@article{matthew1922casts,
    author = "Matthew, W. D.",
    title = "Casts of Fossil Vertebrates at Stuttgart",
    year = "1922",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.55.1415.156.b",
    doi = "10.1126/science.55.1415.156.b",
    number = "1415",
    openalex = "W4233031067",
    pages = "156-156",
    volume = "55"
}

@article{doi101086394644,
    author = "Edinger, Tilly",
    title = "The Pituitary Body in Giant Animals Fossil and Living: A Survey and a Suggestion",
    year = "1942",
    journal = "The Quarterly Review of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/394644",
    doi = "10.1086/394644",
    openalex = "W2033498000"
}

@article{romer1942endocranial,
    author = "Romer, A. S. and Edinger, T.",
    title = "Endocranial casts and brains of living and fossil amphibia",
    year = "1942",
    journal = "Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.900770203",
    doi = "10.1002/cne.900770203",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2055986715",
    pages = "355-389",
    volume = "77",
    references = "doi101002aja1000070102, doi101002cne900620108, doi101002jmor1050690106, doi101007bf02117847, doi101017s0080456800017877, doi101086394644, doi1010970000505319361100000044, doi1010970000505319361200000041, doi101098rstb19260006, doi101130spe28p1"
}

@article{holloway1974the,
    author = "Holloway, Ralph L.",
    title = "The Casts of Fossil Hominid Brains",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Scientific American",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0774-106",
    doi = "10.1038/scientificamerican0774-106",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2072880754",
    pages = "106-115",
    volume = "231"
}

@misc{holloway1974the1,
    author = "Holloway, R. L",
    title = "The casts of fossil homonid brains",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 231, no. 1, p. 106-115",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Holloway, R. L., 1974, The casts of fossil homonid brains: Scientific American, v. 231, no. 1, p. 106-115.}"
}

@article{doi101146annurevan04100175000331,
    author = "Jerison, Harry J.",
    title = "Fossil Evidence of the Evolution of the Human Brain",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "Infrastructures are material forms that allow for the possibility of exchange over space. They are the physical networks through which goods, ideas, waste, power, people, and finance are trafficked. In this article I trace the range of anthropological...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.000331",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.000331",
    openalex = "W2121595159"
}

@article{openalexw114383963,
    author = "Sj, Gould",
    title = "Allometry in primates, with emphasis on scaling and the evolution of the brain.",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "PubMed",
    abstract = "Allometry should be defined broadly as the study of size and its consequences, not narrowly as the application of power functions to the data of growth. Variation in size may be ontogenetic, static or phyletic. Errors of omission and treatment have plagued the study of allometry in primates. Standard texts often treat brain size as an independent measure, ignoring its allometric relation with body size - on this basis, gracile australopithecines have been accorded the mental status of gorillas. Intrinsic allometries of the brain/body are likewise neglected: many authors cite cerebral folding as evidence of man's mental superiority, but folding is a mechanical correlate of brain size itself. Confusion among types of scaling heads errors of treatment in both historical primacy [Dubois' ontogenetic inferences from interspecific curves] and current frequency. The predicted parameters of brain-body plots differ greatly for ontogenetic, intrapopulational, interspecific and phyletic allometries. I then discuss basic trends in bivariate allometry at the ordinal level for internal organ weights, skeletal dimensions, lifespan and fetal weight. In considering the causes of basic bivariate allometries, I examine the reason for differences among types of scaling in brain-body relationships. The interspecific exponent of 0.66 strongly suggests a relationship to body surfaces, but we have no satisfactory explanation for why this should be so. The tripartite ontogenetic plot is a consequence of patterns in neuronal differentiation. We do not know why intraspecific exponents fall between 0.2 and 0.4; several partial explanations have been offered. Multivariate techniques have transcended the pictorial representation of transformed coordinates and offer new, powerful approaches to total allometric patterns. Allometry is most often used as a 'criterion for subtraction'. In order to assess the nature and purpose of an adaptation, we must be able to identify and isolate the aspect of its form that depends both upon its size and the size of the body within which it resides. Cranial indices and limb lengths are misinterpreted when authors apply no correction for body size. The search for a criterion of subtraction has been most diligently pursued in studies of the brain. Clearly, brain size must be assessed by comparison with a 'standard' animal of the same body size. But how shall size be measured, especially in fossils; and how shall a standard animal be construed. I discuss and criticize three methods recently used: RADINSKY'S foramen magnum criterion; Jerison's minimum convex polygons and cephalization quotients; and the indices of progression in comparison with 'basal' insectivores' of BAUCHOT, Stephan and their colleagues.",
    openalex = "W114383963"
}

@article{doi101111j174966321976tb25499x,
    author = "LeMay, Marjorie",
    title = "MORPHOLOGICAL CEREBRAL ASYMMETRIES OF MODERN MAN, FOSSIL MAN, AND NONHUMAN PRIMATE",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Cerebral asymmetries are common in modern and fossil man and the great apes. Those occurring most often are listed here: 1. The left sylvian fissure in man is longer than the right and in both fetal and adult brains the posterior end of the right sylvian fissure is commonly higher than the left. Associated with these findings, the left planum temporale is usually longer than the right. 2. The left occipital pole is often wider and usually protrudes more posteriorly than the right. 3. The left lateral ventricle, and especially the occipital horn, is usually larger than the right. 4. If one frontal pole extends beyond the other it is usually the right. 5. On X-ray computerized axial tomograms (CT) of the brain the right frontal lobe and the central portion of the right hemisphere more often measure wider than the left. 6. The CT studies commonly show a Yakovlevian anticlockwise torque (taking the nose as 12 o'clock), with the left occipital pole longer and often extending across the midline toward the right and a wider right hemisphere in its central and frontal portions and frequent forward protrusion of the right frontal pole. This is found also in newborns. 7. The posterior end of the sagittal sinus usually lies to the right of the midline and the sinus flows more directly into the right transverse sinus than into the left. 8. The right transverse sinus is usually higher than the left. 9. In left-handed and ambidextrous individuals the posterior ends of the sylvian fissures are more often nearly equal in height and the occipital regions are more often equal in width or the right may be wider. 10. The torque of the pyramidal tract and the hemispheral torque cannot at present be related to right- or left-handedness. Statistics concerning left-handedness are somewhat confounded, because it is likely that not a few individuals are left-handed because of an early injury of the left hemisphere in a normally right-handed individual. 11. Cerebral asymmetries are found in fossil man similar to those in modern man. 12. Asymmetries of the sylvian fissures similar to those of modern man have been found in the great apes and are particularly common in the orangutan. 13. The most striking and consistently present cerebral asymmetries found in adult and fetal brains are in the region of the posterior end of the sylvian fissures-- the areas generally regarded as a major importance in language function.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25499.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25499.x",
    openalex = "W2010975015",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle15880"
}

@article{doi101002ajpa1330530409,
    author = "Falk, Dean",
    title = "A reanalysis of the South African australopithecine natural endocasts",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Sulcal patterns of six previously available South African australopithecine natural endocasts are reexamined and compared to sulcal patterns of 17 human, 12 gorilla and six chimpanzee brains. In addition, a seventh natural endocast, from STS 58, is described for the first time and compared to an artificial endocast from the same specimen. Using the Taung endocast as a focal point, it is shown that sulcal patterns reproduced on natural endocasts of australopithecines appear to be pongid-like rather than human-like. Contrary to earlier descriptions, the lunate sulcus occupies a rostral position similar to that found in pongids. Since South African australopithecine brains do not appear to be reorganized along human lines at a gross external neuroanatomical level, the concept of neurological reorganization is best applied at finer neurological levels, perhaps at the level of the neuron or at a neurochemical level. Thus, future studies by comparative neuroscientists are more likely to elucidate the fine details of neurological reorganization that occurred during early human evolution than are studies by paleontologists who directly observe the australopithecine fossil record of natural endocasts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330530409",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330530409",
    openalex = "W2143417155",
    references = "doi101126science1683934966, holloway1974the"
}

@article{doi101002ajpa1330580110,
    author = "Gingerich, Philip D. and Smith, B. Holly and Rosenberg, Karen",
    title = "Allometric scaling in the dentition of primates and prediction of body weight from tooth size in fossils",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Tooth size varies exponentially with body weight in primates. Logarithmic transformation of tooth crown area and body weight yields a linear model of slope 0.67 as an isometric (geometric) baseline for study of dental allometry. This model is compared with that predicted by metabolic scaling (slope = 0.75). Tarsius and other insectivores have larger teeth for their body size than generalized primates do and they are not included in this analysis. Among generalized primates, tooth size is highly correlated with body size. Correlations of upper and lower cheek teeth with body size range from 0.90-0.97, depending on tooth position. Central cheek teeth (P44 and M11) have allometric coefficients ranging from 0.57-0.65, falling well below geometric scaling. Anterior and posterior cheek teeth scale at or above metabolic scaling. Considered individually or as a group, upper cheek teeth scale allometrically with lower coefficients than corresponding lower cheek teeth; the reverse is true for incisors. The sum of crown areas for all upper cheek teeth scales significantly below geometric scaling, while the sum of crown areas for all lower cheek teeth approximates geometric scaling. Tooth size can be used to predict the body weight of generalized fossil primates. This is illustrated for Aegyptopithecus and other Eocene, Oligocene, and miocene primates. Regressions based on tooth size in generalized primates yield reasonable estimates of body weight, but much remains to be learned about tooth size and body size scaling in more restricted systematic groups and dietary guilds.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330580110",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330580110",
    openalex = "W2165987887",
    references = "doi101159000155026, doi1023072412851, openalexw201159638, wolpoff1975allometry"
}

@incollection{falk1982mapping,
    author = "Falk, Dean",
    title = "Mapping Fossil Endocasts",
    year = "1982",
    booktitle = "Primate Brain Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-4148-2\_14",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4684-4148-2\_14",
    openalex = "W98274290",
    pages = "217-226",
    references = "doi101002cne900730106, doi101038115195a0, doi101093brain934793, doi101093ptj435405a, doi1010970000505319361100000044, doi101126science341314, doi1023072800864, doi1043249781315132129, openalexw1573847988, openalexw650029711"
}

@article{doi101002ajpa1330780412,
    author = "Feibel, Craig S. and Brown, Francis H. and McDougall, Ian",
    title = "Stratigraphic context of fossil hominids from the Omo group deposits: Northern Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "The chronometric framework developed for Plio-Pleistocene deposits of the northern Turkana Basin is reviewed in light of recent advances in lithostratigraphy, geochemical correlation, paleomagnetic stratigraphy, and isotopic dating. The sequence is tightly controlled by 20 precise ages on volcanic materials. These ages are internally consistent but are at variance with estimates for the boundaries of the magnetic polarity time scale by about 0.07 my. This discrepancy can be only partially resolved at present. Based on the established chronometric framework and stratigraphic sequences, depositional ages can be estimated for significant marker beds. These ages can in turn be used to constrain the 449 hominid specimens thus far reported from the basin. Ages for most hominid specimens can be estimated with a precision of +/- 0.05 my. In addition, the chronometric framework will be applicable to other paleontological collections, archeological excavations, and future discoveries in the basin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330780412",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330780412",
    openalex = "W2126456782"
}

@incollection{doi101007978146122784723,
    author = "Bolt, John R. and Lombard, R. Eric",
    title = "Nature and Quality of the Fossil Evidence for Otic Evolution in Early Tetrapods",
    year = "1992",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7\_23",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7\_23",
    openalex = "W200191800",
    references = "romer1942endocranial"
}

@article{doi101002ajpa1330370605,
    author = "Ruff, Christopher B.",
    title = "Morphological adaptation to climate in modern and fossil hominids",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Hominids—both living and past—exhibit considerable variation in body size and shape. Both theoretical considerations and empirical observations indicate that some of this variation may be attributable to climatic adaptation. Application of the simple thermoregulatory principle of increasing and decreasing body surface area/body mass in hot and cold climates, respectively, may explain the major systematic differences in body form between living and fossil hominids inhabiting tropical and higher latitude regions of the world. Consideration of potential climatic influences on morphology has important ramifications for reconstructing body form and behavior of past hominids, interpreting geographic and temporal variability and migrational events, explaining the origins and perfection of hominid bipedalism, and better understanding changes in brain size and encephalization during hominid evolution. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330370605",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330370605",
    openalex = "W2004116172",
    references = "doi101007bf02547562, doi101016s0047248484800792, doi101038331614a0, doi1023072800701, doi102307588281, openalexw3207143292"
}

@article{doi101017s0140525x00037924,
    author = "Wilkins, Wendy and Wakefield, Jennie",
    title = "Brains evolution and neurolinguistic preconditions",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract This target article presents a plausible evolutionary scenario for the emergence of the neural preconditions for language in the hominid lineage. In pleistocene primate lineages there was a paired evolutionary expansion of frontal and parietal neocortex (through certain well-documented adaptive changes associated with manipulative behaviors) resulting, in ancestral hominids, in an incipient Broca's region and in a configurationally unique junction of the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes of the brain (the POT). On our view, the development of the POT in our ancestors resulted in the neuroanatomical substrate consistent with the ability for representations in modality-neutral association cortex and, as a result of structure-imposing interaction with Broca's area, the hierarchically structured “conceptual structure.” Evidence from paleoneurology and comparative primate neuroanatomy is used to argue that Homo habilis (2.5–2 million years ago) was the first hominid to have the appropriate gross neuroanatomical configuration to support conceptual structure. We thus suggest that the neural preconditions for language are met in H. habilis. Finally, we advocate a theory of language acquisition that uses conceptual structure as input to the learning procedures, thus bridging the gap between it and language.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00037924",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00037924",
    openalex = "W2040367975",
    references = "doi101111j174966321976tb25504x"
}

@article{doi101126science2805364731,
    author = "Alroy, John",
    title = "Cope's Rule and the Dynamics of Body Mass Evolution in North American Fossil Mammals",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Body mass estimates for 1534 North American fossil mammal species show that new species are on average 9.1\% larger than older species in the same genera. This within-lineage effect is not a sampling bias. It persists throughout the Cenozoic, accounting for the gradual overall increase in average mass (Cope's rule). The effect is stronger for larger mammals, being near zero for small mammals. This variation partially explains the unwavering lower size limit and the gradually expanding mid-sized gap, but not the sudden large increase in the upper size limit, at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.280.5364.731",
    doi = "10.1126/science.280.5364.731",
    openalex = "W2053649449",
    references = "doi101017s0022336000059126, doi101017s0094837300016134, doi101038365748a0, doi101111j155856461949tb00010x, doi101111j155856461973tb05912x, doi105860choice290302"
}

@article{doi1016410006356820010510674tsofbt20co2,
    author = "Buchholtz, Emily A. and Seyfarth, Ernst‐August",
    title = "The Study of “Fossil Brains”: Tilly Edinger (1897–1967) and the Beginnings of Paleoneurology",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "BioScience",
    abstract = "Paleoneurology, the study of the evolution of the brain, lies at the interface of neurology and paleontology. In its modern form, it was founded in Germany in the 1920s, the product of the unique educational background and inspiration of Ottilie (“Tilly”) Edinger (1897‐1967). Before Edinger’s work, the history of the vertebrate brain was reconstructed almost exclusively by anatomists who compared the soft tissue brains of living fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Structural variations among extant groups were documented and compared; their distribution was used to suggest the sequence of anatomical innovations in time. With strong preparation in both neurology and paleontology, Edinger was able to integrate comparative anatomy and the paleontologists’ tool of stratigraphic sequence. More than anyone else, she introduced the concept of time to neurology, creating modern paleoneurology. Here we relate the broad outlines of Tilly Edinger’s life and describe how she changed the way that the evolutionary history of the vertebrate brain is reconstructed and understood. Her story is particularly compelling because she began much of her innovative work while she was enduring Nazi racial laws and terrors, completing it in exile after forced emigration from Germany. Early biography and founding of paleoneurology Tilly Edinger (Figure 1) was born in 1897 into an extended and well-to-do family that was part of the academic and cultural elite of Frankfurt am Main. Her father, Ludwig Edinger, was a pioneer comparative neurologist and the founder of Frankfurt’s first neurological research institute (Kreft 1997). Before his early death in 1918, Edinger (Figure 1) provided his daughter with many contacts within the local and greater scientific community and with a role model for a life in science. She was educated first at home by private tutors, among them French and English governesses who instilled in her a",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0674:tsofbt]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0674:tsofbt]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2173712157",
    references = "romer1942endocranial"
}

@article{openalexw2565082193,
    author = "Jerison, Harry J.",
    title = "Fossils, Brains, and Behavior",
    year = "2006",
    abstract = "Fossils tell a simple story about the evolution of the brain, much of which is summarized in Figure 1. This graph introduces my topic and summarizes many of my results. My data are morphological with only hints about behavior, but they show results on fossil species in the context of the present diversity of amniotes. The story of brain evolution is told by fossil “brains” (endocasts of the cranial cavity), comparing their size with those of living brains in living animals and judging the evidence of encephalization.",
    openalex = "W2565082193",
    references = "doi1010079783642182624, doi101017cbo9780511897085, doi101126science1074192, doi101126science7624772, doi1023072407154, doi105860choice340925, doi105860choice355657, doi107208chicago97802262185260010001, openalexw2001431842, openalexw2886607489"
}

@article{doi101002jmor10556,
    author = "Macrini, Thomas E. and Rowe, Timothy and VandeBerg, John L.",
    title = "Cranial endocasts from a growth series of Monodelphis domestica (Didelphidae, Marsupialia): A study of individual and ontogenetic variation",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = {Intraspecific variation (e.g., ontogenetic, individual, sexual dimorphic) is rarely examined among cranial endocasts (infillings of the braincase cavity) because of the difficulty in obtaining multiple specimens of a species, particularly fossil taxa. We extracted digital cranial endocasts from CT scans of a growth series of skulls of Monodelphis domestica, the gray short-tailed opossum, as a preliminary assessment of the amount of intraspecific variation in mammalian endocranial morphology. The goals of this study were 1) to provide an anatomical description to document developmental changes in endocranial morphology of M. domestica and 2) to examine ontogenetic and individual variation with respect to phylogenetic characters of endocranial cavities that are known to be variable between different mammalian taxa. In this study, "ontogenetic variation" refers to variation between specimens of different ages whereas "individual variation" (i.e., polymorphism) is restricted to variation between specimens of comparable age. Aside from size, changes in shape account for the greatest amount of morphological variation between the endocasts of different ages. Endocast length, width, and volume increase with age for the growth series. Relative olfactory bulb cast size increases with age in the growth series, but the relative size of the parafloccular casts shows a slight negative allometric trend through ontogeny. More than one-third of the phylogenetic characters of the endocranial cavity we examined showed some sort of variation (ontogenetic, individual, or both). This suggests that although endocasts are potentially informative for systematics, both ontogenetic and individual variation affect how endocranial characters are scored for phylogenetic analysis. Further studies such as this are necessary to determine the taxonomic extent of significant intraspecific variation of these endocranial characters.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10556",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.10556",
    openalex = "W1986324336",
    references = "doi101016b9780123146502500094, openalexw2413160339"
}

@incollection{doi101016b0123708788000653,
    author = "Jerison, Harry J.",
    title = "What Fossils Tell Us about the Evolution of the Neocortex",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Evolution of Nervous Systems",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-370878-8/00065-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b0-12-370878-8/00065-3",
    openalex = "W67295644",
    references = "openalexw2413160339"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0901780106,
    author = "Finarelli, John A. and Flynn, John J.",
    title = "Brain-size evolution and sociality in Carnivora",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Increased encephalization, or larger brain volume relative to body mass, is a repeated theme in vertebrate evolution. Here we present an extensive sampling of relative brain sizes in fossil and extant taxa in the mammalian order Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears, weasels, and their relatives). By using Akaike Information Criterion model selection and endocranial volume and body mass data for 289 species (including 125 fossil taxa), we document clade-specific evolutionary transformations in encephalization allometries. These evolutionary transformations include multiple independent encephalization increases and decreases in addition to a remarkably static basal Carnivora allometry that characterizes much of the suborder Feliformia and some taxa in the suborder Caniformia across much of their evolutionary history, emphasizing that complex processes shaped the modern distribution of encephalization across Carnivora. This analysis also permits critical evaluation of the social brain hypothesis (SBH), which predicts a close association between sociality and increased encephalization. Previous analyses based on living species alone appeared to support the SBH with respect to Carnivora, but those results are entirely dependent on data from modern Canidae (dogs). Incorporation of fossil data further reveals that no association exists between sociality and encephalization across Carnivora and that support for sociality as a causal agent of encephalization increase disappears for this clade.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901780106",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0901780106",
    openalex = "W2042241416",
    references = "doi101111j15585646200700229x"
}

@article{doi103389neuro180032009,
    author = "Falk, Dean",
    title = "New information about Albert Einstein's Brain",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience",
    abstract = "In order to glean information about hominin (or other) brains that no longer exist, details of external neuroanatomy that are reproduced on endocranial casts (endocasts) from fossilized braincases may be described and interpreted. Despite being, of necessity, speculative, such studies can be very informative when conducted in light of the literature on comparative neuroanatomy, paleontology, and functional imaging studies. Albert Einstein's brain no longer exists in an intact state, but there are photographs of it in various views. Applying techniques developed from paleoanthropology, previously unrecognized details of external neuroanatomy are identified on these photographs. This information should be of interest to paleoneurologists, comparative neuroanatomists, historians of science, and cognitive neuroscientists. The new identifications of cortical features should also be archived for future scholars who will have access to additional information from improved functional imaging technology. Meanwhile, to the extent possible, Einstein's cerebral cortex is investigated in light of available data about variation in human sulcal patterns. Although much of his cortical surface was unremarkable, regions in and near Einstein's primary somatosensory and motor cortices were unusual. It is possible that these atypical aspects of Einstein's cerebral cortex were related to the difficulty with which he acquired language, his preference for thinking in sensory impressions including visual images rather than words, and his early training on the violin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.18.003.2009",
    doi = "10.3389/neuro.18.003.2009",
    openalex = "W1973807842",
    references = "falk1982mapping"
}

@article{doi101126science1203117,
    author = "Rowe, Timothy B. and Macrini, Thomas E. and Luo, Zhe‐Xi",
    title = "Fossil Evidence on Origin of the Mammalian Brain",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Many hypotheses have been postulated regarding the early evolution of the mammalian brain. Here, x-ray tomography of the Early Jurassic mammaliaforms Morganucodon and Hadrocodium sheds light on this history. We found that relative brain size expanded to mammalian levels, with enlarged olfactory bulbs, neocortex, olfactory (pyriform) cortex, and cerebellum, in two evolutionary pulses. The initial pulse was probably driven by increased resolution in olfaction and improvements in tactile sensitivity (from body hair) and neuromuscular coordination. A second pulse of olfactory enhancement then enlarged the brain to mammalian levels. The origin of crown Mammalia saw a third pulse of olfactory enhancement, with ossified ethmoid turbinals supporting an expansive olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity, allowing full expression of a huge odorant receptor genome.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203117",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1203117",
    openalex = "W2071803223",
    references = "doi101038nature06277, doi101111j109636421973tb00786x, doi101111j109636421981tb01127x, doi107312kiel11918"
}

@article{doi101002wcs1206,
    author = "Kaas, Jon H.",
    title = "The evolution of brains from early mammals to humans",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science",
    abstract = "The large size and complex organization of the human brain makes it unique among primate brains. In particular, the neocortex constitutes about 80\% of the brain, and this cortex is subdivided into a large number of functionally specialized regions, the cortical areas. Such a brain mediates accomplishments and abilities unmatched by any other species. How did such a brain evolve? Answers come from comparative studies of the brains of present-day mammals and other vertebrates in conjunction with information about brain sizes and shapes from the fossil record, studies of brain development, and principles derived from studies of scaling and optimal design. Early mammals were small, with small brains, an emphasis on olfaction, and little neocortex. Neocortex was transformed from the single layer of output pyramidal neurons of the dorsal cortex of earlier ancestors to the six layers of all present-day mammals. This small cap of neocortex was divided into 20-25 cortical areas, including primary and some of the secondary sensory areas that characterize neocortex in nearly all mammals today. Early placental mammals had a corpus callosum connecting the neocortex of the two hemispheres, a primary motor area, M1, and perhaps one or more premotor areas. One line of evolution, Euarchontoglires, led to present-day primates, tree shrews, flying lemurs, rodents, and rabbits. Early primates evolved from small-brained, nocturnal, insect-eating mammals with an expanded region of temporal visual cortex. These early nocturnal primates were adapted to the fine branch niche of the tropical rainforest by having an even more expanded visual system that mediated visually guided reaching and grasping of insects, small vertebrates, and fruits. Neocortex was greatly expanded and included an array of cortical areas that characterize neocortex of all living primates. Specializations of the visual system included new visual areas that contributed to a dorsal stream of visuomotor processing in a greatly enlarged region of posterior parietal cortex and an expanded motor system and the addition of a ventral premotor area. Higher visual areas in a large temporal lobe facilitated object recognition, and frontal cortex included granular prefrontal cortex. Auditory cortex included the primary and secondary auditory areas that characterize prosimian and anthropoid primates today. As anthropoids emerged as diurnal primates, the visual system specialized for detailed foveal vision. Other adaptations included an expansion of prefrontal cortex and insular cortex. The human and chimpanzee-bonobo lineages diverged some 6-8 million years ago with brains that were about one third the size of modern humans. Over the last 2 million years, the brains of our more recent ancestors increased greatly in size, especially in the prefrontal, posterior parietal, lateral temporal, and insular regions. Specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for related, but different functions became pronounced, and language and other impressive cognitive abilities emerged. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:33-45. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1206 This article is categorized under: Neuroscience > Anatomy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1206",
    doi = "10.1002/wcs.1206",
    openalex = "W2160711826",
    references = "doi101016b9780444538604000052"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20121156,
    author = "Orliac, Maëva J. and Gilissen, Emmanuel",
    title = "Virtual endocranial cast of earliest Eocene Diacodexis (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) and morphological diversity of early artiodactyl brains",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The study of brain evolution, particularly that of the neocortex, is of primary interest because it directly relates to how behavioural variations arose both between and within mammalian groups. Artiodactyla is one of the most diverse mammalian clades. However, the first 10 Myr of their brain evolution has remained undocumented so far. Here, we used high-resolution X-ray computed tomography to investigate the endocranial cast of Diacodexis ilicis of earliest Eocene age. Its virtual reconstruction provides unprecedented access to both metric parameters and fine anatomy of the most complete endocast of the earliest artiodactyl. This picture is assessed in a broad comparative context by reconstructing endocasts of 14 other Early and Middle Eocene representatives of basal artiodactyls, allowing the tracking of the neocortical structure of artiodactyls back to its simplest pattern. We show that the earliest artiodactyls share a simple neocortical pattern, so far never observed in other ungulates, with an almond-shaped gyrus instead of parallel sulci as previously hypothesized. Our results demonstrate that artiodactyls experienced a tardy pulse of encephalization during the Late Neogene, well after the onset of cortical complexity increase. Comparisons with Eocene perissodactyls show that the latter reached a high level of cortical complexity earlier than the artiodactyls.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1156",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2012.1156",
    openalex = "W2123150416",
    references = "doi1016710390290413, openalexw16475780"
}

@article{jerison2012digitized,
    author = "Jerison, Harry J.",
    title = "Digitized Fossil Brains: Neocorticalization",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Biolinguistics",
    abstract = "This report is based on 3D digital scans of endocasts of 110 species of fossil mammals and 35 species of living mammals. It presents direct evidence of the last 60 million years of brain evolution. Endocasts are casts of the cranial cavity. They are brainlike in size and shape, and their surface features can be named as if they were brain structures. Although endocast data are restricted to outer surfaces of brains, a few inferences about inner structure are possible. Neocortex in the forebrain, for example, is identifiable and measurable as cerebral forebrain on the endocast dorsal to the rhinal fissure. An important result in this report is that surface area of neocortex as identified on endocasts appears to have reached a maximum of about 80\% of the total endocast surface area in anthropoid primates including humans. This may be a fundamental limitation in brain size. The average neocorticalization percentage for mammals as a whole rose from about 20\% to about 50\% of the surface area during the 60 million years covered by this analysis. Neocorticalization is associated with the evolution of higher mental processes, including the evolution of language as a hominin specialization. The limitation of the increase in relative amount of neocortex is similar in all anthropoids. Neocortex is greater in absolute area in living humans because the total size of the hominin brain is so much larger than in other primates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5964/bioling.8929",
    doi = "10.5964/bioling.8929",
    number = "3-4",
    openalex = "W1482619672",
    pages = "383-392",
    volume = "6",
    references = "doi10100797894017203976, doi101016b9780123146502500094, doi101016b9780444538604000052, doi101016b978044453860400012x, doi101016b9780444538604000180, doi10140039001, doi1016710390290413, doi105964bioling8791, openalexw2413160339, openalexw2565082193"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20130575,
    author = "Gómez‐Robles, Aida and Hopkins, William D. and Sherwood, Chet C.",
    title = "Increased morphological asymmetry, evolvability and plasticity in human brain evolution",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The study of hominin brain evolution relies mostly on evaluation of the endocranial morphology of fossil skulls. However, only some general features of external brain morphology are evident from endocasts, and many anatomical details can be difficult or impossible to examine. In this study, we use geometric morphometric techniques to evaluate inter- and intraspecific differences in cerebral morphology in a sample of in vivo magnetic resonance imaging scans of chimpanzees and humans, with special emphasis on the study of asymmetric variation. Our study reveals that chimpanzee-human differences in cerebral morphology are mainly symmetric; by contrast, there is continuity in asymmetric variation between species, with humans showing an increased range of variation. Moreover, asymmetric variation does not appear to be the result of allometric scaling at intraspecific levels, whereas symmetric changes exhibit very slight allometric effects within each species. Our results emphasize two key properties of brain evolution in the hominine clade: first, evolution of chimpanzee and human brains (and probably their last common ancestor and related species) is not strongly morphologically constrained, thus making their brains highly evolvable and responsive to selective pressures; second, chimpanzee and, especially, human brains show high levels of fluctuating asymmetry indicative of pronounced developmental plasticity. We infer that these two characteristics can have a role in human cognitive evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.0575",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2013.0575",
    openalex = "W2107475539",
    references = "doi101016b978044453860400012x"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20132792,
    author = "Orliac, Maëva J. and Ladevèze, Sandrine and Gingerich, Philip D. and Lebrun, Renaud and Smith, Thierry",
    title = "Endocranial morphology of Palaeocene Plesiadapis tricuspidens and evolution of the early primate brain",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Expansion of the brain is a key feature of primate evolution. The fossil record, although incomplete, allows a partial reconstruction of changes in primate brain size and morphology through time. Palaeogene plesiadapoids, closest relatives of Euprimates (or crown-group primates), are crucial for understanding early evolution of the primate brain. However, brain morphology of this group remains poorly documented, and major questions remain regarding the initial phase of euprimate brain evolution. Micro-CT investigation of the endocranial morphology of Plesiadapis tricuspidens from the Late Palaeocene of Europe--the most complete plesiadapoid cranium known--shows that plesiadapoids retained a very small and simple brain. Plesiadapis has midbrain exposure, and minimal encephalization and neocorticalization, making it comparable with that of stem rodents and lagomorphs. However, Plesiadapis shares a domed neocortex and downwardly shifted olfactory-bulb axis with Euprimates. If accepted phylogenetic relationships are correct, then this implies that the euprimate brain underwent drastic reorganization during the Palaeocene, and some changes in brain structure preceded brain size increase and neocortex expansion during evolution of the primate brain.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2792",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2013.2792",
    openalex = "W2099079264",
    references = "doi101002109686442000101132235aidajpa730co29, doi101002ajpa1330580110, doi101002evan1360010308, doi101002sici15206505199865178aidevan530co28, doi1010079789400908130, doi10103835016580, doi101073pnas0610579104, doi101126science1203117, doi1023072412937, jerison2012digitized, openalexw1532628765"
}

@article{doi101159000365276,
    author = "Neubauer, Simon",
    title = "Endocasts: Possibilities and Limitations for the Interpretation of Human Brain Evolution",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Brain Behavior and Evolution",
    abstract = "Brains are not preserved in the fossil record but endocranial casts are. These are casts of the internal bony braincase, revealing approximate brain size and shape, and they are also informative about brain surface morphology. Endocasts are the only direct evidence of human brain evolution, but they provide only limited data ('paleoneurology'). This review discusses some new fossil endocasts and recent methodological advances that have allowed novel analyses of old endocasts, leading to intriguing findings and hypotheses. The interpretation of paleoneurological data always relies on comparative information from living species whose brains and behavior can be directly investigated. It is therefore important that future studies attempt to better integrate different approaches. Only then will we be able to gain a better understanding about hominin brain evolution. © 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1159/000365276",
    doi = "10.1159/000365276",
    openalex = "W2040191384",
    references = "doi101016b978044453860400012x"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0113898,
    author = "Clement, Alice M. and Ahlberg, Per",
    title = "The First Virtual Cranial Endocast of a Lungfish (Sarcopterygii: Dipnoi)",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Lungfish, or dipnoans, have a history spanning over 400 million years and are the closest living sister taxon to the tetrapods. Most Devonian lungfish had heavily ossified endoskeletons, whereas most Mesozoic and Cenozoic lungfish had largely cartilaginous endoskeletons and are usually known only from isolated tooth plates or disarticulated bone fragments. There is thus a substantial temporal and evolutionary gap in our understanding of lungfish endoskeletal morphology, between the diverse and highly variable Devonian forms on the one hand and the three extant genera on the other. Here we present a virtual cranial endocast of Rhinodipterus kimberleyensis, from the Late Devonian Gogo Formation of Australia, one of the most derived fossil dipnoans with a well-ossified braincase. This endocast, generated from a Computed Microtomography (µCT) scan of the skull, is the first virtual endocast of any lungfish published, and only the third fossil dipnoan endocast to be illustrated in its entirety. Key features include long olfactory canals, a telencephalic cavity with a moderate degree of ventral expansion, large suparaotic cavities, and moderately enlarged utricular recesses. It has numerous similarities to the endocasts of Chirodipterus wildungensis and Griphognathus whitei, and to a lesser degree to 'Chirodipterus' australis and Dipnorhynchus sussmilchi. Among extant lungfish, it consistently resembles Neoceratodus more closely than Lepidosiren and Protopterus. Several trends in the evolution of the brains and labyrinth regions in dipnoans, such as the expansions of the utricular recess and telencephalic regions over time, are identified and discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113898",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0113898",
    openalex = "W2006081676",
    references = "doi1016710390290413"
}

@article{doi10166613109,
    author = "Racicot, Rachel A. and Rowe, Timothy B.",
    title = "Endocranial anatomy of a new fossil porpoise (Odontoceti, Phocoenidae) from the Pliocene San Diego Formation of California",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Journal of Paleontology",
    abstract = "The Pliocene fossil porpoise SDSNH 65276 has extremely elongate mandibular morphology, unlike that of any marine amniote, and is superficially most similar to the living bird species known as skimmers (Rynchops sp.). Endocasts of the pterygoid sinuses and endocranial cavity were digitally segmented from high-resolution X-ray CT scans of the specimen to explore internal anatomy of functionally and phylogenetically important anatomical features of this specimen and odontocetes in general. The sinuses are similar in volume and shape to extant porpoise species, but the dorsal extension of the preorbital lobes are particularly elongate as in the harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). The cranial endocast also shows similarities with extant porpoises, but has much deeper interhemispheric fissures, which are filled by ossified meninges, particularly a deep falx cerebri and shallower tentorium cerebelli. Ossifications of these parts of the meninges may reflect faster angular accelerations of the head, deeper diving ability, or both. Penetrations of the endocranial cavity for cranial nerves and blood vessels are like those of extant porpoises. The internal skull morphology of this unique delphinoid sheds additional light both on its phylogenetic affinities and novel odontocete adaptations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1666/13-109",
    doi = "10.1666/13-109",
    openalex = "W2118206502",
    references = "doi1016710390290413"
}

@article{doi103389fnana201400019,
    author = "Bruner, Emiliano and de la Cuétara, José Manuel and Masters, Michael and Amano, Hideki and Ogihara, Naomichi",
    title = "Functional craniology and brain evolution: from paleontology to biomedicine",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy",
    abstract = "Anatomical systems are organized through a network of structural and functional relationships among their elements. This network of relationships is the result of evolution, it represents the actual target of selection, and it generates the set of rules orienting and constraining the morphogenetic processes. Understanding the relationship among cranial and cerebral components is necessary to investigate the factors that have influenced and characterized our neuroanatomy, and possible drawbacks associated with the evolution of large brains. The study of the spatial relationships between skull and brain in the human genus has direct relevance in cranial surgery. Geometrical modeling can provide functional perspectives in evolution and brain physiology, like in simulations to investigate metabolic heat production and dissipation in the endocranial form. Analysis of the evolutionary constraints between facial and neural blocks can provide new information on visual impairment. The study of brain form variation in fossil humans can supply a different perspective for interpreting the processes behind neurodegeneration and Alzheimer's disease. Following these examples, it is apparent that paleontology and biomedicine can exchange relevant information and contribute at the same time to the development of robust evolutionary hypotheses on brain evolution, while offering more comprehensive biological perspectives with regard to the interpretation of pathological processes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2014.00019",
    doi = "10.3389/fnana.2014.00019",
    openalex = "W1982686609",
    references = "doi101016b9780444538604000180"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1512646112,
    author = "Gómez‐Robles, Aida and Hopkins, William D. and Schapiro, Steven J. and Sherwood, Chet C.",
    title = "Relaxed genetic control of cortical organization in human brains compared with chimpanzees",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The study of hominin brain evolution has focused largely on the neocortical expansion and reorganization undergone by humans as inferred from the endocranial fossil record. Comparisons of modern human brains with those of chimpanzees provide an additional line of evidence to define key neural traits that have emerged in human evolution and that underlie our unique behavioral specializations. In an attempt to identify fundamental developmental differences, we have estimated the genetic bases of brain size and cortical organization in chimpanzees and humans by studying phenotypic similarities between individuals with known kinship relationships. We show that, although heritability for brain size and cortical organization is high in chimpanzees, cerebral cortical anatomy is substantially less genetically heritable than brain size in humans, indicating greater plasticity and increased environmental influence on neurodevelopment in our species. This relaxed genetic control on cortical organization is especially marked in association areas and likely is related to underlying microstructural changes in neural circuitry. A major result of increased plasticity is that the development of neural circuits that underlie behavior is shaped by the environmental, social, and cultural context more intensively in humans than in other primate species, thus providing an anatomical basis for behavioral and cognitive evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512646112",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1512646112",
    openalex = "W2174507744",
    references = "doi101016b978044453860400012x, doi101126science1203922"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0141277,
    author = "Clement, Alice M. and Nysjö, Johan and Strand, Robin and Ahlberg, Per",
    title = "Brain – Endocast Relationship in the Australian Lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri, Elucidated from Tomographic Data (Sarcopterygii: Dipnoi)",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Although the brains of the three extant lungfish genera have been previously described, the spatial relationship between the brain and the neurocranium has never before been fully described nor quantified. Through the application of virtual microtomography (μCT) and 3D rendering software, we describe aspects of the gross anatomy of the brain and labyrinth region in the Australian lungfish, Neoceratodus forsteri and compare this to previous accounts. Unexpected characters in this specimen include short olfactory peduncles connecting the olfactory bulbs to the telencephalon, and an oblong telencephalon. Furthermore, we illustrate the endocast (the mould of the internal space of the neurocranial cavity) of Neoceratodus, also describing and quantifying the brain-endocast relationship in a lungfish for the first time. Overall, the brain of the Australian lungfish closely matches the size and shape of the endocast cavity housing it, filling more than four fifths of the total volume. The forebrain and labyrinth regions of the brain correspond very well to the endocast morphology, while the midbrain and hindbrain do not fit so closely. Our results cast light on the gross neural and endocast anatomy in lungfishes, and are likely to have particular significance for palaeoneurologists studying fossil taxa.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141277",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0141277",
    openalex = "W2176829017",
    references = "doi1016710390290413"
}

@article{beaudet2016morphoarchitectural,
    author = "Beaudet, Amélie and Dumoncel, Jean and de Beer, Frikkie and Duployer, Benjamin and Durrleman, Stanley and Gilissen, Emmanuel and Hoffman, Jakobus and Tenailleau, Christophe and Thackeray, John Francis and Braga, José",
    title = "Morphoarchitectural variation in South African fossil cercopithecoid endocasts",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.09.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.09.003",
    openalex = "W2553039824",
    pages = "65-78",
    volume = "101",
    references = "doi101002sici10969861199909204122319aidcne1030co27, doi101006jhev19960122, doi101007bf02547562, doi101007s1169201191098, doi101016c20090220356, doi101038385313a0, doi101038nphys3632, doi101093cercorbhm225, doi1018637jssv025i01, openalexw4298038408"
}

@article{doi101016jjhevol201606002,
    author = "Boyer, Douglas and Kirk, E. Christopher and Silcox, Mary and Gunnell, Gregg F. and Gilbert, Christopher C. and Yapuncich, Gabriel and Allen, Kari and Welch, Emma and Bloch, Jonathan I. and Gonzales, Lauren A. and Kay, Richard F. and Seiffert, Erik R.",
    title = "Internal carotid arterial canal size and scaling in Euarchonta: Re-assessing implications for arterial patency and phylogenetic relationships in early fossil primates",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.06.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.06.002",
    openalex = "W2463707678",
    references = "doi101016jjhevol201606005"
}

@article{doi1010800272463420161095762,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "First virtual endocasts of a fossil rodent: Ischyromys typus (Ischyromyidae, Oligocene) and brain evolution in rodents",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "The evolution of the brain in rodents has rarely been studied from the perspective of the fossil record. Here we describe the first virtual endocast of a fossil rodent, pertaining to Ischyromys typus (ROMV 1007; Orellan North American Land Mammal Age [NALMA], Nebraska), and form comparisons with partial and complete natural endocasts pertaining to the same genus, and with the virtual endocast of a closely related extant rodent (Sciurus carolinensis; AMNH 258346). These data allow us to formulate the first hypotheses informed by the fossil record concerning changes in brain size and shape through time in rodents, and to make comparisons with other euarchontoglirans, including Primates. Ischyromys exhibits several aspects of brain morphology that can be inferred to be primitive, in part based on their presence in plesiadapiform primates (e.g., exposed midbrain), although variation exists within the genus Ischyromys with respect to the visibility of the inferior colliculi. There is some evidence that neocorticalization occurred in rodents through time but to a lesser degree than in Primates. Arboreality might be linked to increases in the encephalization quotient and specializations related to vision in rodents, which contrasts with the situation in Primates. Finally, Oligocene rodents had smaller olfactory bulbs compared with plesiadapiform primates from the Eocene, meaning that olfaction might have been less critical in the early evolution of rodents. These results show that the evolution of the brain in mammals does not always follow the same evolutionary trajectories and demonstrates the importance of considering ecological factors when looking at brain size.SUPPLEMENTAL DATA—Supplemental materials are available for this article for free at www.tandfonline.com/UJVPCitation for this article: Bertrand, O. C., and M. T. Silcox. 2016. First virtual endocasts of a fossil rodent: Ischyromys typus (Ischyromyidae, Oligocene) and brain evolution in rodents. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2016.1096275.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2016.1095762",
    doi = "10.1080/02724634.2016.1095762",
    openalex = "W2341528725",
    references = "doi101002ajpa22724, doi101016s001600323892229x, doi101038114085a0, doi10103835054550, doi101086282938, doi101098rspb20132792, doi101098rspb20152316, doi1023071223169, doi1023072407154, doi103998mpub9690664, doi105860choice280965, doi105962bhltitle542, jerison2012digitized, openalexw1532628765"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20152316,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Amador‐Mughal, Farrah and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "Virtual endocasts of Eocene Paramys (Paramyinae): oldest endocranial record for Rodentia and early brain evolution in Euarchontoglires",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Understanding the pattern of brain evolution in early rodents is central to reconstructing the ancestral condition for Glires, and for other members of Euarchontoglires including Primates. We describe the oldest virtual endocasts known for fossil rodents, which pertain to Paramys copei (Early Eocene) and Paramys delicatus (Middle Eocene). Both specimens of Paramys have larger olfactory bulbs and smaller paraflocculi relative to total endocranial volume than later occurring rodents, which may be primitive traits for Rodentia. The encephalization quotients (EQs) of Pa. copei and Pa. delicatus are higher than that of later occurring (Oligocene) Ischyromys typus, which contradicts the hypothesis that EQ increases through time in all mammalian orders. However, both species of Paramys have a lower relative neocortical surface area than later rodents, suggesting neocorticalization occurred through time in this Order, although to a lesser degree than in Primates. Paramys has a higher EQ but a lower neocortical ratio than any stem primate. This result contrasts with the idea that primates were always exceptional in their degree of overall encephalization and shows that relative brain size and neocortical surface area do not necessarily covary through time. As such, these data contradict assumptions made about the pattern of brain evolution in Euarchontoglires.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.2316",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2015.2316",
    openalex = "W2278190162",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511529924, doi101073pnas0610579104, doi101073pnas7774387, doi101152jn007682000, doi1011861471214891, doi10118614712148971, doi1023072407154, jerison2012digitized, openalexw1532628765, openalexw2147535983"
}

@article{doi101111joa12537,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Amador‐Mughal, Farrah and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "Virtual endocast of the early Oligocene Cedromus wilsoni (Cedromurinae) and brain evolution in squirrels",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "Extant squirrels exhibit extensive variation in brain size and shape, but published endocranial data for living squirrels are limited, and no study has ever examined brain evolution in Sciuridae from the perspective of the fossil record to understand how this diversity emerged. We describe the first virtual endocast for a fossil sciurid, Cedromus wilsoni, which is known from a complete cranium from Wyoming (Orellan, Oligocene), and make comparisons to a diverse sample of virtual endocasts for living sciurids (N = 20). The virtual endocasts were obtained from high-resolution X-ray micro-computed tomography data. Comparisons were also made with endocasts of extinct ischyromyid rodents, the most primitive rodents known from an endocranial record, which provide the opportunity to study the neuroanatomical changes occurring near the base of Sciuridae. The encephalization quotient of C. wilsoni is higher than that of Ischyromys typus from the same epoch, and falls within the range of modern terrestrial squirrel variation, but below the range of extant scansorial, arboreal and gliding sciurids when using cheek-tooth area for the estimation of body mass. In a principal components analysis, the shape of the endocast of C. wilsoni is found to be intermediate between that of primitive fossil taxa and the modern sample. Cedromus wilsoni has a more expanded neocortical surface area, especially the caudal region of the cerebrum, compared with ischyromyid rodents. Furthermore, C. wilsoni had proportionally larger paraflocculi and a more complex cerebellar morphology compared with ischyromyid rodents. These neurological differences may be associated with improvements in vision, although it is worth noting that the size of the parts of the brain most directly involved with vision [the rostral (superior) colliculi and the primary visual cortex] cannot be directly assessed on endocasts. The changes observed could also relate to balance and limb coordination. Ultimately, the available evidence suggests that early squirrels were more agile and visually oriented animals compared with more primitive rodents, which may relate to the process of becoming arboreal. Extant sciurids have an even more expanded neocortical surface area, while exhibiting proportionally smaller paraflocculi, compared with C. wilsoni. This suggests that the neocortex may continue increasing in size in more recent sciurid rodents in relation to other factors than arboreality. Despite the fact that both Primates and Rodentia exhibit neocortical expansion through time, since the adoption of arboreality preceded major increases in the neocortex in Primates, those neurological changes may be related to different ecological factors, underlining the complexity of the inter-relationship between time and ecology in shaping the brain in even closely related clades.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12537",
    doi = "10.1111/joa.12537",
    openalex = "W2511243760",
    references = "doi101002ajpa22724, doi101016b9780123852502x50019, doi101016c20090019795, doi1010800272463420161095762, doi1010800272463420161269539, doi101086204350, doi101086282938, doi101098rspb20132792, doi101098rspb20152316, doi1023071223169, doi1023072407154, doi10560219780801882210, doi105860choice280965, jerison2012digitized, openalexw1532628765, openalexw2183707334"
}

@article{doi101144sp4483,
    author = "Brasier, Martin D. and Norman, David and Liu, Alexander and Cotton, Laura and Hiscocks, Jamie E. H. and Garwood, Russell J. and Antcliffe, Jonathan B. and Wacey, David",
    title = "Remarkable preservation of brain tissues in an Early Cretaceous iguanodontian dinosaur",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Abstract It has become accepted in recent years that the fossil record can preserve labile tissues. We report here the highly detailed mineralization of soft tissues associated with a naturally occurring brain endocast of an iguanodontian dinosaur found in c. 133 Ma fluvial sediments of the Wealden at Bexhill, Sussex, UK. Moulding of the braincase wall and the mineral replacement of the adjacent brain tissues by phosphates and carbonates allowed the direct examination of petrified brain tissues. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and computed tomography (CT) scanning revealed preservation of the tough membranes (meninges) that enveloped and supported the brain proper. Collagen strands of the meningeal layers were preserved in collophane. The blood vessels, also preserved in collophane, were either lined by, or infilled with, microcrystalline siderite. The meninges were preserved in the hindbrain region and exhibit structural similarities with those of living archosaurs. Greater definition of the forebrain (cerebrum) than the hindbrain (cerebellar and medullary regions) is consistent with the anatomical and implied behavioural complexity previously described in iguanodontian-grade ornithopods. However, we caution that the observed proximity of probable cortical layers to the braincase walls probably resulted from the settling of brain tissues against the roof of the braincase after inversion of the skull during decay and burial. Supplementary material: Information regarding associated fossil material, and additional images, can be found at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3519984",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/sp448.3",
    doi = "10.1144/sp448.3",
    openalex = "W2418773838",
    references = "openalexw2413160339"
}

@article{doi101016jcrpv201612002,
    author = "Beaudet, Amélie and Bruner, Emiliano",
    title = "A frontal lobe surface analysis in three archaic African human fossils: OH 9, Buia, and Bodo",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Comptes Rendus Palevol",
    abstract = "The evolution of the frontal lobes represents a major issue in paleoneurology. In this survey, we used a surface analysis to describe the frontal morphology of three relevant East African specimens from early and middle Pleistocene: OH 9, UA 31, and Bodo. When compared with a modern human endocast, UA 31 and Bodo display a flatter dorso-lateral surface, while OH 9 shows a general flattening of the whole dorsal morphology. OH 9 is the specimen with older chronology and with orbits more separated from the prefrontal cortex than in UA 31 and Bodo. The morphology of these three specimens is in agreement with the hypothesis that increase of the frontal curvature is due to the shifting of the facial block under the anterior cranial fossa. Apart from variations in size and general proportions, surface analysis can be useful in analyzing morphological changes localized in specific cortical areas. The three fossils are used as case study to discuss and review some relevant issues concerning frontal lobe evolution and paleoneurology. L’évolution des lobes frontaux représente un problème central en paléoneurologie. Dans cette étude, nous utilisons une analyse de surface pour décrire la morphologie frontale de trois spécimens est-africains clés du Pléistocène inférieur et moyen: OH 9, UA 31, et Bodo. Comparés à un endocrâne humain moderne, UA 31 et Bodo présentent une surface dorso-latérale plus aplatie, alors qu’OH 9 montre un aplatissement sur l’ensemble de la morphologie dorsale. OH 9 est le spécimen le plus ancien, avec des orbites davantage séparées du cortex préfrontal par rapport à UA 31 et Bodo. La morphologie de ces trois spécimens est en accord avec l’hypothèse d’une augmentation de la courbure frontale causée par la position du bloc facial sous la fosse crânienne antérieure. Au-delà des variations de taille et des proportions générales, l’analyse de surface peut être utile pour analyser les changements morphologiques localisés sur des aires corticales spécifiques. Les trois fossiles sont utilisés comme des cas d’étude pour discuter et revisiter quelques problèmes pertinents sur l’évolution des lobes frontaux et la paléoneurologie.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2016.12.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.crpv.2016.12.002",
    openalex = "W2586673126",
    references = "beaudet2016morphoarchitectural"
}

@article{doi101038nature22335,
    author = "Richter, Daniel and Grün, Rainer and Joannes‐Boyau, Renaud and Steele, Teresa E. and Amani, Fethi and Rué, Mathieu and Fernandes, Paul and Raynal, Jean‐Paul and Geraads, Denis and Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed and Hublin, Jean‐Jacques and McPherron, Shannon P.",
    title = "The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22335",
    doi = "10.1038/nature22335",
    openalex = "W2622484995",
    references = "doi101038331614a0, doi101038nature22336"
}

@article{doi101038nature22336,
    author = "Hublin, Jean‐Jacques and Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed and Bailey, Shara E. and Freidline, Sarah E. and Neubauer, Simon and Skinner, Matthew M. and Bergmann, Inga and Cabec, Adeline Le and Benazzi, Stefano and Harvati, Katerina and Gunz, Philipp",
    title = "New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22336",
    doi = "10.1038/nature22336",
    openalex = "W2623319323",
    references = "doi101007s116920099055x, doi101016s004724848280016x, doi101016s1361841597850128, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature03258, doi101038nature22335, doi101111j14697580200901106x, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi101126science1224344, doi1023072992207, doi104404hystrix2416292"
}

@article{doi103389fnhum201700427,
    author = "Beaudet, Amélie",
    title = "The Emergence of Language in the Hominin Lineage: Perspectives from Fossil Endocasts",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Frontiers in Human Neuroscience",
    abstract = "Since brain does not fossilize, brain endocast (i.e., replica of the inner surface of the braincase, Figure ​Figure1)1) constitutes the only direct evidence for reconstructing hominin brain evolution (Holloway, 1978; Holloway et al., 2004a). In this context, paleoneurology has suffered from strong limitations due to the fragmentary nature of the fossil record and the absence of any information regarding subcortical elements in extinct taxa. Additionally, variation in brain shape and organization (and in the corresponding endocast) is technically difficult to capture, as stated by Bruner (2017a, p. 64): “[…] the smooth and blurred geometry of the brain, its complex and complicated mechanisms, and its noticeable individual variability make any research associated with its morphology very entangled and difficult to develop within fixed methodological approaches.” An emblematic example might be the reluctance of paleoneurologists to consider the sulcal imprints visible on the endocranial surface because of the substantial uncertainties in describing such features in fossil specimens and related debates (e.g., the lunate sulcus in the Taung child's endocast; Falk, 1980a, 2009, 2014; Holloway, 1981a; Holloway et al., 2004b). In 1987, Tobias even came to the conclusion that “The recognition of specific cerebral gyri and sulci from their impressions on an endocast is a taxing, often subjective and even invidious undertaking which arouses much argumentation” (p. 748). However, in conjunction with a conceptual shift toward a more comprehensive overview of hominin brain evolution (e.g., reconsideration of the “cerebral rubicon” characterizing the human brain, Falk, 1980b; Holloway, 1983), continuous discoveries of new fossil material and recent analytical developments are progressively improving and refining our knowledge about the human neural evolutionary history. In particular, paleoneurology is producing new evidence for reconstructing the timing and mode of the emergence of crucial functions, such as language.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00427",
    doi = "10.3389/fnhum.2017.00427",
    openalex = "W2749011347",
    references = "beaudet2016morphoarchitectural"
}

@incollection{beaudet2018fossil,
    author = "Beaudet, Amélie and Gilissen, Emmanuel",
    title = "Fossil Primate Endocasts: Perspectives from Advanced Imaging Techniques",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "Digital Endocasts",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56582-6\_4",
    doi = "10.1007/978-4-431-56582-6\_4",
    openalex = "W2779469035",
    pages = "47-58",
    references = "doi101002sici10969861199909204122319aidcne1030co27, doi101007bf00304699, doi101016104732039090014m, doi101016jtins201301006, doi101038202007a0, doi10103835016580, doi101038385313a0, doi101093cercor111, doi101093cercorbhm225, doi103233fi2000411207, falk1982mapping"
}

@article{doi101007s1091401894411,
    author = "Boscaini, Alberto and Iurino, Dawid A. and Sardella, Raffaele and Tirao, G. and Gaudin, Timothy J. and Pujos, François",
    title = "Digital Cranial Endocasts of the Extinct Sloth Glossotherium robustum (Xenarthra, Mylodontidae) from the Late Pleistocene of Argentina: Description and Comparison with the Extant Sloths",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Journal of Mammalian Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-018-9441-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s10914-018-9441-1",
    openalex = "W2806534689",
    references = "doi101111joa12537"
}

@article{doi101111pala12378,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Amador‐Mughal, Farrah and Lang, Madlen M. and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "Virtual endocasts of fossil Sciuroidea: brain size reduction in the evolution of fossoriality",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Palaeontology",
    abstract = "Abstract Aplodontia rufa (mountain beaver) is the only extant member of the Aplodontidae. The fossil record indicates that this family displayed greater taxonomic and ecological diversity in the past, and that the burrowing adaptations of Aplodontia might be derived. We describe the first virtual endocasts of A. rufa and of three fossil aplodontids: Prosciurus relictus and Pros. aff. saskatchewaensis (early Oligocene), and Mesogaulus paniensis (early Miocene). Our results show that the endocasts of early aplodontid rodents are more similar to those of early arboreal squirrels than to those of the later occurring aplodontids in terms of both relative size and morphology. The endocranial features observed in sciurids and early aplodontids, missing in later aplodontids, have been associated with better vision and the development of arboreality in squirrels. Basal Aplodontidae known from postcrania have been described as generalists with some features for arboreality, which may provide a basis for these similarities. In contrast, the relatively small endocasts of the later occurring aplodontids, which lack traits related to visual specialization, may reflect their burrowing adaptations, as they would be less reliant on visual cues. When integrated with data from the most primitive fossil rodents, the Ischyromyidae, these new data suggest that early squirrels and aplodontids diverged from more terrestrial ischyromyids to become more arboreal, with relatively larger brains showing traits for improved vision. Recent Aplodontidae with fossorial adaptations returned to a more ischyromyid‐like condition in their endocranial features. These results are consistent with previous observations that changes in locomotion are reflected in the endocranial anatomy of rodents.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12378",
    doi = "10.1111/pala.12378",
    openalex = "W2810339393",
    references = "doi101002ajpa22724, doi101016016622369593938t, doi101016b9780123852502x50019, doi1010800272463420161095762, doi101098rspb20132792, doi101098rspb20152316, doi101111joa12537, doi101146annurevne11030188002231, doi101186147121481288, doi1011861471214891, doi10118614712148971, doi1023072413336, doi10560219780801882210, doi105860choice280965, jerison2012digitized, openalexw1532628765"
}

@article{doi101159000487248,
    author = "Falk, Dean and Zollikofer, Christoph P. E. and de León, Marcia S. Ponce and Semendeferi, Katerina and Warren, José Luis Alatorre and Hopkins, William D.",
    title = "Identification of in vivo Sulci on the External Surface of Eight Adult Chimpanzee Brains: Implications for Interpreting Early Hominin Endocasts",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Brain Behavior and Evolution",
    abstract = "The only direct source of information about hominin brain evolution comes from the fossil record of endocranial casts (endocasts) that reproduce details of the external morphology of the brain imprinted on the walls of the braincase during life. Surface traces of sulci that separate the brain's convolutions (gyri) are reproduced sporadically on early hominin endocasts. Paleoneurologists rely heavily on published descriptions of sulci on brains of great apes, especially chimpanzees (humans' phylogenetically closest living relatives), to guide their identifications of sulci on ape-sized hominin endocasts. However, the few comprehensive descriptions of cortical sulci published for chimpanzees usually relied on post mortem brains, (now) antiquated terminology for some sulci, and photographs or line drawings from limited perspectives (typically right or left lateral views). The shortage of adequate descriptions of chimpanzee sulcal patterns partly explains why the identities of certain sulci on australopithecine endocasts (e.g., the inferior frontal and middle frontal sulci) have been controversial. Here, we provide images of lateral and dorsal surfaces of 16 hemispheres from 4 male and 4 female adult chimpanzee brains that were obtained using in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Sulci on the exposed surfaces of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are identified on the images based on their locations, positions relative to each other, and homologies known from comparative studies of cytoarchitecture in primates. These images and sulcal identifications exceed the quantity and quality of previously published illustrations of chimpanzee brains with comprehensively labeled sulci and, thus, provide a larger number of examples for identifying sulci on hominin endocasts than hitherto available. Our findings, even in a small sample like the present one, overturn published claims that australopithecine endocasts reproduce derived configurations of certain sulci in their frontal lobes that never appear on chimpanzee brains. The sulcal patterns in these new images also suggest that changes in two gyri that bridge between the parietal and occipital lobes may have contributed to cortical reorganization in early hominins. It is our hope that these labeled in vivo chimpanzee brains will assist future researchers in identifying sulci on hominin endocasts, which is a necessary first step in the quest to learn how and when the external morphology of the human cerebral cortex evolved from apelike precursors.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1159/000487248",
    doi = "10.1159/000487248",
    openalex = "W2789355574",
    references = "beaudet2016morphoarchitectural"
}

@article{doi101111jzo12665,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Martin‐Flores, Gabriela San and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "Endocranial shape variation in the squirrel‐related clade and their fossil relatives using 3D geometric morphometrics: contributions of locomotion and phylogeny to brain shape",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "Abstract Landmark‐based 3D geometric morphometrics has rarely been employed to understand the relationship between endocranial shape, phylogeny and ecology. The goal of this study is to examine the endocranial morphology of members of the squirrel‐related clade by using these methods, and to develop a multi‐faceted framework for studying brain evolution applicable to other groups. The squirrel‐related clade is taxonomically and ecologically diverse, and includes tree squirrels, the mountain beaver and dormice. Virtual endocasts for Ischyromyidae, a primitive group of rodents likely to be related to the squirrel‐related clade, were also included. Thirty landmarks were taken on virtual endocasts derived from 32 extant and extinct species. The results show that endocranial shape and size are significantly correlated in that smaller endocasts are relatively wider laterally than larger endocasts. The principal components analysis (PCA) reveals that endocranial shape is clearly distinct for Sciuridae, Aplodontidae, Gliridae and Ischyromyidae. Endocranial shape variation is associated with changes in the development of the neocortex, cerebellum (including the paraflocculi) and olfactory bulbs. The K mult test shows that endocranial shape reflects phylogenetic relationships among the four families and within Sciuridae. In the PCA analysis, flying squirrels show the most distinct endocranial morphology among squirrels, overlapping the least with other tribes and subfamilies. This result suggests that gliding may have imposed specific constraints on cranial shape. The endocasts of fossil and modern fossorial Aplodontidae have a shape similar to those of Ischyromyidae. This similarity could be the result of homoplasy related to fossorial specialization in later occurring Aplodontidae. The fossil Sciurini Protosciurus is outside the range of variation for modern squirrels, suggesting that the emergence of the modern squirrel endocranial bauplan may have not been established until after the early Miocene. From the data gathered, phylogeny and locomotion both impacted endocranial shape in our rodent sample.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12665",
    doi = "10.1111/jzo.12665",
    openalex = "W2924423492",
    references = "doi101016jjhevol201606005, doi1010800272463420161095762, doi101111joa12537, doi101111pala12378"
}

@article{doi101098rsbl20190914,
    author = "Ferreira, José Darival and Negri, Francisco Ricardo and Sánchez‐Villagra, Marcelo R. and Kerber, Leonardo",
    title = "Small within the largest: brain size and anatomy of the extinct Neoepiblema acreensis, a giant rodent from the Neotropics",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Biology Letters",
    abstract = "Abstract The ecomorphological diversity of caviomorph rodents in South America included giant forms, such as the chinchilloid Neoepiblema acreensis from the Upper Miocene of Brazil. The evolution of the brain anatomy and size of these animals can be now studied with non-invasive imaging techniques and exceptional fossils. Caviomorphs show diversity in the traits of the olfactory bulbs, cerebrum, cerebellum, cranial nerves, and blood vessels. Neoepiblema acreensis had a gyrencephalic brain, with an expansion of the frontal lobe, lacking an evident paraflocculus. Compared to the predictions based on extant taxa, even when considering taphonomical effects, N. acreensis, a rodent that weighted almost 80 kg, had a very low encephalization quotient compared to other rodents. The adaptive value of a low energetic cost and other ecological factors could explain the presence of a small brain in this giant rodent––a pattern we also hypothesize for other Neogene giant rodents.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0914",
    doi = "10.1098/rsbl.2019.0914",
    openalex = "W3006355505",
    references = "doi101111pala12378"
}

@article{doi101111joa13296,
    author = "Bhagat, Raj and Bertrand, Ornella and Silcox, Mary",
    title = "Evolution of arboreality and fossoriality in squirrels and aplodontid rodents: Insights from the semicircular canals of fossil rodents",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "Reconstructing locomotor behaviour for fossil animals is typically done with postcranial elements. However, for species only known from cranial material, locomotor behaviour is difficult to reconstruct. The semicircular canals (SCCs) in the inner ear provide insight into an animal's locomotor agility. A relationship exists between the size of the SCCs relative to body mass and the jerkiness of an animal's locomotion. Additionally, studies have also demonstrated a relationship between SCC orthogonality and angular head velocity. Here, we employ two metrics for reconstructing locomotor agility, radius of curvature dimensions and SCC orthogonality, in a sample of twelve fossil rodents from the families Ischyromyidae, Sciuridae and Aplodontidae. The method utilizing radius of curvature dimensions provided a reconstruction of fossil rodent locomotor behaviour that is more consistent with previous studies assessing fossil rodent locomotor behaviour compared to the method based on SCC orthogonality. Previous work on ischyromyids suggests that this group displayed a variety of locomotor modes. Members of Paramyinae and Ischyromyinae have relatively smaller SCCs and are reconstructed to be relatively slower compared to members of Reithroparamyinae. Early members of the Sciuroidea clade including the sciurid Cedromus wilsoni and the aplodontid Prosciurus relictus are reconstructed to be more agile than ischyromyids, in the range of extant arboreal squirrels. This reconstruction supports previous inferences that arboreality was likely an ancestral trait for this group. Derived members of Sciuridae and Aplodontidae vary in agility scores. The fossil squirrel Protosciurus cf. rachelae is inferred from postcranial material as arboreal, which is in agreement with its high agility, in the range of extant arboreal squirrels. In contrast, the fossil aplodontid Mesogaulus paniensis has a relatively low agility score, similar to the fossorial Aplodontia rufa, the only living aplodontid rodent. This result is in agreement with its postcranial reconstruction as fossorial and with previous indications that early aplodontids were more arboreal than their burrowing descendants.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13296",
    doi = "10.1111/joa.13296",
    openalex = "W3065316381",
    references = "doi101111pala12378"
}

@article{doi101111joa13318,
    author = "Dumoncel, Jean and Subsol, Gérard and Durrleman, Stanley and Bertrand, Anne and de Jager, Edwin and Oettlé, Anna C. and Lockhat, Zarina and Suleman, Farhana E. and Beaudet, Amélie",
    title = "Are endocasts reliable proxies for brains? A 3D quantitative comparison of the extant human brain and endocast",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "Endocasts (i.e., replicas of the inner surface of the bony braincase) constitute a critical proxy for qualifying and quantifying variations in brain shape and organization in extinct taxa. In the absence of brain tissues preserved in the fossil record, endocasts provide the only direct evidence of brain evolution. However, debates on whether or not information inferred from the study of endocasts reflects brain shape and organization have polarized discussions in paleoneurology since the earliest descriptions of cerebral imprints in fossil hominin crania. By means of imaging techniques (i.e., MRIs and CT scans) and 3D modelling methods (i.e., surface-based comparisons), we collected consistent morphological (i.e., shape) and structural (i.e., sulci) information on the variation patterns between the brain and the endocast based on a sample of extant human individuals (N = 5) from the 3D clinical image database of the Steve Biko Academic Hospital in Pretoria (South Africa) and the Hôpitaux Universitaires Pitié Salpêtrière in Paris (France). Surfaces of the brain and endocast of the same individual were segmented from the 3D MRIs and CT images, respectively. Sulcal imprints were automatically detected. We performed a deformation-based shape analysis to compare both the shape and the sulcal pattern of the brain and the endocast. We demonstrated that there is close correspondence in terms of morphology and organization between the brain and the corresponding endocast with the exception of the superior region. By comparatively quantifying the shape and organization of the brain and endocast, this work represents an important reference for paleoneurological studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13318",
    doi = "10.1111/joa.13318",
    openalex = "W3090994656",
    references = "beaudet2016morphoarchitectural, beaudet2018fossil"
}

@article{doi101111evo14163,
    author = "Weisbecker, Vera and Rowe, Timothy B. and Wroe, Stephen and Macrini, Thomas E. and Garland, Kathleen and Travouillon, Kenny J. and Black, Karen H. and Archer, Michael and Hand, Suzanne J. and Berlin, Jeri C. and Beck, Robin M. D. and Ladevèze, Sandrine and Sharp, Alana C. and Mardon, Karine and Sherratt, Emma",
    title = "Global elongation and high shape flexibility as an evolutionary hypothesis of accommodating mammalian brains into skulls",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Little is known about how the large brains of mammals are accommodated into the dazzling diversity of their skulls. It has been suggested that brain shape is influenced by relative brain size, that it evolves or develops according to extrinsic or intrinsic mechanical constraints, and that its shape can provide insights into its proportions and function. Here, we characterize the shape variation among 84 marsupial cranial endocasts of 57 species including fossils, using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics and virtual dissections. Statistical shape analysis revealed four main patterns: over half of endocast shape variation ranges from elongate and straight to globular and inclined; little allometric variation with respect to centroid size, and none for relative volume; no association between locomotion and endocast shape; limited association between endocast shape and previously published histological cortex volumes. Fossil species tend to have smaller cerebral hemispheres. We find divergent endocast shapes in closely related species and within species, and diverse morphologies superimposed over the main variation. An evolutionarily and individually malleable brain with a fundamental tendency to arrange into a spectrum of elongate-to-globular shapes-possibly mostly independent of brain function-may explain the accommodation of brains within the enormous diversity of mammalian skull form.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.14163",
    doi = "10.1111/evo.14163",
    openalex = "W3121974471",
    references = "doi10100703872761493, doi101016c20100662092, doi101038nmeth2089, doi10108001621459197010481136, doi101093bioinformaticsbtg412, doi101111j001438202002tb00117x, doi101111j155856461996tb03563x, doi101159000452856, doi1023072412825, doi1023072992207, jerison2012digitized"
}

@article{doi101126sciadvabe2101,
    author = "Smaers, Jeroen B. and Rothman, Ryan S. and Hudson, Daphne R. and Balanoff, Amy M. and Beatty, Brian L. and Dechmann, Dina K. N. and de Vries, Dorien and Dunn, Jacob C. and Fleagle, John G. and Gilbert, Christopher C. and Goswami, Anjali and Iwaniuk, Andrew N. and Jungers, William L. and Kerney, Max and Ksepka, Daniel T. and Manger, Paul R. and Mongle, Carrie S. and Rohlf, F. James and Smith, Neil and Soligo, Christophe and Weisbecker, Vera and Safi, Kamran",
    title = "The evolution of mammalian brain size",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = "Relative brain size has long been considered a reflection of cognitive capacities and has played a fundamental role in developing core theories in the life sciences. Yet, the notion that relative brain size validly represents selection on brain size relies on the untested assumptions that brain-body allometry is restrained to a stable scaling relationship across species and that any deviation from this slope is due to selection on brain size. Using the largest fossil and extant dataset yet assembled, we find that shifts in allometric slope underpin major transitions in mammalian evolution and are often primarily characterized by marked changes in body size. Our results reveal that the largest-brained mammals achieved large relative brain sizes by highly divergent paths. These findings prompt a reevaluation of the traditional paradigm of relative brain size and open new opportunities to improve our understanding of the genetic and developmental mechanisms that influence brain size.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe2101",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.abe2101",
    openalex = "W3158042772",
    references = "beaudet2016morphoarchitectural"
}

@article{doi101002hbm25964,
    author = "de Jager, Edwin John and Risser, Laurent and Mescam, Muriel and Fonta, Caroline and Beaudet, Amélie",
    title = "Sulci 3D mapping from human cranial endocasts: A powerful tool to study hominin brain evolution",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Human Brain Mapping",
    abstract = "Key questions in paleoneurology concern the timing and emergence of derived cerebral features within the human lineage. Endocasts are replicas of the internal table of the bony braincase that are widely used in paleoneurology as a proxy for reconstructing a timeline for hominin brain evolution in the fossil record. The accurate identification of cerebral sulci imprints in endocasts is critical for assessing the topographic extension and structural organisation of cortical regions in fossil hominins. High-resolution imaging techniques combined with established methods based on population-specific brain atlases offer new opportunities for tracking detailed endocranial characteristics. This study provides the first documentation of sulcal pattern imprints from the superolateral surface of the cerebrum using a population-based atlas technique on extant human endocasts. Human crania from the Pretoria Bone Collection (South Africa) were scanned using micro-CT. Endocasts were virtually extracted, and sulci were automatically detected and manually labelled. A density map method was applied to project all the labels onto an averaged endocast to visualise the mean distribution of each identified sulcal imprint. This method allowed for the visualisation of inter-individual variation of sulcal imprints, for example, frontal lobe sulci, correlating with previous brain-MRI studies and for the first time the extensive overlapping of imprints in historically debated areas of the endocast (e.g. occipital lobe). In providing an innovative, non-invasive, observer-independent method to investigate human endocranial structural organisation, our analytical protocol introduces a promising perspective for future research in paleoneurology and for discussing critical hypotheses on the evolution of cognitive abilities among hominins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25964",
    doi = "10.1002/hbm.25964",
    openalex = "W4281661559",
    references = "beaudet2018fossil"
}

@incollection{doi101007978303113983310,
    author = "Rowe, Timothy B.",
    title = "Evolution of the Mammalian Neurosensory System: Fossil Evidence and Major Events",
    year = "2022",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13983-3\_10",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-031-13983-3\_10",
    openalex = "W4309521433",
    references = "doi101111evo14163, romer1942endocranial"
}

@article{doi101126scienceabl5584,
    author = "Bertrand, Ornella and Shelley, Sarah L. and Williamson, Thomas E. and Wible, John R. and Chester, Stephen G. B. and Flynn, John J. and Holbrook, Luke and Lyson, Tyler R. and Meng, Jin and Miller, Ian M. and Püschel, Hans P. and Smith, Thierry and Spaulding, Michelle and Tseng, Z. Jack and Brusatte, Stephen L.",
    title = "Brawn before brains in placental mammals after the end-Cretaceous extinction",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Mammals are the most encephalized vertebrates, with the largest brains relative to body size. Placental mammals have particularly enlarged brains, with expanded neocortices for sensory integration, the origins of which are unclear. We used computed tomography scans of newly discovered Paleocene fossils to show that contrary to the convention that mammal brains have steadily enlarged over time, early placentals initially decreased their relative brain sizes because body mass increased at a faster rate. Later in the Eocene, multiple crown lineages independently acquired highly encephalized brains through marked growth in sensory regions. We argue that the placental radiation initially emphasized increases in body size as extinction survivors filled vacant niches. Brains eventually became larger as ecosystems saturated and competition intensified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abl5584",
    doi = "10.1126/science.abl5584",
    openalex = "W4220662268",
    references = "doi101002ajpa22724, doi101006jhev19960122, doi1010079783319242774, doi101016jjhevol201606005, doi101016jtree201905008, doi10103844766, doi101046j10963642200200005x, doi101086284325, doi101086426002, doi101093biomet3834330, doi101093sysbiosyy032, doi101098rspb20132792, doi101098rspb20152316, doi101098rstb19630002, doi101098rstb19890106, doi101111j2041210x201100169x, doi101126science1229237, doi101126scienceaay2268, doi1016710390290413, jerison2012digitized, openalexw2413160339"
}

@article{doi101002cne70014,
    author = "Baer, Emily and Nguyen, Phuoc D. and Lilly, Stefan and Song, Jiyoon and Yee, Mathew and Matz, Olivia C. and Sahasrabudhe, Rachna and Hall, Douglas R. and La, Susan and Merritt, Brandon J. and Mahesh, P. and Eliacin, Christelle and Bitterman, Kathleen and Oddes, Demi and Bertelsen, Mads F. and Tang, Cheuk Y. and Cook, Peter F. and Mars, Rogier B. and Hof, Patrick R. and Dunn, Rachel and Manger, Paul R. and Sherwood, Chet C. and Spocter, Muhammad A.",
    title = "Predictive Methods and Probabilistic Mapping of Subcortical Brain Components in Fossil Carnivora",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "The Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    abstract = "Paleoneurology reconstructs the evolutionary history of nervous systems through direct observations from the fossil record and comparative data from extant species. Although this approach can provide direct evidence of phylogenetic links among species, it is constrained by the availability and quality of data that can be gleaned from the fossil record. Here, we sought to translate brain component relationships in a sample of extant Carnivora to make inferences about brain structure in fossil species. Using high resolution magnetic resonance imaging on extant canids and felids and 3D laser scanning on fossil Carnivora, spanning some 40 million years of evolution, we derived measurements for select brain components. From these primary data, predictive equations of cortical (gray matter mass, cortical thickness, and gyrification index) and subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, and external globus pallidus mass) were used to derive estimates for select fossil Carnivora. We found that regression equations based on both extant and simulation samples provided moderate to high predictability of subcortical masses for fossil Carnivora. We also found that using exploratory probabilistic mapping of subcortical structures in extant Carnivora, a reasonable prediction could be made of the 3D subcortical morphospace of fossil endocasts. These results identify allometric departures and establish adult species ranges in brain component size for fossil species. The integrative approach taken in this study may serve as a model to promote further dialog between neurobiologists working on extant Carnivora models and paleoneurologists describing the nervous system of fossils from this understudied group of mammals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.70014",
    doi = "10.1002/cne.70014",
    openalex = "W4406216179",
    references = "beaudet2018fossil"
}

@article{doi103389fevo20241481903,
    author = "Brasil, Marianne F. and Monson, Tesla A. and Stratford, Dominic and Hlusko, Leslea J.",
    title = "A hypothesis-based approach to species identification in the fossil record: a papionin case study",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Modern papionin monkeys are a diverse group that encompasses a broad range of morphologies, behaviors, and ecologies. A fossil genus known from African Plio-Pleistocene deposits, Parapapio, is widely regarded as a candidate ancestor to later African papionins. However, despite general agreement that this genus sits at or near the base of the African papionin clade, the taxonomy within Parapapio remains highly contentious. This project evaluates the species-level taxonomy of Parapapio with an explicit hypothesis-based approach to interpreting morphological variation in this sample of fossils. We tested two hypotheses: (H 1) the craniodental variation within Parapapio does not cluster into three groups that reflect the three known species, and (H 2) all the Parapapio fossils can be accommodated within the craniodental shape and size variation observed for a single extant species of papionin. To test the first hypothesis, we assessed a subset of relatively complete and well-preserved Parapapio crania (n=16), intentionally without reference to previous taxonomic identifications. Specimens were sorted by similarity in cranial features and results were then compared with published taxonomic classifications. Our results demonstrate that morphological traits do not cluster consistently according to the current species categories within Parapapio, failing to reject our first hypothesis. To test our second hypothesis, we examined variation in cranial and dental metrics within Parapapio (n=64) relative to three extant papionin samples (n=310). Our results fail to reject the hypothesis that all Parapapio specimens could belong to a single species and suggest that the three-species paradigm does not reflect the anatomical variation of this genus. We recommend subsuming all Parapapio specimens within Parapapio broomi, the species name with taxonomic priority. The results of this hypothesis-testing approach to taxonomy carry substantial implications for the taxonomy of Parapapio, as well as for biochronological and paleoecological studies more generally, including the taxonomy and paleobiology of hominids recovered from these same deposits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2024.1481903",
    doi = "10.3389/fevo.2024.1481903",
    openalex = "W4406041588",
    references = "beaudet2018fossil"
}

@article{flink2025when,
    author = "Flink, Therese and Lagerström, Julia and Sahle, Yonatan and Werdelin, Lars",
    title = "When did spotted hyenas become social? Evidence from fossil endocasts",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of Mammalian Evolution",
    abstract = "The spotted hyena, Crocuta crocuta, is a highly social carnivore with several unique traits showing advanced social behavior. Studies of the brain of living spotted hyenas show that the anterior cerebrum is enlarged, a feature linked to sociality. It is not known, however, when sociality evolved in spotted hyenas, and its evolutionary context is therefore unknown. This is important to understand due to the apparent negative fitness effects of some spotted hyena traits. Studies of extinct species of Crocuta have shown that these do not share the large anterior cerebrum of the extant species. We use computed tomography (CT) scanning to study the endocranium of a >350,000-year-old spotted hyena from Megenta, Ethiopia and compare it to a sample of modern specimens representing the four living Hyaenidae species. We also compared our results to published fossil hyena endocrania. We found that the brain of the Ethiopian fossil is indistinguishable from that of the extant species and different from all other fossil and extant hyena brains. This places a minimum age of 350,000 years on the evolution of spotted hyena sociality and eliminates factors such as selective pressure from early Homo sapiens as potential drivers of sociality.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-025-09784-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s10914-025-09784-1",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W4416245962",
    volume = "32",
    references = "doi101002sici15206505199865178aidevan530co28, doi101016s0003347286802214, doi101038nature22336, doi101086667653, doi101098rspb20032363, doi101111j00301299200513533x, doi101111j10963642200500165x, doi101111j1365294x201105240x, doi101111j15585646200700229x, doi101371journalpone0057944"
}

@article{jerison2025digitized,
    author = "Jerison, Harry J. and Early, Catherine M. and Farke, Andrew A. and Morhardt, Ashley C.",
    title = "Digitized endocasts and brains: a perspective on measurements and historical analyses of the evolution of 172 fossil and extant amniote specimens",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "PeerJ",
    abstract = "This perspective paper is intended to stimulate future research and discussion of brain evolution in amniotes by sharing 172 digitized endocasts of extinct and extant species spanning 60 million years. Using 3D digital surface scans of physical (e.g., latex, plaster, resin) endocasts, we measured and compared relative endocranial volumes from dozens of extinct amniote taxa with those (endocasts or brain surface scans) of relevant extant species. Additionally, we offer calculated Encephalization Quotients and neocorticalization from digitized endocasts. Using historical methods of analysis, we find that, on average, neocortocalization of mammals increased over time, which is in agreement with recently published findings. Results also showed that, about 60 million years ago, mammalian neocorticalization averaged about 20\%, increasing to a present average of 50\%, and reaching a maximum of about 80\% in primates within the past 10 million years. These results potentially redefine the allometric boundary between mammals and reptiles and confirm that measurements on a single species can adequately represent the brains of the entire species. We encourage other researchers to use our data, results, and conclusions as a springboard for more updated analyses.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.19826",
    doi = "10.7717/peerj.19826",
    openalex = "W4414257717",
    pages = "e19826",
    volume = "13",
    references = "doi1010020471733849, doi101002aja1001800203, doi10100797814615382401, doi10103835016580, doi101038385313a0, doi101098rstb20051736, doi101126science7777856, doi101159000155963, doi101176ajp136101353"
}