@article{doi101029te053i004p00349,
    author = "Johnson, E. A. and Murphy, Thomas and Torreson, O. W.",
    title = "Pre‐history of the Earth's magnetic field",
    year = "1948",
    journal = "Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity",
    abstract = "Summary In order to determine the origin and nature of the Earth's magnetic field and to test the various hypotheses which have been advanced to explain the field, it is desirable to determine the history of this field throughout geologic time and to investigate more carefully its spatial variations, both inside and outside the Earth's surface. This research is concerned with the determination of the history of the Earth's field as it can be deduced from the present polarization of crustal material. Unconsolidated fresh‐ and salt‐water sediments have been investigated. These sediments are in the form of clays and offer one of the simplest types of polarization, since the clays can be redeposited under laboratory conditions. A particularly lengthy investigation of the polarization of glacial varves has been made, together with measurements on core samples of sediments from the Pacific. From a study of anomalous deposits in the glacial clays, the geologic stability of the polarization of these clays has been established over geologic time. From the measurements of the glacial clays, it is concluded that the Earth's field has not changed substantially in direction or intensity during the last 15,000 years. From measurements of the Pacific cores, it is tentatively concluded that the direction and intensity of the Earth's magnetic field has probably remained substantially constant during the last million years. A much more complete investigation is necessary to verify these tentative conclusions. It would be desirable to extend the measurements to periods of the order of one billion years. These results are consistent with the “fundamental” theory proposed by Schuster, Babcock, and Blackett, but do not provide positive evidence to support this theory.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/te053i004p00349",
    doi = "10.1029/te053i004p00349",
    openalex = "W2062761864"
}

@article{doi101098rsta19500014,
    author = "Bullard, E. C. and Freedman, Cynthia and Gellman, H. and Nixon, Jo",
    title = "The westward drift of the Earth's magnetic field",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A Mathematical and Physical Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract The westward drift of the non-dipole part of the earth’s magnetic field and of its secular variation is investigated for the period 1907-45 and the uncertainty of the results discussed. It is found that a real drift exists having an angular velocity which is independent of latitude. For the non-dipole field the rate of drift is 0.18 ± 0-015°/year, that for the secular variation is 0.32 ±0-067°/year. The results are confirmed by a study of harmonic analyses made between 1829 and 1945. The drift is explained as a consequence of the dynamo theory of the origin of the earth’s field. This theory required the outer part of the core to rotate less rapidly than the inner part. As a result of electromagnetic forces the solid mantle of the earth is coupled to the core as a whole, and the outer part of the core therefore travels westward relative to the mantle, carrying the minor features of the field with it.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1950.0014",
    doi = "10.1098/rsta.1950.0014",
    openalex = "W2138460843"
}

@article{doi101086146579,
    author = "Parker, E. N.",
    title = "Dynamics of the Interplanetary Gas and Magnetic Fields.",
    year = "1958",
    journal = "The Astrophysical Journal",
    abstract = "We consider the dynamical consequences of Biermann's suggestion that gas is often streaming outward in all directions from the sun with velocities of the order of 500-1500 km/sec. These velocities of 500 km/sec and more and the interplanetary densities of 500 ions/cm3 (1014 gm/sec mass loss from the sun) follow from the hydrodynamic equations for a 3 X 1060 K solar corona. It is suggested that the outward-streaming gas draws out the lines of force of the solar magnetic fields so that near the sun the field is very nearly in a radial direction. Plasma instabilities are expected to result in the thick shell of disordered field (10- gauss) inclosing the inner solar system, whose presence has already been inferred from cosmic-ray observations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/146579",
    doi = "10.1086/146579",
    openalex = "W2045483269"
}

@article{doi101103physrevlett647,
    author = "Dungey, J. W.",
    title = "Interplanetary Magnetic Field and the Auroral Zones",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "Physical Review Letters",
    abstract = "It was found that a model with a southward interplanetary magnetic field leads to a natural explanation of the SD currents. Speculative aspects of the problem as they appear at this time are discussed. It should be remembered that this problem is amenable to revolutionary progress by observations from rockets or satellites which go out more than a few earth's radii.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.6.47",
    doi = "10.1103/physrevlett.6.47",
    openalex = "W2050344634"
}

@book{jacobs1963the9,
    author = "Jacobs, J. A",
    title = "The Earth's Core and Geomagnetism",
    year = "1963",
    publisher = "New York, Pergamon Press, the Macmillan Company, 137 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Jacobs, J. A., 1963, The Earth's Core and Geomagnetism: New York, Pergamon Press, the Macmillan Company, 137 p.}"
}

@article{doi101126science14436261537,
    author = "Cox, Allan and Doell, Richard R. and Dalrymple, G. Brent",
    title = "Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.144.3626.1537",
    doi = "10.1126/science.144.3626.1537",
    openalex = "W2021766270"
}

@article{doi101029jz070i013p02989,
    author = "Ness, N. F.",
    title = "The Earth's magnetic tail",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Extensive measurements of the magnetic field of the earth at distances greater than approximately 7Re (earth radii) have been performed by the Imp 1 satellite. These magnetic field measurements began on November 27, 1963, and ended on May 30, 1964. During this six-month interval the apogee-earth-sun angle in solar ecliptic coordinates decreased from 336° to 156°. The apogee of the satellite was 31.7Re, and the range of the magnetometers was between 0.25 and 300γ. This paper is concerned principally with the topology of the magnetic field within the magnetosphere and the position of both its boundary and the detached collisionless bow shock wave. The geomagnetic field is observed to trail out far behind the earth in the antisolar direction, thus forming a magnetic tail. Magnetic field strengths of approximately 10 to 30 γ are observed out to satellite apogee. The diameter of the magnetosphere at a distance of 30Re behind the earth is found to be approximately 40Re. The direction of the field is parallel to the earth-sun line and in the antisolar direction below the solar magnetospheric equatorial plane and in the solar direction above this plane. A neutral surface separating antisolar directed fields in the southern hemisphere from solar directed fields in the northern hemisphere has been detected over a large area. This experimental result suggests the development of quantitative theories explaining the aurora, gegenschein, day-night asymmetry, and formation of the radiation belts. On the basis of a preliminary review of the data, it appears that the geomagnetic field trails out far behind the earth following the flow field of the solar plasma to a distance far beyond the orbit of the moon. No termination of the magnetic tail is detected or suggested by the data. Thus the earth can be compared to the nucleus of a comet, the radiation belts and co-rotating magnetosphere being the coma and the magnetic tail being the cometary tail.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz070i013p02989",
    doi = "10.1029/jz070i013p02989",
    openalex = "W2057724561"
}

@article{doi1010382121193a0,
    author = "Harrison, C. G. A. and Somayajulu, B.L.K.",
    title = "Behaviour of the Earth's Magnetic Field During a Reversal",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/2121193a0",
    doi = "10.1038/2121193a0",
    openalex = "W2095054686"
}

@article{doi101126science15437531164,
    author = "Pitman, Walter C. and Heirtzler, J. R.",
    title = "Magnetic Anomalies over the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Four magnetic profiles across the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge reveal magnetic anomalies that show trends parallel with the ridge axis and symmetry about the ridge axis. The distribution of bodies that could cause these anomalies supports the Vine and Matthews hypothesis for the generation of patterns of magnetic anomalies associated with the midocean ridge system. The geometry of the bodies accords with the known reversals of the geomagnetic field during the last 3.4 million years, indicating a spreading rate of the ocean floor of 4.5 centimeters per year. If one assume that the spreading rate within 500 kilometers of the ridge axis has been constant, reversals of the geomagnetic field during the last 10.0 million years can be determined. This new, detailed history of field reversals accords with observed anomalies over Reykjanes Ridge in the North Atlantic if a spreading rate of 1 centimeter per year is assumed there.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.154.3753.1164",
    doi = "10.1126/science.154.3753.1164",
    openalex = "W1996278787",
    references = "doi1010160011747166910783, doi1010381981049a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101111j1365246x1958tb05341x, doi101126science1503695485, doi101126science15037001109, doi101126science15237251060, doi101126science1543747349, doi101130001676061961721259msotwc20co2, doi101130001676061961721267msotwc20co2"
}

@article{doi101029jz072i010p02603,
    author = "Cox, Allan and Dalrymple, G. Brent",
    title = "Statistical analysis of geomagnetic reversal data and the precision of potassium-argon dating",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A new statistical method has been developed for analyzing the magnetic polarity of rocks as a function of their potassium-argon ages for the purpose of determining the ages of the boundaries between geomagnetic polarity epochs. The analysis also yields an estimate of the precision of the potassium-argon dating. A value of 3.6\% is found by this analysis for the dating precision of rocks about 2.5 m.y. old, which is in agreement with an independent estimate of the precision of the dating obtained from an analysis of analytical errors. The following are the best statistical estimates of the ages of the boundaries between geomagnetic polarity epochs: Gilbert-Gauss boundary, 3.36 m.y.; Gauss-Matuyama boundary, 2.5 m.y.; Matuyama-Brunhes boundary, 0.70 m.y. The duration of polarity events is estimated to vary from 0.07 to 0.16 m.y., and the best estimate of the time required for the earth's field to undergo a complete change in polarity is 4600 years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz072i010p02603",
    doi = "10.1029/jz072i010p02603",
    openalex = "W2017663109",
    references = "doi1010160012821x66900756, doi1010381981049a0, doi101038200054a0, doi101038204566a0, doi101093biomet264404, doi101126science1433604351, doi101126science14436261537, doi101126science15237251060, doi101126science1543747349, doi102475ajs2622145"
}

@techreport{mcdonald1967an11,
    author = "McDonald, K. L. and Gunst, R. H",
    title = "An anaylsis of the earth's magnetic field from 1835 to 1965",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "ESSA Technical Report IER 46-IES 1, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 87 pp",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McDonald, K. L., and Gunst, R. H., 1967, An anaylsis of the earth's magnetic field from 1835 to 1965. ESSA Technical Report IER 46-IES 1, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 87 pp.}"
}

@article{doi101029jb073i006p02119,
    author = "Heirtzler, J. R. and Dickson, G. O. and Herron, E. M. and Pitman, Walter C. and Pichon, Xavier Le",
    title = "Marine magnetic anomalies, geomagnetic field reversals, and motions of the ocean floor and continents",
    year = "1968",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "This paper summarizes the results of the three previous papers in this series, which have shown the presence of a pattern of magnetic anomalies, bilaterally symmetric about the crest of the ridge in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. By assuming that the pattern is caused by a sequence of normally and reversely magnetized blocks that have been produced by sea floor spreading at the axes of the ridges, it is shown that the sequences of blocks correspond to the same geomagnetic time scale. An attempt is made to determine the absolute ages of this time scale using palcomagnetic and paleontological data. The pattern of opening of the oceans is discussed and the implications on continental drift are considered. This pattern is in good agreement with continental drift, in particular with the history of the break up of Gondwanaland.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb073i006p02119",
    doi = "10.1029/jb073i006p02119",
    openalex = "W2027477351",
    references = "doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, openalexw2978227140, sykes1967mechanism"
}

@article{doi101126science1633867565,
    author = "Smith, Jerry D. and Foster, John",
    title = "Geomagnetic Reversal in Brunhes Normal Polarity Epoch",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The magnetic stratigraphly of seven cores of deep-sea sediment established the existence of a short interval of reversed polarity in the upper part of the Brunches epoch of normal polarity. The reversed zone in the cores correlates well with paleontological boundaries and is named the Blake event. Its boundaries are estimated to be 108,000 and 114,000 years ago +/- 10 percent.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.163.3867.565",
    doi = "10.1126/science.163.3867.565",
    openalex = "W2095308329"
}

@misc{fisher1969dating6,
    author = "Fisher, D",
    title = "Dating the spreading sea floor",
    year = "1969",
    howpublished = "New Scientist, v. 44, p. 185- 187",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fisher, D., 1969, Dating the spreading sea floor: New Scientist, v. 44, p. 185- 187.}"
}

@article{doi101126science1693949982,
    author = "Kaula, W. M.",
    title = "Earth's Gravity Field: Relation to Global Tectonics",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "An improved solution for the gravity field shows ocean rises, as well as trench and island arcs, as mass excesses. Ocean basins, areas of recent glaciation, and the Asian portion of the Alpide belt are mass deficiencies. Most features appear interpretable as varying behavior of the lithosphere in response to asthenospheric flow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.169.3949.982",
    doi = "10.1126/science.169.3949.982",
    openalex = "W2025052661"
}

@article{doi101130001676061971822433fearot20co2,
    author = "Hays, J. D.",
    title = "Faunal Extinctions and Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0a9af23126cb597388c53a495d553023531976f9",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2433:FEAROT]2.0.CO;2",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "9",
    pages = "2433",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "86",
    semanticscholar_id = "0a9af23126cb597388c53a495d553023531976f9",
    volume = "82"
}

@article{hays1971faunal,
    author = "HAYS, JAMES D.",
    title = "Faunal Extinctions and Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2433:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2433:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    number = "9",
    openalex = "W2109522189",
    pages = "2433",
    volume = "82"
}

@techreport{hays1971faunal7,
    author = "Hays, J. D",
    title = "Faunal extinctions and reversals of the earth's magnetic field",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 2433-2447",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hays, J. D., 1971, Faunal extinctions and reversals of the earth's magnetic field: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 2433-2447.}"
}

@article{purrett1971magnetic,
    author = "Purrett, Louise",
    title = "Magnetic Reversals and Biological Extinctions",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Science News",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3956505",
    doi = "10.2307/3956505",
    number = "18",
    openalex = "W2334051763",
    pages = "300",
    volume = "100"
}

@misc{purrett1971magnetic14,
    author = "Purrett, L",
    title = "Magnetic reversals and biological extinctions",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Science News, v. 100, p. 300",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Purrett, L., 1971, Magnetic reversals and biological extinctions: Science News, v. 100, p. 300.}"
}

@article{hays1972faunal,
    author = "HAYS, JAMES D.",
    title = "Faunal Extinctions and Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field: Reply",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2215:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2215:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    number = "7",
    openalex = "W4250146624",
    pages = "2215",
    volume = "83"
}

@article{mann1972faunal,
    author = "MANN, C. JOHN",
    title = "Faunal Extinctions and Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field: Discussion",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2211:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2211:fearot]2.0.co;2",
    number = "7",
    openalex = "W2000787067",
    pages = "2211",
    volume = "83"
}

@book{barnes1973origins1,
    author = "Barnes, T",
    title = "Origin's and Destiny of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1973",
    publisher = "San Diego, California, Creation-Life Publishers, 64 p.; ICR Technical Monograph, no.4",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Barnes, T., 1973, Origin's and Destiny of the Earth's Magnetic Field: San Diego, California, Creation-Life Publishers, 64 p.; ICR Technical Monograph, no.4.}"
}

@article{crossref1973earth,
    title = "Earth' Magnetic Field: Dipolar Reversals",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/245185a0",
    doi = "10.1038/245185a0",
    number = "5422",
    openalex = "W4247608168",
    pages = "185-185",
    volume = "245"
}

@article{doi10113000167606197788383ucmsag20co2,
    author = "Álvarez, Walter and Arthur, Michael A. and Fischer, Alfred G. and Lowrie, William and Napoleone, Giovanni and Silvá, Isabella Premoli and Roggenthen, William",
    title = "Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene magnetic stratigraphy at Gubbio, Italy V. Type section for the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene geomagnetic reversal time scale",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<383:ucmsag>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<383:ucmsag>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2149596606"
}

@misc{plotnick1980relationship13,
    author = "Plotnick, R. E",
    title = "Relationship between biological extinctions and geomagnetic reversals",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 8, p. 578-581",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Plotnick, R. E., 1980, Relationship between biological extinctions and geomagnetic reversals: Geology, v. 8, p. 578-581.}"
}

@misc{barnes1981depletion2,
    author = "Barnes, T. G",
    title = "Depletion of the Earth's magnetic field",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "ICR Impact Series, v. 100, p. i-iv",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Barnes, T. G., 1981, Depletion of the Earth's magnetic field: ICR Impact Series, v. 100, p. i-iv.}"
}

@article{doi101126science2164548885,
    author = "Ganapathy, R.",
    title = "Evidence for a Major Meteorite Impact on the Earth 34 Million Years Ago: Implication for Eocene Extinctions",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "A deep-sea core from the Caribbean contains a layer of sediment highly enriched in meteoritic iridium. This layer underlies a layer of North American microtektites dated at 34.4 million years ago and coincides with the extinction of five major species of Radiolaria. It is suggested that a massive, chemically undifferentiated meteorite collided with the earth, producing the tektites and leading to extinctions 34 million years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.216.4548.885",
    doi = "10.1126/science.216.4548.885",
    openalex = "W2004264006"
}

@misc{barnes1983the3,
    author = "Barnes, T. G",
    title = "The Origin and Destiny of the Earth's Magnetic Field [2nd ed.]",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "El Cajon, California, Institute for Creation Research",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Barnes, T. G., 1983, The Origin and Destiny of the Earth's Magnetic Field [2nd ed.]: El Cajon, California, Institute for Creation Research.}"
}

@misc{barnes1983the4,
    author = "Barnes, T. G",
    title = "The earth's magnetic age",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "the Achilles Heel of evolution: ICR Impact Series, v. 122, p. i-iv",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Barnes, T. G., 1983, The earth's magnetic age: the Achilles Heel of evolution: ICR Impact Series, v. 122, p. i-iv.}"
}

@article{dalrymple1983can5,
    author = "Dalrymple, G. B",
    title = "Can the earth be dated from the decay of its magnetic field?",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Journal of Geological Education, v. 31, p. 124-133",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dalrymple, G. B., 1983, Can the earth be dated from the decay of its magnetic field?: Journal of Geological Education, v. 31, p. 124-133.}"
}

@article{doi101029gl010i008p00713,
    author = "Negi, Janardan G. and Tiwari, R. K.",
    title = "Matching long term periodicities of geomagnetic reversals and galactic motions of the solar system",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "To understand the phenomenon of frequent reversals of axial geocentric dipole fields it is essential to understand the spectral structure of geomagnetic reversal series and search for possible exogenetic (cosmic) factors associated with its dynamic behaviour. A scheme of Walsh spectrum analysis (which is more efficient and appropriate for binary processes as compared to Fourier Spectrum Analysis and Maximum Entropy Method), has been applied, for the first time, to the available world‐wide paleomagnetic measurements during phanerozoic (last 570 million years). The results postulate long‐term cyclicity in magnetic stratigraphy with reversal periods of 285, 114, 64, 47 and 34 million years with distinct resolution. The similar analysis was further repeated by dividing the total record in two sub‐series. These results indicate mean periods of 71, 47 and 32‐ m.y. These peaks are statistically significant at 90\% confidence level. These results, thus, question the widely accepted theory of randomness of geomagnetic reversal for long‐period sequence. Surprisingly, the maximum spectral power is found for the Cosmic year (285 m.y.) Term (period of complete revolution of solar system around the Milky way galactic centre). The other reversal periods correspond nicely with the solar system's periods of galactocentric radial motion, interaction of spiral density wave with galactic orbit and solar oscillation in and outside of orbital plane. Such a remarkable correlation and harmony between observed gravitational phenomena and terrestrial records of electromagnetic processes on the cosmic scale appear to be of fundamental importance in macroscopic physics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/gl010i008p00713",
    doi = "10.1029/gl010i008p00713",
    openalex = "W2103014435"
}

@misc{jacobs1983reversals10,
    author = "Jacobs, J. A",
    title = "Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Bristol, Adam Hilger, Ltd., 230 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Jacobs, J. A., 1983, Reversals of the Earth's Magnetic Field: Bristol, Adam Hilger, Ltd., 230 p.}"
}

@book{merrill1983the12,
    author = "Merrill, R. T. and McElhinney, M. W",
    title = "The Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1983",
    publisher = "London, New York, Academic Press, 410 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Merrill, R. T., and McElhinney, M. W., 1983, The Earth's Magnetic Field: London, New York, Academic Press, 410 p.}"
}

@misc{weisburd1984mapping16,
    author = "Weisburd, S",
    title = "Mapping the Earth's Magnetic Reversals",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "Science News, v. 126, p. 341",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Weisburd, S., 1984, Mapping the Earth's Magnetic Reversals: Science News, v. 126, p. 341.}"
}

@article{crossref1985magnetic,
    title = "Magnetic reversals and mass extinctions",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0254(85)93060-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0198-0254(85)93060-2",
    number = "9",
    openalex = "W4240305065",
    pages = "777-778",
    volume = "32"
}

@incollection{doi10100797814613031383,
    author = "Skiles, Durward D.",
    title = "The Geomagnetic Field Its Nature, History, and Biological Relevance",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "Topics in geobiology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0313-8\_3",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4613-0313-8\_3",
    openalex = "W1012177450",
    references = "black1967cosmic, doi101029gm022, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101038227930a0, doi101038259177a0, doi101126science1543747349, doi101126science1633864237, doi101126science170679, doi101126science20343871355, doi101136bjo592111c, doi1023072756074, hays1971faunal, openalexw2278677522, openalexw2307523182, openalexw2989049194"
}

@article{doi101038314341a0,
    author = "Raup, David M.",
    title = "Magnetic reversals and mass extinctions",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/314341a0",
    doi = "10.1038/314341a0",
    openalex = "W2000297916",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, doi101029gl010i008p00713, doi101029jb089ib05p03354, doi101038308709a0, doi101038308718a0, doi101073pnas813801, doi101126science22346411135, doi101126science2264673437, doi101126science22646811427, hays1971faunal, openalexw2989049194"
}

@misc{smith1985source15,
    author = "Smith, G. M",
    title = "Source of marine magnetic anomalies; some results from DSDP Leg 83",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 13, p. 162-165",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Smith, G. M., 1985, Source of marine magnetic anomalies; some results from DSDP Leg 83: Geology, v. 13, p. 162-165.}"
}

@misc{weisburd1985modeling18,
    author = "Weisburd, S",
    title = "Modeling Magnetism",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "The Earth as a Dynamo: Science News, v. 128, p. 220",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Weisburd, S., 1985, Modeling Magnetism: The Earth as a Dynamo: Science News, v. 128, p. 220.}"
}

@misc{weisburd1985the17,
    author = "Weisburd, S",
    title = "The Earth's Magnetic Hiccup",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Science News, v. 128, p. 218-220",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Weisburd, S., 1985, The Earth's Magnetic Hiccup: Science News, v. 128, p. 218-220.}"
}

@article{doi101029gl013i011p01177,
    author = "Muller, Richard A. and Morris, Donald E.",
    title = "Geomagnetic reversals from impacts on the Earth",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "The impact of a large extraterrestrial object on the Earth can produce a geomagnetic reversal through the following mechanism: dust from the impact crater and soot from fires trigger a climate change and the beginning of a little ice age. The redistribution of water near the equator to ice at high latitudes alters the rotation rate of the crust and mantle of the Earth. If the sea‐level change is sufficiently large (>10 meters) and rapid (in a few hundred years), then the velocity shear in the liquid core disrupts the convective cells that drive the dynamo. The new convective cells that subsequently form distort and tangle the previous field, reducing the dipole component near to zero while increasing the energy in multipole components. Eventually a dipole is rebuilt by dynamo action, and the event is seen either as a geomagnetic reversal or as an excursion. Sudden climate changes from other causes such as volcanic eruptions could also trigger reversals. This mechanism may not be the sole cause of geomagnetic reversals, but it can account for the rapid drop of the dipole component preceding a reversal, the predominance of multipole components during a transition, the associations of microtektites, temperature drops and extinctions with reversals, and the possible correlation between peaks in the geomagnetic reversal rate and the times of mass extinctions. The model may also account for the long‐term changes in the average rate of reversals. We make several testable predictions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/gl013i011p01177",
    doi = "10.1029/gl013i011p01177",
    openalex = "W2027303276",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, crossref1982geological, doi1010160033589474900076, doi101038314341a0, doi101073pnas813801, doi101098rsta19500014, doi101126science19442701121, doi101306m26490, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, hays1971faunal, openalexw1521644843, openalexw3160761443"
}

@article{doi101126science23748191140,
    author = "Courtillot, Vincent and Besse, Jean",
    title = "Magnetic Field Reversals, Polar Wander, and Core-Mantle Coupling",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "True polar wander, the shifting of the entire mantle relative to the earth's spin axis, has been reanalyzed. Over the last 200 million years, true polar wander has been fast (approximately 5 centimeters per year) most of the time, except for a remarkable standstill from 170 to 110 million years ago. This standstill correlates with a decrease in the reversal frequency of the geomagnetic field and episodes of continental breakup. Conversely, true polar wander is high when reversal frequency increases. It is proposed that intermittent convection modulates the thickness of a thermal boundary layer at the base of the mantle and consequently the core-to-mantle heat flux. Emission of hot thermals from the boundary layer leads to increases in mantle convection and true polar wander. In conjunction, cold thermals released from a boundary layer at the top of the liquid core eventually lead to reversals. Changes in the locations of subduction zones may also affect true polar wander. Exceptional volcanism and mass extinctions at the Cretaceous-Tertiary and Permo-Triassic boundaries may be related to thermals released after two unusually long periods with no magnetic reversals. These environmental catastrophes may therefore be a consequence of thermal and chemical couplings in the earth's multilayer heat engine rather than have an extraterrestrial cause.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.237.4819.1140",
    doi = "10.1126/science.237.4819.1140",
    openalex = "W2060453905",
    references = "doi101029eo067i035p00649, doi101029jb091ib11p11519, doi101038314341a0, doi101038326143a0, doi101126science22746911161"
}

@article{loper1988a,
    author = "Loper, David E. and McCartney, Kevin and Buzyna, George",
    title = "A Model of Correlated Episodicity in Magnetic-Field Reversals, Climate, and Mass Extinctions",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/629189",
    doi = "10.1086/629189",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W1972274221",
    pages = "1-15",
    volume = "96",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, doi1010160012821x86901184, doi101029jb080i005p00705, doi101038230042a0, doi101073pnas813801, doi101126science21545391501, doi101126science23547931156, doi101130mem132p7, doi1011751520046919750320003teodtc20co2, doi101306m26490c6"
}

@misc{humphreys1989the8,
    author = "Humphreys, R",
    title = "The Mystery of the Earth's Magnetic Field",
    year = "1989",
    howpublished = "ICR Impact Series, v. 188, p. i-iv",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Humphreys, R., 1989, The Mystery of the Earth's Magnetic Field: ICR Impact Series, v. 188, p. i-iv.}"
}

@book{doi101130spe247,
    title = "Global Catastrophes in Earth History; An Interdisciplinary Conference on Impacts, Volcanism, and Mass Mortality",
    year = "1990",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America eBooks",
    abstract = "Topics addressed include: Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinctions; geologial indicators for meteorite collisions; carbon dioxide catastrophes; volcanism; climatic changes; geochemistry; mineralogy; fossil records; biospheric traumas; stratigraphy; mathematical models; and ocean dynamics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe247",
    doi = "10.1130/spe247",
    openalex = "W370642989",
    references = "crossref1982geological, doi1010079783642708312, doi101029jb088ib03p02485, doi101086628623, doi101111j136530911979tb00935x, doi101130spe239p1, doi1023073514751, openalexw606525048"
}

@article{doi10102992je00344,
    author = "Acuña, M. H. and Connerney, J. E. P. and Wasilewski, P. J. and Lin, R. P. and Anderson, K. A. and Carlson, C. W. and McFadden, J. and Curtis, D. W. and Rème, H. and Cros, A. and Médale, J. L. and Sauvaud, J. A. and d’Uston, C. and Bauer, S. J. and Cloutier, P. A. and Mayhew, M. A. and Ness, N. F.",
    title = "Mars Observer magnetic fields investigation",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The Mars Observer magnetic fields investigation will provide fast vector measurements of the Martian magnetic field over a wide dynamic range. The fundamental objectives of this investigation are (1) to establish the nature of the magnetic field of Mars, (2) to develop appropriate models for its representation, which take into account the internal sources of magnetism and the effects of the interaction with the solar wind, and (3) to map the Martian crustal remanent field to a resolution consistent with the Mars Observer orbit altitude and ground track separation. The basic instrumentation complement implemented for this mission is a synergistic combination of a dual, triaxial, flux gate magnetometer system and an electron reflectometer with sensors mounted on a spacecraft boom. The dual magnetometer system allows the real‐time estimation and correction of spacecraft‐generated fields, while the electron reflectometer provides remote magnetic field sensing capabilities. These instruments have an extensive spaceflight heritage, and similar versions of the same have been flown in numerous missions like Voyager, Magsat, International Solar Polar mission (ISPM), Giotto, Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers, and Global Geospace Science (GGS). Depending on the telemetry rate supported, a minimum of 2–16 vector samples per second will be acquired. The instrument is microprocessor controlled, can be partially reprogrammed in flight, and supports the packet telemetry protocol implemented for Mars Observer.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92je00344",
    doi = "10.1029/92je00344",
    openalex = "W2012600981"
}

@article{doi10102993rg01771,
    author = "Tauxe, Lisa",
    title = "Sedimentary records of relative paleointensity of the geomagnetic field: Theory and practice",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "Sediments have proved irresistible targets for attempts at determining the relative variations in the Earth's magnetic field because of the possibility of long and continuous sequences that are well dated and have a reasonable global distribution. The assumption underlying paleointensity studies using sedimentary sequences is that sediments retain a record reflecting the strength of the magnetic field when they were deposited. Early theoretical work suggested that because the time required for an assemblage of magnetic particles in water to come into equilibrium with the ambient magnetic field was quite short, no dependence on magnetic field was expected. Nonetheless, a number of experiments showed that sedimentary magnetizations varied in accordance with the field, albeit not always in a simple, linear fashion. Experiments in which the sediments were stirred in the presence of a field (to simulate bioturbation) showed a reasonably linear relationship with the applied field, and these results spurred the hope that variations in the Earth's magnetic field might indeed be recoverable from appropriate sedimentary sequences. Examination of existing paleointensity data sets allows a few general conclusions to be drawn. It appears that sedimentary sequences can and do provide a great deal of information about the variations in relative paleointensity of the Earth's magnetic field. The dynamic range of sedimentary data sets is comparable to those acquired from thermal remanences. Moreover, when compared directly with such independent measures of magnetic field variations as beryllium isotopic ratios and thermally blocked remanences, there is considerable agreement among the various records. When viewed over timescales of hundreds to thousands of years, relative paleointensity data sets from more than a few thousand kilometers apart bear little resemblance to one another, suggesting that they are dominated by nondipole field behavior. When viewed over timescales of a few tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, however, the records show coherence over large distances (at least thousands of kilometers) and may reflect changes in the dipole field. On the basis of a sequence spanning the Brunhes and Matuyama chrons, the magnetic field has oscillated with a period of about 40 ka for the last few hundred thousand years, but these oscillations are not clear in the record prior to about 300 ka; thus they are probably not an inherent feature in the geomagnetic field, and the correspondence of the period of oscillation to that of obliquity is probably coincidence.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/93rg01771",
    doi = "10.1029/93rg01771",
    openalex = "W2096716153",
    references = "doi101029rg010i001p00213"
}

@article{doi105636jgg467,
    author = "Kokubun, Susumu and Yamamoto, Tatsundo and Acuña, M. H. and Hayashi, K. and Shiokawa, K. and Kawano, Hideaki",
    title = "The GEOTAIL Magnetic Field Experiment.",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Journal of geomagnetism and geoelectricity",
    abstract = "The Geotail spacecraft carries a high-resolution Magnetic Field Experiment to provide magnetic field data in the frequency range below 50 Hz. This experiment includes dual fluxgate magnetometers and a search coil magnetometer. Fluxgate sensors are mounted at distances of 4 m and 6 m from the spacecraft on a deployable mast to reduce spacecraft-generated noises. Both outboard and inboard fluxgate magnetometers have 7 automatically switchable ranges from ±16 nT to ±65536 nT (full scale) and resolutions equivalent to a 15-bit A/D conversion in each range. The basic sampling rate for the A/D conversion is 128 Hz for both magnetometers. Sampled signals are averaged to 16 vectors/s for the outboard magnetometer and 4 vectors/s for the inboard magnetometer for telemetry. Time-derivatives of magnetic field in the frequency range of 1-50 Hz (128 vector-samples/s) are acquired by the three-component search coil magnetometer (located on another mast), separated by 4 m from the spacecraft. Fluxgate data are continuously obtained at the same rate for both real-time and recorded modes of operation, while search coil data are only acquired in the real-time telemetry operation. The instruments were operated after the time of mast deployment on September 4, 1992, and are presently working in all modes as designed. The details of this experiment and initial observations are presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5636/jgg.46.7",
    doi = "10.5636/jgg.46.7",
    openalex = "W2086149029",
    references = "doi10102990ja02464"
}

@article{doi10102994ja03193,
    author = "Tsyganenko, N. A.",
    title = "Modeling the Earth's magnetospheric magnetic field confined within a realistic magnetopause",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Empirical data‐based models of the magnetospheric magnetic field have been widely used during recent years. However, the existing models (Tsyganenko, 1987, 1989a) have three serious deficiencies: (1) an unstable “de facto” magnetopause, (2) a crude parametrization by the K p index, and (3) inaccuracies in the equatorial magnetotail B z values. This paper describes a new approach to the problem; the essential new features are (1) a realistic shape and size of the magnetopause, based on fits to a large number of observed crossings (allowing a parametrization by the solar wind pressure), (2) fully controlled shielding of the magnetic field produced by all magnetospheric current systems, (3) new flexible representations for the tail and ring currents, and (4) a new “directional” criterion for fitting the model field to spacecraft data, providing improved accuracy for field line mapping. Results are presented from initial efforts to create models assembled from these modules and calibrated against spacecraft data sets.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/94ja03193",
    doi = "10.1029/94ja03193",
    openalex = "W2161501266",
    references = "doi10102990ja02464"
}

@article{doi101038377203a0,
    author = "Glatzmaiers, Gary A. and Roberts, Paul",
    title = "A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/377203a0",
    doi = "10.1038/377203a0",
    openalex = "W1997989802"
}

@article{doi10102997ja03328,
    author = "Ridley, A. J. and Lu, Gang and Clauer, C. R. and Papitashvili, V. O.",
    title = "A statistical study of the ionospheric convection response to changing interplanetary magnetic field conditions using the assimilative mapping of ionospheric electrodynamics technique",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We examine 65 ionospheric convection changes associated with changes in the Y and Z components of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). We measure the IMF reorientations (for all but six of the events) at the Wind satellite. For 22 of the events the IMF reorientation is clearly observed by both Wind and IMP 8. Various methods are used to estimate the propagation time of the IMF between the two satellites. We find that using the magnetic field before the IMF orientation change gives the smallest error in the expected propagation time. The IMF is then propagated to the magnetopause. The communication time between when the IMF encounters the magnetopause and the start of the convection change is estimated to be 8.4 (±8.2) min. The resulting change in the ionospheric potential is examined by subtracting a base potential pattern from the changing potential patterns. From these residual patterns, a number of conclusions are made: (1) the location of the change in convection is stationary, implying that the change in convection is broadcast from the cusp region to the rest of the ionosphere in a matter of seconds and that the elctric field mapped down the cusp controls the entire dayside ionospheric convection pattern; (2) the shape of the change in the ionospheric convection is dependent on the IMF component that changes, which is indicative of the change in the merging rate on the dayside magnetopause; (3) 62\% of the events change linearly form one state to another, while 11\% of the events change asymptotically; (4) the change in the ionospheric potential is linearly related to the magnitude of the IMF orientation, with B z changes having a larger proportionality constant than B y changes; (5) the ionospheric convection takes, on average, 13 min to completely reconfigure; and (6) some of the ionospheric convection changes occur on a timescale shorter than that of the corresponding IMF reorientation, possibly as a result of thresholding in the dayside merging region.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/97ja03328",
    doi = "10.1029/97ja03328",
    openalex = "W4252934049",
    references = "doi10102990ja02464"
}

@article{doi1010291998rg900004,
    author = "Merrill, Ronald T. and McFadden, Phillip L.",
    title = "Geomagnetic polarity transitions",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "The top of Earth's liquid outer core is nearly 2900 km beneath Earth's surface, so we will never be able to observe it directly. This hot, dense, molten iron‐rich body is continuously in motion and is the source of Earth's magnetic field. One of the most dynamic manifestations at Earth's surface of this fluid body is, perhaps, a reversal of the geomagnetic field. Unfortunately, the most recent polarity transition occurred at about 780 ka, so we have never observed a transition directly. It seems that a polarity transition spans many human lifetimes, so no human will ever witness the phenomenon in its entirety. Thus we are left with the tantalizing prospect that paleomagnetic records of polarity transitions may betray some of the secrets of the deep Earth. Certainly, if there are systematics in the reversal process and they can be documented, then this will reveal substantial information about the nature of the lowermost mantle and of the outer core. Despite their slowness on a human timescale, polarity transitions occur almost instantaneously on a geological timescale. This rapidity, together with limitations in the paleomagnetic recording process, prohibits a comprehensive description of any reversal transition both now and into the foreseeable future, which limits the questions that may at this stage be sensibly asked. The natural model for the geomagnetic field is a set of spherical harmonic components, and we are not able to obtain a reliable model for even the first few harmonic terms during a transition. Nevertheless, it is possible, in principle, to make statements about the harmonic character of a geomagnetic polarity transition without having a rigorous spherical harmonic description of one. For example, harmonic descriptions of recent geomagnetic polarity transitions that are purely zonal can be ruled out (a zonal harmonic does not change along a line of latitude). Gleaning information about transitions has proven to be difficult, but it does seem reasonable to draw the following conclusions with varying degrees of confidence. There appears to be a substantial decrease in the mean intensity of the dipole field during a transition to ∼25\% of its usual value. The duration of an average geomagnetic polarity transition is not well known but probably lies between 1000 and 8000 years. Values outside these bounds have been reported, but we give reasons as to why such outliers are likely to be artifacts. The reversal process is probably longer than the manifestation of the reversal at Earth's surface as recorded in paleomagnetic directional data. Convection hiatus during a geomagnetic polarity transition seems unlikely, and free‐decay models for reversals appear to be generally incompatible with the data. This implies that certain theorems in dynamo theory, such as Cowling's theorem, should not be invoked to explain the origin of reversals. Unfortunately, the detailed description of directional changes during transitions remains controversial. Contrary to common belief, certain low‐degree nondipole fields can produce significant longitudinal confinement of virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP) during a transition. The data are currently inadequate to refute or verify claims of longitudinal dipole confinement, VGP clustering, or other systematics during polarity transitions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/1998rg900004",
    doi = "10.1029/1998rg900004",
    openalex = "W2019528239",
    references = "doi101029gl013i011p01177"
}

@article{doi10103820420,
    author = "Guyodo, Yohan and Valet, Jean‐Pierre",
    title = "Global changes in intensity of the Earth's magnetic field during the past 800 kyr",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/20420",
    doi = "10.1038/20420",
    openalex = "W1556482552"
}

@incollection{crossref2000magnetic,
    title = "Magnetic Field Reversals",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "International Geophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-6142(00)80097-2",
    doi = "10.1016/s0074-6142(00)80097-2",
    openalex = "W4229682381",
    pages = "137-182"
}

@article{doi1010292000jb900326,
    author = "Roberts, Andrew P. and Pike, Christopher R. and Verosub, Kenneth L.",
    title = "First‐order reversal curve diagrams: A new tool for characterizing the magnetic properties of natural samples",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Paleomagnetic and environmental magnetic studies are commonly conducted on samples containing mixtures of magnetic minerals and/or grain sizes. Major hysteresis loops are routinely used to provide information about variations in magnetic mineralogy and grain size. Standard hysteresis parameters, however, provide a measure of the bulk magnetic properties, rather than enabling discrimination between the magnetic components that contribute to the magnetization of a sample. By contrast, first‐order reversal curve (FORC) diagrams, which we describe here, can be used to identify and discriminate between the different components in a mixed magnetic mineral assemblage. We use magnetization data from a class of partial hysteresis curves known as first‐order reversal curves (FORCs) and transform the data into contour plots (FORC diagrams) of a two‐dimensional distribution function. The FORC distribution provides information about particle switching fields and local interaction fields for the assemblage of magnetic particles within a sample. Superparamagnetic, single‐domain, and multidomain grains, as well as magnetostatic interactions, all produce characteristic and distinct manifestations on a FORC diagram. Our results indicate that FORC diagrams can be used to characterize a wide range of natural samples and that they provide more detailed information about the magnetic particles in a sample than standard interpretational schemes which employ hysteresis data. It will be necessary to further develop the technique to enable a more quantitative interpretation of magnetic assemblages; however, even qualitative interpretation of FORC diagrams removes many of the ambiguities that are inherent to hysteresis data.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jb900326",
    doi = "10.1029/2000jb900326",
    openalex = "W2045044499",
    references = "doi101016b9780080092355500267, doi101346ccmn19580070122"
}

@article{doi101098rsta20000578,
    author = "Coe, Robert S. and Hongre, Lionel and Glatzmaier, Gary A.",
    title = "An examination of simulated geomagnetic reversals from a palaeomagnetic perspective",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences",
    abstract = "Four magnetic polarity reversals that occurred during two numerical simulations of the Glatzmaier–Roberts geodynamo display a range of behaviour that resembles records of real reversals of the Earth‘s magnetic field in some ways, and suggests additional insights in others. Two reversals happened during the homogeneous simulation, which prescribes spatially uniform heat flux at the core–mantle boundary (CMB); and two occurred during the tomographic simulation, which specifies variable CMB heat flux patterned after a low–order seismic velocity model from tomographic investigation of the lower mantle. All but one were accomplished within 2000–7000 (model) years, whereas the second tomographic reversal took 22 000 years. The two homogeneous transitions display low intensities typical of real reversals, with longer–term variation resembling what has been called ‘sawtooth’ behaviour. During the first tomographic reversal extremely high non–dipole fields occur in some regions, the result of strong patches of vertical flux that appear in less than 100 years and grow rapidly for several hundred more. The intensity during the second tomographic reversal is unusually low for a long time, and large–amplitude oscillations in direction are common. The fields in the middle of the polarity transitions are dominantly non–dipolar for all but the first tomographic reversal. One consists of spherical harmonics that are mainly antisymmetric about the equator, two by symmetric harmonics, and one by a mixture of symmetric and antisymmetric harmonics. Despite this wide variety of characteristics, all reversals occur when the non–dipole energy trend is upward. Finally, after running 300 kyr and reversing twice, the density of transitional virtual geomagnetic poles in the tomographic simulations exhibits a crude statistical correlation with areas of higher–than–average CMB heat flux, offering some support for hypotheses of preferred bands and patches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2000.0578",
    doi = "10.1098/rsta.2000.0578",
    openalex = "W2123259125",
    references = "doi101029gl013i011p01177"
}

@article{doi101126science1064557,
    author = "Lohmann, Kenneth J. and Cain, Shaun D. and Dodge, Susan A. and Lohmann, Catherine M. F.",
    title = "Regional Magnetic Fields as Navigational Markers for Sea Turtles",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Young loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from eastern Florida undertake a transoceanic migration in which they gradually circle the north Atlantic Ocean before returning to the North American coast. Here we report that hatchling loggerheads, when exposed to magnetic fields replicating those found in three widely separated oceanic regions, responded by swimming in directions that would, in each case, help keep turtles within the currents of the North Atlantic gyre and facilitate movement along the migratory pathway. These results imply that young loggerheads have a guidance system in which regional magnetic fields function as navigational markers and elicit changes in swimming direction at crucial geographic boundaries.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064557",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1064557",
    openalex = "W2019330298",
    references = "doi10100797814613031383"
}

@article{doi10114297898127970010042,
    author = "Morrison, D.",
    title = "VOLCANOES NOT ASTEROIDS, CAUSED MASS EXTINCTIONS KILLING DINOSAURS ETC.: EXPLANATION FOR EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD REVERSALS",
    year = "2001",
    booktitle = "The Science and Culture Series - Nuclear Strategy and Peace Technology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4ad79e4b7c6d1be59de1e988ccc7d7f7287c6102",
    doi = "10.1142/9789812797001\_0042",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "392-393",
    semanticscholar_id = "4ad79e4b7c6d1be59de1e988ccc7d7f7287c6102"
}

@article{doi101073pnas0801859105,
    author = "Lohmann, Kenneth J. and Putman, Nathan F. and Lohmann, Catherine M. F.",
    title = "Geomagnetic imprinting: A unifying hypothesis of long-distance natal homing in salmon and sea turtles",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Several marine animals, including salmon and sea turtles, disperse across vast expanses of ocean before returning as adults to their natal areas to reproduce. How animals accomplish such feats of natal homing has remained an enduring mystery. Salmon are known to use chemical cues to identify their home rivers at the end of spawning migrations. Such cues, however, do not extend far enough into the ocean to guide migratory movements that begin in open-sea locations hundreds or thousands of kilometers away. Similarly, how sea turtles reach their nesting areas from distant sites is unknown. However, both salmon and sea turtles detect the magnetic field of the Earth and use it as a directional cue. In addition, sea turtles derive positional information from two magnetic elements (inclination angle and intensity) that vary predictably across the globe and endow different geographic areas with unique magnetic signatures. Here we propose that salmon and sea turtles imprint on the magnetic field of their natal areas and later use this information to direct natal homing. This novel hypothesis provides the first plausible explanation for how marine animals can navigate to natal areas from distant oceanic locations. The hypothesis appears to be compatible with present and recent rates of field change (secular variation); one implication, however, is that unusually rapid changes in the Earth's field, as occasionally occur during geomagnetic polarity reversals, may affect ecological processes by disrupting natal homing, resulting in widespread colonization events and changes in population structure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801859105",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0801859105",
    openalex = "W1969749603",
    references = "doi10100797814613031383"
}

@article{doi101017s1473550409990073,
    author = "Glaßmeier, Karl‐Heinz and Richter, O. and Vogt, Joachim and Möbus, Petra and Schwalb, Antje",
    title = "The Sun, geomagnetic polarity transitions, and possible biospheric effects: review and illustrating model",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "International Journal of Astrobiology",
    abstract = "Abstract The Earth is embedded in the solar wind, this ever-streaming extremely tenuous ionized gas emanating from the Sun. It is the geomagnetic field which inhibits the solar wind plasma to directly impinge upon the terrestrial atmosphere. It is also the geomagnetic field which moderates and controls the entry of energetic particles of cosmic and solar origin into the atmosphere. During geomagnetic polarity transitions the terrestrial magnetic field decays down to about 10\% of its current value. Also, the magnetic field topology changes from a dipole dominated structure to a multipole dominated topology. What happens to the Earth system during such a polarity transition, that is, during episodes of a weak transition field? Which modifications of the configuration of the terrestrial magnetosphere can be expected? Is there any influence on the atmosphere from the intensified particle bombardment? What are the possible effects on the biosphere? Is a polarity transition another example of a cosmic cataclysm? A review is provided on the current understanding of the problem. A first, illustrating model is also discussed to outline the complexity of any biospheric reaction on polarity transitions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1473550409990073",
    doi = "10.1017/s1473550409990073",
    openalex = "W2119458115",
    references = "black1967cosmic, doi1010160304380088900579, doi101016s1011134498001821, doi1010291999rg000059, doi101029rg026i001p00131, doi10103820420, doi101038377203a0, doi101039b700020k, doi101039c0pp90036b, doi101098rsta20000574, doi104319lo1962720137, hays1972faunal, mann1972faunal"
}

@article{doi101016jepsl201403018,
    author = "Wei, Yong and Pu, Z. Y. and Zong, Qiugang and Wan, Weixing and Ren, Zhipeng and Fräenz, M. and Dubinin, E. and Tian, Feng and Shi, Quanqi and Fu, Suiyan and Hong, Minghua",
    title = "Oxygen escape from the Earth during geomagnetic reversals: Implications to mass extinction",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    abstract = "The evolution of life is affected by variations of atmospheric oxygen level and geomagnetic field intensity. Oxygen can escape into interplanetary space as ions after gaining momentum from solar wind, but Earth's strong dipole field reduces the momentum transfer efficiency and the ion outflow rate, except for the time of geomagnetic polarity reversals when the field is significantly weakened in strength and becomes Mars-like in morphology. The newest databases available for the Phanerozoic era illustrate that the reversal rate increased and the atmospheric oxygen level decreased when the marine diversity showed a gradual pattern of mass extinctions lasting millions of years. We propose that accumulated oxygen escape during an interval of increased reversal rate could have led to the catastrophic drop of oxygen level, which is known to be a cause of mass extinction. We simulated the oxygen ion escape rate for the Triassic–Jurassic event, using a modified Martian ion escape model with an input of quiet solar wind inferred from Sun-like stars. The results show that geomagnetic reversal could enhance the oxygen escape rate by 3–4 orders only if the magnetic field was extremely weak, even without consideration of space weather effects. This suggests that our hypothesis could be a possible explanation of a correlation between geomagnetic reversals and mass extinction. Therefore, if this causal relation indeed exists, it should be a “many-to-one” scenario rather the previously considered “one-to-one”, and planetary magnetic field should be much more important than previously thought for planetary habitability.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.018",
    doi = "10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.018",
    openalex = "W2064186232",
    references = "doi101007s1121401096596"
}

@article{doi101007s1121401501694,
    author = "Connerney, J. E. P. and Espley, J. R. and Lawton, P. and Murphy, Simon J. and Odom, J. and Oliversen, R. J. and Sheppard, D.",
    title = "The MAVEN Magnetic Field Investigation",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Space Science Reviews",
    abstract = "The MAVEN magnetic field investigation is part of a comprehensive particles and fields subsystem that will measure the magnetic and electric fields and plasma environment of Mars and its interaction with the solar wind. The magnetic field instrumentation consists of two independent tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer sensors, remotely mounted at the outer extremity of the two solar arrays on small extensions (“boomlets”). The sensors are controlled by independent and functionally identical electronics assemblies that are integrated within the particles and fields subsystem and draw their power from redundant power supplies within that system. Each magnetometer measures the ambient vector magnetic field over a wide dynamic range (to 65,536 nT per axis) with a resolution of 0.008 nT in the most sensitive dynamic range and an accuracy of better than 0.05 \%. Both magnetometers sample the ambient magnetic field at an intrinsic sample rate of 32 vector samples per second. Telemetry is transferred from each magnetometer to the particles and fields package once per second and subsequently passed to the spacecraft after some reformatting. The magnetic field data volume may be reduced by averaging and decimation, when necessary to meet telemetry allocations, and application of data compression, utilizing a lossless 8-bit differencing scheme. The MAVEN magnetic field experiment may be reconfigured in flight to meet unanticipated needs and is fully hardware redundant. A spacecraft magnetic control program was implemented to provide a magnetically clean environment for the magnetic sensors and the MAVEN mission plan provides for occasional spacecraft maneuvers—multiple rotations about the spacecraft $x$ and $z$ axes—to characterize spacecraft fields and/or instrument offsets in flight.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-015-0169-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s11214-015-0169-4",
    openalex = "W2127338106",
    references = "doi101126science2845415790"
}

@article{doi1010022015rg000506,
    author = "Valet, Jean‐Pierre and Fournier, Alexandre",
    title = "Deciphering records of geomagnetic reversals",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "Polarity reversals of the geomagnetic field are a major feature of the Earth's dynamo. Questions remain regarding the dynamical processes that give rise to reversals and the properties of the geomagnetic field during a polarity transition. A large number of paleomagnetic reversal records have been acquired during the past 50 years in order to better constrain the structure and geometry of the transitional field. In addition, over the past two decades, numerical dynamo simulations have also provided insights into the reversal mechanism. Yet despite the large paleomagnetic database, controversial interpretations of records of the transitional field persist; they result from two characteristics inherent to all reversals, both of which are detrimental to an ambiguous analysis. On the one hand, the reversal process is rapid and requires adequate temporal resolution. On the other hand, weak field intensities during a reversal can affect the fidelity of magnetic recording in sedimentary records. This paper is aimed at reviewing critically the main reversal features derived from paleomagnetic records and at analyzing some of these features in light of numerical simulations. We discuss in detail the fidelity of the signal extracted from paleomagnetic records and pay special attention to their resolution with respect to the timing and mechanisms involved in the magnetization process. Records from marine sediments dominate the database. They give rise to transitional field models that often lead to overinterpret the data. Consequently, we attempt to separate robust results (and their subsequent interpretations) from those that do not stand on a strong observational footing. Finally, we discuss new avenues that should favor progress to better characterize and understand transitional field behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2015rg000506",
    doi = "10.1002/2015rg000506",
    openalex = "W2309700037",
    references = "doi101007s1121401096596"
}

@article{doi101017s1473550417000040,
    author = "Melott, Adrian L. and Pivarunas, Anthony F. and Meert, Joseph G. and Lieberman, Bruce S.",
    title = "Does the planetary dynamo go cycling on? Re-examining the evidence for cycles in magnetic reversal rate",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "International Journal of Astrobiology",
    abstract = "Abstract The record of reversals of the geomagnetic field has played an integral role in the development of plate tectonic theory. Statistical analyses of the reversal record are aimed at detailing patterns and linking those patterns to core–mantle processes. The geomagnetic polarity timescale is a dynamic record and new paleomagnetic and geochronologic data provide additional detail. In this paper, we examine the periodicity revealed in the reversal record back to 375 million years ago (Ma) using Fourier analysis. Four significant peaks were found in the reversal power spectra within the 16–40-million-year range (Myr). Plotting the function constructed from the sum of the frequencies of the proximal peaks yield a transient 26 Myr periodicity, suggesting chaotic motion with a periodic attractor. The possible 16 Myr periodicity, a previously recognized result, may be correlated with ‘pulsation’ of mantle plumes and perhaps; more tentatively, with core–mantle dynamics originating near the large low shear velocity layers in the Pacific and Africa. Planetary magnetic fields shield against charged particles, which can give rise to radiation at the surface and ionize the atmosphere, which is a loss mechanism particularly relevant to M stars. Understanding the origin and development of planetary magnetic fields can shed light on the habitable zone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1473550417000040",
    doi = "10.1017/s1473550417000040",
    openalex = "W2509823199",
    references = "black1967cosmic, crossref1985magnetic, doi1010020471722235, doi101090s00255718196501785861, doi101109tsmc19774309709, doi101126science21545391501, doi1011300091761319910190963gcos23co2, doi1023071268794, doi1023072003354, doi1023072008673, doi1023072669794, doi105860choice263285"
}

@article{doi101360n97201800650,
    author = "Tian, Lanxiang and Pan, Yongxin",
    title = "The geomagnetic field effects on animals: A review",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version)",
    abstract = "The geomagnetic field (GMF) maintains the Earth's long-term habitability for living organisms by preventing the radiation of solar wind and the oxygen and water ions escape. Understanding the biological effects of present, past and future changes of geomagnetic field is the main goal of biogeomagnetic research. As a nature element of Earth habitability environment, the role of geomagnetic field for all living organisms on the earth has recently attracted the attention of geophysicists and biologists. The intensity, declination and inclination of the GMF have provided reliable navigational reference information for animal orientation or migration. Many animals are able to perceive the geomagnetic field for orientation and navigation. Meanwhile, the presence of geomagnetic field is an essential environmental condition for the growth and development of living organisms on Earth. An increasing body of evidence suggests that once the GMF is weakened or deprived, it can cause a variety of negative biological responses. For example, long-term geomagnetic field shielding may lead to the emergence of abnormal embryonic development in Xenopus. Here we review the recent progresses made on the animals' geomagnetic navigation and the biological effects of the geomagnetic field. Three major magnetoreception mechanisms and their corresponding evidences are discussed: (1) Electromagnetic induction, which hypothesizes the production of voltage across an electrical conductor moving through a static magnetic field, referring to elasmobranch fish (sharks, skates, and rays) in particular; (2) Magnetic-particle-based magnetoreception, which hypothesizes the intracellular biomineralized magnetic crystals act as compass needles; and (3) Radical-pair-based magnetoreception, which hypothesizes the quantum mechanics of electron spins could form the basis of a magnetic compass sense. Biological responses of animals in the weakened geomagnetic field and possible pathways to the biological effects are also discussed: Metal ions pathway, radical pair pathway and cytoskeleton pathway. The first two pathways are further extension of the animal magnetoreception mechanisms. The metal ions pathway hypothesizes a weak magnetic field causes the change of concentration/magnetic moment of metal ions in cells, which transiently activates the channel leading to cation influx and membrane depolarization. The radical pairs pathway hypothesizes the spin state of free electrons in radical pairs in cells depends on the change of the local magnetic field. For example, the changes of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells by hypomagnetic field exposure may induce the damage of mitochondrial membrane and apoptosis. The cytoskeleton pathway indicates the actin cytoskeleton probably as a mediator responds to the change of geomagnetic field. Although the cellular and molecular mechanisms of magnetic sense in animals still remain much unclear, the multidisciplinary collaborative approach involving geophysics, chemistry and biology will bring the exciting breakthrough times in this field.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1360/n972018-00650",
    doi = "10.1360/n972018-00650",
    openalex = "W2907731516",
    references = "crossref1985magnetic"
}

@article{doi1010292018rg000629,
    author = "Channell, James E T and Vigliotti, Luigi",
    title = "The Role of Geomagnetic Field Intensity in Late Quaternary Evolution of Humans and Large Mammals",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "Abstract It has long been speculated that biological evolution was influenced by ultraviolet radiation (UVR) reaching the Earth's surface, despite imprecise knowledge of the timing of both UVR flux and evolutionary events. The past strength of Earth's dipole field provides a proxy for UVR flux because of its role in maintaining stratospheric ozone. The timing of Quaternary evolutionary events has become better constrained by fossil finds, improved radiometric dating, use of dung fungi as proxies for herbivore populations, and improved ages for nodes in human phylogeny from human mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes. The demise of Neanderthals at \textasciitilde 41 ka can now be closely tied to the intensity minimum associated with the Laschamp magnetic excursion, and the survival of anatomically modern humans can be attributed to differences in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor that has a key role in the evolutionary response to UVR flux. Fossil occurrences and dung‐fungal proxies in Australia indicate that episodes of Late Quaternary extinction of mammalian megafauna occurred close to the Laschamp and Blake magnetic excursions. Fossil and dung fungal evidence for the age of the Late Quaternary extinction in North America (and Europe) coincide with a prominent decline in geomagnetic field intensity at \textasciitilde 13 ka. Over the last \textasciitilde 200 kyr, phylogeny based on mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes in modern humans yields nodes and bifurcations in evolution corresponding to geomagnetic intensity minima, which supports the proposition that UVR reaching Earth's surface influenced mammalian evolution with the loci of extinction controlled by the geometry of stratospheric ozone depletion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2018rg000629",
    doi = "10.1029/2018rg000629",
    openalex = "W2947719388",
    references = "doi101017s1473550409990073"
}

@article{doi101038s41598019454668,
    author = "Ueno, Yusuke and Hyodo, Masayuki and Yang, Tianshui and Katoh, Shigehiro",
    title = "Intensified East Asian winter monsoon during the last geomagnetic reversal transition",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "The strength of Earth's magnetic dipole field controls galactic cosmic ray (GCR) flux, and GCR-induced cloud formation can affect climate. Here, we provide the first evidence of the GCR-induced cloud effect on the East-Asian monsoon during the last geomagnetic reversal transition. Bicentennial-resolution monsoon records from the Chinese Loess Plateau revealed that the summer monsoon (SM) was affected by millennial-scale climate events that occurred before and after the reversal, and that the winter monsoon (WM) intensified independently of SM variations; dust accumulation rates increased, coinciding with a cooling event in Osaka Bay. The WM intensification event lasted about 5000 years across an SM peak, during which the Earth's magnetic dipole field weakened to <25\% of its present strength and the GCR flux increased by more than 50\%. Thus, the WM intensification likely resulted from the increased land-ocean temperature gradient originating with the strong Siberian High that resulted from the umbrella effect of increased low-cloud cover through an increase in GCR flux.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45466-8",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-019-45466-8",
    openalex = "W2954620863"
}

@article{doi10384720418213ab12eb,
    author = "Lingam, Manasvi",
    title = "Revisiting the Biological Ramifications of Variations in Earth’s Magnetic Field",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "The Astrophysical Journal Letters",
    abstract = "Abstract An Earth-like planetary magnetic field has been widely invoked as a requirement for habitability as it purportedly mitigates the fluxes of ionizing radiation reaching the surface and the escape of neutrals and ions from the atmosphere. Recent paleomagnetic evidence indicates that the nucleation of Earth’s inner core, followed perhaps by an increase in geomagnetic field strength, might have occurred close to the Edicarian period. Motivated by this putative discovery, we explore the ensuing ramifications from the growth or reversals of Earth’s dynamo. By reviewing and synthesizing emerging quantitative models, it is proposed that neither the biological radiation dose rates nor the atmospheric escape rates would vary by more than a factor of ∼2 under these circumstances. Hence, we suggest that hypotheses seeking to explain the Cambrian radiation or mass extinctions via changes in Earth’s magnetic field intensity are potentially unlikely. We also briefly discuss how variations in the planetary magnetic field may have impacted early Mars and could influence exoplanets orbiting M-dwarfs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab12eb",
    doi = "10.3847/2041-8213/ab12eb",
    openalex = "W2926908597",
    references = "doi101007bf00623322, doi101007s4111601700069, doi101017cbo9780511635342, doi10102990ja02464, doi101038nature13068, doi101073pnas2235592100, doi101086432716, doi101126science2845415790, doi101146annurevearth33031504103001, doi102307jctvjghw98"
}

@article{doi101073pnas1922686117,
    author = "Ceballos, Gerardo and Ehrlich, Paul R. and Raven, Peter H.",
    title = "Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The ongoing sixth mass species extinction is the result of the destruction of component populations leading to eventual extirpation of entire species. Populations and species extinctions have severe implications for society through the degradation of ecosystem services. Here we assess the extinction crisis from a different perspective. We examine 29,400 species of terrestrial vertebrates, and determine which are on the brink of extinction because they have fewer than 1,000 individuals. There are 515 species on the brink (1.7\% of the evaluated vertebrates). Around 94\% of the populations of 77 mammal and bird species on the brink have been lost in the last century. Assuming all species on the brink have similar trends, more than 237,000 populations of those species have vanished since 1900. We conclude the human-caused sixth mass extinction is likely accelerating for several reasons. First, many of the species that have been driven to the brink will likely become extinct soon. Second, the distribution of those species highly coincides with hundreds of other endangered species, surviving in regions with high human impacts, suggesting ongoing regional biodiversity collapses. Third, close ecological interactions of species on the brink tend to move other species toward annihilation when they disappear-extinction breeds extinctions. Finally, human pressures on the biosphere are growing rapidly, and a recent example is the current coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic, linked to wildlife trade. Our results reemphasize the extreme urgency of taking much-expanded worldwide actions to save wild species and humanity's crucial life-support systems from this existential threat.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922686117",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1922686117",
    openalex = "W3030395860",
    references = "doi101007bf02763457, doi101016s0169534703000934, doi101073pnas1711842115, doi101093oso97801985491780010001, doi101126science21545391501, doi101126science2314734129, doi101126science7701342, doi1023073515466"
}

@article{doi101007s11084021096125,
    author = "Erdmann, Weronika and Kmita, Hanna and Kosicki, Jakub Z. and Kaczmarek, Łukasz D.",
    title = "How the Geomagnetic Field Influences Life on Earth – An Integrated Approach to Geomagnetobiology",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres",
    abstract = "Earth is one of the inner planets of the Solar System, but - unlike the others - it has an oxidising atmosphere, relatively stable temperature, and a constant geomagnetic field (GMF). The GMF does not only protect life on Earth against the solar wind and cosmic rays, but it also shields the atmosphere itself, thus creating relatively stable environmental conditions. What is more, the GMF could have influenced the origins of life: organisms from archaea to plants and animals may have been using the GMF as a source of spatial information since the very beginning. Although the GMF is constant, it does undergo various changes, some of which, e.g. a reversal of the poles, weaken the field significantly or even lead to its short-term disappearance. This may result in considerable climatic changes and an increased frequency of mutations caused by the solar wind and cosmic radiation. This review analyses data on the influence of the GMF on different aspects of life and it also presents current knowledge in the area. In conclusion, the GMF has a positive impact on living organisms, whereas a diminishing or disappearing GMF negatively affects living organisms. The influence of the GMF may also be an important factor determining both survival of terrestrial organisms outside Earth and the emergence of life on other planets.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-021-09612-5",
    doi = "10.1007/s11084-021-09612-5",
    openalex = "W3187945566",
    references = "doi101007s1121401096596"
}

@article{doi101016jgr202102018,
    author = "Levashova, Natalia M. and Голованова, И. В. and Rud’ko, D. V. and Данукалов, К. Н. and Rud’ko, S. V. and Sal’manova, R. Yu. and Meert, Joseph G.",
    title = "Late Ediacaran magnetic field hyperactivity: Quantifying the reversal frequency in the Zigan Formation, Southern Urals, Russia",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Gondwana Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2021.02.018",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gr.2021.02.018",
    openalex = "W3136501261",
    references = "doi101007bf00142586, doi101016jcageo201902011, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017s1473550417000040, doi1010292001gc000227, doi101109proc198212433, doi101111j1365246x1980tb02601x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb05683x, doi101111j1365246x201105050x, doi101130b309341, doi10384720418213ab12eb, openalexw2974218786"
}

@article{doi1010292021jb022292,
    author = "Thallner, Daniele and Biggin, Andrew J. and McCausland, P. J. A. and Fu, Roger",
    title = "New Paleointensities From the Skinner Cove Formation, Newfoundland, Suggest a Changing State of the Geomagnetic Field at the Ediacaran‐Cambrian Transition",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Abstract The geomagnetic field in the Ediacaran period appears to be characterized by anomalous directions, high reversal frequencies, and ultra‐low field strength. At the Ediacaran‐Cambrian transition, apparent polar wander paths become less controversial, but hyper‐reversing fields with reversal frequencies similar to earlier in the Ediacaran have been reported until the mid‐Cambrian. To understand the long‐term behavior of the magnetic field during this transitional interval, information about the field strength is vital but currently lacking. To improve the intensity record at that time, samples of volcanic rocks from the 550 Ma Skinner Cove Formation, western Newfoundland, have been used for paleointensity determination. This multi‐method paleointensity study, utilizing thermal and microwave Thellier as well as double‐heating Shaw and pseudo‐Thellier experiments produces paleointensity estimates of 2.6–10.3 μT, corresponding to virtual dipole moments of 0.65–2.25 × 10 22 Am 2. Analyses using scanning electron microscopy and rock magnetic measurements, as well as a positive intraformational conglomerate test, suggest that the remanence is primary. These intensity estimates are higher than earlier Ediacaran intensities and could point to the geomagnetic field entering into a stronger, more dipole‐dominated state at the Ediacaran‐Cambrian boundary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2021jb022292",
    doi = "10.1029/2021jb022292",
    openalex = "W3198700235",
    references = "doi101016jgr202102018"
}

@article{doi1010292021gc010261,
    author = "Gao, Jiawei and Korte, Monika and Panovska, Sanja and Rong, Zhaojin and Wei, Yong",
    title = "Effects of the Laschamps Excursion on Geomagnetic Cutoff Rigidities",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Abstract Today's geomagnetic field can prevent energetic particles, including solar energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays, from directly hitting the Earth's atmosphere. However, when the geomagnetic field strength is significantly decreased during geomagnetic field excursions or reversals, the geomagnetic field shielding effect becomes less prominent. Geomagnetic cutoff rigidity, as a quantitative estimation of the shielding effect, can be calculated using trajectory tracing or theoretical equations. We use a recent high‐resolution continuous geomagnetic field model (LSMOD.2) to study the geomagnetic cutoff rigidity during the Laschamps excursion. Global grids of the geomagnetic cutoff rigidities are presented, in particular for the excursion midpoint when the geomagnetic field is weak and not dipole‐dominated anymore at Earth's surface. We compare the cutoff rigidity calculation results between a trajectory tracing program and theoretical equations and we find that the influence of the non‐dipole component of the geomagnetic field cannot be ignored during the excursion. Our results indicate that the exposure of Earth's atmosphere to energetic particles of cosmic and solar origin is high and nearly independent of latitude in the middle of the Laschamps excursion. Our results will be useful for future studies associated with cosmic radiation dose rate and cosmogenic isotope production rate during the Laschamps excursion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2021gc010261",
    doi = "10.1029/2021gc010261",
    openalex = "W4206955707",
    references = "black1967cosmic, doi1010079781475722727, doi1010160012821x9190220c, doi101016jepsl201310052, doi101016s0012821x99003106, doi101016s0277379100001712, doi101017cbo9781139192194, doi101017s1473550409990073, doi101038nature02995, doi101038nature10343, doi101070pu1960v002n06abeh003190, doi101073pnas1118965109"
}

@article{doi1010292022ef003336,
    author = "Davis, William J.",
    title = "Mass Extinctions and Their Relationship With Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration: Implications for Earth's Future",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Earth s Future",
    abstract = "Abstract Industrialization has raised the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2) in Earth's atmosphere by half since 1770, posing a risk from ocean acidification to global biodiversity, including phytoplankton that synthesize approximately (∼) 50\% of planetary oxygen. This risk is estimated here from the fossil record and implications for our energy and economic future are explored. Over the last 534 million years (Myr), 50 extinction events present as peaks of genus loss‐and‐recovery cycles, each spanning ∼3–40 Myr. Atmospheric CO 2 concentration oscillates with percent genus loss, leading in phase by ∼4 Myr and sharing harmonic periodicities at ∼10, 26 and 63 Myr. Over the last 210 Myr, where data resolution is highest, biodiversity loss is correlated with atmospheric CO 2 concentration, but not with long‐term global temperature nor with marginal radiative forcing of temperature by atmospheric CO 2. The end‐Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs is anomalous, occurring during a 20‐million year depression in atmospheric CO 2 concentration and rising global temperature. Today's atmospheric CO 2 concentration, ∼421 parts per million by volume (ppmv), corresponds in the most recent marine fossil record to a biodiversity loss of 6.39\%, implying that contemporary anthropogenic CO 2 emissions are killing ocean life now. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projects that unabated fossil fuel use could elevate atmospheric CO 2 concentration to 800 ppmv by 2100, approaching the 870 ppmv mean concentration of the last 19 natural extinction events. Reversing this first global anthropogenic mass extinction requires reducing net anthropogenic CO 2 emissions to zero, optimally by 2\% per year starting immediately.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2022ef003336",
    doi = "10.1029/2022ef003336",
    openalex = "W4381886994",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, doi101016s0009254199000819, doi101017s1473550417000040, doi101038242032a0, doi101038nature09678, doi101038s41467021237540, doi101038s43017021002594, doi101089ast20192043, doi101126sciadv1400253, doi101126science1177265, doi101126science22346411135, doi101126science2815374200, doi101126science2815374237, doi1011302019254214, doi10230720033020, doi10384720418213ab12eb, openalexw1520428197, openalexw2530597942"
}

@article{doi101038s41467023403097,
    author = "Li, Yong Xiang and Tarduno, J. A. and Jiao, Wenjun and Liu, Xinyu and Peng, Shanchi and Shi-hua, XU and Yang, Aihua and Yang, Zhenyu",
    title = "Late Cambrian geomagnetic instability after the onset of inner core nucleation",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "The Ediacaran Period marks a pivotal time in geodynamo evolution when the geomagnetic field is thought to approach the weak state where kinetic energy exceeds magnetic energy, as manifested by an extremely high frequency of polarity reversals, high secular variation, and an ultralow dipole field strength. However, how the geodynamo transitioned from this state into one with more stable field behavior is unknown. Here, we address this issue through a high-resolution magnetostratigraphic investigation of the \textasciitilde 494.5 million-year-old Jiangshanian Global Standard Stratotype and Point (GSSP) section in South China. Our paleomagnetic results document zones with rapid reversals, stable polarity and a \textasciitilde 80 thousand-year-long interval without a geocentric axial dipole field. From these changes, we suggest that for most of the Cambrian, the solid inner core had not yet grown to a size sufficiently large to stabilize the geodynamo. This unusual field behavior can explain paleomagnetic data used to define paradoxical true polar wander, supporting instead the rotational stability of the solid Earth during the great radiation of life in the Cambrian.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40309-7",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-023-40309-7",
    openalex = "W4385416339",
    references = "doi101016jgr202102018"
}

@article{doi101093nsrnwad070,
    author = "Pan, Yongxin and Li, Jinhua",
    title = "On the biospheric effects of geomagnetic reversals",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "National Science Review",
    abstract = "This perspective argues an evolutionary effect of geomagnetic field reversals on life and highlights the urgency of multidisciplinary studies on the linkage between Earth's magnetic field and biosphere.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad070",
    doi = "10.1093/nsr/nwad070",
    openalex = "W4324029478",
    references = "doi101016jgr201601001, doi1010292018rg000629, doi1010292020jg006012, doi101038s4146702121468x, doi101038s4156101802880, doi101038s41598019454668, doi101093nsrnwz065, doi101126scienceaaa9114, doi10384720418213ab12eb"
}

@article{doi101360tb20230816,
    author = "Xu, Yigang and Huang, Xiaolong and Wang, Qiang and Wang, Yu and Li, Gaojun and Liu, Yun and Mao, Ho‐kwang and Ni, Huaiwei and Maoyan, Zhu",
    title = "Earth\&rsquo;s habitability driven by deep processes",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version)",
    abstract = "Earth is the only habitable planet in the solar system with life. The Earth has two major characteristics that distinct itself from all the inhabitable planets: One is that it has an active interior, and the other is that it has plate tectonics, where the former is a prerequisite for the latter. The energy related to the convection, cooling and exothermic processes of the core and mantle is about 34−66 TW, which supports the operation of the entire plate tectonic system. Once the energy inside the Earth is exhausted, the plate tectonics will cease accordingly. From the perspective of material composition, more than 90\% of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that have a decisive impact on the habitable environment on the surface are essentially stored in the deep Earth. Therefore, a slight “turbulence” in the deep Earth will profoundly affect the Earth’s surface system, resulting in deformation and metamorphism, resource enrichment, and dramatic changes in climate and environment on the geological time scale. The dynamism of Earth’s interior not only directly leads to the development of deep megastructures such as the large low shear velocity provinces of the core-mantle boundary and the core engine, but also gives rise to a series of major events in geological history as the primary driving force, such as the growth of continental crust, the initiation of plate tectonics, continental aggregation and breakup, Great Oxidation Event, Snowball Earth, large igneous provinces, life explosions, and mass extinctions. Therefore, the deep Earth is the operation engine of the entire Earth system. Only by grasping this crucial Earth’s engine and unraveling the linking mechanism between internal spheres and exospheres of the Earth represents can we effectively reveal the nature of the interaction of different layers in the Earth system and promote the development of Earth system science. This paper suggests following research themes in future: Early Earth, geomagnetic field, volatile cycling, supervolcanoes, new chemical reaction in deep interior and geo-air conditioning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1360/tb-2023-0816",
    doi = "10.1360/tb-2023-0816",
    openalex = "W4387583894",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwad070"
}

@article{doi101038s43247024013604,
    author = "Huang, Wentao and Tarduno, J. A. and Zhou, Tinghong and Ibáñez-Mejía, Mauricio and Olmo‐Barbosa, Laércio Dal and Koester, Edinei and Blackman, Eric G. and Smirnov, A. V. and Ahrendt, Gabriel and Cottrell, R. D. and Kodama, Kenneth P. and Bono, Richard K. and Sibeck, D. G. and Li, Yong Xiang and Nimmo, F. and Xiao, Shuhai and Watkeys, M. K.",
    title = "Near-collapse of the geomagnetic field may have contributed to atmospheric oxygenation and animal radiation in the Ediacaran Period",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Communications Earth \& Environment",
    abstract = "Abstract Earth’s magnetic field was in a highly unusual state when macroscopic animals of the Ediacara Fauna diversified and thrived. Any connection between these events is tantalizing but unclear. Here, we present single crystal paleointensity data from 2054 and 591 Ma pyroxenites and gabbros that define a dramatic intensity decline, from a strong Proterozoic field like that of today, to an Ediacaran value 30 times weaker. The latter is the weakest time-averaged value known to date and together with other robust paleointensity estimates indicate that Ediacaran ultra-low field strengths lasted for at least 26 million years. This interval of ultra-weak magnetic fields overlaps temporally with atmospheric and oceanic oxygenation inferred from numerous geochemical proxies. This concurrence raises the question of whether enhanced H ion loss in a reduced magnetic field contributed to the oxygenation, ultimately allowing diversification of macroscopic and mobile animals of the Ediacara Fauna.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01360-4",
    doi = "10.1038/s43247-024-01360-4",
    openalex = "W4396577183",
    references = "doi101016jtree200807015, doi101017cbo9780511612794, doi1010292000jb900326, doi1010292008gc001987, doi101038nature06811, doi101038nature14589, doi101126science1135013, doi101126science1206375, doi101126science28454232129, doi101146annurevearth33092203122519, doi10384720418213ab12eb"
}

@article{doi101134s1069351324700228,
    author = "Reshetnyak, M.",
    title = "Synchrony between Dipole and Quadrupole During Magnetic Field Reversals and Excursions",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Abstract—In contrast to reversals, geomagnetic field excursions can occur at lower convection intensity in the Earth’s core. Since in such geodynamo regimes the magnetic field behavior is still quasi regular, a reduction in the dipole field during excursion may indicate a global failure in the dynamo process. As a consequence, it is possible that during the excursion, not only the dipole component, but also higher harmonics of the field decrease. This hypothesis is tested in a 3D (3D) dynamo model.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1134/s1069351324700228",
    doi = "10.1134/S1069351324700228",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "1-7",
    semanticscholar_id = "284940b9e65e0542e6549481df50e183a1d86d3e",
    volume = "60"
}

@article{doi102183pjab100031,
    author = "Kono, Masaru",
    title = "Motonori Matuyama and reversals of geomagnetic field",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "In 1929, Matuyama published his paper on the magnetization of mostly Quaternary volcanic rocks. In this paper, he described the results of paleomagnetic measurements of volcanic rocks from Japan and nearby areas and concluded that the latest transition of the magnetic field from reversed to normal state occurred in the early Quaternary. In the 1960s, two groups of scientists from the USA and Australia quite vigorously conducted studies of both magnetization and age of volcanic rocks. By about 1966, they completed the reversal timescale for the last 4 million years, which was to become the basis for many earth science studies. For easy reference, they suggested to call the most recent normal or reversed periods as Brunhes, Matuyama, Gauss, and Gilbert polarity epochs, with the names taken from the scientists who made very important contributions to paleomagnetism. Chron is now the official term for the epoch, and each chron is specified by a combination of a number and a character showing the polarity. However, the names of polarity epochs were already so popular that they are still quite frequently used in scientific papers. The Matuyama epoch is between 0.773 and 2.595 million years before present. Moreover, its lower limit is now used to define the start of the Quaternary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2183/pjab.100.031",
    doi = "10.2183/pjab.100.031",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "9",
    pages = "491-499",
    semanticscholar_id = "d03638d15faf5ad9e2671ba3a83b468375ab1f27",
    volume = "100"
}

@article{doi1022052024es000903,
    author = "Reshetnyak, M.",
    title = "Reversals and large-scale variations of the geomagnetic field: similarities and differences",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Russian Journal of Earth Sciences",
    abstract = "It is shown that during reversals in geodynamo models the minimum amplitudes of the 
dipole, quadrupole and octupole coincide. Since the characteristic time of the reversal is 
close to the oscillations of the large-scale geomagnetic field, a similar analysis was carried 
out for the minima of the amplitude of the dipole magnetic field over the past 100 thousand 
years. It turned out that in this case such synchronization also occurs. It can be assumed 
that reversals and large scale variations of the geomagnetic field between the reversals have 
a lot in common. The wavelet analysis carried out indicates that the concept of the main 
geodynamo cycle is very arbitrary: the period of oscillation can vary from 8-10 thousand 
years to 20-30 thousand for a dipole. Analysis of the evolution of the Mauersberger spectrum 
allows us to conclude that magnetic field fluctuations observed at the Earth’s surface are 
associated with the transfer of the magnetic field to the surface of the liquid core and can 
hardly be described by functions periodic in time.",
    url = "https://rjes.ru/en/storage/download/152827",
    doi = "10.2205/2024es000903",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "1-8",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "eb2f4c7abf1987cefc3fc4e08ba4239c75ca0d2e"
}

@article{doi103103s0027134924700152,
    author = "Reshetnyak, M.",
    title = "Behaviour of the Geomagnetic Field during Reversals and Excursions",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Moscow University Physics Bulletin",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/187ca03664f73eb6bc61bdd76f8e98b8f41e7407",
    doi = "10.3103/S0027134924700152",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "107-112",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "187ca03664f73eb6bc61bdd76f8e98b8f41e7407",
    volume = "79"
}

@article{doi103390antiox13081017,
    author = "Tian, Lanxiang and Luo, Yukai and Ren, Jie and Zhao, Chenchen",
    title = "The Role of Oxidative Stress in Hypomagnetic Field Effects",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Antioxidants",
    abstract = "The geomagnetic field (GMF) is crucial for the survival and evolution of life on Earth. The weakening of the GMF, known as the hypomagnetic field (HMF), significantly affects various aspects of life on Earth. HMF has become a potential health risk for future deep space exploration. Oxidative stress is directly involved in the biological effects of HMF on animals or cells. Oxidative stress occurs when there is an imbalance favoring oxidants over antioxidants, resulting in cellular damage. Oxidative stress is a double-edged sword, depending on the degree of deviation from homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the important experimental findings from animal and cell studies on HMF exposure affecting intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as the accompanying many physiological abnormalities, such as cognitive dysfunction, the imbalance of gut microbiota homeostasis, mood disorders, and osteoporosis. We discuss new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying these HMF effects in the context of the signaling pathways related to ROS. Among them, mitochondria are considered to be the main organelles that respond to HMF-induced stress by regulating metabolism and ROS production in cells. In order to unravel the molecular mechanisms of HMF action, future studies need to consider the upstream and downstream pathways associated with ROS.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13081017",
    doi = "10.3390/antiox13081017",
    openalex = "W4401762803",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwad070"
}

@article{doi103390math12030490,
    author = "Tolmachev, Daniil P. and Chertovskih, R. and Jeyabalan, Simon Ranjith and Zheligovsky, Vladislav",
    title = "Predictability of Magnetic Field Reversals",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Mathematics",
    abstract = "Geomagnetic field measurements indicate that at present we may be on the brink of the Earth’s magnetic field reversal, potentially resulting in all the accompanying negative consequences for the mankind. Mathematical modelling is necessary in order to find precursors for reversals and excursions of the magnetic field. With this purpose in mind, following the Podvigina scenario for the emergence of the reversals, we have studied convective flows not far (in the parameter space) from their onset and the onset of magnetic field generation, and found a flow demonstrating reversals of polarity of some harmonics comprising the magnetic field. We discuss a simulated regime featuring patterns of behaviour that apparently indicate future reversals of certain harmonics of the magnetic field. It remains to be seen whether reversal precursors similar to the observed ones exist and might be applicable for the much more complex geomagnetic dynamo.",
    url = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7390/12/3/490/pdf?version=1707027679",
    doi = "10.3390/math12030490",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3",
    pages = "490",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "3",
    semanticscholar_id = "0a7029aa2b1fb8020bef9c698c86fb3fe04e1f55",
    volume = "12"
}

@article{doi1010292025gc012220,
    author = "Chiara, Anita Di and Satolli, S. and Friedman, Sarah and Dwyer, Deepa and Acton, Gary D and Jones, Tom Dunkley and Karatsolis, Boris Theofanis and Pearson, Paul N. and Suzuki, Takuma and Modestou, Sevasti and O’Connell, Suzanne and Ibrahim, H. and Jasper, C. and LeBlanc, D.E. and Lee‐Takeda, Saran and Thulasi, Thena and Eason, Deborah E. and Sinnesael, Matthias and Hochmuth, Katharina and Briais, A. and Parnell‐Turner, Ross and LeVay, Leah J. and Party, Expedition 395C/395 Science",
    title = "Geomagnetic Excursions Recorded in North Atlantic IODP Expedition 395C Sites U1555 and U1563",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Abstract By studying deep‐sea drilled records from the North Atlantic Ocean, several magnetic instabilities of short duration, such as the Iceland Basin (188 ka), the Björn (1,255 ka) and the Gardar (1,460 ka) excursions, were discovered. These records have contributed to our understanding of Earth's magnetic field and are the foundation of the Geomagnetic Instability Time Scale (GITS) in the Quaternary. Here, we present the magnetostratigraphy from Sites U1555 (0 to ∼2.7 Ma) and U1563 (0 to ∼5.2 Ma) drilled during the International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 395C on the eastern side of the modern Mid‐Atlantic Ridge (∼60°N, 20–30°W). Shipboard paleomagnetic and microfossil data provided a preliminary age model, extending the regional record to 3.4 Ma. The Virtual Geomagnetic Pole latitudes from archive halves, corroborated with data from discrete samples, were used to build a high‐resolution magnetostratigraphy, which contained the expected Brunhes and Matuyama Chrons and their respective Subchrons. We also identified most of the magnetic events reported in the GITS, including the less well‐documented ones, such as Osaka, Kamitzukara, Huckleberry Ridge, Reunion, Gardar, Halawa and L4 events. The high‐resolution magnetostratigraphy from Sites U1555 and U1563 is compared with two previous legacy sites and contributes toward an increasingly robust GITS, expanding its use as a correlation and dating tool.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2025gc012220",
    doi = "10.1029/2025gc012220",
    openalex = "W4411419211",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwad070"
}

@article{doi101038s43247025029604,
    author = "Paramanick, Shubhonkar and Blackman, Eric G. and Tarduno, J. A. and Carroll-Nellenback, Jonathan",
    title = "Terrestrial atmospheric ion implantation occurred in the nearside lunar regolith during the history of Earth’s dynamo",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Communications Earth \& Environment",
    abstract = "Light volatile elements in the lunar regolith are thought to be a mixture of the solar wind and Earth's atmosphere, the latter sourced in the absence of geomagnetic field. However, the extent to which both the current and primitive geodynamo influence the transport of terrestrial ions still remains unclear, and this uncertainty is further complicated by the enigmatic composition and poorly constrained location of the Eoarchean exosphere. Here we use three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic numerical simulations with contemporary magnetized and Archean unmagnetized atmospheres to investigate how Earth's intrinsic magnetic field affects this transfer, aiming to constrain how and when the lunar isotopic signature provides a record of Earth's paleoatmosphere. We find that atmospheric transfer is efficient only when the Moon is within Earth's magnetotail. The non-solar contribution to the lunar soil is best explained by implantation during the long history of the geodynamo under present-day solar wind conditions, rather than by any brief, putatively unmagnetized epoch of the early Archean Earth. This further suggests the history of the terrestrial atmosphere, spanning billions of years, could be preserved in buried lunar soils. Our results indicate that the elemental abundances of Apollo samples are highly sensitive to Earth's hydrodynamic escape boundary, which, at the time of ion implantation, was never smaller than 190 km.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02960-4",
    doi = "10.1038/s43247-025-02960-4",
    openalex = "W4417246605",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwaf082"
}

@article{doi101093gjiggaf469,
    author = "Mizerski, K.",
    title = "Geomagnetic reversals and excursions as an outcome of non-equilibrium bulk turbulence in the Earth’s core",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "We investigate the effect of statistically non-stationary turbulence in the Earth’s outer core on the effective turbulent electromotive force generated by the convectively driven flow of liquid iron and the evolution characteristics of the geomagnetic field. The non-stationarity means that interactions of distinct waves are crucial, and the effect of beat induces a slow time variation of the large-scale electromotive force. This provides an attractive and fairly simple physical mechanism for the random appearance of short-lived geomagnetic excursions and reversals separating long periods of relatively stable field, through non-synchronized evolution of the amplifying α-effect and turbulent diffusion. This implies rare and random appearance of simultaneous suppression of the α-effect and enhancement of diffusion which leads to a sudden magnetic energy drop, i.e. an excursion. The turbulent field of what is termed MAR waves (Magnetic-Archemedean-Rossby) is analysed. The dispersion relation and structure of such waves involving the joint effect of the Lorentz, buoyancy, and Coriolis forces together with curvature of the core-mantle boundary are obtained and utilized for estimation of the non-stationary electromotive force in the core. The solutions for the large-scale dipole possess an Earth-like behaviour, magnitude, and timescales, and the physical mechanism of the process, including identification of two dynamically important parameters, is discussed. Similar ideas concerning the dynamics of waves within the so-called Stratified Ocean at the top of the Core (SOC) were considered in the recent work Mizerski (2025). The SOC is an important but thin, strongly stratified layer near the core-mantle boundary, and here, the possibility of global non-equilibrium dynamo mechanisms is analysed. It is possible that the surface and bulk mechanisms coexist in the core, both adding to the complexity of the observed picture of reversal occurrences.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d0f84f394b6198339bc6bb578d253185e3ff868b",
    doi = "10.1093/gji/ggaf469",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "d0f84f394b6198339bc6bb578d253185e3ff868b",
    volume = "244"
}

@article{doi101093nsrnwaf082,
    author = "Tarduno, John A and Zhou, Tinghong and Huang, Wentao and Jodder, Jaganmoy",
    title = "Earth’s magnetic field and its relationship to the origin of life, evolution and planetary habitability",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "National Science Review",
    abstract = "Earth's magnetic field history can provide insight into why life was able to originate and evolve on our planet, and how habitability has been maintained. The magnetism of minute magnetic inclusions in zircons indicates that the geomagnetic field is at least 4.2 billion years old, corresponding with genetic estimates for the age of the last universal common ancestor. The early establishment of the field would have provided shielding from solar and cosmic radiation, fostering environments for life to develop. The field was also likely important for preserving Earth's water, essential for life as we know it. Between 3.9 and ca. 3.4 billion years ago, zircon magnetism suggests latitudinal stasis of different ancestral terrains, and stagnant lid tectonics. These data also indicate that the solid Earth was stable with respect to the spin axis, consistent with the absence of plate tectonic driving forces. Moreover, these data point to the existence of low-latitude continental nuclei with equable climate locales that could have supported early life. Near the end of the Precambrian (0.591 to 0.565 billion years ago), the dynamo nearly collapsed, but growth of the inner core during earliest Cambrian times renewed the magnetic field and shielding, helping to prevent drying of the planet. Before this renewal, the ultra-weak magnetic shielding may have had an unexpected effect on evolution. The extremely weak field could have allowed enhanced hydrogen escape to space, leading to increased oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. In this way, Earth's magnetic field may have assisted the radiation of the macroscopic and mobile animals of the Ediacara fauna. Whether the Ediacara fauna are genetically related to modern life is a matter of debate, but if so, magnetospheric control on atmospheric composition may have led to an acceleration in evolution that ultimately resulted in the emergence of intelligent life.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf082",
    doi = "10.1093/nsr/nwaf082",
    openalex = "W4408129182",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511612794, doi1010292000jb900326, doi1010292001jb000486, doi101038s43247024013604, doi10108000018735500101204, doi101093nsrnwad070, doi101126science1135013, doi101126science1173046528, doi101126science1206375, doi101126science1226919, doi101126science28454232129, doi101146annurevearth33092203122519, doi10384720418213ab12eb"
}

@article{doi101126sciadvadu8826,
    author = "Kuang, Weijia and Kopparapu, Ravi and Krissansen‐Totton, Joshua and Mills, Benjamin",
    title = "Strong link between Earth’s oxygen level and geomagnetic dipole revealed since the last 540 million years",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = "Earth is the only known rocky planet to support complex life forms that use oxygen and to have a strong intrinsic magnetic field in much of its history, prompting speculation that Earth's magnetic field and habitability are related on geological timescales. We search for possible observational evidence for such a relationship by examining evolutions of the virtual geomagnetic axial dipole moment and the atmospheric oxygen level over the past 540 million years. We find that both exhibit strong linearly increasing trends, coupled with a large surge in magnitude between 330 and 220 million years ago. Our time series analysis and statistical tests show that both are highly correlated, with the maximum correlation reached when there is no time lag between the two. Our findings suggest unexpected strong connections between the geophysical processes in Earth's deep interior, the surface redox budget, and biogeochemical cycling.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu8826",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.adu8826",
    openalex = "W4411258903",
    references = "doi101038s43247024013604"
}

@article{doi101134s1063772925702579,
    author = "Karpova, M. A. and Sencha, L. M. and Dolinin, A. A. and Sarafanov, F. G. and Ilin, N. V. and Mysyagin, S. A. and Vodeneev, V. A. and Grinberg, M. A. and Mareev, E. A. and Balalaeva, I. V.",
    title = "Study of the Effects of Magnetic Field Inhomogeneities in an Incubator on the Growth Rate of Human Cells in the Context of Modeling Astrogeophysical Conditions",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Astronomy Reports",
    abstract = "The magnetic field, including hypomagnetic conditions, is a key astrogeophysical factor that requires comprehensive study of its effects on living systems. Planned interplanetary missions will, on the one hand, encounter the absence of Earth’s geomagnetic field and, on the other, face strong inhomogeneity in the spacecraft’s own magnetic field. Of particular interest is how both the amplitude and the spatial characteristics of magnetic-field inhomogeneity affect human cells under laboratory conditions simulating orbital environments. In vitro cell culture under strictly controlled incubator conditions is a common experimental approach in biological research. CO2-incubators provide control over temperature, gas composition, and humidity. Recent studies report that incubators can significantly alter the ambient magnetic field. Here, we show that two types of CO2-incubators substantially modify magnetic-field parameters, and that the nature of these modifications depends on the incubator model. One incubator exhibited pronounced spatial inhomogeneity of the magnetic field, with regions of both low and high field strength. The other incubator, during operation, generated magnetic-field oscillations with period of oscillations about several seconds and peak-to-peak amplitude exceeding the mean value. We found that the magnetic background markedly affects the growth of human embryonic kidney cells. The effect of an ultra-low-frequency (ULF) magnetic field with a period of several seconds was especially pronounced and is relevant to space applications. Nutrient-deficiency-induced stress increased cellular sensitivity to this factor. These results emphasize the importance of weak static and time-varying magnetic fields for cell-growth processes, particularly in combination with other adverse conditions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1134/s1063772925702579",
    doi = "10.1134/s1063772925702579",
    openalex = "W7131276988",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwaf082"
}

@article{doi103389frspt20251704391,
    author = "Dang, Nhat and Keller, Jason and Barnes, Frank",
    title = "Biological impacts of hypomagnetic fields in space environment: implications for artificial magnetic field provision in long-duration spaceflight",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Frontiers in Space Technologies",
    abstract = "Life on Earth evolved and exists within the geomagnetic field which currently ranges from approximately 25–65 µT. Voyages beyond Earth’s magnetosphere expose astronauts to the unique conditions of deep space, characterized by significantly reduced magnetic fields ranging from 2 to 8 nT. This review examines the growing body of evidence concerning the biological impacts of hypomagnetic and altered magnetic fields on humans and other organisms, highlighting the implications for long-duration spaceflight and space mission. Research using human cell cultures and mammalian models indicates that exposure to varying magnetic field conditions, including hypomagnetic fields (HMF), can induce diverse biological effects. These include changes in cellular proliferation, nervous system function, oxidative stress reactive oxygen species levels, and DNA integrity, with outcomes often dependent on specific field intensity, frequency, and length of exposures. Furthermore, HMF exposure has been shown to affect bacterial behavior and the human microbiome, potentially altering antibiotic resistance and increasing risks of infection, given the compromised immune function astronauts may experience in space. Considering these biological impacts on the wellbeing of astronauts on long-term space mission, providing artificial magnetic fields onboard spacecraft is proposed as a critical strategy to mitigate HMF effects, support astronaut health, and enhance the feasibility and safety of future deep space missions.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b902a3ae59b8afa0b563ae62294ca224f5d32459",
    doi = "10.3389/frspt.2025.1704391",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_id = "b902a3ae59b8afa0b563ae62294ca224f5d32459",
    volume = "6"
}

@article{doi101093nsrnwag172,
    author = "Wei, Yong",
    title = "Xenon isotopes reveal a geomagnetic prelude to Earth’s oxygenation",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "National Science Review",
    abstract = "Ancient xenon isotopes reveal that a temporary weakening of Earth's magnetic field enhanced hydrogen escape to prime the atmosphere for oxygenation, before its recovery locked in the Great Oxidation Event. More than simple shields, magnetic fields may act as an active filter for atmospheric evolution, with consequences for planetary habitability and the divergent histories of Earth and Mars.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwag172",
    doi = "10.1093/nsr/nwag172",
    openalex = "W7138167756",
    references = "doi101093nsrnwaf082"
}