@article{dobzhansky1947evolutionary,
    author = "Dobzhansky, Th. and Spassky, B.",
    title = "Evolutionary Changes in Laboratory Cultures of Drosophila pseudoobscura",
    year = "1947",
    journal = "Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2405495",
    doi = "10.2307/2405495",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W4243485922",
    pages = "191",
    volume = "1"
}

@misc{dobzhansky1947evolutionary1,
    author = "Dobzhansky, T. and Spassky, B",
    title = "Evolutionary changes in laboratory cultures of D. pseudoobscura",
    year = "1947",
    howpublished = "Evolution, v. 1, p. 191-216",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dobzhansky, T., and Spassky, B., 1947, Evolutionary changes in laboratory cultures of D. pseudoobscura: Evolution, v. 1, p. 191-216.}"
}

@article{doi101111j155856461947tb01338x,
    author = "Dobzhansky, Th. and Spassky, B",
    title = "EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN LABORATORY CULTURES OF DROSOPHILA PSEUDOOBSCURA",
    year = "1947",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Journal Article EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES IN LABORATORY CULTURES OF DROSOPHILA PSEUDOOBSCURA Get access Th. Dobzhansky, Th. Dobzhansky Columbia University New York Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar B. Spassky B. Spassky Columbia University New York Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 1, Issue 3, 1 September 1947, Pages 191–216, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb01338.x Published: 01 September 1947 Article history Received: 27 February 1947 Published: 01 September 1947",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb01338.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb01338.x",
    openalex = "W2333167167"
}

@article{doi101111j155856461947tb02709x,
    author = "Dobzhansky, Th.",
    title = "ADAPTIVE CHANGES INDUCED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN WILD POPULATIONS OF DROSOPHILA",
    year = "1947",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Journal Article ADAPTIVE CHANGES INDUCED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN WILD POPULATIONS OF DROSOPHILA Get access Th. Dobzhansky Th. Dobzhansky Columbia University New York Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Evolution, Volume 1, Issue 1-2, 1 March 1947, Pages 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb02709.x Published: 01 March 1947 Article history Received: 10 January 1947 Published: 01 March 1947",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb02709.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1947.tb02709.x",
    openalex = "W2325608344"
}

@article{doi101126science1503698903,
    author = "Ayala, Francisco J.",
    title = "Evolution of Fitness in Experimental Populations of Drosophila serrata",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Changes which enhance adaptedness to the environment occur in experimental populations of Drosophila serrata which are acted upon by strong natural selection. The improvement is greater in hybrid than in single-strain populations because genetic variability is greater in the former.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3698.903",
    doi = "10.1126/science.150.3698.903",
    openalex = "W2081671888",
    references = "dobzhansky1947evolutionary, doi101038hdy196119, doi101086280722, doi101093genetics514527, doi101111j1469185x1943tb00287x, doi101111j155856461947tb01338x, doi101111j155856461947tb02709x, doi101111j155856461958tb02968x, doi101146annureven06010161001333, doi1023071439305, doi1023072405399"
}

@article{doi101093genetics782737,
    author = "Felsenstein, Joseph",
    title = "THE EVOLUTIONARY ADVANTAGE OF RECOMBINATION",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Genetics",
    abstract = {The controversy over the evolutionary advantage of recombination initially discovered by Fisher and by Muller is reviewed. Those authors whose models had finite-population effects found an advantage of recombination, and those whose models had infinite populations found none. The advantage of recombination is that it breaks down random linkage disequilibrium generated by genetic drift. Hill and Robertson found that the average effect of this randomly-generated linkage disequilibrium was to cause linked loci to interfere with each other's response to selection, even where there was no gene interaction between the loci. This effect is shown to be identical to the original argument of Fisher and Muller. It also predicts the "ratchet mechanism" discovered by Muller, who pointed out that deleterious mutants would more readily increase in a population without recombination. Computer simulations of substitution of favorable mutants and of the long-term increase of deleterious mutants verified the essential correctness of the original Fisher-Muller argument and the reality of the Muller ratchet mechanism. It is argued that these constitute an intrinsic advantage of recombination capable of accounting for its persistence in the face of selection for tighter linkage between interacting polymorphisms, and possibly capable of accounting for its origin.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/78.2.737",
    doi = "10.1093/genetics/78.2.737",
    openalex = "W2130315111",
    references = "doi1023072341823"
}

@article{chovnick1977fruit,
    author = "CHOVNICK, A.",
    title = "Fruit Flies",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.196.4287.290",
    doi = "10.1126/science.196.4287.290",
    number = "4287",
    openalex = "W3177547156",
    pages = "290-290",
    volume = "196"
}

@article{doi1023074581,
    author = "Ormond, Rupert and Krebs, J. R. and Davies, Nigel",
    title = "Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4581",
    doi = "10.2307/4581",
    openalex = "W2315288864"
}

@incollection{doi10100797836425158802,
    author = "Nevo, Eviatar and Beiles, Avigdor and Ben‐Shlomo, Rachel",
    title = "The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Diversity: Ecological, Demographic and Life History Correlates",
    year = "1984",
    booktitle = "Lecture notes in biomathematics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-51588-0\_2",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-51588-0\_2",
    openalex = "W175060409",
    references = "doi101111j155856461960tb03113x, doi101126science16238611453, doi101146annureves10110179001133, openalexw1523843460"
}

@article{doi1023071367778,
    author = "Griesemer, James R. and Boyd, Robert and Richerson, Peter J.",
    title = "Culture and the Evolutionary Process",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Ornithological Applications",
    abstract = "Culture and the evolutionary process Culture and the evolutionary process. Robert Boyd, Peter J. Richerson(ed.), 1985. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago viii + 331 pages. $29.95 Marcy F. Lawton Marcy F. Lawton Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar The Condor, Volume 88, Issue 1, 1 February 1986, Pages 123–124, https://doi.org/10.2307/1367778 Published: 01 February 1986",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1367778",
    doi = "10.2307/1367778",
    openalex = "W1811781384"
}

@article{spieksma1986respiratory,
    author = "Spieksma, F.Th.M. and Vooren, P.H. and Kramps, J.A. and Dijkman, J.H.",
    title = "Respiratory allergy to laboratory fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-6749(86)90331-3",
    doi = "10.1016/0091-6749(86)90331-3",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W1612738730",
    pages = "108-113",
    volume = "77",
    references = "doi1010160003269774901390, doi1010160021870758900376, doi1010160091674972901170, doi1010160091674978904670, doi1010160091674979901969, doi101016009167498090038x, doi1010160091674980901803, doi1010160091674983900908, doi1010160091674983905845, doi101111j136522221979tb01540x"
}

@misc{rubin1988drosophilia2,
    author = "Rubin, G. M",
    title = "Drosophilia melanogaster as an Experimental Organism",
    year = "1988",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 240, p. 1453-1459",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Rubin, G. M., 1988, Drosophilia melanogaster as an Experimental Organism: Science, v. 240, p. 1453-1459.}"
}

@article{doi101146annureven34010189001531,
    author = "Papaj, Daniel R. and Prokopy, Ronald J.",
    title = "Ecological and Evolutionary Aspects of Learning in Phytophagous Insects",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Annual Review of Entomology",
    abstract = "With a growing world population and increasingly demanding consumers, the production of sufficient protein from livestock, poultry, and fish represents a serious challenge for the future. Approximately 1,900 insect species are eaten worldwide, mainly in...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001531",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.001531",
    openalex = "W2119511002"
}

@book{doi101093oso97801985464120010001,
    author = "Harvey, Paul and Pagel, Mark",
    title = "The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology",
    year = "1991",
    abstract = "Abstract From Darwin onward, it has been second nature for evolutionary biologists to think comparatively because comparisons establish the generality of evolutionary phenomena. Do large genomes slow down development? What lifestyles select for large brains? Are extinction rates related to body size? These are all questions for the comparative method, and this book is about how such questions can be answered. The first chapter elaborates on suitable questions for the comparative approach and shows how it complements other approaches to problem-solving in evolution. The second chapter identifies the biological causes of similarity among closely related species for almost any observed character. The third chapter discusses methods for reconstructing phylogenetic trees and ancestral character states. The fourth chapter sets out to develop statistical tests that will determine whether different characters that exist in discrete states show evidence for correlated evolution. Chapter 5 turns to comparative analyses of continuously varying characters. Chapter 6 looks at allometry to exemplify the themes and methods discussed earlier, while the last chapter looks to future development of the comparative approach in both molecular and organismic biology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198546412.001.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780198546412.001.0001",
    openalex = "W4388245928"
}

@article{doi105860choice295104,
    title = "The comparative method in evolutionary biology",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "The comparative method for studying adaptation why worry about phylogeny? reconstructing phylogenetic trees and ancestral character states comparative analysis of discrete data comparative analysis of continuous variables determining the form of comparative relationships.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.29-5104",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.29-5104",
    openalex = "W1488393970"
}

@book{crossref1993fruit,
    title = "Fruit Flies",
    year = "1993",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2278-9",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4757-2278-9",
    openalex = "W4250735878"
}

@article{doi1010160169534796100392,
    author = "Sheldon, Ben C. and Verhulst, Simon",
    title = "Ecological immunology: costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)10039-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0169-5347(96)10039-2",
    openalex = "W2062382041",
    references = "doi101093oso97801985459960010001, doi101126science7123238, doi1023075403, doi1023075530"
}

@article{doi101016s0169534797012330,
    author = "Wolf, Jason B. and Brodie, Edmund D. and Cheverud, James M. and Moore, Allen J. and Wade, Michael",
    title = "Evolutionary consequences of indirect genetic effects",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(97)01233-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0169-5347(97)01233-0",
    openalex = "W2169338317",
    references = "openalexw2416298343"
}

@article{doi101016s0898122198902206,
    title = "Cognitive ecology: The evolutionary ecology of information processing and decision making",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Computers \& Mathematics with Applications",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0898-1221(98)90220-6",
    doi = "10.1016/s0898-1221(98)90220-6",
    openalex = "W1565105087"
}

@article{mery2002experimental,
    author = "Mery, Frederic and Kawecki, Tadeusz J.",
    title = "Experimental evolution of learning ability in fruit flies",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The presence of genetic variation for learning ability in animals opens the way for experiments asking how and under what ecological circumstances improved learning ability should evolve. Here we report experimental evolution of learning ability in Drosophila melanogaster. We exposed experimental populations for 51 generations to conditions that we expected to favor associative learning with regard to oviposition substrate choice. Flies that learned to associate a chemical cue (quinine) with a particular substrate, and still avoided this substrate several hours after the cue had been removed, were expected to contribute more alleles to the next generation. From about generation 15 on, the experimental populations showed marked ability to avoid oviposition substrates that several hours earlier had contained the chemical cue. The improved response to conditioning was also expressed when the flies were faced with a choice of novel media. We demonstrate that these behavioral changes are caused by the evolution of both a higher learning rate and a better memory.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.222371199",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.222371199",
    number = "22",
    openalex = "W2078699226",
    pages = "14274-14279",
    volume = "99",
    references = "doi101006jtbi19980856, doi101017s001667230001329x, doi101038ng893, doi101038nm0402349, doi101073pnas050461497, doi101093beheco2177, doi101146annureven34010189001531, doi101146annurevne11030188001553, doi101146annurevneuro211407, openalexw1546962148"
}

@article{doi101046j14209101200300521x,
    author = "Regan, Joseph L. and Meffert, Lisa M. and Bryant, Edwin H.",
    title = "A direct experimental test of founder-flush effects on the evolutionary potential for assortative mating",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Evolutionary Biology",
    abstract = "Founder-flush speciation models propose that population bottlenecks can enhance evolutionary potential for reproductive isolation. To test this prediction, we subjected bottlenecked (three-pair founder-flush) and nonbottlenecked populations of the housefly to 18 generations of selection for assortative mating. After the selection regime, we analysed videotaped courtship bouts in these lines to identify correlated responses to the selection protocol. The realized heritabilities for assortative mating for both the bottlenecked and nonbottlenecked treatments were very low, but still significant. The founder-flush populations had thus responded to selection as well as the nonbottlenecked populations, although not significantly greater (i.e. total increases in assortative mating were 9.6 and 8.6\%, respectively). Multivariate analyses on the courtship repertoires found that, although both bottlenecked and nonbottlenecked treatments attained similar levels of assortative mating, the treatments exhibited different evolutionary solutions in their correlated responses. Specifically, the bottlenecked lines demonstrated a significantly more diverse set of evolutionary trajectories (i.e. significant shifts along the second principal component for courtship). This suggests that the bottlenecked lines had greater potential for the evolution of novel phenotypes as predicted by founder-induced speciation models. Our results, however, cannot distinguish whether the more variable evolutionary responses resulted from increased heritabilities in courtship components, reduced potential to follow the convergent evolutionary trajectories noted for the nonbottlenecked lines, or some combination of both general processes in determining the resultant multivariate phenotype.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00521.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00521.x",
    openalex = "W1570577458",
    references = "doi101046j14209101199900105x"
}

@article{doi101111j001438202003tb00339x,
    author = "Day, Stacey B. and Bryant, Edwin H. and Meffert, Lisa M.",
    title = "THE INFLUENCE OF VARIABLE RATES OF INBREEDING ON FITNESS, ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIVENESS, AND EVOLUTIONARY POTENTIAL",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "We manipulated experimental populations of the housefly (Musca domestica L.) under three inbreeding schemes (fast, slow, and punctuated) to partition out the influences of different means and variances in the rate of inbreeding, per generation, while controlling for the final level of inbreeding as a constant. One treatment used constant fast inbreeding (11\% per generation; Ne = 4 for 4 generations), for a comparison to one that was consistently slow (3\% per generation; Ne = 16 for 14 generations). The third followed a model for serial founder-flush events. Each founder-flush episode involved a one-generation pulse of fast inbreeding (Ne = 4) followed by two generations of very low (or no) inbreeding, yielding high intergenerational variation (i.e., for an average inbreeding rate of 4\% per generation). Allozyme assays showed that we achieved the intended final inbreeding coefficient of about 37\%. All inbreeding schemes decreased fitness levels in terms of egg-to-adult viability, development time, and male mating success relative to the outbred control. The consistently fast inbreeding protocol had more pronounced reductions in fitness, relative to the other two inbreeding schemes. In comparison to the fast and punctuated regimes, the consistently slow protocol preserved evolutionary potential (as assayed by the genetic divergence of subpopulations exposed to different environments) in egg-to-adult viability, and (albeit anecdotally) reduced the extinction probabilities, especially in a novel environment. The punctuated treatment did not optimize the potential for purge as predicted, but instead reduced fitness, evolutionary potential, and environmental responsiveness (as measured by genotype-by-environment interactions). This founder-flush treatment also had the highest extinction probabilities. Longer periods of population flush might be necessary to purge effectively in a punctuated scheme. We conclude that the rate of inbreeding, independent from the final level, can have important effects on population fitness, environmental responsiveness, and evolutionary potential.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00339.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00339.x",
    openalex = "W2132014987",
    references = "doi101046j14209101199900105x"
}

@article{doi101146annurevanthro32061002093158,
    author = "Dunbar, Robin",
    title = "The Social Brain: Mind, Language, and Society in Evolutionary Perspective",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract The social brain (or Machiavellian Intelligence) hypothesis was proposed to explain primates' unusually large brains: It argues that the cognitive demands of living in complexly bonded social groups selected for increases in executive brain (principally neocortex). The evidence for this and alternative hypotheses is reviewed. Although there remain difficulties of interpretation, the bulk of the evidence comes down in favor of the social brain hypothesis. The extent to which the cognitive demands of bonding large intensely social groups involve aspects of social cognition, such as theory of mind, is explored. These findings are then related to the evolution of social group size, language, and culture within the hominid lineage.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093158",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093158",
    openalex = "W2130307024",
    references = "doi101006jhev19960099, doi101016004724849290081j, doi101073pnas062041299"
}

@article{doi101016jtree200404009,
    author = "Sih, Andrew and Bell, Alison M. and Johnson, J. Chadwick",
    title = "Behavioral syndromes: an ecological and evolutionary overview",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.04.009",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2004.04.009",
    openalex = "W2109104251",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi101073pnas931910262"
}

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys35112202130152,
    author = "Dukas, Reuven",
    title = "Evolutionary Biology of Animal Cognition",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract This review focuses on five key evolutionary issues pertaining to animal cognition, defined as the neuronal processes concerned with the acquisition, retention, and use of information. Whereas the use of information, or decision making, has been relatively well examined by students of behavior, evolutionary aspects of other cognitive traits that affect behavior, including perception, learning, memory, and attention, are less well understood. First, there is ample evidence for genetically based individual variation in cognitive traits, although much of the information for some traits comes from humans. Second, several studies documented positive association between cognitive abilities and performance measures linked to fitness. Third, information on the evolution of cognitive traits is available primarily for color vision and decision making. Fourth, much of the data on plasticity of cognitive traits appears to reflect nonadaptive phenotypic plasticity, perhaps because few evolutionary analyses of cognitive plasticity have been carried out. Nonetheless, several studies suggest that cognitive traits show adaptive plasticity, and at least one study documented genetically based individual variation in plasticity. Fifth, whereas assertions that cognition has played a central role in animal evolution are not supported by currently available data, theoretical considerations indicate that cognition may either increase or decrease the rate of evolutionary change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130152",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130152",
    openalex = "W2125610602",
    references = "doi101016s135094620100009x, doi101037073570441032308, mery2002experimental"
}

@article{doi101017s0954579405050145,
    author = "Boyce, W. Thomas and Ellis, Bruce J.",
    title = "Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Development and Psychopathology",
    abstract = "Biological reactivity to psychological stressors comprises a complex, integrated, and highly conserved repertoire of central neural and peripheral neuroendocrine responses designed to prepare the organism for challenge or threat. Developmental experience plays a role, along with heritable, polygenic variation, in calibrating the response dynamics of these systems, with early adversity biasing their combined effects toward a profile of heightened or prolonged reactivity. Conventional views of such high reactivity suggest that it is an atavistic and pathogenic legacy of an evolutionary past in which threats to survival were more prevalent and severe. Recent evidence, however, indicates that (a) stress reactivity is not a unitary process, but rather incorporates counterregulatory circuits serving to modify or temper physiological arousal, and (b) the effects of high reactivity phenotypes on psychiatric and biomedical outcomes are bivalent, rather than univalent, in character, exerting both risk-augmenting and risk-protective effects in a context-dependent manner. These observations suggest that heightened stress reactivity may reflect, not simply exaggerated arousal under challenge, but rather an increased biological sensitivity to context, with potential for negative health effects under conditions of adversity and positive effects under conditions of support and protection. From an evolutionary perspective, the developmental plasticity of the stress response systems, along with their structured, context-dependent effects, suggests that these systems may constitute conditional adaptations: evolved psychobiological mechanisms that monitor specific features of childhood environments as a basis for calibrating the development of stress response systems to adaptively match those environments. Taken together, these theoretical perspectives generate a novel hypothesis: that there is a curvilinear, U-shaped relation between early exposures to adversity and the development of stress-reactive profiles, with high reactivity phenotypes disproportionately emerging within both highly stressful and highly protected early social environments. The research on which this paper was based was supported by grants from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's Research Network on Psychopathology and Development, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1RO1 HD 24718), and by the Division of Intramural Research of NICHD. The first author is particularly indebted to Dr. Steve Suomi and Dr. Jan Genevro for a series of conversations that directly influenced the ideas upon which this paper is based. We also thank Dr. Jay Belsky and Dr. David Bjorklund for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579405050145",
    doi = "10.1017/s0954579405050145",
    openalex = "W2147391696",
    references = "doi101017s0140525x0000337x, doi105860choice364478"
}

@article{doi101038nrg2063,
    author = "Wray, Gregory A.",
    title = "The evolutionary significance of cis-regulatory mutations",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Nature Reviews Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2063",
    doi = "10.1038/nrg2063",
    openalex = "W2012354488",
    references = "doi101016s0022283661800727, doi10103835046017, doi101038nature02415, doi101038ng1946, doi101038sjmp4001851, doi101056nejm197608052950602, doi101073pnas0431157100, doi101073pnas9794530, doi101086406830, doi101086421051, doi101093genetics15141531, doi101093molbevmsg140, doi101111j001438202000tb00544x, doi101126science1071829, doi101126science1072290, doi101126science1090005"
}

@article{doi101146annurevento53103106093343,
    author = "Dukas, Reuven",
    title = "Evolutionary Biology of Insect Learning",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Annual Review of Entomology",
    abstract = "Learning and memory, defined as the acquisition and retention of neuronal representations of new information, are ubiquitous among insects. Recent research indicates that a variety of insects rely extensively on learning for all major life activities including feeding, predator avoidance, aggression, social interactions, and sexual behavior. There is good evidence that individuals within an insect species exhibit genetically based variation in learning abilities and indirect evidence linking insect learning to fitness. Although insects rely on innate behavior to successfully manage many types of variation and unpredictability, learning may be superior to innate behavior when dealing with features unique to time, place, or individuals. Among insects, social learning, which can promote the rapid spread of novel behaviors, is currently known only from a few well-studied examples in social Hymenoptera. The prevalence and importance of social learning in insects are still unknown. Similarly, we know little about ecological factors that may have promoted enhanced learning abilities in insects, and whether learning has significantly contributed to speciation in insects.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093343",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093343",
    openalex = "W2117879460",
    references = "mery2002experimental"
}

@article{doi101016jtplants200912002,
    author = "Dicke, Marcel and Baldwin, Ian T.",
    title = "The evolutionary context for herbivore-induced plant volatiles: beyond the ‘cry for help’",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Trends in Plant Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2009.12.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tplants.2009.12.002",
    openalex = "W2112742892",
    references = "doi101146annureven40010195001501, doi105860choice432194"
}

@article{doi101016jtree201008002,
    author = "Clutton‐Brock, Tim and Sheldon, Ben C.",
    title = "Individuals and populations: the role of long-term, individual-based studies of animals in ecology and evolutionary biology",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.08.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2010.08.002",
    openalex = "W1973655881",
    references = "doi1010160169534787900280, doi1010160169534789900372, doi101016s0169534702024898, doi1023072404970, doi1023075465"
}

@article{kawecki2010evolutionary,
    author = "Kawecki, Tadeusz J.",
    title = "Evolutionary ecology of learning: insights from fruit flies",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Population Ecology",
    abstract = "Ecologically and evolutionarily oriented research on learning has traditionally been carried out on vertebrates and bees. While less sophisticated than those animals, fruit flies (Drosophila) are capable of several forms of learning, and have the advantage of a short generation time, which makes them an ideal system for experimental evolution studies. This review summarizes the insights into evolutionary questions about learning gained in the last decade from evolutionary experiments on Drosophila. These experiments demonstrate that Drosophila has the genetic potential to evolve a substantially improved learning performance in ecologically relevant learning tasks. In at least one set of selected populations, the improved learning generalized to a task other than that used to impose selection, involving a different behavior, different stimuli, and a different sensory channel for the aversive reinforcement. This improvement in learning ability was associated with reductions in other fitness‐related traits, such as larval competitive ability and lifespan, pointing to evolutionary trade‐offs for improved learning. These trade‐offs were confirmed by other evolutionary experiments where a reduction in learning performance was observed as a correlated response to selection for tolerance to larval nutritional stress or for delayed aging. Such trade‐offs could be one reason why fruit flies have not fully used up their evolutionary potential for learning. Finally, another evolutionary experiment with Drosophila provided the first direct evidence for the long‐standing idea that learning can under some circumstances accelerate and in others slow down genetically based evolutionary change. These results demonstrate the usefulness of fruit flies as a model system to address evolutionary questions about learning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10144-009-0174-0",
    doi = "10.1007/s10144-009-0174-0",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2035075830",
    pages = "15-25",
    volume = "52",
    references = "doi1010160168952596814582, doi101073pnas062041299, doi101086276408, doi101146annurevne11030188001553, doi10120197814200035678, doi1023072529912, doi1023075403, doi105860choice364478, doi105860choice475652, openalexw2416298343"
}

@article{doi101038msb201142,
    author = "Conrad, Tom M and Lewis, Nathan E. and Palsson, Bernhard Ø.",
    title = "Microbial laboratory evolution in the era of genome‐scale science",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Molecular Systems Biology",
    abstract = "Laboratory evolution studies provide fundamental biological insight through direct observation of the evolution process. They not only enable testing of evolutionary theory and principles, but also have applications to metabolic engineering and human health. Genome-scale tools are revolutionizing studies of laboratory evolution by providing complete determination of the genetic basis of adaptation and the changes in the organism's gene expression state. Here, we review studies centered on four central themes of laboratory evolution studies: (1) the genetic basis of adaptation; (2) the importance of mutations to genes that encode regulatory hubs; (3) the view of adaptive evolution as an optimization process; and (4) the dynamics with which laboratory populations evolve.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/msb.2011.42",
    doi = "10.1038/msb.2011.42",
    openalex = "W2153238155",
    references = "doi101371journalpgen1000713"
}

@article{doi101074jbcm111257600,
    author = "Shchedrina, Valentina A. and Kabil, Hadise and Vorbrüggen, Gerd and Lee, Byung Cheon and Turanov, Anton A. and Hirosawa‐Takamori, Mitsuko and Kim, Hwa-Young and Harshman, Lawrence G. and Hatfield, Dolph L. and Gladyshev, Vadim N.",
    title = "Analyses of Fruit Flies That Do Not Express Selenoproteins or Express the Mouse Selenoprotein, Methionine Sulfoxide Reductase B1, Reveal a Role of Selenoproteins in Stress Resistance",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Biological Chemistry",
    abstract = "Selenoproteins are essential in vertebrates because of their crucial role in cellular redox homeostasis, but some invertebrates that lack selenoproteins have recently been identified. Genetic disruption of selenoprotein biosynthesis had no effect on lifespan and oxidative stress resistance of Drosophila melanogaster. In the current study, fruit flies with knock-out of the selenocysteine-specific elongation factor were metabolically labeled with (75)Se; they did not incorporate selenium into proteins and had the same lifespan on a chemically defined diet with or without selenium supplementation. These flies were, however, more susceptible to starvation than controls, and this effect could be ascribed to the function of selenoprotein K. We further expressed mouse methionine sulfoxide reductase B1 (MsrB1), a selenoenzyme that catalyzes the reduction of oxidized methionine residues and has protein repair function, in the whole body or the nervous system of fruit flies. This exogenous selenoprotein could only be expressed when the Drosophila selenocysteine insertion sequence element was used, whereas the corresponding mouse element did not support selenoprotein synthesis. Ectopic expression of MsrB1 in the nervous system led to an increase in the resistance against oxidative stress and starvation, but did not affect lifespan and reproduction, whereas ubiquitous MsrB1 expression had no effect. Dietary selenium did not influence lifespan of MsrB1-expressing flies. Thus, in contrast to vertebrates, fruit flies preserve only three selenoproteins, which are not essential and play a role only under certain stress conditions, thereby limiting the use of the micronutrient selenium by these organisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m111.257600",
    doi = "10.1074/jbc.m111.257600",
    openalex = "W2028203719",
    references = "doi101016s0891584902013606, doi101038534, doi101073pnas032671199, doi101073pnas171202698, doi101073pnas231472998, doi101073pnas932615036, doi10108010715760290006394, doi101089ars20071528, doi101126science1098219, doi101242dev1182401"
}

@misc{crossref2012fruit,
    title = "Fruit flies",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "PlantwisePlus Knowledge Bank",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1079/pwkb.20137804238",
    doi = "10.1079/pwkb.20137804238",
    openalex = "W4312550084"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20121398,
    author = "Immler, Simone and González‐Voyer, Alejandro and Birkhead, T. R.",
    title = "Distinct evolutionary patterns of morphometric sperm traits in passerine birds",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The striking diversity of sperm shape across the animal kingdom is still poorly understood. Postcopulatory sexual selection is an important factor driving the evolution of sperm size and shape. Interestingly, morphometric sperm traits, such as the length of the head, midpiece and flagellum, exhibit a strong positive phenotypic correlation across species. Here we used recently developed comparative methods to investigate how such phenotypic correlations between morphometric sperm traits may evolve. We compare allometric relationships and evolutionary trajectories of three morphometric sperm traits (length of head, midpiece and flagellum) in passerine birds. We show that these traits exhibit strong phenotypic correlations but that allometry varies across families. In addition, the evolutionary trajectories of the midpiece and flagellum are similar while the trajectory for head length differs. We discuss our findings in the light of three scenarios accounting for correlated trait evolution: (i) genetic correlation; (ii) concerted response to selection acting simultaneously on different traits; and (iii) phenotypic correlation between traits driven by mechanistic constraints owing to selection on sperm performance. Our results suggest that concerted response to selection is the most likely explanation for the phenotypic correlation between morphometric sperm traits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1398",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2012.1398",
    openalex = "W2101703054",
    references = "doi101111j1474919x201201232x"
}

@article{doi101098rstb20120214,
    author = "Thornton, Alex and Lukas, Dieter",
    title = "Individual variation in cognitive performance: developmental and evolutionary perspectives",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Animal cognition experiments frequently reveal striking individual variation but rarely consider its causes and largely ignore its potential consequences. Studies often focus on a subset of high-performing subjects, sometimes viewing evidence from a single individual as sufficient to demonstrate the cognitive capacity of a species. We argue that the emphasis on demonstrating species-level cognitive capacities detracts from the value of individual variation in understanding cognitive development and evolution. We consider developmental and evolutionary interpretations of individual variation and use meta-analyses of data from published studies to examine predictors of individual performance. We show that reliance on small sample sizes precludes robust conclusions about individual abilities as well as inter- and intraspecific differences. We advocate standardization of experimental protocols and pooling of data between laboratories to improve statistical rigour. Our analyses show that cognitive performance is influenced by age, sex, rearing conditions and previous experience. These effects limit the validity of comparative analyses unless developmental histories are taken into account, and complicate attempts to understand how cognitive traits are expressed and selected under natural conditions. Further understanding of cognitive evolution requires efforts to elucidate the heritability of cognitive traits and establish whether elevated cognitive performance confers fitness advantages in nature.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0214",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2012.0214",
    openalex = "W2062674971",
    references = "doi101098rstb20061998"
}

@article{doi101111j1365294x201205484x,
    author = "Dettman, Jeremy R. and Rodrigue, Nicolas and Melnyk, Anita H. and Wong, Alex and Bailey, Susan F. and Kassen, Rees",
    title = "Evolutionary insight from whole‐genome sequencing of experimentally evolved microbes",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Molecular Ecology",
    abstract = "Experimental evolution (EE) combined with whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has become a compelling approach to study the fundamental mechanisms and processes that drive evolution. Most EE-WGS studies published to date have used microbes, owing to their ease of propagation and manipulation in the laboratory and relatively small genome sizes. These experiments are particularly suited to answer long-standing questions such as: How many mutations underlie adaptive evolution, and how are they distributed across the genome and through time? Are there general rules or principles governing which genes contribute to adaptation, and are certain kinds of genes more likely to be targets than others? How common is epistasis among adaptive mutations, and what does this reveal about the variety of genetic routes to adaptation? How common is parallel evolution, where the same mutations evolve repeatedly and independently in response to similar selective pressures? Here, we summarize the significant findings of this body of work, identify important emerging trends and propose promising directions for future research. We also outline an example of a computational pipeline for use in EE-WGS studies, based on freely available bioinformatics tools.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05484.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05484.x",
    openalex = "W1813843188",
    references = "doi101371journalpgen1000713"
}

@article{doi101016janbehav201212031,
    author = "Snell‐Rood, Emilie C.",
    title = "An overview of the evolutionary causes and consequences of behavioural plasticity",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Animal Behaviour",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.12.031",
    doi = "10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.12.031",
    openalex = "W1968021996",
    references = "doi101007bf02763457, doi101111j1469185x201000164x, doi101126science2114485887"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20151019,
    author = "Laland, Kevin N. and Uller, Tobias and Feldman, Marcus W. and Sterelny, Kim and Müller, Gerd B. and Moczek, Armin P. and Jablonka, Eva and Odling‐Smee, John",
    title = "The extended evolutionary synthesis: its structure, assumptions and predictions",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Scientific activities take place within the structured sets of ideas and assumptions that define a field and its practices. The conceptual framework of evolutionary biology emerged with the Modern Synthesis in the early twentieth century and has since expanded into a highly successful research program to explore the processes of diversification and adaptation. Nonetheless, the ability of that framework satisfactorily to accommodate the rapid advances in developmental biology, genomics and ecology has been questioned. We review some of these arguments, focusing on literatures (evo-devo, developmental plasticity, inclusive inheritance and niche construction) whose implications for evolution can be interpreted in two ways—one that preserves the internal structure of contemporary evolutionary theory and one that points towards an alternative conceptual framework. The latter, which we label the 'extended evolutionary synthesis' (EES), retains the fundaments of evolutionary theory, but differs in its emphasis on the role of constructive processes in development and evolution, and reciprocal portrayals of causation. In the EES, developmental processes, operating through developmental bias, inclusive inheritance and niche construction, share responsibility for the direction and rate of evolution, the origin of character variation and organism-environment complementarity. We spell out the structure, core assumptions and novel predictions of the EES, and show how it can be deployed to stimulate and advance research in those fields that study or use evolutionary biology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.1019",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2015.1019",
    openalex = "W2103794982",
    references = "doi101001jama195002910300087029, doi101002jezb21081, doi101017cbo9780511621123, doi101038218525a0, doi10106313050879, doi101086346135, doi101093auk1002507, doi101093oso97801951223430010001, doi101111j155856461982tb05068x, doi101126science1113832, doi101146annureves01110170000245, doi1015159780691209418, doi1015159781400847266, doi1023071367778, doi1023072260026, doi102307jctvjsf433, doi102307jctvx5wbbh, doi105860choice364478, doi105860choice396411, doi105962bhltitle27468, doi107208chicago97802263088830010001, doi107551mitpress97802625136780010001, openalexw2080618944, openalexw227636185"
}

@article{doi101111brv12174,
    author = "Morand‐Ferron, Julie and Cole, Ella F. and Quinn, John L.",
    title = "Studying the evolutionary ecology of cognition in the wild: a review of practical and conceptual challenges",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Cognition is defined as the processes by which animals collect, retain and use information from their environment to guide their behaviour. Thus cognition is essential in a wide range of behaviours, including foraging, avoiding predators and mating. Despite this pivotal role, the evolutionary processes shaping variation in cognitive performance among individuals in wild populations remain very poorly understood. Selection experiments in captivity suggest that cognitive traits can have substantial heritability and can undergo rapid evolution. However only a handful of studies have attempted to explore how cognition influences life-history variation and fitness in the wild, and direct evidence for the action of natural or sexual selection on cognition is still lacking, reasons for which are diverse. Here we review the current literature with a view to: (i) highlighting the key practical and conceptual challenges faced by the field; (ii) describing how to define and measure cognitive traits in natural populations, and suggesting which species, populations and cognitive traits might be examined to greatest effect; emphasis is placed on selecting traits that are linked to functional behaviour; (iii) discussing how to deal with confounding factors such as personality and motivation in field as well as captive studies; (iv) describing how to measure and interpret relationships between cognitive performance, functional behaviour and fitness, offering some suggestions as to when and what kind of selection might be predicted; and (v) showing how an evolutionary ecological framework, more generally, along with innovative technologies has the potential to revolutionise the study of cognition in the wild. We conclude that the evolutionary ecology of cognition in wild populations is a rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field providing many opportunities for advancing the understanding of how cognitive abilities have evolved.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12174",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12174",
    openalex = "W1505902925",
    references = "doi101002cne920180503, doi101016jcub201207051, doi101046j14390388200200356x, doi101086343878, doi101093behecoaru095, doi101111j1469185x200700010x, doi101111j155856461983tb00236x, doi1023072529912, doi1023074087240, doi1023074581, doi1023075403, kawecki2010evolutionary, openalexw2080618944"
}

@article{doi101038ncomms10474,
    author = "Laine, Veronika N. and Gossmann, Toni I. and Schachtschneider, Kyle M. and Garroway, Colin J. and Madsen, Ole and Verhoeven, Koen J. F. and de Jager, Victor and Megens, Hendrik‐Jan and Warren, Wesley C. and Minx, Patrick and Crooijmans, R.P.M.A. and Corcoran, Pádraic and Adriaensen, Frank and Belda, Eduardo J. and Bushuev, Andrey and Cichoń, Mariusz and Charmantier, Anne and Dingemanse, Niels J. and Doligez, Blandine and Eeva, Tapio and Erikstad, Kjell Einar and Fedorov, S. G. and Hau, Michaela and Hille, Sabine and Hinde, Camilla A. and Kempenaers, Bart and Керимов, А.Б. and Krist, Miloš and Mänd, Raivo and Matthysen, Erik and Nager, Reudi and Norte, Claudia and Orell, Markku and Richner, Heinz and Slagsvold, Tore and Tilgar, Vallo and Tinbergen, Joost M. and Török, János and Tschirren, Barbara and Yuta, Tera and Sheldon, Ben C. and Slate, Jon and Zeng, Kai and van Oers, Kees and Visser, Marcel E. and Groenen, Martien A. M.",
    title = "Evolutionary signals of selection on cognition from the great tit genome and methylome",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "For over 50 years, the great tit (Parus major) has been a model species for research in evolutionary, ecological and behavioural research; in particular, learning and cognition have been intensively studied. Here, to provide further insight into the molecular mechanisms behind these important traits, we de novo assemble a great tit reference genome and whole-genome re-sequence another 29 individuals from across Europe. We show an overrepresentation of genes related to neuronal functions, learning and cognition in regions under positive selection, as well as increased CpG methylation in these regions. In addition, great tit neuronal non-CpG methylation patterns are very similar to those observed in mammals, suggesting a universal role in neuronal epigenetic regulation which can affect learning-, memory- and experience-induced plasticity. The high-quality great tit genome assembly will play an instrumental role in furthering the integration of ecological, evolutionary, behavioural and genomic approaches in this model species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10474",
    doi = "10.1038/ncomms10474",
    openalex = "W2272717953",
    references = "doi101016jcub201207051"
}

@article{doi101016janbehav201803004,
    author = "Sales, Kris and Trent, Thomas and Gardner, Jessie and Lumley, Alyson J. and Vasudeva, Ramakrishnan and Michalczyk, Łukasz and Martin, Oliver Y. and Gage, Matthew J. G.",
    title = "Experimental evolution with an insect model reveals that male homosexual behaviour occurs due to inaccurate mate choice",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Animal Behaviour",
    abstract = "The existence of widespread male same-sex sexual behaviour (SSB) is puzzling: why does evolution allow costly homosexual activity to exist, when reproductive fitness is primarily achieved through heterosexual matings? Here, we used experimental evolution to understand why SSB occurs in the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. By varying the adult operational sex ratio across 82–106 generations, we created divergent evolutionary regimes that selected for or against SSB depending upon its function. Male-biased (90:10 M:F) regimes generated strong selection on males from intrasexual competition, and demanded improved ability to locate and identify female mates. By contrast, Female-biased regimes (10:90 M:F) generated weak male–male competition, and relaxed selection on mate-searching abilities in males. If male SSB functions through sexually selected male–male competition, it should be more evident within Male-biased regimes, where reproductive competition is nine times greater, than in the Female-biased regimes. By contrast, if SSB exists due to inaccurate mate choice, it should be reduced in Male-biased regimes, where males experience stronger selection for improved mate finding and discrimination abilities than in the Female-biased regime, where most potential mating targets are female. Following these divergent evolutionary regimes, we measured male engagement in SSB through choice experiments simultaneously presenting female and male mating targets. Males from both regimes showed similar overall levels of mating activity. However, there were significant differences in levels of SSB between the two regimes: males that evolved through male-biased operational sex ratios located, mounted and mated more frequently with the female targets. By contrast, males from female-biased selection histories mated less frequently with females, exhibiting almost random choice between male and female targets in their first mating attempt. Following experimental evolution, we therefore conclude that SSB does not function through sexually selected male–male competition, but instead occurs because males fail to perfectly discriminate females as mates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.03.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.03.004",
    openalex = "W2796197821",
    references = "doi101007s002650131610x"
}

@article{doi101128mmbr0000818,
    author = "den Bergh, Bram Van and Swings, Toon and Fauvart, Maarten and Michiels, Jan",
    title = "Experimental Design, Population Dynamics, and Diversity in Microbial Experimental Evolution",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews",
    abstract = "In experimental evolution, laboratory-controlled conditions select for the adaptation of species, which can be monitored in real time. Despite the current popularity of such experiments, nature's most pervasive biological force was long believed to be observable only on time scales that transcend a researcher's life-span, and studying evolution by natural selection was therefore carried out solely by comparative means. Eventually, microorganisms' propensity for fast evolutionary changes proved us wrong, displaying strong evolutionary adaptations over a limited time, nowadays massively exploited in laboratory evolution experiments. Here, we formulate a guide to experimental evolution with microorganisms, explaining experimental design and discussing evolutionary dynamics and outcomes and how it is used to assess ecoevolutionary theories, improve industrially important traits, and untangle complex phenotypes. Specifically, we give a comprehensive overview of the setups used in experimental evolution. Additionally, we address population dynamics and genetic or phenotypic diversity during evolution experiments and expand upon contributing factors, such as epistasis and the consequences of (a)sexual reproduction. Dynamics and outcomes of evolution are most profoundly affected by the spatiotemporal nature of the selective environment, where changing environments might lead to generalists and structured environments could foster diversity, aided by, for example, clonal interference and negative frequency-dependent selection. We conclude with future perspectives, with an emphasis on possibilities offered by fast-paced technological progress. This work is meant to serve as an introduction to those new to the field of experimental evolution, as a guide to the budding experimentalist, and as a reference work to the seasoned expert.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.00008-18",
    doi = "10.1128/mmbr.00008-18",
    openalex = "W2884419332",
    references = "doi101371journalpgen1000713"
}

@article{doi103389fgene201800359,
    author = "Dı́az, Fernando and Lima, André Luís A. and Nakamura, Aline Minali and dos Santos Fernandes, Fernanda and Sobrinho, Iderval and de Brito, Reinaldo Alves",
    title = "Evidence for Introgression Among Three Species of the Anastrepha fraterculus Group, a Radiating Species Complex of Fruit Flies",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Frontiers in Genetics",
    abstract = ". This suggests that these species have been exchanging genes since they split from their common ancestor ∼2.6 MYA ago. We also found strong evidence for recent population expansion that appears to be consequence of anthropic activities affecting host crops of fruit flies. These findings point that the introgression here found may have been driven by genetic drift and not necessary by selection, which has implications for tracking and managing fruit flies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2018.00359",
    doi = "10.3389/fgene.2018.00359",
    openalex = "W2890581540",
    references = "crossref1993fruit"
}

@article{doi101128cmr0005019,
    author = "Baquero, F. and Martínez, J. L. and Lanza, V. F. and Rodríguez-Beltrán, J. and Galán, J. C. and Millán, A. San and Cantón, R. and Coque, T. M.",
    title = "Evolutionary Pathways and Trajectories in Antibiotic Resistance",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Clinical Microbiology Reviews",
    abstract = {Evolution is the hallmark of life. Descriptions of the evolution of microorganisms have provided a wealth of information, but knowledge regarding "what happened" has precluded a deeper understanding of "how" evolution has proceeded, as in the case of antimicrobial resistance. The difficulty in answering the "how" question lies in the multihierarchical dimensions of evolutionary processes, nested in complex networks, encompassing all units of selection, from genes to communities and ecosystems. At the simplest ontological level (as resistance genes), evolution proceeds by random (mutation and drift) and directional (natural selection) processes; however, sequential pathways of adaptive variation can occasionally be observed, and under fixed circumstances (particular fitness landscapes), evolution is predictable. At the highest level (such as that of plasmids, clones, species, microbiotas), the systems' degrees of freedom increase dramatically, related to the variable dispersal, fragmentation, relatedness, or coalescence of bacterial populations, depending on heterogeneous and changing niches and selective gradients in complex environments. Evolutionary trajectories of antibiotic resistance find their way in these changing landscapes subjected to random variations, becoming highly entropic and therefore unpredictable. However, experimental, phylogenetic, and ecogenetic analyses reveal preferential frequented paths (highways) where antibiotic resistance flows and propagates, allowing some understanding of evolutionary dynamics, modeling and designing interventions. Studies on antibiotic resistance have an applied aspect in improving individual health, One Health, and Global Health, as well as an academic value for understanding evolution. Most importantly, they have a heuristic significance as a model to reduce the negative influence of anthropogenic effects on the environment.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00050-19",
    doi = "10.1128/cmr.00050-19",
    openalex = "W3175889552",
    references = "doi101002bies201000127, doi101007bf01731581, doi101016jscitotenv201301032, doi101038nrmicro3028, doi101073pnas9563140, doi101093oso97801985459960010001, doi101098rstb19520012, doi101126science1227079, doi101128cmr0008817, doi101128microbiolspecplas00392014, doi101128mmbr0001610, doi101371journalpgen1000713, doi102307jctvjsf433, doi103389fcimb201200119"
}

@article{ehigiator2021evaluation,
    author = "Ehigiator, Ben Enoluomen and Ozolua, Raymond Iduojemu and Egbogu, Rose Obianuju",
    title = "Evaluation of the sex enhancement and fertility properties of Waltheria indica ethanol root extract in Drosophilia melanogaster (Fruit flies)",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "International Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.33545/26647184.2021.v3.i1a.12",
    doi = "10.33545/26647184.2021.v3.i1a.12",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W4380666689",
    pages = "4-8",
    volume = "3"
}

@article{doi101007s00239022100879,
    author = "Worthan, Sarah B. and McCarthy, Robert D. P. and Behringer, Megan G.",
    title = "Case Studies in the Assessment of Microbial Fitness: Seemingly Subtle Changes Can Have Major Effects on Phenotypic Outcomes",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Journal of Molecular Evolution",
    abstract = "Following the completion of an adaptive evolution experiment, fitness evaluations are routinely conducted to assess the magnitude of adaptation. In doing so, proper consideration should be given when determining the appropriate methods as trade-offs may exist between accuracy and throughput. Here, we present three instances in which small changes in the framework or execution of fitness evaluations significantly impacted the outcomes. The first case illustrates that discrepancies in fitness conclusions can arise depending on the approach to evaluating fitness, the culture vessel used, and the sampling method. The second case reveals that variations in environmental conditions can occur associated with culture vessel material. Specifically, these subtle changes can greatly affect microbial physiology leading to changes in the culture pH and distorting fitness measurements. Finally, the last case reports that heterogeneity in CFU formation time can result in inaccurate fitness conclusions. Based on each case, considerations and recommendations are presented for future adaptive evolution experiments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-022-10087-9",
    doi = "10.1007/s00239-022-10087-9",
    openalex = "W4319460838",
    references = "doi101126science1503698903"
}