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurids were long identified as Edmontosaurus, a member of the sub-clade Hadrosaurinae, they were recently assigned to a newly-erected taxon, Ugrunaaluk kuukpikensis. However, taxonomic status of the new taxon is ambiguous largely due to the immature nature of the specimens upon which it was based. Here we reexamine cranial elements of the Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurine in order to solve its taxonomic uncertainties. The Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurine possesses a short dorsolateral process of the laterosphenoid, one of the diagnostic characters of Edmontosaurus. The Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurine also shows affinity to Edmontosaurus regalis in the presence of a horizontal shelf of the jugal. Our morphological comparisons with other North American Edmontosaurus specimens and our phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurine should be re-assigned to Edmontosaurus. Because the Prince Creek Formation Edmontosaurus shows differences with lower latitude Edmontosaurus in a dorsoventrally short maxilla, presence of a secondary ridge on the dentary teeth, and the absence of the transverse ridge between basipterygoid processes of the basisphenoid, we consider that the Prince Creek Formation Edmontosaurus should be regarded as Edmontosaurus sp. until further discoveries of mature hadrosaurines from the Prince Creek Formation Bonebed and/or equivalently juvenile Edmontosaurus specimens from the lower latitudes allow direct comparisons. The retention of the Prince Creek Formation hadrosaurine as Edmontosaurus re-establishes a significant latitudinal distribution for this taxon. Despite the large latitudinal distribution of the taxon, the morphological disparity of Edmontosaurus is small within Hadrosaurinae. The small morphological disparity may be related to the relatively low latitudinal temperature gradient during the latest Cretaceous compared to present day, a gradient which might not have imposed significant pressure for much morphological adaptations across a broad latitudinal range.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232410",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0232410",
    openalex = "W3021205618",
    references = "doi101139e11017, doi104202app001522015, fiorillo2014herd"
}

@article{doi107717peerj12362,
    author = "Madzia, Daniel and Arbour, Victoria M. and Boyd, Clint and Farke, Andrew A. and Cruzado‐Caballero, Penélope and Evans, David C.",
    title = "The phylogenetic nomenclature of ornithischian dinosaurs",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "PeerJ",
    abstract = "Ornithischians form a large clade of globally distributed Mesozoic dinosaurs, and represent one of their three major radiations. Throughout their evolutionary history, exceeding 134 million years, ornithischians evolved considerable morphological disparity, expressed especially through the cranial and osteodermal features of their most distinguishable representatives. The nearly two-century-long research history on ornithischians has resulted in the recognition of numerous diverse lineages, many of which have been named. Following the formative publications establishing the theoretical foundation of phylogenetic nomenclature throughout the 1980s and 1990s, many of the proposed names of ornithischian clades were provided with phylogenetic definitions. Some of these definitions have proven useful and have not been changed, beyond the way they were formulated, since their introduction. Some names, however, have multiple definitions, making their application ambiguous. Recent implementation of the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (ICPN, or PhyloCode) offers the opportunity to explore the utility of previously proposed definitions of established taxon names. Since the Articles of the ICPN are not to be applied retroactively, all phylogenetic definitions published prior to its implementation remain informal (and ineffective) in the light of the Code. Here, we revise the nomenclature of ornithischian dinosaur clades; we revisit 76 preexisting ornithischian clade names, review their recent and historical use, and formally establish their phylogenetic definitions. Additionally, we introduce five new clade names: two for robustly supported clades of later-diverging hadrosaurids and ceratopsians, one uniting heterodontosaurids and genasaurs, and two for clades of nodosaurids. Our study marks a key step towards a formal phylogenetic nomenclature of ornithischian dinosaurs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.12362",
    doi = "10.7717/peerj.12362",
    openalex = "W4200166441",
    references = "crossref1998dinosaurs, doi101007s1254202100555w, doi101016jcretres2019104308, doi101016jcub201706071, doi101016jpalaeo201602033, doi101038s4158602030114, doi101038s41598020678541, doi101080027246342012694385, doi101080027246342013746229, doi1010800272463420181509866, doi1010800891296320201793979, doi1010801477201920151059985, doi1010801477201920171371258, doi101093sysbiosyab045, doi101098rsos161086, doi101098rspl18870117, doi101111pala12329, doi101111zoj12193, doi101126science28454232137, doi101139e11017, doi101146annureves23110192002313, doi101371journalpone0080405, doi101371journalpone0141304, doi101371journalpone0175253, doi101371journalpone0188426, doi1023071005355, doi1023071441916, doi1023072992353, doi102475ajss319111253, doi104202app006982019, doi104202app20110033, doi104202app20110051, doi105860choice353642, doi105860choice393984, doi105962bhltitle50608, doi107717peerj1523, doi107717peerj4066, doi107717peerj7963, openalexw568618627, tsogtbaatar2019a"
}

@article{doi101111brv12829,
    author = "Hendrickx, Christophe and Bell, Phil R. and Pittman, Michael and Milner, Andrew R. and Cuesta, Elena and O’Connor, Jingmai K. and Loewen, Mark A. and Currie, Philip J. and Mateus, Octávio and Kaye, Thomas G. and Delcourt, Rafael",
    title = "Morphology and distribution of scales, dermal ossifications, and other non‐feather integumentary structures in non‐avialan theropod dinosaurs",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Modern birds are typified by the presence of feathers, complex evolutionary innovations that were already widespread in the group of theropod dinosaurs (Maniraptoriformes) that include crown Aves. Squamous or scaly reptilian-like skin is, however, considered the plesiomorphic condition for theropods and dinosaurs more broadly. Here, we review the morphology and distribution of non-feathered integumentary structures in non-avialan theropods, covering squamous skin and naked skin as well as dermal ossifications. The integumentary record of non-averostran theropods is limited to tracks, which ubiquitously show a covering of tiny reticulate scales on the plantar surface of the pes. This is consistent also with younger averostran body fossils, which confirm an arthral arrangement of the digital pads. Among averostrans, squamous skin is confirmed in Ceratosauria (Carnotaurus), Allosauroidea (Allosaurus, Concavenator, Lourinhanosaurus), Compsognathidae (Juravenator), and Tyrannosauroidea (Santanaraptor, Albertosaurus, Daspletosaurus, Gorgosaurus, Tarbosaurus, Tyrannosaurus), whereas dermal ossifications consisting of sagittate and mosaic osteoderms are restricted to Ceratosaurus. Naked, non-scale bearing skin is found in the contentious tetanuran Sciurumimus, ornithomimosaurians (Ornithomimus) and possibly tyrannosauroids (Santanaraptor), and also on the patagia of scansoriopterygids (Ambopteryx, Yi). Scales are surprisingly conservative among non-avialan theropods compared to some dinosaurian groups (e.g. hadrosaurids); however, the limited preservation of tegument on most specimens hinders further interrogation. Scale patterns vary among and/or within body regions in Carnotaurus, Concavenator and Juravenator, and include polarised, snake-like ventral scales on the tail of the latter two genera. Unusual but more uniformly distributed patterning also occurs in Tyrannosaurus, whereas feature scales are present only in Albertosaurus and Carnotaurus. Few theropods currently show compelling evidence for the co-occurrence of scales and feathers (e.g. Juravenator, Sinornithosaurus), although reticulate scales were probably retained on the mani and pedes of many theropods with a heavy plumage. Feathers and filamentous structures appear to have replaced widespread scaly integuments in maniraptorans. Theropod skin, and that of dinosaurs more broadly, remains a virtually untapped area of study and the appropriation of commonly used techniques in other palaeontological fields to the study of skin holds great promise for future insights into the biology, taphonomy and relationships of these extinct animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12829",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12829",
    openalex = "W4206485050",
    references = "crossref1998encyclopedia, doi101002jmor10382, doi101016jcub201706071, doi101016jcub202006105, doi101016jgca201006017, doi101016s001678780180047x, doi101017jpa202014, doi10103831635, doi10103834356, doi10103835047056, doi101038ncomms14972, doi101038s41598018371862, doi101038srep44942, doi1010800272463420211897604, doi101080147720192013781067, doi101093biolinneanblaa105, doi101093zoolinneanzly009, doi101111brv12829, doi101111cla12160, doi101126science28454232137, doi1011270077774920100125, doi101146annurevearth060313054858, doi1012063521, doi101371journalpone0044012, doi101371journalpone0125819, doi1017161paleo180818764, doi1017161pc180818764, doi10230725058147, doi105962bhltitle5716, doi107717peerj4066, doi107717peerj7247, doi107717peerj7963, doi107717peerj9192, erickson2014on, openalexw1915591379, openalexw2619609965"
}