@article{lull1908the3,
    author = "Lull, R. S",
    title = "The evolution of the elephant",
    year = "1908",
    journal = "American Journal of Science, v. 25, p. 169-212; Series 4",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lull, R. S., 1908, The evolution of the elephant: American Journal of Science, v. 25, p. 169-212; Series 4.}"
}

@misc{trevisan1949limeamenti5,
    author = "Trevisan, L",
    title = "Limeamenti dell'evoluzione del ceppo di elefanti eurasiatici nel Quaternario",
    year = "1949",
    howpublished = "La Ricerca Scientifica, v. 19, Suppl. 1, p. 105-111",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Trevisan, L., 1949, Limeamenti dell'evoluzione del ceppo di elefanti eurasiatici nel Quaternario: La Ricerca Scientifica, v. 19, Suppl. 1, p. 105-111.}"
}

@misc{sikes1971the4,
    author = "Sikes, S. K",
    title = "The Natural History of the African Elephant",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sikes, S. K., 1971, The Natural History of the African Elephant: London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson.}"
}

@book{laws1975elephants2,
    author = "Laws, R. M. and Parker, I. S. C. and Johnstone, R. C. B",
    title = "Elephants and Their Habitats",
    year = "1975",
    publisher = "Oxford, Calredon Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Laws, R. M., Parker, I. S. C., and Johnstone, R. C. B., 1975, Elephants and Their Habitats: Oxford, Calredon Press.}"
}

@book{eltringham1982elephants1,
    author = "Eltringham, S. K",
    title = "Elephants",
    year = "1982",
    publisher = "Dorset, Blanford Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Eltringham, S. K., 1982, Elephants: Dorset, Blanford Press.}"
}

@article{doi101515mamm1992564533,
    author = "Tchamba, Martin Ngankam and Mahamat, H.K.",
    title = "Effects of elephant browsing on the vegetation in Kalamaloue National Park, Cameroon",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Mammalia",
    abstract = "Les effets du broutage par les elephants dans le Parc National de Kalamaloue ont ete evalues par echantillonnage sur des transects afin d'evaluer les degâts causes aux arbres par les elephants durant la saison seche. Un total de 2 602 arbres furent examines dont 53\% etaient endommages et 44\% morts. La plupart des arbres adultes etaient morts (77\%). Quatre-vingt quinze pour cent des arbres de la classe de regeneration etaient endommages. Parmi les arbres broutes la majorite (57\%) appartenait a la classe des immatures. Il est conclu que les degâts causes a la vegetation par les elephants sont suffisamment graves pour justifier une intervention",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/mamm.1992.56.4.533",
    doi = "10.1515/mamm.1992.56.4.533",
    openalex = "W2009620759"
}

@article{doi104102koedoev36i2372,
    author = "Hoffman, M. Timm",
    title = "Major P.J. Pretorius and the decimation of the Addo elephant herd in 1919-1920: important reassessments",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Koedoe",
    abstract = {Between June 1919 and August 1920, the largest population of elephants in South Africa at the time was reduced from about 130 to 16 individuals by one man. Major P. J. Pretorius. Conflict between farmers and the elephants over dwindling water resources, coupled with the threat that the elephants posed to the future agricultural development of the region, precipitated the Provincial Administration's extermination order. Major Pretorius' figure of "120-odd" elephants killed during the year is reasonably accurate and the fate of the animal products is traced. Most of the skins were processed, by Pretorius himself, to make whips. A few specimens can be traced to local and overseas museums. Because records of the sex and age of animals killed by Major Pretorius have either been lost or were never detailed, reconstruction of the Addo elephant herd before the decimation, is difficult. Finally, details of the alleged public debate are discussed. It is concluded that it was probably a handful of individuals that convinced the Provincial Administration to spare 16 animals. The Rev J.R.L. Kingon as well as Major Pretorius himself are two key figures in the debate. There is little evidence to confirm the view that a public outcry, in the modem sense of the word, stopped the killing. Six photographs are included as an appendix. They show Major Pretorius at work in the Addo Bush.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v36i2.372",
    doi = "10.4102/koedoe.v36i2.372",
    openalex = "W2080479603"
}

@article{doi101046j15231739199998035x,
    author = "Hoare, Richard and Toit, Du",
    title = "Coexistence between People and Elephants in African Savannas",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract: The decline in the range and numbers of elephants as a result of expanding human activity in Africa is recognized as one of the continent’s more serious conservation problems. Understanding the relationship between human settlement patterns and elephant abundance is fundamental to predicting the viability of elephant populations. The prevailing model of human‐elephant interaction predicts a negative linear relationship between rising human density and declining elephant density at a coarse (national or subcontinental) scale. Using observed elephant densities and human population data, we tested this prediction in a study area of 15,000 km 2 in northwestern Zimbabwe. The results did not fit a linear model. Elephant and human coexistence occurs at various levels of human density, up to a threshold of human density beyond which elephant populations disappear. This threshold seems to be related to a particular stage in the process of agriculturally transformed land becoming spatially dominant over the natural woodland that constitutes elephant habitat. Within the contexts of conservation and sustainable development in African savannas, investigating spatial relationships between elephant and human abundance should be a priority topic for future research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98035.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98035.x",
    openalex = "W2132760639"
}

@article{doi101002anie200300605,
    author = "Fenn, John B.",
    title = "Electrospray Wings for Molecular Elephants (Nobel Lecture)",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Angewandte Chemie International Edition",
    abstract = "From flames to flying elephants: A few years ago the idea of making proteins or polymers “fly” by electrospray ionization (ESI) seemed as improbable as a flying elephant, but today it is a standard part of modern mass spectrometers. The key to this success was the development of free jet technology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200300605",
    doi = "10.1002/anie.200300605",
    openalex = "W2154912073",
    references = "doi101002rcm1290020802, doi101021ac00171a028, doi101039c39810000325, doi10106311670391, doi1010631432536, doi1010631868037, doi10108014786448208628425, doi101098rspa19640151, doi101103physrev101, doi101126science2675315"
}

@book{doi101093oso97801951077840010001,
    author = "Sukumar, Raman",
    title = "The Living Elephants",
    year = "2003",
    abstract = "Abstract The Living Elephants is the authoritative resource for information on both Asian and African elephants. From the ancient origins of the proboscideans to the present-day crisis of the living elephants, this volume synthesizes the behavior, ecology and conservation of elephants, while covering also the history of human interactions with elephants, all within the theoretical framework of evolutionary biology. The book begins with a survey of the 60-million year evolutionary history of the proboscideans emphasizing the role of climate and vegetation change in giving rise to a bewildering array of species, but also discussing the possible role of humans in the late Pleistocene extinction of mastodonts and mammoths. The latest information on the molecular genetics of African and Asian elephants and its taxonomic implications are then presented. The rise of the elephant culture in Asia, and its early demise in Africa are traced along with an original interpretation of this unique animal-human relationship. The book then moves on to the social life of elephants as it relates to reproductive strategies of males and females, development of behavior in young, communication, ranging patterns, and societal organization. The foraging strategies of elephants, their impact on the vegetation and landscape are then discussed. The dynamics of elephant populations in relation to hunting for ivory and their population viability are described with the aid of mathematical models. A detailed account of elephant-human interactions includes a treatment of crop depredation by elephants in relation to their natural ecology, manslaughter by elephants, habitat manipulation by humans, and a history of the ivory trade and poaching in the two continents. The ecological information is brought together in the final chapter to formulate a set of pragmatic recommendations for the long-term conservation of elephants. The broadest treatment of the subject yet undertaken, by one of the leading workers in the field, Raman Sukumar, the book promises to bring the understanding of elephants to a new level. It should be of interest not only to biologists but also a broader audience including field ecologists, wildlife administrators, historians, conservationists and all those interested in elephants and their future.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195107784.001.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780195107784.001.0001",
    openalex = "W4388275246"
}

@article{openalexw2764205464,
    author = "Blake, Stephen and Bouché, Philippe and Rasmussen, Henrik B. and Orlando, Anne and Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain",
    title = "The last Sahelian elephants: Ranging behavior, population status and recent history of the desert elephants of Mali",
    year = "2003",
    openalex = "W2764205464"
}

@article{doi101038ng1485,
    author = "Roca, Alfred L. and Georgiadis, Nicholas J. and O’Brien, Stephen J.",
    title = "Cytonuclear genomic dissociation in African elephant species",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1485",
    doi = "10.1038/ng1485",
    openalex = "W1992589214",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101007s0011400406069,
    author = "Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain and Krink, Thiemo and Vollrath, Fritz",
    title = "Movements and corridors of African elephants in relation to protected areas",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Die Naturwissenschaften",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-004-0606-9",
    doi = "10.1007/s00114-004-0606-9",
    openalex = "W1984622601",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20053361,
    author = "Archie, Elizabeth A. and Moss, Cynthia J. and Alberts, Susan C.",
    title = "The ties that bind: genetic relatedness predicts the fission and fusion of social groups in wild African elephants",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Many social animals live in stable groups. In contrast, African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) live in unusually fluid, fission-fusion societies. That is, 'core' social groups are composed of predictable sets of individuals; however, over the course of hours or days, these groups may temporarily divide and reunite, or they may fuse with other social groups to form much larger social units. Here, we test the hypothesis that genetic relatedness predicts patterns of group fission and fusion among wild, female African elephants. Our study of a single Kenyan population spans 236 individuals in 45 core social groups, genotyped at 11 microsatellite and one mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) locus. We found that genetic relatedness predicted group fission; adult females remained with their first order maternal relatives when core groups fissioned temporarily. Relatedness also predicted temporary fusion between social groups; core groups were more likely to fuse with each other when the oldest females in each group were genetic relatives. Groups that shared mtDNA haplotypes were also significantly more likely to fuse than groups that did not share mtDNA. Our results suggest that associations between core social groups persist for decades after the original maternal kin have died. We discuss these results in the context of kin selection and its possible role in the evolution of elephant sociality.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3361",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2005.3361",
    openalex = "W2148296161",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101016jcub200606049,
    author = "Wall, Jake and Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain and Vollrath, Fritz",
    title = "Elephants avoid costly mountaineering",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.049",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.049",
    openalex = "W2146388609",
    references = "doi101126science17840651096"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0608062103,
    author = "Plotnik, Joshua M. and de Waal, Frans Β. Μ. and Reiss, Diana",
    title = "Self-recognition in an Asian elephant",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {Considered an indicator of self-awareness, mirror self-recognition (MSR) has long seemed limited to humans and apes. In both phylogeny and human ontogeny, MSR is thought to correlate with higher forms of empathy and altruistic behavior. Apart from humans and apes, dolphins and elephants are also known for such capacities. After the recent discovery of MSR in dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), elephants thus were the next logical candidate species. We exposed three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to a large mirror to investigate their responses. Animals that possess MSR typically progress through four stages of behavior when facing a mirror: (i) social responses, (ii) physical inspection (e.g., looking behind the mirror), (iii) repetitive mirror-testing behavior, and (iv) realization of seeing themselves. Visible marks and invisible sham-marks were applied to the elephants' heads to test whether they would pass the litmus "mark test" for MSR in which an individual spontaneously uses a mirror to touch an otherwise imperceptible mark on its own body. Here, we report a successful MSR elephant study and report striking parallels in the progression of responses to mirrors among apes, dolphins, and elephants. These parallels suggest convergent cognitive evolution most likely related to complex sociality and cooperation.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608062103",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0608062103",
    openalex = "W2131019802",
    references = "doi101002ajp1350020302, doi101016s0066185668800032, doi10103700121649281126, doi101073pnas101086398, doi101126science167391486, doi1023072830, doi104159harvard9780674419131, doi105860choice291854, openalexw2126474339, openalexw2126603167"
}

@article{doi101111j17481090200600001x,
    author = "Sukumar, Raman",
    title = "A brief review of the status, distribution and biology of wild Asian elephants Elephas maximus",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "International Zoo Yearbook",
    abstract = "The Asian elephant Elephas maximus is distributed discontinuously across the Asian continent. The total wild population is 38 500‐52 500, with a further c. 16 000 in captivity, the majority of which are in range countries. India has 60\% of the global population of wild Asian elephants. The species has a multi‐tiered social system with ♀♀ living in matriarchal groups of five to 20 individuals that interact with other family units in the area. Adult ♂♂ live alone or in small, temporary groups with weak social bonds. Asian elephants are megaherbivores that spend 12‐18 hours per day feeding, and they eat browse and plants depending on availability and season. Home‐range size is dependant on the availability of food, water and shelter in the region. Loss and fragmentation of habitat, human‐elephant conflicts and poaching are the greatest threats to the species. Asian elephants are managed using traditional and modern methods but progress still needs to be made to improve welfare, training and breeding for these animals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00001.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00001.x",
    openalex = "W2121944446",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101111j13652656200701307x,
    author = "Chamaillé‐Jammes, Simon and Fritz, Hervé and Valeix, Marion and Murindagomo, F. and Clobert, Jean",
    title = "Resource variability, aggregation and direct density dependence in an open context: the local regulation of an African elephant population",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    abstract = "1. An emerging perspective in the study of density dependence is the importance of the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of resources. Although this is well understood in temperate ungulates, few studies have been conducted in tropical environments where both food and water are limiting resources. 2. We studied the regulation of one of the world's largest elephant populations in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. The study period started in 1986 when the population was released from culling. Using census data we investigated changes in elephant abundance with respect to rainfall and density across the entire park and across waterholes. 3. The population more than doubled since culling stopped. The population increased continuously during the first 6 years, and then fluctuated widely at about 30,000 individuals. Immigration processes must have been involved in the increase of the population size. 4. Population growth rates were negatively related to previous population density by a convex relationship, and negatively related to the ratio of previous population density on annual rainfall by a linear relationship. However, only this latter model (i.e. assuming a fluctuating carrying capacity related to annual rainfall) produced realistic dynamics. Overall, population decreased during dry years when the elephant density was high. 5. During dry years there were fewer waterholes retaining water during the dry season and consequently elephant numbers at waterholes increased, while their aggregation level across waterholes decreased. On the long-run elephant numbers increased only at the less crowded waterholes. 6. We suggest that the interaction between population size and the available foraging range determined by the number of active waterholes during the dry season controls the park population. 7. Our results emphasize the need to understand how key-resource areas cause resource-based aggregation, which ultimately influences the strength of density dependence. More specifically, this study suggests that climate variability strongly affects local elephant population dynamics through changes in surface-water availability. Finally, as dispersal is likely to be an important driver of the dynamics of this population, our results support views that a metapopulation framework should be endorsed for elephant management in open contexts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01307.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01307.x",
    openalex = "W2067088251",
    references = "doi101098rstb20031359, doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@book{doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en,
    author = "Blanc, Julian and Barnes, R. F. W. and Craig, George C. and Dublin, Holly and Thouless, Chris and Douglas-Hamilton, Ian and Hart, John",
    title = "African elephant status report 2007: an update from the African elephant database",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "IUCN eBooks",
    abstract = "The African Elephant Database is a spatial database used to store, manage, analyze and disseminate information on the distribution and abundance of elephant populations on the African continent, in order to provide a current and accurate picture of the status African elephants. Elephants are the largest living land mammals, and their potential impact on their habitats raises important management issues both for protected areas and unprotected land. This Status Report is rich in data and information on numbers, distribution and current issues, and provides continent-wide information that is vital for conservation. It will help wildlife management authorities to harmonize their policy and management decisions across regions, as well as the continent, to reduce conflict and relax the pressure on habitats.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2007.ssc-op.33.en",
    doi = "10.2305/iucn.ch.2007.ssc-op.33.en",
    openalex = "W2226753602",
    references = "doi101515mamm1992564533, doi1023075217"
}

@article{doi101002ar20829,
    author = "Hakeem, Atiya Y. and Sherwood, Chet C. and Bonar, Christopher J. and Butti, Camilla and Hof, Patrick R. and Allman, John M.",
    title = "Von Economo Neurons in the Elephant Brain",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "The Anatomical Record",
    abstract = "Von Economo neurons (VENs), previously found in humans, all of the great ape species, and four cetacean species, are also present in African and Indian elephants. The VENs in the elephant are primarily found in similar locations to those in the other species. They are most abundant in the frontoinsular cortex (area FI) and are also present at lower density in the anterior cingulate cortex. Additionally, they are found in a dorsolateral prefrontal area and less abundantly in the region of the frontal pole. The VEN morphology appears to have arisen independently in hominids, cetaceans, and elephants, and may reflect a specialization for the rapid transmission of crucial social information in very large brains.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.20829",
    doi = "10.1002/ar.20829",
    openalex = "W2147144171",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101111j15231739200801012x,
    author = "Wasser, Samuel K. and Clark, William and Drori, Ofir and Kisamo, Emily and Mailand, Celia and Mutayoba, Benezeth and Stephens, Matthew",
    title = "Combating the Illegal Trade in African Elephant Ivory with DNA Forensics",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "International wildlife crime is burgeoning in this climate of global trade. We contend that the most effective way to contain this illegal trade is to determine where the wildlife is being removed. This allows authorities to direct law enforcement to poaching hot spots, potentially stops trade before the wildlife is actually killed, prevents countries from denying their poaching problems at home, and thwarts trade before it enters into an increasingly complex web of international criminal activity. Forensic tools have been limited in their ability to determine product origin because the information they can provide typically begins only at the point of shipment. DNA assignment analyses can determine product origin, but its use has been limited by the inability to assign samples to locations where reference samples do not exist. We applied new DNA assignment methods that can determine the geographic origin(s) of wildlife products from anywhere within its range. We used these methods to examine the geographic origin(s) of 2 strings of seizures involving large volumes of elephant ivory, 1 string seized in Singapore and Malawi and the other in Hong Kong and Cameroon. These ivory traffickers may comprise 2 of the largest poaching rings in Africa. In both cases all ivory seized in the string had common origins, which indicates that crime syndicates are targeting specific populations for intense exploitation. This result contradicts the dominant belief that dealers are using a decentralized plan of procuring ivory stocks as they became available across Africa. Large quantities of ivory were then moved, in multiple shipments, through an intermediate country prior to shipment to Asia, as a risk-reduction strategy that distances the dealer from the poaching locale. These smuggling strategies could not have been detected by forensic information, which typically begins only at the shipping source.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01012.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01012.x",
    openalex = "W2105311661",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101002zoo20256,
    author = "Mason, Georgia and Veasey, Jake S.",
    title = "How should the psychological well‐being of zoo elephants be objectively investigated?",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Zoo Biology",
    abstract = {Animal welfare (sometimes termed "well-being") is about feelings - states such as "suffering" or "contentment" that we can infer but cannot measure directly. Welfare indices have been developed from two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals deliberately subjected to challenges known to affect emotional state. We briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss how well they are understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play a central role in evidence-based elephant management. We cover behavioral and cognitive responses (approach/avoidance; intention, redirected and displacement activities; vigilance/startle; warning signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression-like changes; stereotypic behavior); physiological responses (sympathetic responses; corticosteroid output - often assayed non-invasively via urine, feces or even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and the potential negative effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g. reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still-birth rates; poor maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound-healing; enhanced disease rates; shortened lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and stereotypic behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and/or validated but not yet applied within zoos include: measures of preference/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal/postural signals of affective (emotional) state; startle/vigilance; apathy; salivary and urinary epinephrine; female acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin/foot infections; cardio-vascular disease; and premature adult death. Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation work in elephants include: operant responding and place preference tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear/stress pheromone release; cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure; corticosteroid assay from hair, especially tail-hairs (to access endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male infertility; prolactinemia; and immunological changes.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20256",
    doi = "10.1002/zoo.20256",
    openalex = "W2014305902",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{doi101016jbiocon200908008,
    author = "Loarie, Scott R. and van Aarde, Rudi J. and Pimm, Stuart L.",
    title = "Fences and artificial water affect African savannah elephant movement patterns",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Biological Conservation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.08.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.biocon.2009.08.008",
    openalex = "W2086145212",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101093bjcazp030,
    author = "Lemieux, Andrew and Clarke, Ronald V.",
    title = "The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "The British Journal of Criminology",
    abstract = "The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) secured an agreement in 1989 among its member states to ban the international trade in ivory. This disruption of the international ivory market was intended to reverse a sharp decline in the African elephant population, which resulted from widespread poaching for ivory in the previous decade. The continent’s overall population of elephants increased after the ban, but an analysis of elephant population data from 1979 to 2007 found that some of the 37 countries in Africa with elephants continued to lose substantial numbers of them. This pattern is largely explained by the presence of unregulated domestic ivory markets in and near countries with declines in elephant populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azp030",
    doi = "10.1093/bjc/azp030",
    openalex = "W2129549992",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101111j14691795200900272x,
    author = "Graham, M. D. and Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain and Adams, William M. and Lee, Phyllis C.",
    title = "The movement of African elephants in a human‐dominated land‐use mosaic",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Animal Conservation",
    abstract = "Abstract Land outside of gazetted protected areas is increasingly seen as important to the future of elephant persistence in Africa. However, other than inferential studies on crop raiding, very little is understood about how elephants Loxodonta africana use and are affected by human‐occupied landscapes. This is largely a result of restrictions in technology, which made detailed assessments of elephant movement outside of protected areas challenging. Recent advances in radio telemetry have changed this, enabling researchers to establish over a 24‐h period where tagged animals spend their time. We assessed the movement of 13 elephants outside of gazetted protected areas across a range of land‐use types on the Laikipia plateau in north‐central Kenya. The elephants monitored spent more time at night than during the day in areas under land use that presented a risk of mortality associated with human occupants. The opposite pattern was found on large‐scale ranches where elephants were tolerated. Furthermore, speed of movement was found to be higher where elephants were at risk. These results demonstrate that elephants facultatively alter their behaviour to avoid risk in human‐dominated landscapes. This helps them to maintain connectivity between habitat refugia in fragmented land‐use mosaics, possibly alleviating some of the potential negative impacts of fragmentation. At the same time, however, it allows elephants to penetrate smallholder farmland to raid crops. The greater the amount of smallholder land within an elephant's range, the more it was utilized, with consequent implications for conflict. These findings underscore the importance of (1) land‐use planning to maintain refugia; (2) incentives to prevent further habitat fragmentation; (3) the testing and application of conflict mitigation measures where fragmentation has already taken place.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00272.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00272.x",
    openalex = "W2128949347",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101016jactao201101014,
    author = "Campos‐Arceiz, Ahimsa and Blake, Steve",
    title = "Megagardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Acta Oecologica",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2011.01.014",
    doi = "10.1016/j.actao.2011.01.014",
    openalex = "W2121126486",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101016jbiocon201207019,
    author = "Wall, Jake and Wittemyer, George and Klinkenberg, Brian and LeMay, Valerie and Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain",
    title = "Characterizing properties and drivers of long distance movements by elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Gourma, Mali",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Biological Conservation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.019",
    doi = "10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.019",
    openalex = "W2115770459"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0059469,
    author = "Maisels, Fiona and Strindberg, Samantha and Blake, Stephen and Wittemyer, George and Hart, John and Williamson, Elizabeth A. and Aba’a, Rostand and Abitsi, Gaspard and Ambahe, Ruffin and Amsini, Fidèl and Bakabana, Parfait C. and Hicks, Thurston C. and Bayogo, Rosine E. and Bechem, Martha and Beyers, René and Bezangoye, Anicet N. and Boundja, Patrick and Bout, Nicolas and Akou, Marc Ella and Bene, Lambert Bene and Fosso, Bernard and Greengrass, Elizabeth and Grossmann, Falk and Ikamba-Nkulu, Clement and Ilambu, Omari and Inogwabini, Bila‐Isia and Iyenguet, Fortuné C. and Kiminou, Franck and Kokangoye, Max and Kujirakwinja, Deo and Latour, Stéphanie and Liengola, Innocent and Mackaya, Quevain and Madidi, Jacob and Madzoké, Bola and Makoumbou, Calixte and Malanda, Guy-Aimé F. and Malonga, Richard and Mbani, Olivier and Mbendzo, Valentin A. and Ambassa, Edgar and Ekinde, Albert and Mihindou, Yves and Morgan, Bethan J. and Motsaba, Prosper and Moukala, Gabin and Mounguengui, Anselme and Mowawa, Brice S. and Ndzai, Christian and Nixon, Stuart and Nkumu, Pele and Nzolani, Fabian and Pintea, Lilian and Plumptre, Andrew J. and Rainey, Hugo and de Semboli, Bruno Bokoto and Serckx, Adeline and Stokes, Emma J. and Turkalo, Andrea K. and Vanleeuwe, Hilde and Vosper, Ashley and Warren, Ymke",
    title = "Devastating Decline of Forest Elephants in Central Africa",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "African forest elephants- taxonomically and functionally unique-are being poached at accelerating rates, but we lack range-wide information on the repercussions. Analysis of the largest survey dataset ever assembled for forest elephants (80 foot-surveys; covering 13,000 km; 91,600 person-days of fieldwork) revealed that population size declined by ca. 62\% between 2002-2011, and the taxon lost 30\% of its geographical range. The population is now less than 10\% of its potential size, occupying less than 25\% of its potential range. High human population density, hunting intensity, absence of law enforcement, poor governance, and proximity to expanding infrastructure are the strongest predictors of decline. To save the remaining African forest elephants, illegal poaching for ivory and encroachment into core elephant habitat must be stopped. In addition, the international demand for ivory, which fuels illegal trade, must be dramatically reduced.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059469",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0059469",
    openalex = "W2170530388",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1403984111,
    author = "Wittemyer, George and Northrup, Joseph M. and Blanc, Julian and Douglas‐Hamilton, Iain and Omondi, Patrick and Burnham, Kenneth P.",
    title = "Illegal killing for ivory drives global decline in African elephants",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Significance Illegal harvest for commercial trade has recently surged to become a major threat to some of the world’s most endangered and charismatic species. Unfortunately, the cryptic nature of illegal killing makes estimation of rates and impacts difficult. Applying a model based on field census of carcasses, to our knowledge we provide the first detailed assessment of African elephant illegal killing rates at population, regional, and continental scales. Illegal harvest for commercial trade in ivory has recently surged, coinciding with increases in illegal ivory seizures and black market ivory prices. As a result, the species declined over the past 4 y, during which tens of thousands of elephants have been killed annually across the continent. Solutions to this crisis require global action.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1403984111",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1403984111",
    openalex = "W2112044572",
    references = "doi102305iucnch2007sscop33en"
}

@article{doi101109iscbi20158,
    author = "Wang, Gai‐Ge and Deb, Suash and dos Santos Coelho, Leandro",
    title = "Elephant Herding Optimization",
    year = "2015",
    abstract = "In this paper, a new kind of swarm-based metaheuristic search method, called Elephant Herding Optimization (EHO), is proposed for solving optimization tasks. The EHO method is inspired by the herding behavior of elephant group. In nature, the elephants belonging to different clans live together under the leadership of a matriarch, and the male elephants will leave their family group when they grow up. These two behaviors can be modelled into two following operators: clan updating operator and separating operator. In EHO, the elephants in each clan are updated by its current position and matriarch through clan updating operator. It is followed by the implementation of the separating operator which can enhance the population diversity at the later search phase. To demonstrate its effectiveness, EHO is benchmarked by fifteen test cases comparing with BBO, DE and GA. The results show that EHO can find the better values on most benchmark problems than those three metaheuristic algorithms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/iscbi.2015.8",
    doi = "10.1109/iscbi.2015.8",
    openalex = "W2541451878",
    references = "doi101007s108980079149x, doi101016jadvengsoft201312007, doi101016jadvengsoft201501010, doi101023a1008202821328, doi1011093477484436, doi101109icnn1995488968, doi101109nabic20095393690, doi101109tevc2008919004, doi105860choice270936, openalexw1596914020"
}

@article{doi101016jjbusres201603049,
    author = "Shmueli, Galit and Ray, Soumya and Estrada, Juan Manuel Velasquez and Chatla, Suneel Babu",
    title = "The elephant in the room: Predictive performance of PLS models",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Business Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.03.049",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.03.049",
    openalex = "W2342472925",
    references = "doi101016jcsda200403005, doi101037002235145161173, doi1010801743727x20151005806, doi101111j251761611974tb00994x, doi101177002224377901600110, doi1023073150876, doi102753mtp10696679190202, doi1043249781410604385, openalexw1545460766"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1720554115,
    author = "Palkopoulou, Eleftheria and Lipson, Mark and Mallick, Swapan and Nielsen, Svend Vendelbo and Rohland, Nadin and Baleka, Sina and Karpinski, Emil and Ivancevic, Atma M. and To, Thu-Hien and Kortschak, R. Daniel and Raison, Joy M and Qu, Zhipeng and Chin, Tat-Jun and Alt, Kurt W. and Claesson, Stefan and Dalén, Love and MacPhee, R. D. E. and Meller, Harald and Roca, Alfred L. and Ryder, Oliver A. and Heiman, David I. and Young, Sarah and Breen, Matthew and Williams, Christina L. and Aken, Bronwen and Ruffier, Magali and Karlsson, Elinor K. and Johnson, Jeremy and Palma, Federica Di and Alföldi, Jessica and Adelson, David L. and Mailund, Thomas and Munch, Kasper and Lindblad‐Toh, Kerstin and Hofreiter, Michael and Poinar, Hendrik N. and Reich, David",
    title = "A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Elephantids are the world's most iconic megafaunal family, yet there is no comprehensive genomic assessment of their relationships. We report a total of 14 genomes, including 2 from the American mastodon, which is an extinct elephantid relative, and 12 spanning all three extant and three extinct elephantid species including an ∼120,000-y-old straight-tusked elephant, a Columbian mammoth, and woolly mammoths. Earlier genetic studies modeled elephantid evolution via simple bifurcating trees, but here we show that interspecies hybridization has been a recurrent feature of elephantid evolution. We found that the genetic makeup of the straight-tusked elephant, previously placed as a sister group to African forest elephants based on lower coverage data, in fact comprises three major components. Most of the straight-tusked elephant's ancestry derives from a lineage related to the ancestor of African elephants while its remaining ancestry consists of a large contribution from a lineage related to forest elephants and another related to mammoths. Columbian and woolly mammoths also showed evidence of interbreeding, likely following a latitudinal cline across North America. While hybridization events have shaped elephantid history in profound ways, isolation also appears to have played an important role. Our data reveal nearly complete isolation between the ancestors of the African forest and savanna elephants for ∼500,000 y, providing compelling justification for the conservation of forest and savanna elephants as separate species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1720554115",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1720554115",
    openalex = "W2789587972",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001"
}

@article{canney2019the,
    author = "Canney, S. M.",
    title = "The Mali Elephant Project: protecting elephants amidst conflict and poverty",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "International Zoo Yearbook",
    abstract = "This short report shows how it has been possible to protect a small yet important, highly vulnerable, remnant population of desert‐adapted African elephants Loxodonta africana that roams through a vast, populated area of Mali, which in recent years has become lawless and subject to an aggressive jihadist insurgency. Initial studies showed how ecosystem trends threatened elephant survival and local livelihoods, and exacerbated human–human and human–elephant conflict. A combination of adaptive management and action research methods was used to understand the social, economic, political and environmental aspects of this complex system. This knowledge served to derive intervention strategies that attempted to tackle the underlying drivers of threat to elephant survival. Central to this approach was the reinforcement of existing attitudes towards elephants and the use of collaborative methods. Local communities were empowered to counter resource over‐exploitation and degradation by devising resource‐management systems that were rooted in existing practice and provided tangible livelihood benefits from elephant conservation. When lawlessness overtook the elephant range in 2012, it became subject to attacks by armed groups, a deepening insurgency and elephant poaching. The existing community work proved key to respond to the escalation of poaching in 2015, as it had engaged local people in the conservation effort, improving their lives and securing local ‘buy‐in’. This facilitated the work of the newly created anti‐poaching unit, which was trained to operate according to an ‘intelligent’ and ethical doctrine that used local information to cope with the insecurity and target its efforts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/izy.12236",
    doi = "10.1111/izy.12236",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2964360873",
    pages = "174-188",
    volume = "53",
    references = "doi101007s0011400406069, doi101016jbiocon201207019, doi101016jcub200606049, doi101016s0959378000000418, doi101017cbo9780511807763, doi101046j15231739199998035x, doi104324978184977338615, openalexw2764205464"
}

@article{doi101111izy12248,
    author = "Fischer, Martha and Sach, Fiona",
    title = "Editorial: Conservation of Elephants",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "International Zoo Yearbook",
    abstract = "The articles in this volume of the International Zoo Yearbook highlight the contributions that professional zoological institutions have made to the care and welfare of elephants over the last 20 years, and describe the threats faced by these iconic animals in their natural habitats. Zoos work to protect wild elephants using a variety of methods, such as carrying out direct research with ex situ populations, providing conservation education and conservation funding, and engaging in capacity building. Furthermore, important work is implemented by conservation organizations in the field. This volume focuses attention on elephant conservation and the important role played by zoological institutions and other dedicated conservation organizations. It is hoped that this work will inspire more zoos to act, help to inform future conservation initiatives and, ultimately, ensure the survival of these iconic species and the protection of their habitats. (Photo: Robin Winkelman, Saint Louis Zoo)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/izy.12248",
    doi = "10.1111/izy.12248",
    openalex = "W2992450549",
    references = "canney2019the"
}

@article{doi103389fevo201800235,
    author = "Shaffer, L. Jen and Khadka, Kapil K. and Hoek, Jamon Van Den and Naithani, Kusum",
    title = "Human-Elephant Conflict: A Review of Current Management Strategies and Future Directions",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Human-elephant conflict is a major conservation concern in elephant range countries. A variety of management strategies have been developed and are practiced at different scales for preventing and mitigating human-elephant conflict. However, human-elephant conflict remains pervasive as the majority of existing prevention strategies are driven by site-specific factors that only offer short-term solutions, while mitigation strategies frequently transfer conflict risk from one place to another. Here, we review current human-elephant conflict management strategies and describe an interdisciplinary conceptual approach to manage species coexistence over the long-term. Our proposed model identifies shared resource use between humans and elephants at different spatial and temporal scales for development of long-term solutions. The model also highlights the importance of including anthropological and geographical knowledge to find sustainable solutions to managing human-elephant conflict.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00235",
    doi = "10.3389/fevo.2018.00235",
    openalex = "W2909606515",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951077840010001, doi1023073799111"
}

@article{doi101111aje12736,
    author = "Thornley, Reece and Spencer, Matthew and Zitzer, Heike R. and Parr, Catherine L.",
    title = "Woody vegetation damage by the African elephant during severe drought at Pongola Game Reserve, South Africa",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "African Journal of Ecology",
    abstract = "Abstract Elephants (Loxodonta africana) significantly alter ecosystem structure and composition through browsing (e.g. pollarding, debarking and toppling). Such browsing is predicted to intensify during severe drought which may become more common with climate change. Here, we make use of an elephant impact survey from 2012 to 2015 and during the El Nino drought of 2015–2016 at Pongola Game Reserve (107 km 2), KwaZulu‐Natal, to investigate how severe drought influenced damage severity of different tree heights and species by elephants in this small reserve. Contrary to expectations, damage to common species did not change with severe drought. Crown damage had the highest predicted probability across heights (29\%–90\%) and species (46\%–75\%) regardless of drought. However, we found severe drought increased the predicted probabilities of crown damage to smaller trees 6 m and severe damage at 4–6 m. Consequently, elephant damage during severe drought may alter vegetation structure by severely damaging or killing large trees (>4 m) and extensively damaging the crowns of trees <4 m. Long‐term monitoring of elephant effects on woody vegetation is essential to enable science‐based management in response to future drought and elephant damage (e.g. range expansion, beehive deterrents) to protect elephants and conserve woody vegetation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12736",
    doi = "10.1111/aje.12736",
    openalex = "W3024720911"
}

@article{doi1032907ro1136265,
    author = "Canney, Susan M.",
    title = "Action research creates a shared future for elephants and humans",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Research outreach",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.32907/ro-113-6265",
    doi = "10.32907/ro-113-6265",
    openalex = "W3016813147",
    references = "canney2019the"
}

@article{doi101016jecoser2022101488,
    author = "van de Water, Antoinette and Henley, Michelle and Bates, Lucy A. and Slotow, Rob",
    title = "The value of elephants: A pluralist approach",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Ecosystem Services",
    abstract = "Biodiversity conservation strategies may prioritise certain values of nature over others. Whilst there will likely always be a need for compromise in conservation planning, the consequences of trade-offs depend on peoples’ relative perceptions of values that are promoted or neglected. In practice, not fully understanding or taking into account the value systems of all stakeholders, including local people, leads to contention, social inequality, and ineffectiveness. Elephants provide an excellent case study to illustrate the need for multidimensional valuation systems as they provide multiple overlapping services and benefits in ecological, socio-cultural, economic, and spiritual dimensions. Yet, their conservation is often highly contentious and fiercely debated. Here, we present a pluralist valuation system that identifies the varied services and benefits of elephants, but which adds important dimensions missing from current frameworks such as that of IPBES. Two key additions: (1) incorporating moral values alongside the services and benefits, and (2) incorporating a feedback loop to promote mutually reinforcing interactions, will better support holistic and equitable conservation. Additionally, to aid the interrogation of the kinds of problems that lead to contention in elephant conservation, we mapped the types of trade-offs that occur when different values are at stake, which allows us to identify balanced conservation solutions that will lead to unity. This pluralist valuation approach, which is similarly applicable to other species and ecosystems, clarifies the necessity of properly accounting for stakeholder values in decision making, and promotes fairer conservation decisions that will generate broader buy-in and support, uniting people, and facilitating socially just and sustainable conservation outcomes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101488",
    doi = "10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101488",
    openalex = "W4306771875",
    references = "canney2019the"
}

@article{doi101111csp212741,
    author = "Guldemond, Robert A. R. and Louw, Cornelius J. and Maré, Celesté and Nørgaard, Camilla F. and van Aarde, Rudi J.",
    title = "Demographic responses of an insular elephant population to removal as a management intervention",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Conservation Science and Practice",
    abstract = "Abstract Disturbances that change population structure may evoke transient dynamics that can be assessed within a demographic resilience framework. Conservation management interventions are conceptually disturbances that can be evaluated through such a framework to inform management actions and goals. The Main Camp in Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa presents a case study. Here management reduced the size of the elephant (Loxodonta africana) population by \textasciitilde 26\%. We compared population growth, modelled trends, constructed life tables and parameterized population projection matrices from data collected before, during and after the interventions. The interventions reduced population size and density, but co‐occurring droughts may have reduced subsequent population growth and stage‐specific survival. Transient dynamics followed the interventions and droughts and were associated with an unstable stage structure. The effect of adult survival on modelled asymptotic growth (its elasticity) was greater than a change in fertility. However, lowered juvenile survival contributed most to changes in transient growth. Management plans for elephant populations should consider the length of transients induced by interventions and environmental disturbances such as droughts. Our approach can benefit the assessment of population responses of elephants to disturbances such as poaching and persistent droughts elsewhere in Africa.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12741",
    doi = "10.1111/csp2.12741",
    openalex = "W4283460141"
}

@article{comley2025elephant,
    author = "Comley, Jessica and Nuttall-Smith, Gareth D. and Parker, Dan M.",
    title = "Elephant Engineers: Unravelling how Elephants Influence Mammalian Communities in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "African Journal of Wildlife Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3957/056.055.0349",
    doi = "10.3957/056.055.0349",
    number = "sp2",
    openalex = "W4416706277",
    volume = "55",
    references = "doi101016jforeco200510076, doi101111aje12736, doi101111csp212741, doi101111ele12277, doi1023071930167, doi1023071932254, doi1039570560450321, doi104102koedoev36i2372"
}

@article{doi101002ece373538,
    author = "K Wambua, Josephat and Wato, Yussuf A and Abdallah, Siro A and K Mworia, John and Lukhoba, Catherine and Gichuki, Nathaniel N",
    title = "Determinants of Seasonal Elephant Habitat Use in Small and Enclosed Conservation Area: Mwea National Reserve, Kenya.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Ecology and evolution",
    abstract = "This study explored the drivers of seasonal African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) habitat use in a small, enclosed conservation area with limited space and no migration corridors. It examined how elephant habitat-use dynamics may influence management strategies, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, and the long-term sustainability of elephant populations in small and isolated protected areas. The study was conducted in Mwea National Reserve, a fenced protected area in Kenya. Elephant spatial distribution was assessed using indirect signs of presence. We conducted 96 straight-line dung transects (250 m each) and 350 m reconnaissance walks across the reserve to document dung occurrence and density. Seasonal elephant distribution was modeled using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) using five environmental predictors. We used the jackknife method to evaluate the relative influence of each predictor on seasonal habitat use. We hypothesized that (i) water and forage availability would primarily determine dry-season habitat use, and (ii) landscape variables would be more influential in the wet season, when water and forage are less limiting. MaxEnt models performed moderately well, with Area Under the Curve (AUC) values of 0.714 (dry) and 0.664 (wet). In the dry season, the most influential predictors were invasive plant presence (28.9\%), proximity to permanent rivers (26.9\%), and elevation (26.5\%). In the wet season, distance to the reserve boundary was the strongest predictor (38.9\%), while NDVI showed stable influence across seasons (16.2\% dry, 20.1\% wet). Small and isolated conservation areas holding elephants among other large herbivores pose many ecological and management challenges. In Mwea National Reserve, this study found a rapidly growing elephant population, high density, and seasonal shifts in habitat use, primarily driven by water and forage availability. Land elevation, reserve boundaries, and other infrastructure had limited influence on elephant distribution and food access. However, the distribution of invasive plant species overlapped with key elephant foraging sites, thereby restricting access to usable plants in non-invaded areas. Controlling invasive plants can improve forage access and relax browsing pressure on natural vegetation. Maintaining fence integrity and sustained cooperation with the surrounding community is crucial to limit foraging range expansion as well as monitor and reduce human-elephant conflict. The findings of this study provide usable information and spatially explicit guidance for managing savanna elephant populations in small and isolated conservation areas.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13127228/",
    doi = "10.1002/ece3.73538",
    pmcid = "PMC13127228",
    pmid = "42063664"
}

@article{doi101038s4159802648970w,
    author = "Begum, Kajoli and Majhi, Bishal Kumar and Sarkar, Mriganka Shekhar and Devi, Ahanthem Rebika and Mylliemngap, Wishfully and Reddy, Anuradha",
    title = "A multi-scale ensemble machine learning framework for assessing human-elephant conflict in the Brahmaputra flood plain.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Scientific reports",
    abstract = "Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is emerging as a growing challenge to biodiversity conservation and rural livelihoods in Asia. Assam's Brahmaputra Flood Plain (BFP)is an important stronghold of the Asian elephant, wherein this study aims to comprehensively analyse the spatio-temporal dynamics of human-elephant conflict BFP, between 2010 and 2024. Using a two-way conflict modelling framework, we examined both human victimization of elephants (EV-HI) and elephant victimization of humans (HV-EI), and integrated these perspectives to identify spatial intersections and temporal patterns of heightened conflict risk. We designed effective risk maps with AUC weighting based on a multi-scale ensemble of five machine learning algorithms (i.e., RF, BRT, SVM, CART, MARS), optimally weighting predictor spatial scales (1-15 km). Conflict incidents exhibited strong seasonality, peaking post-monsoon when major crops such as rice, maize, vegetables, and standing sugarcane are harvested or remain available in the fields. Incidents of conflict have risen significantly after 2017. Spatial analysis revealed that scale-dependent variables, such as orchard cover, forest/population ratio, and edge density, predicted EV-HI risk, whereas landscape heterogeneity, human footprint, and edge density predicted HV-EI risk. We have taken the initiative to combine time dynamics, conflict type correlations, and bivariate hotspot mapping to introduce a new framework that would be concerned not only with risks to human beings but also with risks to elephants. The results are management-friendly and facilitate specific interventions. Our study provides an adaptable decision-support tool that guides crop-switching, early warning alerts, fence evaluations, and corridor restoration. Unlike the usual single-model or one-scale approaches, it integrates multiple perspectives to strengthen conservation planning and promote human-elephant coexistence by protecting both livelihoods and elephant populations.",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42034677/",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-026-48970-w",
    openalex = "W7155617606",
    pmid = "42034677"
}