@book{doi105962bhltitle50683,
    author = "Darwin, Charles and Darwin, Francis",
    title = "The life and letters of Charles Darwin: including an autobiographical chapter",
    year = "1887",
    booktitle = "D. Appleton eBooks",
    abstract = "1. The spread of evolution 'Variation of Animals and Plants' 1863-1866 2. The publication of the 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication' January 1867-June 1868 3. Work on 'Man' 1864-1870 4. The publication of the 'Descent of Man', the 'Expression of the Emotions' 1871-1873 5. Miscellanea, including second editions of 'Coral Reefs', the 'Descent of Man' and the 'Variation of Animals and Plants' 1874-1875 6. Miscellaneous letters 1876-1882 7. Fertilisation on flowers 1839-1880 8. The 'Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom' 1866-1877 9. 'Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species' 1860-1878 10. Climbing and insectivorous plants 1863-1875 11. The 'Power of Movement in Plants' 1878-1881 12. Miscellaneous botanical letters 1873-1882 13. Conclusion Appendices.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.50683",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.50683",
    openalex = "W2115400095"
}

@book{openalexw645218623,
    author = "Tax, Sol",
    title = "Evolution after Darwin",
    year = "1960",
    openalex = "W645218623"
}

@book{openalexw1518964228,
    author = "Lack, David",
    title = "Darwin's finches: an essay on the general biological theory of evolution",
    year = "1961",
    openalex = "W1518964228"
}

@book{openalexw2128666103,
    author = "Bowman, Robert I.",
    title = "Morphological Differentiation and Adaptation in the Galapagos Finches",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    abstract = "Morphological differentiation and adaptation in the Galapagos finches.Robert I. Bowman. 1961. University of California Publications in Zo6logy, vol. 58, vii + 326 pp., 22 pls., 74 text-figs., 63 tables.-In spite of Dr. David Lack's excellent study (Cambridge University Press, x + 208 pp., 1957) of Darwin's finches (the Geospizinae of the Fringillidae of Wetmore), a great gap existed in our understanding of this group in the lack of a careful investigation of the skull and jaw apparatus of its members. Bowman has filled part of this gap with his extensive study of the feeding habits and cranial morphology of these birds. The primary goal of his study a new attempt to explain some of the structural variations in the Galapagos finches as adaptations to food getting, the discussion being based upon a strong foundation of excellent descriptions of the feeding habits, jaw muscles, and skull structure. Indeed, the sections on feeding habits and the jaw muscles can serve as models for future studies. The only obvious error concerns the M. pterygoideus (see especially p. 123) where Bowman attempts to correct W. J. Beecher's (Auk, 70: 270-333, 1953) identifications of the subdivisions of this muscle but is incorrect himself (Bowman's treatment of the jaw muscles will be reviewed more fully elsewhere, Bock, MS.). A special word should be said about the illustrations. Few papers have appeared in recent years that can compare to this one in excellence and abundance of illustrations. The careful execution of the figures and the precise agreement between them and the text set a high standard that all workers in avian anatomy might endeavor to reach. Although the descriptions form the necessary foundation for this study, the discussions of function, the methods of comparison, and the theoretical considerations of evolutionary principles are of far greater importance to an evaluation of the general conclusions; hence inquiry into these parts will comprise the bulk of this review. Bowman gives a brief description of the kinetics of the avian skull together with the actions of the jaw muscles in opening and closing the jaws (Table 35). These muscle functions would be better expressed as probable functions and not as definite facts as implied. Bowman has deduced the functions from the structural configurations and while these deductions are good, more detailed observations are needed to prove the actual action of the muscles. The separation of the jaw muscles into functional units (p. 126) is an excellent forward step; however, the functional units defined-depression of the upper jaw, elevation of the mandible, and so forth -could be further refined as these units are quite inclusive. Some important aspects of bone-muscle systems are omitted from consideration. No mention of ligaments is made in the analysis, yet the ligaments are absolutely essential for a proper understanding of the kinetic feature of the skull and of the exact action of some jaw muscles, as for example, the M. depressor mandibulae. The timing of contraction of the individual muscles during the cycle of opening and closing the jaws was not considered. Probably the adductor muscles, for example, do not act simultaneously and continuously during closing of the jaws. Most likely, the M. pseudotemporalis superficialis contracts first when the mandible is greatly depressed, and the anterior parts of the M. adductor mandibulae externus act when the jaws are almost closed. Hence, use of the term adducting (p. 128) is too broad; the precise function of the individual muscles varies. Some appear to be speed muscles and others to be power muscles. Thus the factors governing their size, arrangement of fibers, and attachments would be different. Bowman assumes that the factors controlling rela-",
    openalex = "W2128666103"
}

@article{doi101111j155856461963tb03296x,
    author = "Hamilton, Terrell H. and Rubinoff, Ira",
    title = "ISOLATION, ENDEMISM, AND MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIES IN THE DARWIN FINCHES",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Journal Article ISOLATION, ENDEMISM, AND MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIES IN THE DARWIN FINCHES Get access Terrell H. Hamilton, Terrell H. Hamilton Department of Zoology The University of Texas, Austin Texas Harvard Biological Laboratories Museum of Comparative Zoology Cambridge Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Ira Rubinoff Ira Rubinoff Department of Zoology The University of Texas, Austin Texas Harvard Biological Laboratories Museum of Comparative Zoology Cambridge Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 17, Issue 4, 1 December 1963, Pages 388–403, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1963.tb03296.x Published: 01 December 1963 Article history Received: 25 February 1963 Published: 01 December 1963",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1963.tb03296.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1963.tb03296.x",
    openalex = "W2335624189",
    references = "doi101093aesa492190, doi101093aibsbulletin2214b, doi101093genetics282114, doi101722611310, doi1023071931976, doi1023071932254, doi1023072485224, doi104159harvard9780674865327, doi107312steb94536, openalexw1500291103"
}

@article{doi1023072407090,
    author = "Hamilton, Terrell H. and Rubinoff, Ira",
    title = "Isolation, Endemism, and Multiplication of Species in the Darwin Finches",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2407090",
    doi = "10.2307/2407090",
    openalex = "W4238277685"
}

@article{doi105962p310422,
    author = "Barlow, Nora",
    title = "Darwin's ornithological notes",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Historical Series",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/p.310422",
    doi = "10.5962/p.310422",
    openalex = "W3169989103"
}

@article{doi101111j155856461964tb01609x,
    author = "Hamilton, T H and Rubinoff, Ira",
    title = "ON MODELS PREDICTING ABUNDANCE OF SPECIES AND ENDEMICS FOR THE DARWIN FINCHES IN THE GALÁPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Journal Article ON MODELS PREDICTING ABUNDANCE OF SPECIES AND ENDEMICS FOR THE DARWIN FINCHES IN THE GALÁPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO Get access T. H. Hamilton, T. H. Hamilton Department of Zoology The University of Texas AustinMuseum of Comparative Zoology ambridge Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar I. Rubinoff I. Rubinoff Department of Zoology The University of Texas AustinMuseum of Comparative Zoology ambridge Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 18, Issue 2, 1 June 1964, Pages 339–342, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1964.tb01609.x Published: 01 June 1964 Article history Accepted: 15 April 1964 Published: 01 June 1964",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1964.tb01609.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1964.tb01609.x",
    openalex = "W2316391538",
    references = "doi10103713608000, doi101073pnas521132, doi101111j1474919x1950tb01766x, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101111j155856461963tb03296x, doi101126science14235991575, doi1023072407089, doi1023072407090"
}

@article{doi101086282481,
    author = "Hamilton, Terrell H. and Rubinoff, Ira",
    title = "On Predicting Insular Variation in Endemism and Sympatry for the Darwin Finches in the Galapagos Archipelago",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "For interisland variation in number of Darwin Finches in the Galapagos Archipelago, endemism is predicted by nearest-neighbor isolation; and species abundance or sympatry is predicted by average isolation. Nearest-neighbor isolation is measured by distance from the nearest island, and average isolation is the average distance to all other islands in the archipelago. The two measures of isolation are of little predictive value when tested for the avifaunas of six other archipelagos or oceanic island groupings. In these situations, area is a better predictor of species abundance or endemism; and the role of isolation appears only when measured as distance from the major avifaunal source region (e.g., New Guinea for islands of the East-central Pacific; African mainland for islands in the Gulf of Guinea). Insular isolation in these instances is, however, a relatively small contributor to variance of species number when contrasted with the greater contributions made by insular area. That numbers of insular species and endemics are respectively predicted by average and nearest-neighbor isolation, and not by area, only in the Darwin Finches demonstrates emphatically the importance of isolation in regulating endemism and species abundance (= sympatry) in the adaptive radiation of monophyletic bird groups within archipelagos. This generalization appears valid only when the intra-archipelagic speciations are mostly between islands, and not intraisland in site of origin from parental forms. It would appear to be less valid during the postspeciation, phyletic- specialization phase of radiation. It is presumed that the natural regulations of endemism and species abundance for insular avifaunas are stochastic in process. By this hypothesis, chance elements associated with isolation are of major importance early in the adaptive radiation of monophyletic bird groups, and less important later in this radiation when deterministic and chance elements associated with ecology (area, habitat, niche) predominate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/282481",
    doi = "10.1086/282481",
    openalex = "W2095490673",
    references = "doi101111j1469185x1965tb00815x, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101111j155856461963tb03296x, doi101126science14235991575, doi104159harvard9780674865327, openalexw1606400913, openalexw1973833797, openalexw2128666103, openalexw2962976424, openalexw3035987306"
}

@article{doi1023071421785,
    author = "Johnson, Donald M. and Gruber, Howard E. and Barrett, Paul H.",
    title = "Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creativity",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "The American Journal of Psychology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1421785",
    doi = "10.2307/1421785",
    openalex = "W2078741481"
}

@article{doi101007bf00132004,
    author = "Sulloway, Frank J.",
    title = "Darwin and his finches: The evolution of a legend",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of the History of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00132004",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00132004",
    openalex = "W2020068972",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143, doi10106313050879, doi1023071421785, doi1023071868881, doi1023072217783, doi1023072412932, doi105962bhltitle4489, doi105962bhltitle50683, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, openalexw1973833797, openalexw645218623"
}

@article{doi101007bf00133143,
    author = "Sulloway, Frank J.",
    title = "Darwin's conversion: The Beagle voyage and its aftermath",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of the History of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00133143",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00133143",
    openalex = "W1987884313",
    references = "doi101007bf00132004, doi101126science18341301164, doi1023071421785, doi1023071868881, doi1023072412191, doi105962bhltitle46249, doi105962bhltitle50683, doi105962bhltitle50860, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, doi105962bhltitle84435, hindle1964charles, openalexw1600651929"
}

@article{sulloway1982darwin1,
    author = "Sulloway, F",
    title = "Darwin and his finches",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "the evolution of a legend: Journal of Historical Biology, v. 15, p. 1-53",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sulloway, F., 1982, Darwin and his finches: the evolution of a legend: Journal of Historical Biology, v. 15, p. 1-53.}"
}

@book{openalexw1973833797,
    author = "Lack, David",
    title = "Darwin's Finches",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    abstract = "Part I. Description: 1. Galapagos scene 2. Classification 3. Ecology 4. Female plumage 5. Male plumage and sexual selection 6. Beak differences and food 7. Size differences between island forms 8. Size differences between species 9. Individual variation 10. Hybridisation 11. An evolutionary tree Part II. Interpretation: 12. The origin of the Galapagos fauna 13. The origin of subspecies 14. The origin of species 15. The persistence of species 16. Adaptive radiation Summary Acknowledgements Tables of measurements References Indexes.",
    openalex = "W1973833797"
}

@article{doi101086284196,
    author = "Schluter, Dolph and Grant, Peter R.",
    title = "Determinants of Morphological Patterns in Communities of Darwin's Finches",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "A procedure is developed and applied to evaluate alternative explanations for morphological patterns in communities of Darwin's ground finches. The first step in the procedure is the computation of expected population density for a hypothetical solitary finch species on an island, as a function of beak depth. This was done for 15 Galapagos islands where food characteristics have been measured. The second step involves construction of hypothetical finch communities for these islands using five different models. Models differ in the extent to which processes of assembly and/or evolution favor species of high expected density, and in the extent to which interspecific competition influences these processes. By comparing predictions of models to actual communities, the roles of food supply and competition could be assessed. Results reveal that expected density is usually a polymodal function of beak depth. Islands differ substantially in the shapes of their density functions. Mean beak sizes of species actually present on each island correspond to local maxima in expected density. However, two species never occupy the same or closely adjacent local maxima. Simple models incorporating the effects of both food supply and interspecific competition on assembly/evolution are shown to accurately predict observed morphological patterns. The results support the hypothesis that both food supply and interspecific competition have determined morphological properties in communities of these finches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/284196",
    doi = "10.1086/284196",
    openalex = "W2015341730",
    references = "doi10100797814899732526, doi101007bf00132004, doi101016004058097690054x, doi101093auk972321, doi101111j155856461976tb00911x, doi1023071937166, doi1023072288753, doi1023072405671, doi1023072984653, openalexw1973833797"
}

@article{doi1023071942596,
    author = "Boag, Peter T. and Grant, Peter R.",
    title = "Darwin's Finches (Geospiza) On Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos: Breeding and Feeding Ecology in a Climatically Variable Environment",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = "The Darwin's finches on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos, were studied between July 1975 and June 1978. Geospiza fortis and G. Scandens are residents, while G. fuliginosa and G. magnirostris are regular immigrants. The Daphne climate is unpredictably dry. The island has a simple plant community displaying marked annual and spatial variation in the foods which form finch diets. Breeding is stimulated by rain falling irregularly between January and April; G. scandens laid eggs with as little as 16 mm of rain, but G. fortis required 35 mm or more before laying. G. scandens consistently bred prior to the rains, associated with specialized exploitation of dry season Opuntia cactus flowers. The breeding system of both species was similar to that of other Geospiza species: monogamous matings on small, permanent, all—purpose territories. Reproductive output of both species varied. In 1976 single broods were produced by both species at high densities, with modes of three young. In 1977, only 24 mm of rain fell during the breeding season and G. scandens alone bred, with poor success. By 1978, G. scandens populations had declined by 66\% and G. fortis by 85\%. In 1978, both species laid an average of three clutches per pair, with a mode of four young per brood. During the 1977 drought, the sex ratio became skewed in favor of males in both species, and as a consequence some females bred successively with up to three different males in 1978. The skewed sex ratio retarded population recovery following the drought. The population decline was associated with a decline in seed abundance in the drought. As food disappeared, G. fortis diets widened to include a broad selection of food items, while G. scandens diets contracted to Opuntia seeds. Even in normal years, both species showed pronounced seasonal variation in feeding habits. Both fed heavily on Opuntia flowers in the late dry season, followed by a mixed diet of insects, fresh seed, and other green matter during the breeding season. After breeding, the birds fed primarily on seeds, the two species selecting different proportions of the available range of seed sizes. Overall, G. fortis displayed the feeding, breeding, and population dynamics characteristic of an ecologically generalized species, whereas G. scandens is a highly specialized species. Large variation in food supply, caused by large variation in rainfall, is responsible for the presence of only two species with breeding populations, for large fluctuations in their population sizes, and for their large clutch sizes and opportunistic breeding. Long—term studies are essential for an understanding of communities in such variable environments because some important events are rare.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942596",
    doi = "10.2307/1942596",
    openalex = "W2017596271"
}

@incollection{doi101016b9780127817804500082,
    author = "Montgomery, William",
    title = "Charles Darwin's Thought on Expressive Mechanisms in Evolution",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "Elsevier eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-781780-4.50008-2",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-781780-4.50008-2",
    openalex = "W2895830950",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143"
}

@article{doi101111j109583121985tb00384x,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Abbott, Ian and Schluter, Dolph and Curry, Robert L. and Abbott, Lynette K.",
    title = "Variation in the size and shape of Darwin's finches",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "Peer Reviewed",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb00384.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb00384.x",
    openalex = "W2123168127",
    references = "doi101086282481"
}

@article{doi101007bf00138286,
    author = "Sloan, Phillip R.",
    title = "Darwin, vital matter, and the transformism of species",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of the History of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00138286",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00138286",
    openalex = "W1999329803",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143"
}

@article{doi1010160169534787900280,
    author = "Pimm, Stuart L.",
    title = "Ecology and evolution of Darwin's finches",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(87)90028-0",
    doi = "10.1016/0169-5347(87)90028-0",
    openalex = "W2154327289",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511693281002"
}

@article{doi1023074785,
    author = "Snow, D. W. and Grant, Peter R.",
    title = "Ecology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    abstract = "After his famous visit to the Galapagos Islands, Darwin speculated that might fancy that, from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends. This book is the classic account of how much we have since learned about the evolution of these remarkable birds. Based upon over a decade's research, Grant shows how interspecific competition and natural selection act strongly enough on contemporary populations to produce observable and measurable evolutionary change. In this new edition, Grant outlines new discoveries made in the thirteen years since the book's publication. Ecology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches is an extraordinary account of evolution in action.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4785",
    doi = "10.2307/4785",
    openalex = "W2005862991"
}

@article{doi101017s0007087400026005,
    author = "Kohn, David H.",
    title = "Darwin's Ambiguity: The Secularization of Biological Meaning",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "The British Journal for the History of Science",
    abstract = "Darwin is well known for his wondrously ambiguous rhetoric. The author who used an ‘entangled bank’ as his metaphor for Nature and its complex relationships built up the substance of his text from a corresponding entanglement of unresolved theoretical relations. Ambiguous positions, arguments that seem to fold in on themselves, vacillations, contradictions, and pluralities of explanation suffuse Darwin's science and its constituent metascience. The Origin abounds in ambiguities with regard to the technical features of evolutionary biology. But the domain of ambiguity I wish to address is Darwin's metaphysical stance. I want to approach the question of Darwin and secularization through what might be called the trope of ambiguity. My principle concern is with the origins of that ambiguity. These lie in the conflicting cultural and ideological resources Darwin used to construct the theory of natural selection.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007087400026005",
    doi = "10.1017/s0007087400026005",
    openalex = "W2134431578",
    references = "darwin2009the, doi101007bf00125354, doi101007bf00125744, doi101007bf00133143, doi101017cbo9780511755101, doi101017cbo9781107280403, doi10103711845000, doi101177007327538202000301, doi1023071857970, doi102307429625, doi105962bhltitle46292, doi105962bhltitle68064, doi107208chicago97802261495160010001"
}

@article{doi1023071940156,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary",
    title = "Demography and the Genetically Effective sizes of Two Populations of Darwin's Finches",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "The purpose of this study was to identify and quantify the demographic and genetic factors that favor long—term persistence of resident bird populations on small islands. Two species of Darwin's Ground Finches, Geospiza scandens (Cactus Finch) and G. fortis (Medium Ground Finch), were studied on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos, from 1975 to 1991. Four cohorts born in the years 1975—1978 were followed to the point where almost every individual had died. Life tables were constructed from survival and reproductive data, and used to calculate genetically effective population sizes. Annual rainfall was highly variable and erratic. Extremes were 0 and 1359 mm. As a consequence the finch populations fluctuated in all demographic parameters. In years of little or no rainfall breeding did not occur, in years of abundant rainfall as many as eight breeding attempts were made by individual pairs. Maximum ages were 15 yr for G. scandens and 14 yr for G. fortis. Males of both species tended to live longer than females and to breed later; most females bred for the first time at ages 1—3 yr, whereas most males bred for the first time at ages 2—6 yr. An unusual feature of the survival and reproductive schedules is an increase in reproductive value sometimes occurring moderately late in life more than once, associated with occasional extremely favorable conditions for reproduction. Harmonic mean breeding population Sizes (N) were 94 G. scandens and 197 G. fortis. Effective population sizes (N e) were much lower, principally as a result of a large variance in the production of recruits per parent, especially by G. fortis. Average effective sizes were 38 G. scandens and 60 G. fortis by one method of calculation, and slightly larger by another. The proportional rate of loss of selectivity neutral heterozygosity or additive genetic variance in quantitative traits potentially caused by random genetic drift (1/2N e) in these populations is °0.003—0.005, or 0.3—0.5\%/yr, and between 0.8 and 1.4\% per generation. We suggest that a general estimate for the effective size of terrestrial bird populations is about one—quarter of average breeding numbers. These results are discussed in relation to the long—term viability of the populations and the maintenance of genetic variation. The demographic features that enable the finch species to persist in the face of extreme environmental stochasticity are a high maximum life—span, a generally high adult survival under the stressful conditions of drought, a flexible period of maturity, and a high reproductive rate. Despite their relatively small effective population sizes and the likelihood of genetic impoverishment through random drift they remain genetically variable through gene flow, principally hybridization. This study highlights fluctuating (unstable) age structures as a methodological constraint on some of the theoretical calculations. An expanded demographic and population—genetic theory is needed to overcome this constraint.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1940156",
    doi = "10.2307/1940156",
    openalex = "W1999193893"
}

@article{doi101098rspb19930016,
    title = "Evolution of Darwin’s finches caused by a rare climatic event",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1993.0016",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1993.0016",
    openalex = "W2061343312",
    references = "openalexw2128666103"
}

@article{doi101136jcp467688a,
    author = "Medvei, V. C.",
    title = "The Correspondence of Charles Darwin",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Clinical Pathology",
    abstract = "own students were delighted to see a copy and were unanimous in their view that this is a high quality bargain.But what is essential haematology?As the authors acknowledge, the scope of the text is beyond the undergraduate curriculum, and those involved in medical education are trying desperately to teach ideas and method rather than detail to their hardpressed students.The amount of knowledge generated over the past 10 years in haema- tology is staggering and contains elements of molecular biology, immunology, and microbiology which had not even been thought of when the second edition was published.Hoffbrand and Pettit have decid- ed to take the plunge and to teach haema- tology from a scientific basis, hoping that the able student will revel in the excitement of progress while the less able will be able to keep up because of the clarity of the material offered.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.46.7.688-a",
    doi = "10.1136/jcp.46.7.688-a",
    openalex = "W1967309363"
}

@book{openalexw1600651929,
    author = "Ospovat, Dov",
    title = "The Development of Darwin's Theory: Natural History, Natural Theology, and Natural Selection, 1838–1859",
    year = "1994",
    abstract = "List of illustrations Preface Acknowledgements Note on manuscript citations Introduction: Darwin and his fellow naturalists 1. Darwin and the biology of the 1830s: some parallels 2. Darwin before Malthus 3. Natural selection and perfect adaptation, 1838-1844 4. Part II of Darwin's work on species 5. Natural history after Cuvier: the branching conception of nature 6. Darwin and the branching conception 7. Classification and the 'principle of divergence' 8. The principle of divergence and the transformation of Darwin's theory 9. Natural selection and 'natural improvement' Conclusion: the development of Darwin's theory as a social progress Notes Bibliography Index.",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W1600651929",
    openalex = "W1600651929"
}

@article{doi101098rspb19990641,
    author = "Petren, Kenneth and Grant, B. Rosemary and Grant, Peter R.",
    title = "A phylogeny of Darwin's finches based on microsatellite DNA length variation",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Allele length variation at 16 microsatellite loci was used to estimate the phylogeny of 13 out of the 14 species of Darwin's finches. The resulting topology was similar to previous phylogenies based on morphological and allozyme variation. An unexpected result was that genetic divergence among Galápagos Island populations of the warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) predates the radiation of all other Darwin's finches. This deep split is surprising in view of the relatively weak morphological differentiation among Certhidea populations and supports the hypothesis that the ancestor of all Darwin's finches was phenotypically similar to Certhidea. The results also resolve a biogeographical problem: the Cocos Island finch evolved after the Galápagos finch radiation was under way, supporting the hypothesis that this distant island was colonized from the Galápagos Islands. Monophyletic relationships are supported for both major groups, the ground finches (Geospiza) and the tree finches (Camarhynchus and Cactospiza), although the vegetarian finch (Platyspiza crassirostris) appears to have diverged prior to the separation of ground and tree finches. These results demonstrate the use of microsatellites for reconstructing phylogenies of closely related species and interpreting their evolutionary and biogeographic histories.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1999.0641",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1999.0641",
    openalex = "W2001166438",
    references = "doi1010079781461523819, doi101086282771, doi101093genetics1391463, doi101093genetics1441389, doi101093hmg281123, doi101093oso97801951218340030001, doi101111jbi14281, doi101126science1553760279, doi1023074785, doi104324978020376680411, openalexw3199943451"
}

@incollection{doi101093oso97801951218340030001,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary",
    title = "Quantitative Genetic Variation in Populations of Darwin ‘s Finches",
    year = "2000",
    abstract = "Abstract Some populations of organisms are much more variable than others in genetic characteristics and quantitative phenotypic traits. Theories explaining genetic variation focus on a balance between mutation on the one hand and stabilizing selection and drift on the other. Additional factors are needed to explain why some populations are more variable than others. These factors include introgression of genes and nonstabilizing forms of selection (directional and diversifying). A long-term field study of Darwin ‘s Finches on the Galapagos island of Daphne Major shows that differential introgressive hybridization is partly responsible for the higher levels of additive genetic variance in the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis), an ecological generalist species comprising specialist phenotypes, than in the cactus finch (G. scandens), a specialist species. The two species hybridize, rarely, and in addition, the medium ground finch hybridizes with the small ground finch (G. fuliginosa). There is little or no fitness loss in the hybrids and backcrosses. Additive genetic variances of the medium ground finch and cactus finch are approximately at equilibrium. Equilibrium implies that the medium ground finch is subjected to stronger forces of selection than the cactus finch, balancing the stronger genetic input.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195121834.003.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780195121834.003.0001",
    openalex = "W4388335457"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20000977,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary",
    title = "Non–random fitness variation in two populations of Darwin's finches",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Darwinian fitness of an individual is measured by the number of recruits it contributes to the next generation. We studied variation in fitness among members of three cohorts of two species of Darwin's finches living on the Galipagos island of Daphne Major: the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis) and cactus finch (Geospiza scandens). Individuals of both species live for up to 16 years. Variation in fitness was neither random nor heritable. Non-randomness arises as a result of a few individuals living for an exceptionally long time and breeding many times. For each cohort, the number of recruits per breeder is strongly predicted by the number of fledglings per breeder. In turn, the number of fledglings is strongly predicted by longevity of the breeder. These results suggest that the most important determinant of fitness is the ability of an individual to survive to breed in many years. Morphological traits affect this ability. Although morphological traits are heritable they do not change unidirectionally because they are selected in opposite directions, and in different combinations, under fluctuating environmental conditions. Non-random fitness variation in fluctuating populations implies much smaller genetically effective sizes than breeding population sizes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.0977",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2000.0977",
    openalex = "W2091150643",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951218340030001"
}

@article{doi10103835051570,
    author = "Podos, Jeffrey",
    title = "Correlated evolution of morphology and vocal signal structure in Darwin's finches",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35051570",
    doi = "10.1038/35051570",
    openalex = "W1680083609",
    references = "doi1010160169534787900280, doi101086284325, doi101086284398, doi101086413215, doi101093aibsbulletin2214b, doi101098rspb19990641, doi101111j155856461993tb01257x, doi101126science2875451306, doi1023071439305, doi1023074785, doi104159harvard9780674865327, openalexw2128666103"
}

@article{doi101046j13652540200100900x,
    author = "Keller, Lukas F. and Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary and Petren, Kenneth",
    title = "Heritability of morphological traits in Darwin’s Finches: misidentified paternity and maternal effects",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Heredity",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00900.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00900.x",
    openalex = "W2068321515",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951218340030001"
}

@article{doi101126science1070315,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary",
    title = "Unpredictable Evolution in a 30-Year Study of Darwin's Finches",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Evolution can be predicted in the short term from a knowledge of selection and inheritance. However, in the long term evolution is unpredictable because environments, which determine the directions and magnitudes of selection coefficients, fluctuate unpredictably. These two features of evolution, the predictable and unpredictable, are demonstrated in a study of two populations of Darwin's finches on the Galápagos island of Daphne Major. From 1972 to 2001, Geospiza fortis (medium ground finch) and Geospiza scandens (cactus finch) changed several times in body size and two beak traits. Natural selection occurred frequently in both species and varied from unidirectional to oscillating, episodic to gradual. Hybridization occurred repeatedly though rarely, resulting in elevated phenotypic variances in G. scandens and a change in beak shape. The phenotypic states of both species at the end of the 30-year study could not have been predicted at the beginning. Continuous, long-term studies are needed to detect and interpret rare but important events and nonuniform evolutionary change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1070315",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1070315",
    openalex = "W2104511903",
    references = "doi10103827900, doi101073pnas91156808, doi101086319193, doi101093oso97801950997440010001, doi101093oso97801985498330010001, doi101098rspb19980514, doi1023074785, doi105860choice350883, openalexw1546962148, openalexw1840956397, openalexw2080618944"
}

@book{openalexw2103828688,
    author = "Browne, Janet",
    title = "Charles Darwin: voyaging",
    year = "2003",
    booktitle = "UCL Discovery (University College London)",
    abstract = "Few lives of great men offer so much interest - and so many mysteries-as the life of Charles Darwin. Many books have been devoted to various aspects of his theories, his personality, even his inexplicable ill-health. Now, in this truly magisterial biography, Janet Browne brings Darwin to us whole. With great subtlety and understanding, using a range of materials and subject matter she is uniquely qualified to deploy, she enables us to see Darwin and the world of 19th century science with fascinating clarity. This volume, the first of two, takes him from childhood and university through the BEAGLE voyage, which shaped him as a scientist, and the years of experiment and thought leading up to his difficult decision to publish THE ORIGIN OF THE SPECIES.",
    openalex = "W2103828688"
}

@article{doi101007s1033600400438,
    author = "Steinheimer, Frank D.",
    title = "Charles Darwin’s bird collection and ornithological knowledge during the voyage of H.M.S. “Beagle”, 1831–1836",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Journal für Ornithologie",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-004-0043-8",
    doi = "10.1007/s10336-004-0043-8",
    openalex = "W2028014542",
    references = "doi101007bf00132004, doi101007bf00133143, doi101017cbo9781107280403, doi1023074785, doi105860choice365687, doi105962bhltitle14581, doi105962bhltitle4489, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle61216, doi105962bhltitle82303, hindle1964charles, openalexw2155132113"
}

@article{doi101111j001438202004tb01738x,
    author = "Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary and Markert, Jeffrey A. and Keller, Lukas F. and Petren, Kenneth",
    title = "CONVERGENT EVOLUTION OF DARWIN'S FINCHES CAUSED BY INTROGRESSIVE HYBRIDIZATION AND SELECTION",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Between 1973 and 2003 mean morphological features of the cactus finch, Geospiza scandens, and the medium ground finch, G. fortis, populations on the Galápagos island of Daphne Major were subject to fluctuating directional selection. An increase in bluntness or robustness in the beak of G. scandens after 1990 can only partly be explained by selection. We use 16 microsatellite loci to test predictions of the previously proposed hypothesis that introgressive hybridization contributed to the trend, resulting in genes flowing predominantly from G. fortis to G. scandens. To identify F1 hybrids and backcrosses we use pedigrees where known, supplemented by the results of assignment tests based on 14 autosomal loci when parents were not known. We analyze changes in morphology and allelic composition in the two populations over a period of 15-20 years. With samples that included F1 hybrids and backcrosses, the G. scandens population became more similar to the G. fortis population both genetically and morphologically. Gene flow between species was estimated to be three times greater from G. fortis to G. scandens than in the opposite direction, resulting in a 20\% reduction in the genetic difference between the species. Nevertheless, removing identified F1 hybrids and backcrosses from the total sample and reanalyzing the traits did not eliminate the convergence. The two species also converged in beak shape by 22.2\% and in body size by 45.5\%. A combination of introgressive hybridization and selection jointly provide the best explanation of convergence in morphology and genetic constitution under the changed ecological conditions following a major El Niño event in 1983. The study illustrates how species without postmating barriers to gene exchange can alternate between convergence and divergence when environmental conditions oscillate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01738.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01738.x",
    openalex = "W2114780064",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951218340030001"
}

@article{doi101038436643a,
    author = "Kohn, David H. and Murrell, Gina and Parker, John and Whitehorn, Mark",
    title = "What Henslow taught Darwin",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/436643a",
    doi = "10.1038/436643a",
    openalex = "W2062575145",
    references = "doi101007bf00132004, doi101007bf00133143, doi101017cbo9780511701559, doi101017cbo9781107280403, doi101111j109583121862tb01218x, doi101111j109636421846tb00416x, doi101136jcp467688a, doi105962bhltitle110054, doi105962bhltitle122451, doi105962p310422"
}

@article{doi101111j1365294x200502632x,
    author = "Petren, Kenneth and Grant, Peter R. and Grant, B. Rosemary and Keller, Lukas F.",
    title = "Comparative landscape genetics and the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches: the role of peripheral isolation",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Molecular Ecology",
    abstract = "We use genetic divergence at 16 microsatellite loci to investigate how geographical features of the Galápagos landscape structure island populations of Darwin's finches. We compare the three most genetically divergent groups of Darwin's finches comprising morphologically and ecologically similar allopatric populations: the cactus finches (Geospiza scandens and Geospiza conirostris), the sharp-beaked ground finches (Geospiza difficilis) and the warbler finches (Certhidea olivacea and Certhidea fusca). Evidence of reduced genetic diversity due to drift was limited to warbler finches on small, peripheral islands. Evidence of low levels of recent interisland migration was widespread throughout all three groups. The hypothesis of distance-limited dispersal received the strongest support in cactus and sharp-beaked ground finches as evidenced by patterns of isolation by distance, while warbler finches showed a weaker relationship. Support for the hypothesis that gene flow constrains morphological divergence was only found in one of eight comparisons within these groups. Among warbler finches, genetic divergence was relatively high while phenotypic divergence was low, implicating stabilizing selection rather than constraint due to gene flow. We conclude that the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches has occurred in the presence of ongoing but low levels of gene flow caused by distance-dependent interisland dispersal. Gene flow does not constrain phenotypic divergence, but may augment genetic variation and facilitate evolution due to natural selection. Both microsatellites and mtDNA agree in that subsets of peripheral populations of two older groups are genetically more similar to other species that underwent dramatic morphological change. The apparent decoupling of morphological and molecular evolution may be accounted for by a modification of Lack's two-stage model of speciation: relative ecological stasis in allopatry followed by secondary contact, ecological interactions and asymmetric phenotypic divergence.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x",
    openalex = "W2122176707",
    references = "doi101086282481, doi101111j155856461963tb03296x"
}

@article{doi101371journalpbio0030382,
    author = "Eldredge, Niles",
    title = "Darwin's Other Books: “Red” and “Transmutation” Notebooks, “Sketch,” “Essay,” and Natural Selection",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "PLoS Biology",
    abstract = "Study of Darwin's unpublished works, freely available on-line through the American Natural History Museum, reveals the origins of his thoughts on evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030382",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pbio.0030382",
    openalex = "W2130343541",
    references = "doi101038436643a"
}

@article{doi101038nature04843,
    author = "Abzhanov, Arhat and Kuo, Winston Patrick and Hartmann, Christine and Grant, B. Rosemary and Grant, Peter R. and Tabin, Clifford J.",
    title = "The calmodulin pathway and evolution of elongated beak morphology in Darwin's finches",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04843",
    doi = "10.1038/nature04843",
    openalex = "W2074067714",
    references = "doi101002jmor1050880104, doi10103841786, doi101038nature02415, doi101098rspb19990641, doi101126science1070315, doi101126science1098095, doi101242dev1212333, doi10129879780300128673, doi1023074785, doi105860choice434010, openalexw2128666103"
}

@article{doi101007s1205200801032,
    author = "Eldredge, Niles",
    title = "Experimenting with Transmutation: Darwin, the Beagle, and Evolution",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Evolution Education and Outreach",
    abstract = "Detailed analysis of Darwin’s scientific notes and other writings from the Beagle voyage reveals a focus on endemism and replacement of allied taxa in time and in space that began early in the journey. Though it is impossible to determine exactly when Darwin became a transmutationist, the evidence suggests that he was conversant with the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and others and testing (“experimenting” with) them—before he received a copy of Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. 2, in November 1832, in which Lyell describes and disputes Lamarck’s theory. To the two rhea species of Patagonia and the four mockingbird species of the Galapagos, we can now add the living Patagonian cavy (rodent) species, and its extinct putatively related species that Darwin collected at Monte Hermoso (Bahia Blanca) in the Fall of 1832, as a replacement pattern absolutely critical to the development of Darwin’s transmutational thinking. Darwin developed his first transmutational theory by adopting “Brocchi’s analogy” (Rudwick 2008)—i.e. that births and deaths of species are analogous to the births and deaths of individuals. Births and deaths of species, as of individuals, are thus explicable in terms of natural causes. Darwin explored these themes and the replacement of the extinct cavy by the modern species explicitly in his February 1835 essay (Darwin 1835a).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-008-0103-2",
    doi = "10.1007/s12052-008-0103-2",
    openalex = "W1984267484",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143, doi101017cbo9780511701559, doi101038436643a, doi105860choice264467, doi105860choice432771, doi105962bhltitle128554, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi107208chicago97802267310010010001, doi107208chicago97802267313080010001, openalexw2103828688, penrose1958the"
}

@article{doi101017s0140525x08003543,
    author = "Penn, Derek C. and Holyoak, Keith J. and Povinelli, Daniel J.",
    title = "Darwin's mistake: Explaining the discontinuity between human and nonhuman minds",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = {Over the last quarter century, the dominant tendency in comparative cognitive psychology has been to emphasize the similarities between human and nonhuman minds and to downplay the differences as "one of degree and not of kind" (Darwin 1871). In the present target article, we argue that Darwin was mistaken: the profound biological continuity between human and nonhuman animals masks an equally profound discontinuity between human and nonhuman minds. To wit, there is a significant discontinuity in the degree to which human and nonhuman animals are able to approximate the higher-order, systematic, relational capabilities of a physical symbol system (PSS) (Newell 1980). We show that this symbolic-relational discontinuity pervades nearly every domain of cognition and runs much deeper than even the spectacular scaffolding provided by language or culture alone can explain. We propose a representational-level specification as to where human and nonhuman animals' abilities to approximate a PSS are similar and where they differ. We conclude by suggesting that recent symbolic-connectionist models of cognition shed new light on the mechanisms that underlie the gap between human and nonhuman minds.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x08003543",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x08003543",
    openalex = "W2118450042",
    references = "doi101017s0140525x00076512, doi101017s0140525x0100396x, doi101017s0140525x99002149, doi1010370033295x1042211, doi10103711059000, doi10103712293000, doi101038nrn1180, doi10106313067010, doi101126science1098410, doi101126science1146282, doi101371journalpbio0050139, doi101537ase188722495, doi104159harvard9780674419131, doi105962bhltitle17416, doi107551mitpress52360010001, doi107551mitpress97802625146200010001, doi107551mitpress97802625273470010001, openalexw2531563875"
}

@article{doi101098rstb20080051,
    author = "Grant, B. Rosemary and Grant, Peter R.",
    title = "Fission and fusion of Darwin's finches populations",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "This study addresses the causes and evolutionary consequences of introgressive hybridization in the sympatric species of Darwin's ground finches (Geospiza) on the small island of Daphne Major in the Galápagos archipelago. Hybridization occurs rarely (less than 2\% of breeding pairs) but persistently across years, usually as a result of imprinting on the song of another species. Hybrids survive well under some ecological conditions, but not others. Hybrids mate according to song type. The resulting introgression increases phenotypic and genetic variation in the backcrossed populations. Effects of introgression on beak shape are determined by the underlying developmental genetic pathways. Introgressive hybridization has been widespread throughout the archipelago in the recent past, and may have been a persistent feature throughout the early history of the radiation, episodically affecting both the speed and direction of evolution. We discuss how fission through selection and fusion through introgression in contemporary Darwin's finch populations may be a reflection of processes occurring in other young radiations. We propose that introgression has the largest effect on the evolution of interbreeding species after they have diverged in morphology, but before the point is reached when genetic incompatibilities incur a severe fitness cost.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0051",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2008.0051",
    openalex = "W2171387474",
    references = "doi101093oso97801951218340030001"
}

@article{doi101002tax581007,
    author = "Winsor, Mary P.",
    title = "Taxonomy was the foundation of Darwin's evolution",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Taxon",
    abstract = {Abstract Darwin's belief in branching evolution was based upon his familiarity with the taxonomy of his day. Facts from biogeography, embryology, and paleontology acquired deep significance because biologists had come to believe that natural classification expressed real relationships. Although Charles Darwin's presentation of his theory in the Origin of Species, as well as descriptions of Darwinism after the Modern Synthesis of the 1940s, imply that establishing the causal role of natural selection was essential to proving that evolution has occurred, this is contradicted by Darwin's personal experience and by his own words. It is helpful to compare the history and logical structure of Darwin's revolutionary theory to the Copernican Revolution, for the moving Earth was recognized long before Newton identified causes to explain its motion. Copernicus saw that fixing the Sun as the center of planetary motion explained the appearance of the heavens better than the Ptolemaic system did, and Darwin saw that branching evolution explains the "truly wonderful fact" that a hierarchy of nested groups appears natural.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/tax.581007",
    doi = "10.1002/tax.581007",
    openalex = "W2399927024",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143, doi101007bf01734359, doi1010160006320792912013, doi101038369716c0, doi101086284325, doi101093oso97801985464120010001, doi101093sysbio274401, doi101146annureven10010165000525, doi1023072412923, doi105860choice396411"
}

@article{doi101007s1053100997401,
    author = "O’Connor, Jody A. and Sulloway, Frank J. and Robertson, Jeremy and Kleindorfer, Sonia",
    title = "Philornis downsi parasitism is the primary cause of nestling mortality in the critically endangered Darwin’s medium tree finch (Camarhynchus pauper)",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Biodiversity and Conservation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9740-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s10531-009-9740-1",
    openalex = "W2154330112"
}

@article{doi101007s1073900891739,
    author = "Sulloway, Frank J.",
    title = "Tantalizing Tortoises and the Darwin-Galápagos Legend",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of the History of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-008-9173-9",
    doi = "10.1007/s10739-008-9173-9",
    openalex = "W1981561745",
    references = "doi101007bf00133143, doi101038436643a, doi101111j109583121984tb02052x"
}

@article{doi101007s1073900992050,
    author = "Pearce, Trevor",
    title = "“A Great Complication of Circumstances” – Darwin and the Economy of Nature",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of the History of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-009-9205-0",
    doi = "10.1007/s10739-009-9205-0",
    openalex = "W2109061214",
    references = "doi101007bf00125354, doi101007bf00125744, doi101007bf00125793, doi101007bf00132004, doi101007bf00133143, doi101016s001600323892229x, doi101017ccol9780521403320, doi101111j109636421858tb02500x, doi105860choice304384, doi105962bhltitle39738, doi105962bhltitle50860, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, doi107326000348199622635, openalexw1986508432, openalexw2103828688, openalexw2798650415, openalexw52563376"
}

@article{doi101093jxbern179,
    author = "Ellison, Aaron M. and Gotelli, Nicholas J.",
    title = "Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants—Darwin's ‘most wonderful plants in the world’",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Botany",
    abstract = "Carnivory has evolved independently at least six times in five angiosperm orders. In spite of these independent origins, there is a remarkable morphological convergence of carnivorous plant traps and physiological convergence of mechanisms for digesting and assimilating prey. These convergent traits have made carnivorous plants model systems for addressing questions in plant molecular genetics, physiology, and evolutionary ecology. New data show that carnivorous plant genera with morphologically complex traps have higher relative rates of gene substitutions than do those with simple sticky traps. This observation suggests two alternative mechanisms for the evolution and diversification of carnivorous plant lineages. The 'energetics hypothesis' posits rapid morphological evolution resulting from a few changes in regulatory genes responsible for meeting the high energetic demands of active traps. The 'predictable prey capture hypothesis' further posits that complex traps yield more predictable and frequent prey captures. To evaluate these hypotheses, available data on the tempo and mode of carnivorous plant evolution were reviewed; patterns of prey capture by carnivorous plants were analysed; and the energetic costs and benefits of botanical carnivory were re-evaluated. Collectively, the data are more supportive of the energetics hypothesis than the predictable prey capture hypothesis. The energetics hypothesis is consistent with a phenomenological cost-benefit model for the evolution of botanical carnivory, and also accounts for data suggesting that carnivorous plants have leaf construction costs and scaling relationships among leaf traits that are substantially different from those of non-carnivorous plants.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ern179",
    doi = "10.1093/jxb/ern179",
    openalex = "W2167953193",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle50683"
}

@article{doi101098rsbl20080793,
    author = "Ettema, Thijs J. G. and Andersson, Siv G. E.",
    title = "The α-proteobacteria: the Darwin finches of the bacterial world",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Biology Letters",
    abstract = "The alpha-proteobacteria represent one of the most diverse bacterial subdivisions, displaying extreme variations in lifestyle, geographical distribution and genome size. Species for which genome data are available have been classified into a species tree based on a conserved set of vertically inherited core genes. By mapping the variation in gene content onto the species tree, genomic changes can be associated with adaptations to specific growth niches. Genes for adaptive traits are mostly located in 'plasticity zones' in the bacterial genome, which also contain mobile elements and are highly variable across strains. By physically separating genes for information processing from genes involved in interactions with the surrounding environment, the rate of evolutionary change can be substantially enhanced for genes underlying adaptation to new growth habitats, possibly explaining the ecological success of the alpha-proteo-bacterial subdivision.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0793",
    doi = "10.1098/rsbl.2008.0793",
    openalex = "W2164641356",
    references = "doi101073pnas0305659101, doi101073pnas0611553104, doi101073pnas9595145, doi101093molbevmsn133, doi101126science1114057, doi101126science1142490, doi101126science1158160, doi101128jb0026907, doi101128mmbr6447868202000, doi101371journalpbio0020069"
}

@article{doi101111j14388677200900243x,
    author = "Kutschera, U. and Briggs, Winslow R.",
    title = "From Charles Darwin’s botanical country‐house studies to modern plant biology",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Plant Biology",
    abstract = "As a student of theology at Cambridge University, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) attended the lectures of the botanist John S. Henslow (1796-1861). This instruction provided the basis for his life-long interest in plants as well as the species question. This was a major reason why in his book On the Origin of Species, which was published 150 years ago, Darwin explained his metaphorical phrase 'struggle for life' with respect to animals and plants. In this article, we review Darwin's botanical work with reference to the following topics: the struggle for existence in the vegetable kingdom with respect to the phytochrome-mediated shade avoidance response; the biology of flowers and Darwin's plant-insect co-evolution hypothesis; climbing plants and the discovery of action potentials; the power of movement in plants and Darwin's conflict with the German plant physiologist Julius Sachs; and light perception by growing grass coleoptiles with reference to the phototropins. Finally, we describe the establishment of the scientific discipline of Plant Biology that took place in the USA 80 years ago, and define this area of research with respect to Darwin's work on botany and the physiology of higher plants.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00243.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00243.x",
    openalex = "W2095912279",
    references = "doi101038436643a, doi101146annurevento53103106093436"
}

@article{doi101111j14698137200902914x,
    author = "Harder, Lawrence D. and Johnson, Steven D.",
    title = "Darwin's beautiful contrivances: evolutionary and functional evidence for floral adaptation",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "Although not 'a professed botanist', Charles Darwin made seminal contributions to understanding of floral and inflorescence function while seeking evidence of adaptation by natural selection. This review considers the legacy of Darwin's ideas from three perspectives. First, we examine the process of floral and inflorescence adaptation by surveying studies of phenotypic selection, heritability and selection responses. Despite widespread phenotypic and genetic capacity for natural selection, only one-third of estimates indicate phenotypic selection. Second, we evaluate experimental studies of floral and inflorescence function and find that they usually demonstrate that reproductive traits represent adaptations. Finally, we consider the role of adaptation in floral diversification. Despite different diversification modes (coevolution, divergent use of the same pollen vector, pollinator shifts), evidence of pollination ecotypes and phylogenetic patterns suggests that adaptation commonly contributes to floral diversity. Thus, this review reveals a contrast between the inconsistent occurrence of phenotypic selection and convincing experimental and comparative evidence that floral traits are adaptations. Rather than rejecting Darwin's hypotheses about floral evolution, this contrast suggests that the tempo of creative selection varies, with strong, consistent selection during episodes of diversification, but relatively weak and inconsistent selection during longer, 'normal' periods of relative phenotypic stasis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02914.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02914.x",
    openalex = "W2142916221",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle50683"
}

@article{doi101017s0030605311000597,
    author = "Dvorak, Michael and Feßl, Birgit and Nemeth, Erwin and Kleindorfer, Sonia and Tebbich, Sabine",
    title = "Distribution and abundance of Darwin’s finches and other land birds on Santa Cruz Island, Galápagos: evidence for declining populations",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Oryx",
    abstract = "Abstract Population monitoring is a vital tool for conservation management and for testing hypotheses about population trends in changing environments. Darwin’s finches on Santa Cruz Island in the Galápagos archipelago have experienced habitat alteration because of human activity, introduced predators, parasites and disease. We used point counts to conduct systematic quantitative surveys of Darwin’s finches and other land birds between 1997 and 2010. The temporal analysis revealed that six of the nine species investigated declined significantly and that this decline was most pronounced at higher elevations in humid native forest and agricultural areas; the highland areas have been most affected by introduced species or direct human impact. Five of the six declining species are insectivorous, which suggests that changes in insect abundance or insect availability are a critical factor in the declines. Further study is required to test this idea. Other factors including habitat alteration and introduced parasites or pathogens may be contributing to the observed declines.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605311000597",
    doi = "10.1017/s0030605311000597",
    openalex = "W2103953427"
}

@article{doi101007s1119201312008,
    author = "Marx, Werner and Bornmann, Lutz",
    title = "Tracing the origin of a scientific legend by reference publication year spectroscopy (RPYS): the legend of the Darwin finches",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Scientometrics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-013-1200-8",
    doi = "10.1007/s11192-013-1200-8",
    openalex = "W2147872936",
    references = "doi101002asi23089, doi101007bf00132004, doi101023a1005647328460, doi10103712293000, doi101093aibsbulletin2214b, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023071435536, doi105962bhltitle110063, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303"
}

@article{doi102147rips48435,
    author = "Koop, Jennifer A. H. and LeBohec, Celine and Clayton, Dale H.",
    title = "Dry year does not reduce invasive parasitic fly prevalence or abundance in Darwin\&\#39;s finch nests",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Reports in Parasitology",
    abstract = "Abstract: The recent introduction of the parasitic nest fly Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae) to the Galápagos Islands poses a serious threat to the bird species it infests, including Darwin's finches. Variation in climatic conditions, such as rainfall or drought, may influence fly populations and their effect on birds. We monitored the abundance of P. downsi in an extremely dry year in nests of the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis). We fumigated nests to compare the reproductive success of birds in nests with and without flies. Neither the prevalence nor the abundance of P. downsi decreased significantly in the dry year compared with an earlier wet year for which we have already published data. Very few birds bred successfully under the dry conditions, independent of parasite prevalence and abundance. The low reproductive success of the finches presumably reflected limited food resources rather than parasites. Our sample sizes were low because few birds attempted to breed in the dry year. Nevertheless, our data indicate that P. downsi is capable of withstanding the extreme climatic fluctuations characteristic of the Galápagos Islands, which may contribute to the invasiveness of this parasite. Keywords: breeding success, Geospiza fortis, invasive species, medium ground finch, parasitic fly",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2147/rip.s48435",
    doi = "10.2147/rip.s48435",
    openalex = "W2092404784",
    references = "doi101007s1053100997401, doi1010160169534787900280, doi101016jpt200903007, doi101017s0030605311000597, doi101034j160007062002970208x, doi101098rspb20053285, doi1023071940156, doi1023071942596, doi1023073545730, doi1023074785"
}

@book{doi101017cbo9781107280403,
    author = "Darwin, Charles",
    title = "The Correspondence of Charles Darwin",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "This volume is part of the definitive edition of letters written by and to Charles Darwin, the most celebrated naturalist of the nineteenth century. Notes and appendixes put these fascinating and wide-ranging letters in context, making the letters accessible to both scholars and general readers. Darwin depended on correspondence to collect data from all over the world, and to discuss his emerging ideas with scientific colleagues, many of whom he never met in person. The letters are published chronologically: Volume 21 includes letters from 1873, the year in which Darwin received responses to his work on human and animal expression. Also in this year, Darwin continued his work on carnivorous plants and plant movement, finding unexpected similarities between the plant and animal kingdoms, raised a subscription for his friend Thomas Henry Huxley, and decided to employ a scientific secretary for the first time - his son Francis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107280403",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9781107280403",
    openalex = "W1575985639",
    references = "doi101038436643a, doi101073pnas97136947, doi101111j109636421858tb02500x, doi105962bhltitle154975"
}

@article{doi101093czoolo604542,
    author = "Kleindorfer, Sonia and Peters, Katharina J. and Custance, Georgina and Dudaniec, Rachael Y. and O’Connor, Jody A.",
    title = "Changes in Philornis infestation behavior threaten Darwin’s finch survival",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Current Zoology",
    abstract = "Abstract The conservation behavior framework is useful to identify key linkages between behavior and conservation practice. We apply this framework to a novel host-parasite system on the Galapagos Islands and ask if there have been changes in parasite oviposition behavior and host mortality patterns across the first decade (2004-2013) of its known association. The Dipteran parasite Philornis downsi was first discovered in Darwin’s finch nests in 1997 and is the biggest threat to the survival of Galapagos land birds. Host mortality has increased over the past decade. In Dipterans, pupation and pupae size are determined by access to host resources. Here, we test the hypothesis that P. downsi flies are laying eggs in finch nests earlier in the nestling phase to maximize larval feeding time and therefore chance of pupation success before host death. The results show fewer 1st instar larvae later in the host nesting cycle in support of earlier egg laying behavior by female flies. Between 2004 and 2013, parasite intensity increased from \textasciitilde 28 to \textasciitilde 48 parasites per nest, host mortality increased from \textasciitilde 50\% to \textasciitilde 90\%, and host age at death decreased from \textasciitilde 11 to \textasciitilde 5 days. The earlier age at host death was correlated with fewer pupae (from \textasciitilde 50\% to \textasciitilde 20\%) and smaller pupae size (\textasciitilde 10\% decrease). Changes in parasite behavior reveal new fitness costs to both the parasite and Darwin’s finches. These findings underscore the need for urgent conservation action to save Darwin’s finches from extinction due to a novel, lethal and introduced parasite [Current Zoology 60 (4): 542–550, 2014].",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/60.4.542",
    doi = "10.1093/czoolo/60.4.542",
    openalex = "W1825053369",
    references = "doi102147rips48435"
}

@article{doi101111evo12484,
    author = "Farrington, Heather L. and Lawson, Lucinda P. and Clark, Courtney M. and Petren, Kenneth",
    title = "THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF DARWIN'S FINCHES: SPECIATION, GENE FLOW, AND INTROGRESSION IN A FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Many classic examples of adaptive radiations take place within fragmented systems such as islands or mountains, but the roles of mosaic landscapes and variable gene flow in facilitating species diversification is poorly understood. Here we combine phylogenetic and landscape genetic approaches to understand diversification in Darwin's finches, a model adaptive radiation. We combined sequence data from 14 nuclear introns, mitochondrial markers, and microsatellite variation from 51 populations of all 15 recognized species. Phylogenetic species-trees recovered seven major finch clades: ground, tree, vegetarian, Cocos Island, grey and green warbler finches, and a distinct clade of sharp-beaked ground finches (Geospiza cf. difficilis) basal to all ground and tree finches. The ground and tree finch clades lack species-level phylogenetic structure. Interisland gene flow and interspecies introgression vary geographically in predictable ways. First, several species exhibit concordant patterns of population divergence across the channel separating the Galápagos platform islands from the separate volcanic province of northern islands. Second, peripheral islands have more admixed populations while central islands maintain more distinct species boundaries. This landscape perspective highlights a likely role for isolation of peripheral populations in initial divergence, and demonstrates that peripheral populations may maintain genetic diversity through outbreeding during the initial stages of speciation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12484",
    doi = "10.1111/evo.12484",
    openalex = "W1867077513",
    references = "doi101086282481"
}

@article{doi101371journalpone0107518,
    author = "Cimadom, Arno and Ulloa, Angel and Meidl, Patrick and Zöttl, Markus and Zöttl, Elisabet and Feßl, Birgit and Nemeth, Erwin and Dvorak, Michael and Cunninghame, Francesca and Tebbich, Sabine",
    title = "Invasive Parasites, Habitat Change and Heavy Rainfall Reduce Breeding Success in Darwin's Finches",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Invasive alien parasites and pathogens are a growing threat to biodiversity worldwide, which can contribute to the extinction of endemic species. On the Gala pagos Islands, the invasive parasitic fly Philornis downsi poses a major threat to the endemic avifauna. Here, we investigated the influence of this parasite on the breeding success of two Darwin's finch species, the warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) and the sympatric small tree finch (Camarhynchus parvulus), on Santa Cruz Island in 2010 and 2012. While the population of the small tree finch appeared to be stable, the warbler finch has experienced a dramatic decline in population size on Santa Cruz Island since 1997. We aimed to identify whether warbler finches are particularly vulnerable during different stages of the breeding cycle. Contrary to our prediction, breeding success was lower in the small tree finch than in the warbler finch. In both species P. downsi had a strong negative impact on breeding success and our data suggest that heavy rain events also lowered the fledging success. On the one hand parents might be less efficient in compensating their chicks' energy loss due to parasitism as they might be less efficient in foraging on days of heavy rain. On the other hand, intense rainfalls might lead to increased humidity and more rapid cooling of the nests. In the case of the warbler finch we found that the control of invasive plant species with herbicides had a significant additive negative impact on the breeding success. It is very likely that the availability of insects (i.e. food abundance)is lower in such controlled areas, as herbicide usage led to the removal of the entire understory. Predation seems to be a minor factor in brood loss.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107518",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0107518",
    openalex = "W2016786013",
    references = "doi102147rips48435"
}

@article{doi1011111365266412575,
    author = "Koop, Jennifer A. H. and Kim, Peter and Knutie, Sarah A. and Adler, Fred and Clayton, Dale H.",
    title = "An introduced parasitic fly may lead to local extinction of Darwin's finch populations",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    abstract = ". However, our study further suggests that careful management practices aimed at reducing parasite prevalence have the potential to significantly lower the risk of host species extinction.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12575",
    doi = "10.1111/1365-2664.12575",
    openalex = "W2218196316",
    references = "doi102147rips48435"
}

@article{doi1018901501191,
    author = "Knutie, Sarah A. and Owen, Jeb P. and McNew, Sabrina M. and Bartlow, Andrew W. and Arriero, Elena and Herman, Jordan M. and DiBlasi, Emily and Thompson, Michael and Koop, Jennifer A. H. and Clayton, Dale H.",
    title = "Galápagos mockingbirds tolerate introduced parasites that affect Darwin's finches",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "Introduced parasites threaten native host species that lack effective defenses. Such parasites increase the risk of extinction, particularly in small host populations like those on islands. If some host species are tolerant to introduced parasites, this could amplify the risk of the parasite to vulnerable host species. Recently, the introduced parasitic nest fly Philornis downsi has been implicated in the decline of Darwin's finch populations in the Galápagos Islands. In some years, 100\% of finch nests fail due to P. downsi; however, other common host species nesting near Darwin's finches, such as the endemic Galápagos mockingbird (Mimus parvulus), appear to be less affected by P. downsi. We compared effects of P. downsi on mockingbirds and medium ground finches (Geospiza fortis) on Santa Cruz Island in the Galápagos. We experimentally manipulated the abundance of P. downsi in nests of mockingbirds and finches to measure the direct effect of the parasite on the reproductive success of each species of host. We also compared immunological and behavioral responses by each species of host to the fly. Although nests of the two host species had similar parasite densities, flies decreased the fitness of finches but not mockingbirds. Neither host species had a significant antibody-mediated immune response to P. downsi. Moreover, finches showed no significant increase in begging, parental provisioning, or plasma glucose levels in response to the flies. In contrast, parasitized mockingbird nestlings begged more than nonparasitized mockingbird nestlings. Greater begging was correlated with increased parental provisioning behavior, which appeared to compensate for parasite damage. The results of our study suggest that finches are negatively affected by P. downsi because they do not have such behavioral mechanisms for energy compensation. In contrast, mockingbirds are capable of compensation, making them tolerant hosts, and a possible indirect threat to Darwin's finches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/15-0119.1",
    doi = "10.1890/15-0119.1",
    openalex = "W2191309030",
    references = "doi102147rips48435"
}

@article{doi101186s4085001600039,
    author = "Kleindorfer, Sonia and Dudaniec, Rachael Y.",
    title = "Host-parasite ecology, behavior and genetics: a review of the introduced fly parasite Philornis downsi and its Darwin’s finch hosts",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "BMC Zoology",
    abstract = "Understanding host-parasite interactions requires that the multi-faceted relationships among ecological, behavioral and molecular processes be characterized and integrated. The introduced parasitic fly of birds, Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae), was accidentally introduced to the Galápagos Islands circa 1960s and the consequences of its introduction represent one of the most challenging conservation battles faced within host-parasite ecology today. Larvae of the fly were first discovered in nests of Darwin’s finches (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) in 1997. The parasitic fly larvae are killing \textasciitilde 55 \% of Darwin’s finch nestlings within nests by consuming the blood and tissue of developing birds, whereby the number of parasitic fly larvae in nests has increased by 46 \% from 2000 to 2013. As nestlings increasingly die at an earlier age, which signifies earlier resource termination for the parasite, \textasciitilde 17 \% of fly larvae also die. Several local finch populations have become extinct but some host species have increased in abundance, and as a consequence, may be sustaining P. downsi populations along with other non-finch hosts. The high mortality in both Darwin’s finches and P. downsi larvae creates opportunity and imperative to understand the coevolutionary dynamics of this newly evolving host-parasite system. This review examines the rapid changes in host and parasite ecology, behavior, and genetics since P. downsi larvae were first discovered in Darwin’s finch nests. The aim of the review is to synthesize what is known about this lethal host-parasite system and to describe rapid changes in host and parasite biology that characterize the novel association. An over-arching goal is the implementation of conservation outcomes that are informed by evolutionary biological understanding of invasive species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/s40850-016-0003-9",
    doi = "10.1186/s40850-016-0003-9",
    openalex = "W2518630937",
    references = "doi102147rips48435"
}