@book{doi102307140764,
    author = "Brooks, Charles F. and Brooks, C. E. P.",
    title = "Climate Through the Ages",
    year = "1927",
    journal = "Economic Geography",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/140764",
    doi = "10.2307/140764",
    openalex = "W2323737622"
}

@article{doi10108020014422195911904384,
    author = "Lamb, H. H. and Johnson, A. I.",
    title = "Climatic Variation and Observed Changes in the General Circulation",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Geografiska Annaler",
    abstract = "(1959). Climatic Variation and Observed Changes in the General Circulation. Geografiska Annaler: Vol. 41, No. 2-3, pp. 94-134.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/20014422.1959.11904384",
    doi = "10.1080/20014422.1959.11904384",
    openalex = "W2768052203",
    references = "doi101002qj49705925206"
}

@article{doi101126science149367955,
    author = "Thurber, David L. and Broecker, Wallace S. and Blanchard, R.L. and Potratz, Herbert A.",
    title = "Uranium-Series Ages of Pacific Atoll Coral",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The thorium-230: uranium-234 method of dating corals and oolites has been evaluated in detail for reliability, and various criteria have been established. Reliable ages for extensive coral formations of about 6000 and 120,000 years were obtained. A hiatus in the development of coral between 6000 and 120,000 years ago on the Pactfic atoll of Eniwetok implies that conditions did not permit coral growth during this period. The record prior to 120,000 years ago is not clear, probably because of a lack of unaltered samples.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.149.3679.55",
    doi = "10.1126/science.149.3679.55",
    openalex = "W2032527957"
}

@article{doi101029jz071i014p03379,
    author = "Veeh, H. H.",
    title = "Th 230 /U 238 and U 234 /U 238 ages of Pleistocene high sea level stand",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Unrecrystallized fossil corals occurring in their growth positions between 2 and 9 meters above sea level at many locations in the Pacific and Indian oceans have been dated by the Th230/U238 and U234/U238 methods. Where possible, recent corals were also collected and analyzed for their uranium and thorium isotopes. The uranium contents of the corals were determined fluorimetrically; the U234/U238 ratios and the thorium concentrations were ascertained by alpha spectrometry. The Th230/U238 ages of the fossil corals range from 90,000±20,000 to 160,000±40,000 years and the U234/U238 ages from 80,000±50,000 to 180,000±60,000 years. Absence of Th230 in the recent corals and absence of Th232 in both the recent and the fossil corals confirm the assumption that the Th230 found in the fossil corals resulted solely from radioactive decay of its parent uranium. Control samples of pre-Pleistocene material showed radioactive equilibrium between the various members in the U238 decay chain. Both the internal consistency of the ages, within experimental error, and the agreement between the Th230/U236 and U234/U238 ages, strongly support the general validity of these ages. The similarity of the Th230/U238 ages of Pleistocene coral reefs to those of like elevations above sea level in many localities suggests a eustatic sea level stand higher than now at about 120,000±20,000 years ago, possibly during an interglacial stage of the Pleistocene.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz071i014p03379",
    doi = "10.1029/jz071i014p03379",
    openalex = "W1580040034"
}

@incollection{doi10100797819357043864,
    author = "Weyl, Peter K.",
    title = "The Role of the Oceans in Climatic Change: A Theory of the Ice Ages",
    year = "1968",
    booktitle = "American Meteorological Society eBooks",
    abstract = "Changes in the surface salinity distribution in the World Ocean, by changing the extent of sea ice in the North Atlantic and Antarctic, can lead to climatic change. By reducing the water vapor flux across Central America, the salinity of the North Atlantic is reduced. If this change persists over a sufficient length of time, a glacial climate could be initiated. An examination of the “Little Ice Age” tends to confirm this hypothesis. A return to an interglacial climate may be the result of overextension of glaciers followed by stagnation of the bottom water. Stagnation is terminated by geothermal heating at the ocean floor, followed by vertical mixing of the warmed, saltier water into the subarctic gyre of the North Atlantic. This, in turn, results in a reduction of sea ice and in climatic warming.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-935704-38-6\_4",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-935704-38-6\_4",
    openalex = "W1559577325",
    references = "doi1010160011747166911090, doi101016s0146629158800144, doi101029jz065i009p02903, doi101029tr029i002p00202, doi101029tr041i004p00629, doi101086626295, doi101086627150, doi1010970001069419660400000015, doi1011751520046919500070080otwdoc20co2, doi103402tellusav11i39317"
}

@article{doi101130001676061969801481psotep20co2,
    author = "Hays, James D and Saito, Tsunemasa and Opdyke, Neil D. and Burckle, Lloyd H.",
    title = "Pliocene-Pleistocene Sediments of the Equatorial Pacific: Their Paleomagnetic, Biostratigraphic, and Climatic Record",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1969)80[1481:psotep]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1969)80[1481:psotep]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2083506860"
}

@book{dansgaard1971climatic4,
    author = "Dansgaard, W. and Johnsen, S. J. and Clausen, H. B. and Langway, C. C. J",
    title = "Climatic Record Revealed by the Camp Century Ice Core, in Turekian, K. K., ed., The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 37-56",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S. J., Clausen, H. B., and Langway, C. C. J., 1971, Climatic Record Revealed by the Camp Century Ice Core, in Turekian, K. K., ed., The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages: New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 37-56.}"
}

@misc{daly1972the3,
    author = "Daly, R",
    title = "The cause of the Ice Age",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "Creation Research Society Quarterly, v. 9, p. 210-217",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Daly, R., 1972, The cause of the Ice Age: Creation Research Society Quarterly, v. 9, p. 210-217.}"
}

@article{coope1975climatic2,
    author = "Coope, G. R",
    title = "Climatic Fluctuations in Northwest Europe Since the Last Interglacial, Indicated by Fossil Assemblages of Coleoptera, in Wright, A. E., and Moseley, F., eds., Ice Ages",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Ancient and Modern, 6 of Geological Journal Special Issue: p. 153-168",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Coope, G. R., 1975, Climatic Fluctuations in Northwest Europe Since the Last Interglacial, Indicated by Fossil Assemblages of Coleoptera, in Wright, A. E., and Moseley, F., eds., Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern, 6 of Geological Journal Special Issue: p. 153-168.}"
}

@article{doi101126science19442701121,
    author = "Hays, James D and Imbrie, John and Shackleton, N. J.",
    title = "Variations in the Earth's Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "1) Three indices of global climate have been monitored in the record of the past 450,000 years in Southern Hemisphere ocean-floor sediments. 2) Over the frequency range 10(-4) to 10(-5) cycle per year, climatic variance of these records is concentrated in three discrete spectral peaks at periods of 23,000, 42,000, and approximately 100,000 years. These peaks correspond to the dominant periods of the earth's solar orbit, and contain respectively about 10, 25, and 50 percent of the climatic variance. 3) The 42,000-year climatic component has the same period as variations in the obliquity of the earth's axis and retains a constant phase relationship with it. 4) The 23,000-year portion of the variance displays the same periods (about 23,000 and 19,000 years) as the quasi-periodic precession index. 5) The dominant, 100,000-year climatic [See table in the PDF file] component has an average period close to, and is in phase with, orbital eccentricity. Unlike the correlations between climate and the higher-frequency orbital variations (which can be explained on the assumption that the climate system responds linearly to orbital forcing), an explanation of the correlation between climate and eccentricity probably requires an assumption of nonlinearity. 6) It is concluded that changes in the earth's orbital geometry are the fundamental cause of the succession of Quaternary ice ages. 7) A model of future climate based on the observed orbital-climate relationships, but ignoring anthropogenic effects, predicts that the long-term trend over the next sevem thousand years is toward extensive Northern Hemisphere glaciation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.194.4270.1121",
    doi = "10.1126/science.194.4270.1121",
    openalex = "W2022545034",
    references = "crossref1977the, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589474900076, doi101029rg008i001p00169, doi101038215015a0, doi101086626295, doi101086627150, doi101086627434, doi10111513269865, doi101126science1593812297, doi101126science1673919862, doi101126science1834128959, doi101126science19142321131, doi101130mem145p449, doi1023071907241, doi1023072423416, doi103402tellusav28i611316, openalexw2088079069"
}

@misc{hays1976variations5,
    author = "Hays, J. D. and Imbrie, J. and Shackleton, N. J",
    title = "Variations in earth's orbit",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "pacemaker of ice ages: Science, v. 194, p. 1121-1132",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., and Shackleton, N. J., 1976, Variations in earth's orbit: pacemaker of ice ages: Science, v. 194, p. 1121-1132.}"
}

@article{doi101098rstb19770112,
    author = "Coope, G. Russell",
    title = "Fossil coleopteran assemblages as sensitive indicators of climatic changes during the Devensian (Last) cold stage",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Goleoptera are abundant fossils in Quaternary deposits laid down under freshwater or terrestrial conditions. They display a remarkable degree of evolutionary stability and reasons are adduced for believing that this morphological constancy is associated with physiological constancy. Thus whole communities of species have been assembled in the past, drawn together by common ecological preferences, so that the species composition of fossil assemblages resembles that of modern faunas. Marked changes in the geographical distribution of Coleoptera during the last glacial-interglacial cycle conform to an orderly pattern of climatic fluctuations. The Coleoptera contribute most information about the Devensian climates during warmer interstadial periods because during the colder episodes conditions in Britain became more or less intolerable to insect life and the fossil content of the sediments approaches zero. The term interstadial is here used for an interlude of milder climate in an otherwise cold period which either does not attain temperatures equivalent to those of the present day or which attains temperatures as warm, or even warmer than those of today but which does not last long enough for floral and faunal equilibrium to become established. During the Ghelford Interstadial, at the limit of acceptable radiocarbon dating but possibly about 60000 years (a) ago, the climate in central Britain was rather cooler than now with a moderate degree of continentality. The Upton Warren Interstadial complex, between about 45000 and 25000 a ago, reached its thermal maximum at about 43000 a before present when temperatures were rather higher than those of the present day and the climate was moderately oceanic. This episode may have been as short in duration as 1000 a. After this the interstadial is characterized by a period of much lower temperatures, with a greatly increased degree of climatic continentality, lasting for about 15 000 a. Few insect faunas are known from the period of maximum ice expansion but the scant evidence supports an interpretation of a climate of arctic severity. During the closing phases of the Devensian cold period there is faunal evidence for only one major climatic oscillation - here called the Windermere Interstadial. The sharp rise in the thermal environment at its beginning took place rather before 13000 a ago but later than 14000 a ago. Thermal maximum was attained almost immediately with temperatures during the summer at or above their present day level. Moderate oceanicity of the climate at this time means that winter temperatures were not much lower than those of the present day. At least during the earliest parts of this interstadial a temperate insect fauna was associated with a flora almost entirely dominated by herbs. The decline of the Windermere Interstadial from its thermal maximum seems to have been more or less synchronous from southern to northern England and to have taken place at about 12 200 a ago. A cool temperate phase then ensued for over one thousand years with summers about 3 °G cooler than during the thermal maximum. This episode corresponds in time to the Allerod oscillation. The Loch Lomond Stadial between 11000 and 10000 a ago saw the return of arctic faunas to the British Isles even as far south as Cornwall. The presence of Asiatic species, though not abundant, suggests that the climate at this time may have been rather continental. The timing and intensity of the climatic changes during deglaciation show close parallelism to the changes in oceanic circulation in the eastern Atlantic now being interpreted from cores of ocean bottom sediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1977.0112",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1977.0112",
    openalex = "W2062888724",
    references = "doi101017s0033822200008419, doi101098rspb19590051, doi101098rstb19770001, doi101098rstb19770109, doi101111j146981371943tb04982x, doi101111j150238851972tb00146x, doi101111j150238851974tb00669x, doi101130001676061974851353qeacds20co2, doi102307jctt1w6tb9v, openalexw1500291103"
}

@article{doi101016003358947990067x,
    author = "Lamb, H. H.",
    title = "Climatic Variation and Changes in the Wind and Ocean Circulation: The Little Ice Age in the Northeast Atlantic",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Variations must take place in the ocean circulation when the general wind circulation varies. There are hints even within recent years that the variations in the ocean between Iceland and Scotland and Norway can be big: The area has been regarded as the main path of the warm, saline North Atlantic Drift water heading towards the Arctic; but, when the polar water occasionally intrudes from the north, sea-surface temperature is liable to fall by 3 to 5°C and presumably by more than this when, as in 1888, the ice advanced to near the Faeroe Islands. The long series of sea-surface temperature observations at that point, starting in 1867, and earlier observations covering the area in 1789, are studied. Various kinds of proxy data—notably the CLIMAP Atlantic ocean-bed core analysis results for the last Ice Age climax and cod fishery and sea-ice reports from the Little Ice Age in the 17th century AD —are then used to indicate the variability in this part of the ocean on longer time scales. The reconstruction of the situation between ad 1675 and 1705 resulting from this study suggests a probable mean departure of the sea surface temperature from modern values between the Faeroes and southeast Iceland amounting to about −5°C; and at the climax in 1695 the polar water seems to have spread all around Iceland, across the entire surface of the Norwegian Sea to Norway, and south to near Shetland. Support for this diagnosis is found in a considerable variety of reports of environmental conditions existing at the time in Scotland, south Norway and elsewhere. The enhanced thermal gradient between approximately latitudes 55 and 65°N during the Little Ice Age, which this result indicates, offers an explanation for the occurrence in that period of a number of windstorms which changed the coasts in various places and seem to have surpassed in intensity the worst experienced in the region in more recent times.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(79)90067-x",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(79)90067-x",
    openalex = "W2054880999",
    references = "doi101002qj49710042511, doi101007bf00135154, doi1010160011747172900733, doi1010160012825273900767, doi10108020014422195911904384, doi1011751520048519730030169neoape20co2, doi102307140764, doi1023071794473, openalexw2916805370"
}

@article{doi101038280644a0,
    author = "Lorius, C. and Merlivat, Liliane and Jouzel, J. and Pourchet, M.",
    title = "A 30,000-yr isotope climatic record from Antarctic ice",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/280644a0",
    doi = "10.1038/280644a0",
    openalex = "W1967804471",
    references = "doi1010160012825272900384, doi101017s0022143000021183, doi101029jc082i027p03889, doi101038235429a0, doi101038266508a0, doi101126science19142321131, doi101126science19142321138, doi101130mem145, doi1023072423416, epstein1970antarctic, openalexw614266484"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x80901703,
    author = "Duval, P. and Lorius, C.",
    title = "Crystal size and climatic record down to the last ice age from Antarctic ice",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(80)90170-3",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(80)90170-3",
    openalex = "W1992710207",
    references = "doi1010160020740366900051, doi1010160022024876900385, doi1010160022509659900298, doi101017s0022143000021948, doi101017s0022143000031233, doi101038280644a0, doi10106313048417, doi101130001676061976871665riotis20co2, openalexw2002729176, openalexw3094791027, thompson1975climatological"
}

@article{doi101126science2074434943,
    author = "Imbrie, John and Imbrie, John",
    title = "Modeling the Climatic Response to Orbital Variations",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "According to the astronomical theory of climate, variations in the earth's orbit are the fundamental cause of the succession of Pleistocene ice ages. This article summarizes how the theory has evolved since the pioneer studies of James Croll and Milutin Milankovitch, reviews recent evidence that supports the theory, and argues that a major opportunity is at hand to investigate the physical mechanisms by which the climate system responds to orbital forcing. After a survey of the kinds of models that have been applied to this problem, a strategy is suggested for building simple, physically motivated models, and a time-dependent model is developed that simulates the history of planetary glaciation for the past 500,000 years. Ignoring anthropogenic and other possible sources of variation acting at frequencies higher than one cycle per 19,000 years, this model predicts that the long-term cooling trend which began some 6000 years ago will continue for the next 23,000 years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.207.4434.943",
    doi = "10.1126/science.207.4434.943",
    openalex = "W2023899869",
    references = "doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589474900076, doi1010160033589478900649, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101029rg008i001p00169, doi101029rg012i003p00447, doi101038266596a0, doi101086626295, doi101086627150, doi101086627434, doi101098rspb19690085, doi101111j215334901969tb00444x, doi101111j215334901969tb00466x, doi101126science1593812297, doi101126science19442701121, doi101130mem145p449, doi1011751520045019690080392agcmbo20co2, doi1023072423416, doi103402tellusav21i510109, doi103402tellusav28i611316"
}

@misc{ruddieman1981oceanic9,
    author = "Ruddieman, W. F. and McIntyre, A",
    title = "Oceanic mechanisms for amplification of the 23,000-year ice-volume cycle",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 212, p. 617-627",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ruddieman, W. F., and McIntyre, A., 1981, Oceanic mechanisms for amplification of the 23,000-year ice-volume cycle: Science, v. 212, p. 617-627.}"
}

@misc{suess1982personal10,
    author = "Suess, H. E",
    title = "Personal communication cited as s ource of Figure 1, P. 14, in E. M. Druffel [1982] Banded corals",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "changes in oceanic carbon-14 during the Little Ice Age: Science, v. 218, p. 13-19",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Suess, H. E., 1982, Personal communication cited as s ource of Figure 1, P. 14, in E. M. Druffel [1982] Banded corals: changes in oceanic carbon-14 during the Little Ice Age: Science, v. 218, p. 13-19.}"
}

@article{doi1011370143037,
    author = "Benzi, Roberto and Parisi, Giorgio and Sutera, Alfonso and Vulpiani, Angelo",
    title = "A Theory of Stochastic Resonance in Climatic Change",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics",
    abstract = "In this paper we study a one-dimensional, nonlinear stochastic differential equation when small amplitude, long-period forcing is applied. The equation arises in the theory of the climate of the earth. We find that the cooperative effect of the stochastic perturbation and periodic forcing lead to an amplification of the peak of the power spectrum, due to a mechanism that we call stochastic resonance. A heuristic analysis of the resonance condition is presented and our analytical findings are confirmed by numerical calculations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1137/0143037",
    doi = "10.1137/0143037",
    openalex = "W2042548952",
    references = "doi101029rg012i003p00447"
}

@article{carroll1984glaciology1,
    author = "Carroll, A. V",
    title = "Glaciology and the Ice Age",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Journal of Geological Education, v. 32, p. 158-170",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Carroll, A. V., 1984, Glaciology and the Ice Age: Journal of Geological Education, v. 32, p. 158-170.}"
}

@article{doi10113000167606198495381itracr20co2,
    author = "Ruddiman, William F and McIntyre, Andrew",
    title = "Ice-age thermal response and climatic role of the surface Atlantic Ocean, 40°N to 63°N",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<381:itracr>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<381:itracr>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2091735381"
}

@techreport{ruddieman1984iceage8,
    author = "Ruddieman, W. F",
    title = "Ice-age thermal and climatic role of the surface Atlantic Ocean, 40 degrees N to 63 degrees N",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 95, p. 381-396",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ruddieman, W. F., 1984, Ice-age thermal and climatic role of the surface Atlantic Ocean, 40 degrees N to 63 degrees N: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 95, p. 381-396.}"
}

@article{doi101038316591a0,
    author = "Lorius, C. and Jouzel, J. and Ritz, Catherine and Merlivat, Liliane and Barkov, N. I. and Korotkevich, Y. S. and Kotlyakov, V. M.",
    title = "A 150,000-year climatic record from Antarctic ice",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/316591a0",
    doi = "10.1038/316591a0",
    openalex = "W2083903057",
    references = "doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160033589473900525, doi101029jd089id07p11749, doi101029rg008i001p00169, doi101038215015a0, doi101038266508a0, doi101038280644a0, doi101038299688a0, doi101038308621a0, doi101038315021a0, doi101086626295, doi101098rspb19690085, doi101126science1663903377, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2074434943, epstein1970antarctic, palais1985soluble"
}

@article{doi1010160033589487900469,
    author = "Martinson, Douglas G. and Pisias, Nicklas G. and Hays, James D and Imbrie, John and Moore, Theodore C. and Shackleton, Nicholas J",
    title = "Age Dating and the Orbital Theory of the Ice Ages: Development of a High-Resolution 0 to 300,000-Year Chronostratigraphy",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Using the concept of “orbital tuning”, a continuous, high-resolution deep-sea chronostratigraphy has been developed spanning the last 300,000 yr. The chronology is developed using a stacked oxygen-isotope stratigraphy and four different orbital tuning approaches, each of which is based upon a different assumption concerning the response of the orbital signal recorded in the data. Each approach yields a separate chronology. The error measured by the standard deviation about the average of these four results (which represents the “best” chronology) has an average magnitude of only 2500 yr. This small value indicates that the chronology produced is insensitive to the specific orbital tuning technique used. Excellent convergence between chronologies developed using each of five different paleoclimatological indicators (from a single core) is also obtained. The resultant chronology is also insensitive to the specific indicator used. The error associated with each tuning approach is estimated independently and propagated through to the average result. The resulting error estimate is independent of that associated with the degree of convergence and has an average magnitude of 3500 yr, in excellent agreement with the 2500-yr estimate. Transfer of the final chronology to the stacked record leads to an estimated error of ±1500 yr. Thus the final chronology has an average error of ±5000 yr.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(87)90046-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(87)90046-9",
    openalex = "W2146605432",
    references = "doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160016703782901107, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589474900076, doi101016003358947890100x, doi101038261017a0, doi101086627150, doi101126science1593812297, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2074434943, doi1011751520046919840413380tlqgat20co2"
}

@article{doi101029rg025i004p00760,
    author = "Schlesinger, Michael E. and Mitchell, J. F. B.",
    title = "Climate model simulations of the equilibrium climatic response to increased carbon dioxide",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "The first assessments of the potential climatic effects of increased CO 2 were performed using simplified climate models, namely, energy balance models (EBMs) and radiative‐convective models (RCMs). A wide range of surface temperature warming has been obtained by surface EBMs as a result of the inherent difficulty of these models in specifying the behavior of the climate system away from the energy balance level. RCMs have given estimates of Δ T s for a CO 2 doubling that range from 0.48° to 4.2°C. This response can be characterized by Δ T s = Δ R T G 0 /(1 ‐ f), where Δ R T is the radiative forcing at the tropopause due to the CO 2 doubling (∼4 W m −2), G 0 is the gain of the climate system without feedbacks (∼0.3°C/(W m −2)), and f is the feedback. The feedback processes in RCMs include water vapor feedback (f is 0.3 to 0.4), moist adiabatic lapse rate feedback (f is −0.25 to −0.4), cloud altitude feedback (f is 0.15 to 0.30), cloud cover feedback (f is unknown), cloud optical depth feedback (f is 0 to −1.32), and surface albedo feedback (f is 0.14 to 0.19). However, these feedbacks can be predicted credibly only by physically based models that include the essential dynamics and thermodynamics of the feedback processes. Such physically based models are the general circulation models (GCMs). The earliest GCM simulations of CO 2 ‐induced climate change were performed without the annual insolation cycle. These “annual mean” simulations gave for a CO 2 doubling a global mean surface air temperature warming of 1.3° to 3.9°C, an increase in the global mean precipitation rate of 2.7 to 7.8\%, and an indication of a soil moisture drying in the middle latitudes. The first GCM simulation of the seasonal variation of CO 2 ‐induced climate change was performed for a CO 2 quadrupling and obtained annual global mean surface temperature and precipitation changes of 4.1°C and 6.7\%, respectively. Substantial seasonal differences in the CO 2 ‐induced climate changes were found, especially in polar latitudes where the warming was maximum in winter and in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere where a soil moisture desiccation was found in summer. Recently, three CO 2 ‐doubling experiments have been performed with GCMs that include the annual insolation cycle. These seasonal simulations give an annual global mean warming of 3.5° to 4.2°C and precipitation increases of 7.1 to 11\%. These changes are approximately twice as large as those implied for a CO 2 doubling by the earliest seasonal simulation, apparently as a result of a positive cloud feedback. The geographical distributions of the CO 2 ‐induced warming obtained by the recent simulations agree qualitatively but not quantitatively. Furthermore, the precipitation and soil moisture changes do not agree quantitatively and even show qualitative differences. In particular, the summertime soil moisture drying in middle‐latitudes is simulated by only one of the GCMs. In order to improve the state of the art in simulating the equilibrium climatic change induced by increased CO 2 concentrations, it is recommended first that the contemporary GCM simulations be analyzed to determine the feedback processes responsible for their differences and second that the parameterization of these processes in the GCMs be validated against highly detailed models and observations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/rg025i004p00760",
    doi = "10.1029/rg025i004p00760",
    openalex = "W2112262492"
}

@article{doi101038329403a0,
    author = "Jouzel, J. and Lorius, C. and Petit, J. R. and Genthon, Christophe and Barkov, N. I. and Kotlyakov, V. M. and Petrov, V. M.",
    title = "Vostok ice core: a continuous isotope temperature record over the last climatic cycle (160,000 years)",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/329403a0",
    doi = "10.1038/329403a0",
    openalex = "W2047203508",
    references = "angelis1987aerosol, chappell1974geology, doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160012821x87901543, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101029jc084ic08p05029, doi101029jd089id07p11749, doi101038235429a0, doi101038280644a0, doi101038299688a0, doi101038316591a0, doi101038329408a0, doi101086627434, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2074434943, doi1011751520046919780352362ltvodi20co2, doi1023072286100"
}

@article{doi101029pa003i003p00343,
    author = "Duplessy, J. C. and Shackleton, Nicholas J and Fairbanks, Richard G. and Labeyrie, L. and Oppo, Delia W and Kallel, Néjib",
    title = "Deepwater source variations during the last climatic cycle and their impact on the global deepwater circulation",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "The degree of similarity of the ∂ 13 C records of the planktonic foraminiferal species N. pachyderma and of the benthic foraminiferal genus Cibicides in the high‐latitude basins of the world ocean is used as an indicator of the presence of deepwater sources during the last climatic cycle. Whereas continuous formation of deep water is recognized in the southern ocean, the Norwegian Sea stopped acting as a sink for surface water during isotope stage 4 and the remainder of the last glaciation. However, deep water formed in the north Atlantic south of the Norwegian Sea during the last climatic cycle as early as isotope substage 5d, and this area was also the only active northern source during stages 4–2. A detailed reconstruction of the geographic distribution of ∂ 13 C in benthic foraminifera in the Atlantic Ocean during the last glacial maximum shows that the most important deepwater mass originated from the southern ocean, whereas the Glacial North Atlantic Deep Water cannot be traced south of 40°N. At shallower depth an oxygenated 13 C rich Intermediate Water mass extended from 45°N to 15°S. In the Pacific Ocean a ventilation higher than the modern one was also found in open ocean in the depth range 700–2600 m and is best explained by stronger formation of Intermediate Water in high northern latitudes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/pa003i003p00343",
    doi = "10.1029/pa003i003p00343",
    openalex = "W2090767277",
    references = "doi1010160011747166911090, doi101016001282527290102x, doi1010160079661182900076, doi101029tr041i004p00629"
}

@article{doi101029pa003i006p00635,
    author = "Bard, Édouard",
    title = "Correction of accelerator mass spectrometry 14 C ages measured in planktonic foraminifera: Paleoceanographic implications",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "Carbon 14 dates obtained by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) on foraminiferal samples from deep‐sea sediment cores must be corrected for the difference in 14 C composition between the atmosphere and the sea surface. In the modern ocean, the “apparent age” of carbonate shells formed in surface waters varies between 300 and 1200 years and depends mainly on latitude. The time variation of this parameter during climate oscillations of the last 40,000 years may have been significant: there should have been small changes for most of the ocean between 40°S and 40°N, but an increase of the apparent age by several hundred years should be expected at high latitudes in response to subpolar/subtropical front movements. The North Atlantic is likely to have experienced the most significant changes, due to large variations in the mode and rate of North Atlantic Deep Water production. These hypothetical changes may be measured by coupled AMS 14 C dating of contemporaneous planktonic foraminifera and terrestrial organic matter (pollen, charcoal, wood, etc.) which occur in the same core or are stratigraphically linked by the same volcanic ash layer. The Δ(14 C atmosphere, 14 C sea surface) can be viewed as a new paleoceanographic tracer which may provide additional information about high latitude surface waters complementary to those obtained with 13 C/ 12 C and Cd/Ca ratios measured in planktonic foraminifera.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/pa003i006p00635",
    doi = "10.1029/pa003i006p00635",
    openalex = "W2141972425",
    references = "doi101357002224083788520207"
}

@article{doi101038334333a0,
    author = "Harvey, L. D. Danny",
    title = "Climatic impact of ice-age aerosols",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/334333a0",
    doi = "10.1038/334333a0",
    openalex = "W1978288306",
    references = "doi1010160033589485900808, doi101029gm032, doi101029rg025i004p00760, doi101038293391a0, doi101038329403a0, doi101038329408a0, doi1011751520046919800370193rhrfsd20co2, doi1011751520046919830400116teotao20co2, doi1011751520046919860431726tiocop20co2, openalexw653466241"
}

@article{doi101126science24148691043,
    author = "Members, COHMAP",
    title = "Climatic Changes of the Last 18,000 Years: Observations and Model Simulations",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Changes in solar radiation arising from changes in the orientation of the earth's axis had pronounced effects on tropical monsoons and mid-latitude climates as well as on ice-sheet configuration during the last 18,000 years. COHMAP (Cooperative Holocene Mapping Project) has assembled a global array of well-dated paleoclimatic data and used general-circulation models to identify and evaluate causes and mechanisms of climatic change. For the northern tropics, particularly in Africa and Asia, data and model results show that the orbitally induced increase in solar radiation in summer 12,000 to 6,000 years ago enhanced the thermal contrast between land and sea and thus produced strong summer monsoons, which raised lake levels in regions that are arid today. In middle to high latitudes the climatic response to both the insolation changes and to the retreating ice sheets led to readjustments in the vegetation in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Model results show that the large North American ice sheet split the westerly jet stream into northern and southern branches over North America. An increase in storms associated with the southern branch helps explain high lake levels and increased woodlands in the southwestern United States during full-glacial conditions. Comparisons of paleoclimatic data with the model simulations are important because models provide a theoretical framework for evaluating mechanisms of climatic change, and such comparisons help to evaluate the potential of general circulation models for predicting future climates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.241.4869.1043",
    doi = "10.1126/science.241.4869.1043",
    openalex = "W1654234791",
    references = "doi1010160033589478900649, doi1010160033589479900929, doi101029jd090id01p02167, doi101029jd092id07p08411, doi101038329408a0, doi101126science19142321131, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2074434943, doi101126science214451659, doi101130dnaggnak3, doi1011751520046919860431726tiocop20co2, doi1023071551023, openalexw1934430962"
}

@article{doi101126science2464929474,
    author = "Thompson, Lonnie G. and Mosley‐Thompson, Ellen and Davis, M. E. and Bolzan, John F. and Dai, J. and Klein, L. and Yao, Tandong and Wu, X. and Xie, Zhouqing and Gundestrup, N.",
    title = "Holocene—Late Pleistocene Climatic Ice Core Records from Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Three ice cores to bedrock from the Dunde ice cap on the north-central Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China provide a detailed record of Holocene and Wisconsin-Würm late glacial stage (LGS) climate changes in the subtropics. The records reveal that LGS conditions were apparently colder, wetter, and dustier than Holocene conditions. The LGS part of the cores is characterized by more negative delta(18)O ratios, increased dust content, decreased soluble aerosol concentrations, and reduced ice crystal sizes than the Holocene part. These changes occurred rapidly approximately 10,000 years ago. In addition, the last 60 years were apparently one of the warmest periods in the entire record, equalling levels of the Holocene maximum between 6000 and 8000 years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.246.4929.474",
    doi = "10.1126/science.246.4929.474",
    openalex = "W1967851076",
    references = "angelis1987aerosol, doi1010160012821x80901703, doi1010160031018286901197, doi101017s0022143000030288, doi101029jc082i027p03889, doi101029jd093id08p09341, doi101038235429a0, doi101038266508a0, doi101038280644a0, doi101126science19142321138, doi101126science2274688721"
}

@misc{kerr1990marking6,
    author = "Kerr, R. A",
    title = "Marking the Ice Ages in coral instead of mud",
    year = "1990",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 248, p. 31-33",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kerr, R. A., 1990, Marking the Ice Ages in coral instead of mud: Science, v. 248, p. 31-33.}"
}

@misc{kerr1990the7,
    author = "Kerr, R. A",
    title = "The Ice Age bones of contention",
    year = "1990",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 248, p. 32",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kerr, R. A., 1990, The Ice Age bones of contention: Science, v. 248, p. 32.}"
}

@article{doi101111j109583121996tb01434x,
    author = "Hewitt, Godfrey M.",
    title = "Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "The genetic effects of pleistocene ice ages are approached by deduction from paleoenvironmental information, by induction from the genetic structure of populations and species, and by their combination to infer likely consequences. (1) Recent palaeoclimatic information indicate rapid global reversals and changes in ranges of species which would involve elimination with spreading from the edge. Leading edge colonization during a rapid expansion would be leptokurtic and lead to homozygosity and spatial assortment of genomes. In Europe and North America, ice age contractions were into southern refugia, which would promote genome reorganization. (2) The present day genetic structure of species shows frequent geographic subdivision, with parapatric genomes, hybrid zones and suture zones. A survey of recent DNA phylogeographic information supports and extends earlier work. (3) The grasshopperChorthippus parallelusis used to illustrate such data and processes. Its range in Europe is divided on DNA sequences into five parapatric races, with southern genomes showing greater haplotype diversity — probably due to southern mountain blocks acting as refugia and northern expansion reducing diversity. (4) Comparison with other recent studies shows a concordance of such phylogeographic data over pleistocene time scales. (5) The role that ice age range changes may have played in changing adaptations is explored, including the limits of range, rapid change in new invasions and refugial differentiation in a variety of organisms. (6) The effects of these events in causing divergence and speciation are explored usingChorthippusas a paradigm. Repeated contraction and expansion would accumulate genome differences and adaptations, protected from mixing by hybrid zones, and such a composite mode of speciation could apply to many organisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01434.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01434.x",
    openalex = "W2109334184",
    references = "doi1010079781461523819, doi101038325587a0, doi101038364218a0, doi101038365143a0, doi101073pnas7641967, doi101073pnas91146491, doi101098rstb19770112, doi101111j155856461990tb04277x, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science24148691043, doi101146annureves16110185000553, doi1023072407738, doi1023072409350"
}

@article{doi101016s0031018296001460,
    author = "White, James and Ager, Thomas A. and Adam, D.P. and Leopold, E. B. and Liu, Gang and Jetté, Hélène and Schweger, Charles E.",
    title = "An 18 million year record of vegetation and climate change in northwestern Canada and Alaska: tectonic and global climatic correlates",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(96)00146-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0031-0182(96)00146-0",
    openalex = "W2145723810"
}

@article{doi1011300091761319970250483hciapw23co2,
    author = "Alley, Richard B. and Mayewski, Paul A. and Sowers, Todd and Stuiver, M. and Taylor, K. C. and Clark, Peter U.",
    title = "Holocene climatic instability: A prominent, widespread event 8200 yr ago",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0483:hciapw>2.3.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0483:hciapw>2.3.co;2",
    openalex = "W1975715178",
    references = "doi101038359311a0, doi101038366552a0, doi101126science2655169195, doi107202032681ar, openalexw2068090847"
}

@article{doi101002sici109914171998090135391aidjqs39730co26,
    author = "Huijzer, Bert S. and Vandenberghe, Jef",
    title = "Climatic reconstruction of the Weichselian Pleniglacial in northwestern and Central Europe",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Quaternary Science",
    abstract = "A multiproxy approach is applied to reconstructing accurately the Weichselian Pleniglacial climate (72–13 ka) in northwestern and central Europe. Standardised translations are used to transform proxy data into climate parameter values for six characteristic time windows. Quantitative reconstructions of the temperature regime are derived from periglacial, Coleoptera and botanical evidence, while aeolian and fluvial evidence provide qualitative information on wind activity and precipitation respectively. The Early Pleniglacial (74–59 ka), the cold period between 41–38 ka and the Late Pleniglacial (27–13 ka) are characterised by a strong north to south climatic gradient over northwestern Europe. During the last-glacial maximum discontinuous permafrost was established in northern France, whereas the continuous permafrost zone extended from the UK, Belgium, The Netherlands, Germany and Poland to the nordic ice sheets. Prominent wind activity and a relatively low precipitation typify these periods. In contrast, an indistinct west to east climate gradient was present in the relatively more temperate intervals (e.g. 50–41 ka). Seasonally frozen ground conditions prevailed in northwestern Europe whereas discontinuous permafrost may be suggested for central Germany. It appears that the climate conditions in northwest and central Europe were controlled by three major factors: the Scandinavian ice sheet, the North Atlantic surface water (circulation) and the Russian continent. © 1998 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1417(1998090)13:5<391::aid-jqs397>3.0.co;2-6",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1099-1417(1998090)13:5<391::aid-jqs397>3.0.co;2-6",
    openalex = "W2066745252",
    references = "doi1023073603, doi1037570bgsd19883601"
}

@incollection{doi101007978940159259813,
    author = "Behringer, Wolfgang",
    title = "Climatic Change and Witch-Hunting: The Impact of the Little Ice Age on Mentalities",
    year = "1999",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9259-8\_13",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-015-9259-8\_13",
    openalex = "W1521721236",
    references = "doi10108003612759199810528132, doi1015159780691210025, doi101525aa196567202a00010, doi1023071906628, doi1023072544473, doi1043249780203402863, doi1043249780203433652, doi1043249781315685526, openalexw2068090847, openalexw2916805370"
}

@article{doi10108015230430199912003284,
    author = "Elias, Scott A. and Andrews, John T. and Anderson, Katherine H.",
    title = "Insights on the Climatic Constraints on the Beetle Fauna of Coastal Alaska, U.S.A., Derived from the Mutual Climatic Range Method of Paleoclimate Reconstruction",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research",
    abstract = "The Mutual Climatic Range (MCR) method of paleoclimate reconstruction uses the climatic parameters associated with the modern range of species to produce climate envelopes for taxa found in fossil assemblages. The overlap of these climate envelopes produces a mutual climatic range for fossil assemblages. The method employs predatory and scavenging beetle species found in fossil assemblages. By comparing observed versus predicted mean summer and winter temperatures from MCR, we developed a set of calibration equations for fossil beetle assemblages in Alaska and the Yukon Territory. These equations showed that MCR predictions fit the observed mean temperatures of the warmest month (TMAX) reasonably well, but the predictions of mean temperatures for the coldest month (TMIN) for coastal sites were consistently below the observed values. Thus the beetle communities living in coastal Alaska today are indicative of colder winter temperatures than are indicated by the observed TMIN, and such lack of correlation is a difficulty in applying the MCR method and in estimating paleoclimates in Beringia. We postulate that periods of severely cold weather in coastal regions are sufficiently common to eliminate species adapted to maritime climates. Instead we find in coastal localities more cold-resistant species whose principal ranges are in interior regions. These species are adapted to continental climates (with extreme seasonality of temperatures), rather than maritime climates (with reduced seasonality).Another difficulty in estimating paleoclimates of Beringia is that the coastal geography has changed with each glacial/interglacial cycle. Glacial and interstadial sites that lie near the modern coast were subject to continental, rather than maritime climates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.1999.12003284",
    doi = "10.1080/15230430.1999.12003284",
    openalex = "W2332471563"
}

@book{doi101130mem192,
    author = "Crowell, John C.",
    title = "Pre-Mesozoic Ice Ages: Their Bearing on Understanding the Climate System",
    year = "1999",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/mem192",
    doi = "10.1130/mem192",
    openalex = "W1931357530"
}

@article{doi10103835016000,
    author = "Hewitt, Godfrey M.",
    title = "The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35016000",
    doi = "10.1038/35016000",
    openalex = "W1793793548",
    references = "doi101006jhev19980219, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101046j1365294x199800289x, doi101046j1365294x199800358x, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva026036, doi101111j109583121996tb01434x, doi101111j109583121999tb01160x, doi101146annureves18110187002421, doi1023072409350, doi102307jctv301gjp, openalexw1840956397"
}

@article{doi101016s027737910000130x,
    author = "Elias, Scott A.",
    title = "Mutual climatic range reconstructions of seasonal temperatures based on Late-Pleistocene fossil beetle assemblages in Eastern Beringia",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Quaternary Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-3791(00)00130-x",
    doi = "10.1016/s0277-3791(00)00130-x",
    openalex = "W2062275298",
    references = "doi101130001676061974851353qeacds20co2"
}

@article{doi101023a1010667524422,
    author = "Luterbacher, Jürg and Rickli, R. and Xoplaki, Elena and Tinguely, C. and Beck, Christoph and Pfister, Christian and Wanner, H.",
    title = "The Late Maunder Minimum (1675–1715) – A Key Period forStudying Decadal Scale Climatic Change in Europe",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Climatic Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1010667524422",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1010667524422",
    openalex = "W157228139",
    references = "doi101016003358947990067x"
}

@article{doi101139e01096,
    author = "Elias, Scott A. and Matthews, John",
    title = "Arctic North American seasonal temperatures from the latest Miocene to the Early Pleistocene, based on mutual climatic range analysis of fossil beetle assemblages",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences",
    abstract = "Late Tertiary and early Quaternary fossil beds in the arctic regions of North America have yielded abundant, well-preserved remains of plants and arthropods, documenting the existence of coniferous forests in the high arctic latitudes. Nearly all of the beetle (Coleoptera) specimens in these fossil assemblages represent extant species. We have applied the mutual climatic range (MCR) method of paleotemperature analysis to fossil beetle assemblages from 11 sites to estimate mean summer (T max) and winter (T min) temperatures. We found that arctic T min values during the latest Miocene and Pliocene were substantially warmer than they are today. The MCR estimates therefore support the scenario derived from the paleobotanical data, namely that arctic Pliocene climates were far less continental. Several Pliocene-age assemblages from the high Arctic yielded T max estimates 9-10°C warmer than modern values at the sites. This is the same degree of warming required to allow coniferous forests to grow in the high Arctic. By 3 million years BP, a cooling trend is marked in the paleobotanical and fossil beetle evidence from Alaska. All assemblages dating between 5.7 and 2 million years BP yielded calibrated T max values between 12.4 and 13.8°C, regardless of location. Thus the insect fossil data support the theory that there was far less latitudinal gradation in temperatures during the Late Pliocene than there is today. Our reconstructions suggest regional climatic cooling (especially winter temperatures) began by at least 2 million years BP.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/e01-096",
    doi = "10.1139/e01-096",
    openalex = "W2056155717",
    references = "doi1010160031018271900320, doi1010161040618294900108, doi101016s0031018296001460, doi101016s0033589403000875, doi101016s027737910000130x, doi10108015230430199912003284, doi101130001676061974851353qeacds20co2, doi1023072260436, doi105860choice321548, openalexw196178509"
}

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150520,
    author = "Jansson, Roland and Dynesius, Mats",
    title = "The Fate of Clades in a World of Recurrent Climatic Change: Milankovitch Oscillations and Evolution",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract Variations in Earth's orbit with periods of 10–100 thousand years (kyr) (Milankovitch oscillations) have led to recurrent and rapid climatic shifts throughout Earth's history. These cause changes in the geographical distributions of clades, which we term orbitally forced range dynamics (ORD). The magnitude of ORD varies geographically, e.g., with latitude. Climatic shifts cause extinction, splitting, and merging of gene pools and clades. They select among individuals and clades for traits enhancing the ability to survive in situ and to establish new populations. There is also nonadaptive sorting caused by the large geographical variation in ORD, as only gene pools that are in the right place when climate shifts survive. ORD lead to sorting at many levels of genealogic inclusiveness. Clades that have survived climatic shifts during at least one entire period of the longest significant Milankovitch oscillations (100 kyr), we name β-clades. The products of more recent cladogenesis are α-clades, which are always nested within a β-clade. We conclude that ORD may promote α-clade formation but curb rates of β-clade formation. In areas with little ORD, where gene pools persist without going extinct or merging, clade splits and divergence may accumulate leading to high rates of β-clade formation and β-anagenesis (evolutionary change persisting >100 kyr). High ORD should lead to low numbers of β-clades, β-clades with low levels of spatial genetic divergence, little geographical subdivision and large ranges, organisms with high vagility and low specialization, high proportions of β-clades formed by polyploidization, and little β-anagenesis. We predict global and interregional geographic patterns in these variables caused by differential ORD. Thus, ORD potentially explains a wide array of patterns, suggesting ORD as a fundamental factor in evolution. The vulnerability of biotas to many human activities should vary with the magnitude of ORD.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150520",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150520",
    openalex = "W2146348158",
    references = "doi101016s003101829600096x, doi101146annureves10110179001335"
}

@article{doi101098rstb20031388,
    author = "Hewitt, G. M.",
    title = "Genetic consequences of climatic oscillations in the Quaternary",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "An appreciation of the scale and frequency of climatic oscillations in the past few million years is modifying our views on how evolution proceeds. Such major events caused extinction and repeated changes in the ranges of those taxa that survived. Their spatial effects depend on latitude and topography, with extensive extinction and recolonization in higher latitudes and altitudinal shifts and complex refugia nearer the tropics. The associated population dynamics varied with life history and geography, and the present genetic constitution of the populations and species carry attenuated signals of these past dynamics. Phylogeographic studies with DNA have burgeoned recently and studies are reviewed from the arctic, temperate and tropical regions, seeking commonalities of cause in the resulting genetic patterns. Arctic species show distinct shallow genetic clades with common geographical boundaries. Thus Beringia is distinct phylogeographically, but its role as a refugial source is complex. Arctic taxa do not show the common genetic pattern of southern richness and northern purity in north-temperate species. Temperate refugial regions in Europe and North America show relatively deep DNA divergence for many taxa, indicating their presence over several Ice Ages, and suggesting a mode of speciation by repeated allopatry. DNA evidence indicates temperate species in Europe had different patterns of postglacial colonization across the same area and different ones in previous oscillations, whereas the northwest region of North America was colonized from the north, east and south. Tropical montane regions contain deeply diverged lineages, often in a relatively small geographical area, suggesting their survival there from the Pliocene. Our poor understanding of refugial biodiversity would benefit from further combined fossil and genetic studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1388",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2003.1388",
    openalex = "W2058532318",
    references = "doi10103835016000, doi101046j1365294x199800358x, doi101046j1365294x200301731x, doi102307jctv1nzfgj7, doi105860choice375647"
}

@article{doi101098rstb20031393,
    author = "Coope, G. Russell",
    title = "Several million years of stability among insect species because of, or in spite of, Ice Age climatic instability?",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "There is a curious paradox in the evolutionary legacy of Ice Ages. Studies of modern species suggest that they are currently evolving in response to changing environments. If extrapolated into the context of Quaternary Ice Ages, this evidence would suggest that the frequent climatic changes should have stimulated the evolutionary process and thus increased the rates of change within species and the number of speciation events. Extinction rates would, similarly, be high. Quaternary insect studies call into question these interpretations. They indicate that insect species show a remarkable degree of stability throughout the Ice Age climatic oscillations. The paradox arises from the apparent contradiction between abundant evidence of incipient speciation in insect populations at the present day and the evidence that, in the geological past, this apparently did not lead to sustained evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1393",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2003.1393",
    openalex = "W2028307516",
    references = "doi101002sici10991417200002152157aidjqs47830co2k, doi1010160033589483900674, doi101016s003101829600096x, doi101038325587a0, doi101130001676061974851353qeacds20co2, doi101139e01096, doi101146annureven15010170000525, doi101146annureves10110179001335, doi1023073603, doi105860choice321548"
}

@article{doi101016jquascirev200502005,
    author = "Magny, Michel and Aalbersberg, G. and Bégeot, Carole and BENOITRUFFALDI, P and Bossuet, Gilles and Disnar, J.R. and Heiri, Oliver and Laggoun‐Défarge, Fatima and Mazier, Florence and Millet, Laurent",
    title = "Environmental and climatic changes in the Jura mountains (eastern France) during the Lateglacial–Holocene transition: a multi-proxy record from Lake Lautrey",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Quaternary Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.02.005",
    openalex = "W1971907424",
    references = "doi101002sici10991417200002152157aidjqs47830co2k"
}

@article{doi101016jyqres200501006,
    author = "Peyron, Odile and Bégeot, Carole and Brewer, Simon and Heiri, Oliver and Magny, M. and Millet, Laurent and Ruffaldi, Pascale and Campo, E. Van and Yu, Guo‐An",
    title = "Late-Glacial climatic changes in Eastern France (Lake Lautrey) from pollen, lake-levels, and chironomids",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = {Abstract High-temporal resolution analyses of pollen, chironomid, and lake-level records from Lake Lautrey provide multi-proxy, quantitative estimates of climatic change during the Late-Glacial period in eastern France. Past temperature and moisture parameters were estimated using modern analogues and ‘plant functional types’ transfer-function methods for three pollen records obtained from different localities within the paleolake basin. The comparison of these methods shows that they provide generally similar climate signals, with the exception of the Bölling. Comparison of pollen- and chironomid-based temperature of the warmest month reconstructions generally agree, except during the Bölling. Major abrupt changes associated with the Oldest Dryas/Bölling, Alleröd/Younger Dryas, and the Younger Dryas/Preboreal transitions were quantified as well as other minor fluctuations related to the cold events (e.g., Preboreal oscillation). The temperature of the warmest month increased by ∼5°C at the start of Bölling, and by 1.5°�"3°C at the onset of the Holocene, while it fell by ca. 3° to 4°C at the beginning of Younger Dryas. The comparative analysis of the results based on the three Lautrey cores have highlighted significant differences in the climate reconstructions related to the location of each core, underlining the caution that is needed when studying single cores not taken from deepest part of lake basins.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2005.01.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.yqres.2005.01.006",
    openalex = "W1968363986",
    references = "doi101002sici10991417200002152157aidjqs47830co2k"
}

@article{doi101130g211551,
    author = "Powell, Matthew G.",
    title = "Climatic basis for sluggish macroevolution during the late Paleozoic ice age",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/g21155.1",
    doi = "10.1130/g21155.1",
    openalex = "W2091653924",
    references = "doi101016s0009254199000844, doi101086648217, doi10113000167606198798475lpgeig20co2, doi1011300016760619991110960cisona23co2, doi1011300091761320030310151lpiaog20co2, doi101130mem192, doi1016660094837320010270602itpopo20co2, openalexw1504049102, openalexw2297370949, openalexw45809738"
}

@article{doi101016jquascirev200601023,
    author = "Bray, Peter and Blockley, Simon and Coope, G. Russell and Dadswell, L.F. and Elias, Scott A. and Lowe, J. John and Pollard, A. Mark",
    title = "Refining mutual climatic range (MCR) quantitative estimates of palaeotemperature using ubiquity analysis",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Quaternary Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.01.023",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.01.023",
    openalex = "W2095566777",
    references = "doi101146annureven15010170000525"
}

@article{doi1010292005rg000172,
    author = "Liu, Zhengyu and Alexander, Mike",
    title = "Atmospheric bridge, oceanic tunnel, and global climatic teleconnections",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "We review teleconnections within the atmosphere and ocean, their dynamics and their role in coupled climate variability. We concentrate on teleconnections in the latitudinal direction, notably tropical‐extratropical and interhemispheric interactions, and discuss the timescales of several teleconnection processes. The tropical impact on extratropical climate is accomplished mainly through the atmosphere. In particular, tropical Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies impact extratropical climate variability through stationary atmospheric waves and their interactions with midlatitude storm tracks. Changes in the extratropics can also impact the tropical climate through upper ocean subtropical cells at decadal and longer timescales. On the global scale the tropics and subtropics interact through the atmospheric Hadley circulation and the oceanic subtropical cell. The thermohaline circulation can provide an effective oceanic teleconnection for interhemispheric climate interactions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2005rg000172",
    doi = "10.1029/2005rg000172",
    openalex = "W1978136013",
    references = "doi101016s0146629158800144"
}

@article{doi101007s1058401098292,
    author = "Pfister, Christian",
    title = "The vulnerability of past societies to climatic variation: a new focus for historical climatology in the twenty-first century",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Climatic Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9829-2",
    doi = "10.1007/s10584-010-9829-2",
    openalex = "W2051026563",
    references = "doi101007978940159259813"
}