@misc{mencken1926prejudices1, author = "Mencken, H. L", title = "Prejudices", year = "1926", howpublished = "Fifth Series, in May, H., ed., The Discontent of the Intellectuals: Chicago, 1963, p. 29", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mencken, H. L., 1926, Prejudices: Fifth Series, in May, H., ed., The Discontent of the Intellectuals: Chicago, 1963, p. 29.}" } @article{doi101525aa197375102a00010, author = "Hsü, Francis L. K.", title = "Prejudice and Its Intellectual Effect in American Anthropology: An Ethnographic Report 1", year = "1973", journal = "American Anthropologist", abstract = "This article deals with some deep forms of prejudice in American anthropology in terms of its dominant ideas and its products. The foundation of this prejudice seems to be Western individualism. It expresses itself by excluding contrary ideas from its public forums (publications, symposia, and so forth) and by elaborating and escalating ideas in conformity with it. In spite of its cross‐cultural protestations, American anthropology will become White American anthropology unless our fraternity consciously takes a more open‐minded approach to other competing assumptions—rooted in other cultures—about man and what makes him run. There is a world of difference between a truly cross‐cultural science of man and a White centered science of man with cross‐cultural decorations", url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1973.75.1.02a00010", doi = "10.1525/aa.1973.75.1.02a00010", openalex = "W2150113320", references = "doi10100797813492370813, doi101038213014a0, doi101038scientificamerican106619, doi101525aa196567202a00010, doi101525aa197173102a00030, doi102307126034, doi1023071836101, doi1023072063899, doi102307588281, doi1043249781912281664" } @article{doi10103700223514682199, author = "Swim, Janet K. and Aikin, Kathryn J. and Hall, Wayne S. and Hunter, Barbara A.", title = "Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices.", year = "1995", journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", abstract = "Prejudice and discrimination against women has become increasingly subtle and covert (N. V. Be-nokraitis \& J. R. Feagin, 1986). Unlike research on racism, little research about prejudice and dis-crimination against women has explicitly examined beliefs underlying this more modern form ofsexism. Support was found for a distinction between old-fashioned and modern beliefs about womensimilar to results that have been presented for racism (J. B. McConahay, 1986; D. O. Sears, 1988).The former is characterized by endorsement of traditional gender roles, differential treatment ofwomen and men, and stereotypes about lesser female competence. Like modern racism, modernsexism is characterized by the denial of continued discrimination, antagonism toward women's de-mands, and lack of support for policies designed to help women (for example, in education andwork). Research that compares factor structures of old-fashioned and modern sexism and racismand that validates our modern sexism scale is presented.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199", doi = "10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199", openalex = "W2015199128", references = "doi101007bf02291170, doi10103700223514703491, doi101037003329091053430, doi101037003329091111172, doi10103700332909883588, doi1023072069383, doi1023072072165, openalexw2762507350, openalexw2806053047, openalexw3157264244" } @article{doi10103700223514695797, author = "Steele, Claude M. and Aronson, J.", title = "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.", year = "1995", journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", abstract = "Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797", doi = "10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797", openalex = "W4293105157", references = "openalexw2034328075" } @article{doi102139ssrn262530, author = "Yu, Peter K.", title = "Piracy, Prejudice, and Perspectives: An Attempt to use Shakespeare to Reconfigure the U.S.-China Intellectual Property Debate", year = "2001", journal = "SSRN Electronic Journal", url = "https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.262530", doi = "10.2139/ssrn.262530", openalex = "W18432341", references = "doi101093acprofoso97801982933920010001, doi101111j174717962004tb00211x, doi1011639789047405238075, doi10230720049188, doi1023073480607, doi102903jefsa20091252, doi1050409781474225243ch006, doi105860choice323410, doi105860choice386350, openalexw2052741904" } @article{doi1013520047676520020400457cmaaoq20co2, author = "Schalock, Robert L. and Brown, Ivan and Brown, Roy I. and Cummins, Robert A. and Felce, David and Matikka, Leena and Keith, Kenneth D. and Parmenter, Trevor R.", title = "Conceptualization, Measurement, and Application of Quality of Life for Persons With Intellectual Disabilities: Report of an International Panel of Experts", year = "2002", journal = "Mental Retardation", abstract = "In this article a number of issues involving the concept of quality of life as applied to persons with intellectual disabilities are summarized, and a number of agreed-upon principles regarding its conceptualization, measurement, and application are presented. We realize that the concepts and models presented in this article will vary potentially from country to country, and even from area to area within countries. The cross-cultural understanding of the concept of quality of life is in its infancy, and we hope that the discourses resulting from the material presented in this article will facilitate both cross-cultural understanding and collaborative work. The article reflects current thought about the conceptualization, measurement, and application of this increasingly important and widely used concept in the field of intellectual disabilities and sets the stage for its continuing development.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1352/0047-6765(2002)040<0457:cmaaoq>2.0.co;2", doi = "10.1352/0047-6765(2002)040<0457:cmaaoq>2.0.co;2", openalex = "W2179343330", references = "doi101007bf00292050, doi101016027795369500112k, doi101016s0277953698000094, doi1010370003066x55156, doi1010370033295x982224, doi1010800269905031000070134, doi1023072577440, openalexw1595411665, openalexw2110566033" } @article{doi101111j174717962004tb00211x, author = "Endeshaw, Assafa", title = "Reconfiguring Intellectual Property for the Information Age", year = "2004", journal = "The Journal of World Intellectual Property", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1796.2004.tb00211.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1747-1796.2004.tb00211.x", openalex = "W1494274513" } @article{doi10117710442073040150020401, author = "Yazbeck, Marie and McVilly, Keith and Parmenter, Trevor R.", title = "Attitudes Toward People with Intellectual Disabilities", year = "2004", journal = "Journal of Disability Policy Studies", abstract = "Attitudes in Australia toward people with intellectual disabilities were investigated among students, disability services professionals, and the general population. Three previously validated questionnaires and a measure of respondent self-reported “social desirability” were used. Students and disability services professionals exhibited similar attitudes, with both groups reporting significantly more positive attitudes than members of the general population. More positive attitudes were evident among younger people, people with higher educational attainment, and individuals with a prior knowledge of or regular contact with people with intellectual disabilities. These respondents were less likely to support the principles of eugenics and more likely to support the paradigm of community inclusion. The authors make recommendations concerning the development of policies and strategies to foster the acceptance and inclusion of adults with intellectual disabilities in the wider community. Further studies that include the use of qualitative techniques and target people in the general population are recommended.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/10442073040150020401", doi = "10.1177/10442073040150020401", openalex = "W2168606934", references = "doi101080096382800296782" } @article{doi101016jjwb200505005, author = "Yang, Deli", title = "Culture matters to multinationals’ intellectual property businesses", year = "2005", journal = "Journal of World Business", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.05.005", doi = "10.1016/j.jwb.2005.05.005", openalex = "W2045618765", references = "doi102139ssrn262530" } @article{doi101016jridd200507003, author = "Akrami, Nazar and Ekehammar, Bo and Claesson, Malin and Sonnander, Karin", title = "Classical and modern prejudice: Attitudes toward people with intellectual disabilities", year = "2005", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.003", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.003", openalex = "W2134243828", references = "doi101002ejsp2420250106, doi10103700223514674741, doi101037002235146961013, doi10103700223514703491, doi1010370033295x10214, doi1011770049124192021002005, doi1023072580595, doi105860choice373413, openalexw1816720378, openalexw2034328075" } @article{doi101111j13652788200600844x, author = "Hartley, Sigan L. and MacLean, William E.", title = "A review of the reliability and validity of Likert‐type scales for people with intellectual disability", year = "2006", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Likert-type scales are increasingly being used among people with intellectual disability (ID). These scales offer an efficient method for capturing a wide range of variance in self-reported attitudes and behaviours. This review is an attempt to evaluate the reliability and validity of Likert-type scales in people with ID. METHODS: Fifty-one studies reporting response rates, response bias, reliability and validity of Likert-type scales among adolescents and adults with ID were reviewed. RESULTS: Low response rates were found among adolescents and adults with moderate to profound ID, when pictorial representations of response alternatives were not employed, and for Likert-type scales with self-descriptive statements. Response bias was evident, particularly among adolescents and adults with moderate to profound ID. Likert-type scales have better reliability and validity among adolescents and adults with borderline IQ or mild ID. Pretests and clarifying questions increase reliability and validity. CONCLUSIONS: Likert-type scales should include pictorial representations of response alternatives, a single set of one or two word response descriptors, clarifying questions, and pretests, and are best used with adolescents and adults with borderline IQ to mild ID.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00844.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00844.x", openalex = "W2078740837", references = "doi1013520047676520020400457cmaaoq20co2" } @article{doi10135219349556200745116tromru20co2, author = "Schalock, Robert L. and Luckasson, Ruth and Shogren, Karrie A.", title = "The Renaming of Mental Retardation: Understanding the Change to the Term Intellectual Disability", year = "2007", journal = "Intellectual and developmental disabilities", abstract = "There is considerable and intense discussion in the field of intellectual disability/mental retardation about the construct of disability, how intellectual disability fits within the general construct of disability, and the use of the term intellectual disability (Glidden, 2006; Greenspan, 2006; MacMillan, Siperstein, \& Leffert, 2006; Schalock \& Luckasson, 2004; Switzky \& Greenspan, 2006b). This discussion is occurring within the context of competing world views of the philosophical and epistemological underpinnings of the conceptions of intellectual disability/mental retardation (Switzky \& Greenspan, 2006a).Increasingly, the term intellectual disability is being used instead of mental retardation. This transition in terminology is exemplified by organization names (e.g., the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities—AAIDD, International Association for the Scientific Study of Intellectual Disabilities, President's Committee for People With Intellectual Disabilities), journal titles, and published research (Parmenter, 2004; Schroeder, Gertz, \& Velazquez, 2002). A number of questions have emerged with the increased use of the term intellectual disability:Our purpose in this article is to clarify the shift to the term intellectual disability. At the heart of that shift is the understanding that this term covers the same population of individuals who were diagnosed previously with mental retardation in number, kind, level, type, and duration of the disability and the need of people with this disability for individualized services and supports. Furthermore, every individual who is or was eligible for a diagnosis of mental retardation is eligible for a diagnosis of intellectual disability.In addition, in this article we explore why the field is shifting to the term intellectual disability. Increased understanding is based on a clear distinction among the construct used to describe a phenomenon, the term used to name the phenomenon, and the definition used to precisely explain the term and establish the term's meaning and boundaries. In this article we represent the first of a planned series of articles by the AAIDD Committee on Terminology and Classification in which we will share our thoughts and ask for input from the field prior to the anticipated publication in 2009/2010 of the 11th edition of the definition, classification, and systems of supports manual (The Manual).Throughout the article we stress that understanding the term intellectual disability is enhanced by dialogue and clarity. To that end, the following terms will be used:The current construct of disability is focused on the expression of limitations in individual functioning within a social context and represents a substantial disadvantage to the individual. Disability has its genesis in a health condition that gives rise to impairments in body functions and structures, activity limitations, and participation restrictions within the context of personal and environmental factors.The construct of intellectual disability belongs within the general construct of disability. Intellectual disability has evolved to emphasize an ecological perspective that focuses on the person–environment interaction and recognizes that the systematic application of individualized supports can enhance human functioning.The current construct of disability has emerged over the last 2 decades due primarily to an increased understanding of the process of disablement and its amelioration. Major factors in this evolution include (a) the research on the social construction of illness and the extensive impact that societal attitudes, roles, and policies have on the ways that individuals experience health disorders (Aronowitz, 1998); (b) the blurring of the historical distinction between biological and social causes of disability (Institute of Medicine, 1991); and (c) the recognition of the multidimensionality of human functioning (Luckasson et al., 1992, 2002; World Health Organization {WHO}, 2001). Because of these factors, the concept of disability has evolved from a person-centered trait or characteristic (often referred to as a “deficit”) to a human phenomenon with its genesis in organic and/or social factors. These organic and social factors give rise to functional limitations that reflect an inability or constraint in both personal functioning and performing roles and tasks expected of an individual within a social environment (De Ploy \& Gilson, 2004; Hahn \& Hegamin, 2001; Nagi, 1991; Oliver, 1996; Rioux, 1997).This social–ecological conception of disability is reflected well in current publications of both the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), now the AAIDD, and WHO. In the 2002 Manual (Luckasson et al., 2002), disability was defined as the expression of limitations in individual functioning within a social context and represents a substantial disadvantage to the individual. Similarly, in the World Health Organization's (2001) International Classification of Functioning, disability is described as having its genesis in a health condition (disorder or disease) that gives rise to impairments in body functions and structures, activity limitations, and participation restrictions within the context of personal and environmental factors.The importance of this evolutionary change in the construct of disability is that intellectual disability is no longer considered entirely an absolute, invariate trait of the person (DeKraai, 2002; Devlieger, Rusch, \& Pfeiffer, 2003; Greenspan, 1999). Rather, this social–ecological construct of disability, and intellectual disability, (a) exemplifies the interaction between the person and their environment; (b) focuses on the role that individualized supports can play in enhancing individual functioning; and (c) allows for the pursuit and understanding of “disability identity,” whose principles include self-worth, subjective well-being, pride, common cause, policy alternatives, and engagement in political action (Powers, Dinerstein, \& Holmes, 2005; Putnam, 2005; Schalock, 2004; Vehmas, 2004).The term intellectual disability is increasingly being used instead of mental retardation. Terminology for what is now referred to as intellectual disability has varied historically. Over the last 200 years, terms have included idiocy, feeblemindedness, mental deficiency, mental disability, mental handicap, and mental subnormality (Goodey, 2005; Mercer, 1992; Schroeder et al., 2002; Stainton, 2001; Trent, 1994; Wright \& Digby, 1996).Luckasson and Reeve (2001) discussed five important factors that need to be considered when selecting a term. First, the term should be specific, refer to a single entity, permit differentiation from other entities, and enhance communication. Second, it must be used consistently by different stakeholder groups (e.g., individuals, families, schools, clinicians, lawyers, physicians, professional organizations, researchers, and policy makers). Third, the term must adequately represent current knowledge and be able to incorporate new knowledge as scientific advances occur. Fourth, it should be robust enough in its operationalization to permit its use for multiple purposes, including defining, diagnosing, classifying, and planning supports. Fifth, it should reflect an essential component of naming a group of people, which is to communicate important values, especially towards the group. This aspect of the naming process (i.e., communicating important values) has generated a great deal of discussion, with many individuals asserting that the term mental retardation does not communicate dignity or respect and, in fact, frequently results in the devaluation of such persons (Finlay \& Lyons, 2005; Hayden \& Nelis, 2002; Rapley, 2004; Snell \& Voorhees, 2006).There is an emerging consensus that not only does the term intellectual disability meet these five criteria, but that the term is preferable for a number of reasons. Chief among these are that the term intellectual disability (a) reflects the changed construct of disability described by the AAIDD and WHO, (b) aligns better with current professional practices that focus on functional behaviors and contextual factors, (c) provides a logical basis for individualized supports provision due to its basis in a social–ecological framework, (d) is less offensive to persons with the disability, and (e) is more consistent with international terminology.Defining refers to explaining precisely the term and establishing the term's meaning and boundaries. The authoritative definition of intellectual disability/mental retardation is that of the AAIDD (previously the AAMR). The definition in the 2002 AAMR Manual (Luckasson et al., 2002, p. 1) remains in effect now and for the foreseeable future. This definition is shown here with a minor edit that substitutes the term intellectual disability for mental retardation:Assumptions are an explicit part of the definition because they clarify the context from which the definition arises and indicate how the definition must be applied. Thus, the definition of intellectual disability cannot stand alone. The following five assumptions are essential to the application of the definition of intellectual disability.Significant consequences can result from the way a term is defined. As discussed by Gross and Hahn (2004), Luckasson and Reeve (2001), and Stowe, Turnbull, and Sublet (2006), a definition can make someone (a) eligible or ineligible for services; (b) subjected to something or not subjected to it (e.g., involuntary commitment); (c) exempted from something or not exempted (e.g., from the death penalty); (d) included or not included (as to protections against discrimination and equal opportunity); and/or (e) entitled or not entitled (e.g., as to Social Security benefits).Historically, four broad approaches (i.e., social, clinical, intellectual, and dual-criterion) have been used for purposes of definition and classification. Remnants of these four approaches are still evident in current discussions regarding who is (or should be) diagnosed as an individual with an intellectual disability (see, for example, Switzky \& Greenspan, 2006a).Historically, persons were defined or identified as having mental retardation because they failed to adapt socially to their environment. Because an emphasis on intelligence and the role of “intelligent people” in society was to come later, the oldest historical definitional approach focused on social behavior and the “natural behavioral prototype” (Doll, 1941; Goodey, 2006; Greenspan, 2006).With the rise of the medical model, the definitional focus shifted to one's symptom complex and clinical syndrome. This approach did not negate the social criterion but gradually shifted towards a more medical model that included an increase in the relative role of organicity, heredity, and pathology and led to a call for segregation (Devlieger et al., 2003).With the emergence of intelligence as a viable construct and the rise of the mental testing movement, the approach changed to an emphasis on intellectual functioning as measured by an intelligence test and reflected in an IQ score. This emphasis led to the emergence of IQ-based statistical norms as a way to both define the group and classify individuals within it (Devlieger, 2003).The first formal attempt to systematically use both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior to define the class was found in the 1959 American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) Manual (Heber, 1959), in which mental retardation was defined as referring to subaverage general intellectual functioning that originates during the developmental period and is associated with impairments in maturation, learning, and social adjustment. In the 1961 AAMD Manual (Heber, 1961), maturation, learning, and social adjustment were folded into a single, largely undefined new term, adaptive behavior, that has been used in all subsequent AAMR manuals. The dual-criterion approach also has included age of onset as an accompanying element.Although the term or name has changed over time, an analysis of the definitions used over the last 50+ years shows that the three essential elements of intellectual disability/mental retardation— limitations in intellectual functioning, behavioral limitations in adapting to environmental demands, and early age of onset—have not changed substantially. A summary of this analysis is presented in Appendix A (definition) and Appendix B (age of onset criterion).Consistency is also reflected in related concepts and definitions not shown in Appendices A and B. For example, Scheerenberger (1983) reported that the major elements (intellectual deficits, problems coping with the demands of everyday life, and onset during the developmental period) common to the current definition were used by professionals in the United States as early as 1900. Similarly, the National Research Council (2002, pp. 1–5) reported that the first formal AAMR/AAIDD definition of the phenomenon was in 1910. This definition defined such persons as being feebleminded, with development arrested at an early age or as evidenced by an inability to manage the demands of daily life or keep up with peers. Analogously, the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act of 2004 defines mental retardation as significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifesting during the developmental period that adversely affects a child's educational performance.Appendix C summarizes how the establishment of boundaries has been operationalized in the AAMR/AAIDD manuals since 1959. Two essential points are evident in these operationalizations. First, the cut-off criterion, based on SDs from a population mean, pertained primarily to the IQ element. As of the 2002 AAMR Manual, a corresponding cut-off criterion was established for the adaptive behavior element. Second, SDs currently are and primarily have been used to establish the boundary of intellectual disability.The three appendices show clearly how both the definition and its operationalization have remained consistent over time. The minor changes that have occurred reflect three phenomena: (a) advances in understanding of intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior; (b) advances in measurement theory and strategies that permit the use of statistical procedures to control for measurement error (standard error of measurement), practice effects, and normative changes over time; and (c) the essential role of clinical judgment in the administration, scoring, and interpretation of psychometric instruments (Schalock \& Luckasson, 2005; Schalock et al., 2007).This historical consistency supports the trend in the field and the conclusion of the major organizations that regardless of the term used to name this disability, the same population has been described. This conclusion is the same as that drawn by The President's Committee for People With Intellectual Disabilities (2004), which stated,This conclusion is critical because of the essential role that the term mental retardation plays in public policy. For example, in the United States, a diagnosis of mental retardation is commonly used to determine eligibility under state and federal disability programs, such as Individuals With Disabilities Education Act—IDEA(2004), Social Security Disability Insurance, and Medicaid Home and Community Based Waiver. In addition, the term mental retardation is also used for citizenship and legal status, civil and criminal justice, early care and education, training and employment, income support, health care, and housing and zoning (Schroeder et al., 2002).Intellectual disability is the currently preferred term for the disability historically referred to as mental retardation, and the authoritative definition and assumptions promulgated by the AAIDD (previously the AAMR) remain the same. The term intellectual disability covers the same population of individuals who were diagnosed previously with mental retardation in number, kind, level, type, and duration of the disability, and the need of people with this disability for individualized services and supports. Furthermore, every individual who is or was eligible for a diagnosis of mental retardation is eligible for a diagnosis of intellectual disability.The fact that the construct of intellectual disability belongs within the general construct of disability helps one understand why the term intellectual disability has emerged as a preferred term to replace mental retardation. The term intellectual disability (a) reflects the changed construct of disability proposed by AAIDD and WHO; (b) aligns better with current professional practices that are focused on functional behaviors and contextual factors; (c) provides a logical basis for individualized supports provision due to its basis in a social–ecological framework; (d) is less offensive to persons with disabilities; and (e) is more consistent with international terminology.We anticipate that discussions will continue in an attempt to further refine the construct of intellectual disability, improve the reliability of diagnosis, and better understand these aspects of human functioning: the nature of intelligence, adaptive behavior, and disablement. In addition, the field will continue to examine the relationships between people with intellectual disability and other defined groups (such as those with learning disability, developmental disability, and traumatic brain injury); the provision of individualized supports to enhance individual functioning; the impact of the consumer and reform movements on the field; the effects of terminology upon peoples' lives; and the impact of an increased understanding of the biomedical, genetic, and behavioral aspects of the condition (Luckasson, 2003; Schalock \& Luckasson, 2004; Switzky \& Greenspan, 2006a). At this time and for the foreseeable future, the definition and assumptions of intellectual disability/mental retardation remain those promulgated by AAMR in 2002; the term, however, is changed to intellectual disability.1959 (Heber): Mental retardation refers to subaverage general intellectual functioning which originates during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in one or more of the following: (1) maturation, (2) learning, (3) social adjustment. (p. 3)1961 (Heber): Mental retardation refers to subaverage general intellectual functioning which originates during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. (p. 3)1973 (Grossman): Mental retardation refers to significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental period. (p. 1)1983 (Grossman): Same as 1973. (p. 1)1992 (Luckasson et al.): Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work. Mental retardation manifests before age 18. (p. 1)2002 (Luckasson et al.): Mental retardation is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18. (p. 1)1968 (DSM–II): Mental retardation refers to subnormal general intellectual functioning which originates during the developmental period and is associated with impairment of either learning and social adjustment or maturation, or both. (These disorders were classified under “chronic brain syndrome with mental deficiency” and “mental deficiency” in DSM–I.) (p. 14)1980 (DSM–III): The essential features are: (1) significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, (2) resulting in, or associated with, deficits or impairments in adaptive behavior, (3) with onset before the age of 18. (p. 36)1987 (DSM–III–R): The essential features of this disorder are: (1) significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, accompanied by (2) significant deficits or impairments in adaptive functioning, with (3) onset before age of 18. (p. 28)1994 (DSM–IV): The essential feature of mental retardation is significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning (Criterion A) that is accompanied by significant limitations in adaptive functioning in at least two of the following skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social/interpersonal skills, use of community resources, self-direction, functional academic skills, work, leisure, health, and safety (Criterion B). The onset must occur before age 18 years (Criterion C). Mental retardation has many different etiologies and may be seen as a final common pathway of various pathological processes that affect the functioning of the central (p. Same as (p. A state of mental from or from an early due to (p. A state of mental (p. A state of social at or to at resulting from developmental of (p. which originates during the developmental period (i.e., (p. manifested during the developmental period age at 18 (p. manifested during the developmental period of time between conception and the (p. et Mental retardation manifests before age 18. et This disability originates before age 18. (p. (Heber): one the population of the age group on of general intellectual functioning. (p. 3)1961 (Heber): one the population (p. 3)1973 (Grossman): Two or more SDs the population (p. (Grossman): IQ of or on of is as a and be to or (p. (Luckasson et al.): IQ of to or based on that one or more general intelligence (p. (Luckasson et al.): two SDs the mean, the error of measurement for the instruments used and the and (p. (Luckasson et al.): that is at least two SDs the of either (a) one of the following three of adaptive conceptual, social, or or (b) an on a of conceptual, social, and practical skills. (p.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556(2007)45[116:tromru]2.0.co;2", doi = "10.1352/1934-9556(2007)45[116:tromru]2.0.co;2", openalex = "W2168907099" } @article{doi101111j15404560200800566x, author = "Zick, Andreas and Wolf, Carina and Küpper, Beate and Davidov, Eldad and Schmidt, Peter and Heitmeyer, Wilhelm", title = "The Syndrome of Group‐Focused Enmity: The Interrelation of Prejudices Tested with Multiple Cross‐Sectional and Panel Data", year = "2008", journal = "Journal of Social Issues", abstract = "Different types of prejudice are usually treated as separate constructs. We propose that they constitute a syndrome of group‐focused enmity (GFE), that is, they are related to each other and share a common core that is strongly predicted by a generalized ideology of inequality. Furthermore, GFE components are supposed to have similar predictors and outcomes. An empirical test is presented using structural equation modeling on the syndrome, its causes, consequences, and structural stability over time. The study relies on three German cross‐sectional probability samples (each N= 2,700) and a related panel study (2002, 2003, and 2004). The idea of a GFE syndrome is strongly supported. Future research is discussed, as well as alternative approaches of a common prejudice factor.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00566.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00566.x", openalex = "W2079206061", references = "doi1010271614000128110" } @article{doi101111j14683148200900514x, author = "Ouellette‐Kuntz, Hélène and Burge, Philip and Brown, Hilary K. and Arsenault, E.", title = "Public Attitudes Towards Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities as Measured by the Concept of Social Distance", year = "2009", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "Background While current practices strive to include individuals with intellectual disabilities in community opportunities, stigmatizing attitudes held by the public can be a barrier to achieving true social inclusion. Methods A sample of 625 community members completed the Social Distance Subscale of the Multidimensional Attitude Scale on Mental Retardation. Results Older and less educated participants held attitudes that reflected greater social distance. Participants who had a close family member with an intellectual disability and those who perceived the average level of disability to be ‘mild’ expressed less social distance. The limited variability in scores leads us to question our overall finding of very favourable attitudes towards social interaction with persons with intellectual disabilities. Conclusions This study demonstrates that although certain demographic variables are still relevant in identifying social distance attitudes, the measurement of this construct requires revision to ensure a valid and sensitive reflection of the public’s attitudes.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00514.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00514.x", openalex = "W2158499153", references = "doi101016jridd200507003, doi101016jsoscij200503011, doi101016s0920996403001865, doi101017s0033291796004205, doi101023bcomh0000026999877282d, doi101046j14683148200300157x, doi101176appips527953, doi101177002246697000400306, doi101177070674370104600304, doi10117710442073040150020401, doi1023072575369" } @article{doi1011770265407510385494, author = "McManus, Jessica L. and Feyes, Kelsey Jo and Saucier, Donald A.", title = "Contact and knowledge as predictors of attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities", year = "2010", journal = "Journal of Social and Personal Relationships", abstract = "Understanding attitudes that may lead to barriers to equality can help enhance social inclusion and quality of life for individuals with intellectual disabilities. The current study examined multidimensional attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities. We expected that those with more knowledge and greater quantity and quality of contact with people with intellectual disabilities would have more positive attitudes toward this social group. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that greater knowledge and quantity of contact were unrelated to attitudes. Greater quality of contact, however, was associated with more positive attitudes. These findings add support to previous findings that positive experiences may lead to less intergroup anxiety, less hostility, and less avoidance of outgroups.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510385494", doi = "10.1177/0265407510385494", openalex = "W1989106935", references = "doi101016jridd200507003, doi1010370003066x562109, doi10103700223514823359, doi10103700223514905751, doi10108013668250310001616407, doi1011111467872100051, doi1011111467928000262, doi1011770146167203029006011, doi10135219349556200745116tromru20co2, doi1023071420595, openalexw2034328075" } @article{doi105860choice476932, title = "The faces of intellectual disability: philosophical reflections", year = "2010", journal = "Choice Reviews Online", abstract = "A Note on Terminology Introduction: The Philosopher's Nightmare Part 1. The Institutional World of Intellectual Disability 1. Twin Brothers: The Idiot and the Institution 2. Gendered Objects, Gendered Subjects 3. Analytic Interlude Part 2. The Philosophical World of Intellectual Disability 4. The Face of Authority 5. The Face of the Beast 6. The Face of Suffering Conclusion: The Face of the Mirror Postscript: Toward a New Philosophical Ethos Notes Selected Bibliography Index", url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.47-6932", doi = "10.5860/choice.47-6932", openalex = "W604674458" } @article{doi101016jridd201107005, author = "Scior, Katrina", title = "Public awareness, attitudes and beliefs regarding intellectual disability: A systematic review", year = "2011", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.07.005", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2011.07.005", openalex = "W2020028840", references = "doi101016jridd200507003, doi10103700223514463598, doi10103700223514674741, doi10103700223514905751, doi101037h0047358, doi101146annurevpsych49165, doi1015159781400876136, doi1023072087322, doi1041359781446220986n8, openalexw1607171655, openalexw2034328075" } @article{doi1022329ilv31i23063, author = "Linker, Maureen", title = "Do Squirrels Eat Hamburgers?: Intellectual Empathy as a Remedy for Residual Prejudice", year = "2011", journal = "Informal Logic", abstract = {In her 2007 book "Epistemic Injustice" Miranda Fricker argues that "the silent by products of residual prejudice in a liberal society" are often the most difficult biases to eradicate. In this essay, I provide several examples of the kind of residual prejudice Fricker describes. I then propose a principle of "intellectual empathy" (with four component elements) as a methodological remedy for eradicating this kind of bias in good critical thinking.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v31i2.3063", doi = "10.22329/il.v31i2.3063", openalex = "W2142621508", references = "doi101017cbo9780511840272, doi101093acprofoso97801982379070010001, doi101093oso97801987820630030016, doi1011771350506806065752, doi101207s15327957pspr060201, doi1023071123408, doi1023072074808, doi102307jctv1f886rp17, doi10432497804294991425, doi10432497804295004805" } @misc{crossref2012intellectual, title = "‘Intellectual Prejudices’ in Analyses of Perception", year = "2012", booktitle = "Starting with Merleau-Ponty", url = "https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350251892.ch-002", doi = "10.5040/9781350251892.ch-002", openalex = "W4242449565" } @article{doi101016jridd201206013, author = "Ali, Afia and Hassiotis, Angela and Strydom, André and King, Michael", title = "Self stigma in people with intellectual disabilities and courtesy stigma in family carers: A systematic review", year = "2012", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.06.013", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2012.06.013", openalex = "W2036349261", references = "doi101016jridd201107005" } @article{doi101111j13652788201201587x, author = "McConkey, Roy and Dowling, Sally and Hassan, Dalin A. and Menke, Sabine", title = "Promoting social inclusion through Unified Sports for youth with intellectual disabilities: a five‐nation study", year = "2012", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Although the promotion of social inclusion through sports has received increased attention with other disadvantaged groups, this is not the case for children and adults with intellectual disability who experience marked social isolation. The study evaluated the outcomes from one sports programme with particular reference to the processes that were perceived to enhance social inclusion. METHOD: The Youth Unified Sports programme of Special Olympics combines players with intellectual disabilities (called athletes) and those without intellectual disabilities (called partners) of similar skill level in the same sports teams for training and competition. Alongside the development of sporting skills, the programme offers athletes a platform to socialise with peers and to take part in the life of their community. Unified football and basketball teams from five countries--Germany, Hungary, Poland, Serbia and Ukraine--participated. Individual and group interviews were held with athletes, partners, coaches, parents and community leaders: totalling around 40 informants per country. RESULTS: Qualitative data analysis identified four thematic processes that were perceived by informants across all countries and the two sports to facilitate social inclusion of athletes. These were: (1) the personal development of athletes and partners; (2) the creation of inclusive and equal bonds; (3) the promotion of positive perceptions of athletes; and (4) building alliances within local communities. CONCLUSIONS: Unified Sports does provide a vehicle for promoting the social inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities that is theoretically credible in terms of social capital scholarship and which contains lessons for advancing social inclusion in other contexts. Nonetheless, certain limitations are identified that require further consideration to enhance athletes' social inclusion in the wider community.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01587.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01587.x", openalex = "W2159419204", references = "doi101016jridd200507003" } @article{doi101111jir12008, author = "Morin, Diane and Rivard, Mélina and Crocker, Anne G. and Boursier, C. P. and Caron, Jean", title = "Public attitudes towards intellectual disability: a multidimensional perspective", year = "2012", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Public attitudes towards persons with intellectual disabilities (IDs) have a significant effect on potential community integration. A better understanding of these can help target service provision and public awareness programmes. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study is threefold: (1) describe public attitudes towards persons with ID along affective, cognitive and behavioural dimensions; (2) compare and contrast attitudes according to sex, age, education and income, as well as frequency and quality of contacts with persons with ID; and (3) ascertain whether the level of functioning has an effect on attitudes. METHODS: The Attitudes Toward Intellectual Disability Questionnaire (ATTID) was administered by phone to 1605 randomly selected adult men and women, stratified by region in the province of Québec, Canada. The ATTID uses a multidimensional perspective of attitudes that reflect affective, cognitive and behavioural dimensions. RESULTS: The results showed that public attitudes were generally positive regarding all three attitudinal dimensions. Public attitudes towards persons with ID are presented in terms of the five factors measured through the ATTID: (1) discomfort; (2) sensibility or tenderness; (3) knowledge of causes; (4) knowledge of capacity and rights; and (5) interaction. Attitude factor scores vary as a function of participant characteristics (sex, age, education and income) and the degree of knowledge about ID, the number of persons with ID known to the participants, as well as the frequency and quality of their contacts with these persons. Men had greater negative attitudes than women as regards the discomfort factor, while women had more negative attitudes regarding the knowledge of capacity and rights factor. More positive attitudes were revealed among younger and more educated participants. Attitudes were generally not associated with income. Public attitudes tended to be more negative towards people with lower functioning ID. CONCLUSION: These results yield useful information to target public awareness and education.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12008", doi = "10.1111/jir.12008", openalex = "W1534100032", references = "doi101080096382800296782" } @article{doi101080193158642011651682, author = "Buckles, Jason and Luckasson, Ruth and Keefe, Elizabeth B.", title = "A Systematic Review of the Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in Adults With Intellectual Disability, 2003–2010", year = "2013", journal = "Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "Research regarding the prevalence of psychiatric conditions co-occurring with intellectual disability in adults was reviewed. Particular attention was paid to the qualities of sampling and diagnostic methodology, which have been identified as needs in two recent reviews. Sixteen articles published in peer-reviewed journals between 2003 and 2009 met inclusion criteria for this review. Overall prevalence rates for co-occurring psychiatric symptoms or disorders reported in these studies ranged from 13.9\% to 75.2\% with much of this variation due to differences in the diagnostic criteria utilized and the specific samples examined. Results indicated that although several studies have evidenced improvement in methodology, problems remain regarding sampling and general lack of consistency regarding diagnostic definitions and tools. Suggested directions for future research include expansion of geographic and cultural diversity in participants, increased use of population-based sampling, and improved concurrence regarding evaluation methods and diagnostic criteria.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/19315864.2011.651682", doi = "10.1080/19315864.2011.651682", openalex = "W1964940767" } @article{doi103390fi5030376, author = "Chadwick, Darren and Wesson, Caroline and Fullwood, Chris", title = "Internet Access by People with Intellectual Disabilities: Inequalities and Opportunities", year = "2013", journal = "Future Internet", abstract = "This review gives an overview of the societal inequalities faced by people with intellectual disabilities, before focusing specifically on challenges people face accessing the Internet. Current access will be outlined along with the societal, support and attitudinal factors that can hinder access. Discussion of carer views of Internet use by people with intellectual disabilities will be covered incorporating consideration of the tension between protection, self-determination and lifestyle issues and gaining Internet access. We will address how impairment related factors may impede access and subsequently discuss how supports may be used to obfuscate impairments and facilitate access. We will move on from this to critically describe some of the potential benefits the Internet could provide to people with intellectual disabilities, including the potential for self-expression, advocacy and developing friendships. Finally, strategies to better include people with intellectual disabilities online will be given along with future research suggestions.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/fi5030376", doi = "10.3390/fi5030376", openalex = "W2157548708", references = "doi101016jridd201107005" } @article{doi101016jridd201410008, author = "Simplican, Stacy Clifford and Leader, Geraldine and Kosciulek, John F. and Leahy, Michael J.", title = "Defining social inclusion of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities: An ecological model of social networks and community participation", year = "2014", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.008", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.008", openalex = "W2000516996", references = "doi1011770265407510385494" } @article{doi101016jridd201507032, author = "Keith, Jessica M. and Bennetto, Loisa and Rogge, Ronald D.", title = "The relationship between contact and attitudes: Reducing prejudice toward individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities", year = "2015", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.032", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2015.07.032", openalex = "W1218144763", references = "doi101002ejsp504, doi101016jridd200507003, doi101037002235147461464, doi1010370033295x10214, doi101146annurevpsych49165, doi101146annurevpsych54101601145225, doi1011770265407510385494, doi1018637jssv045i07, doi1043249780203809556, doi104324978141061282313, openalexw2034328075" } @article{doi101016jridd201512009, author = "Benomir, Aisha M. and Nicolson, Roderick I. and Beail, Nigel", title = "Attitudes towards people with intellectual disability in the UK and Libya: A cross-cultural comparison", year = "2016", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.12.009", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2015.12.009", openalex = "W2231030101", references = "doi101016jridd201507032" } @article{doi101037pspi0000064, author = "Bergh, Robin and Akrami, Nazar and Sidanius, Jim and Sibley, Chris G.", title = "Is group membership necessary for understanding generalized prejudice? A re-evaluation of why prejudices are interrelated.", year = "2016", journal = "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", abstract = "Many scholars have proposed that people who reject one outgroup tend to reject other outgroups. Studies examining a latent factor behind different prejudices (e.g., toward ethnic and sexual minorities) have referred to this as generalized prejudice. Such research has also documented robust relations between latent prejudice factors and basic personality traits. However, targets of generalized prejudice tend to be lower in power and status and thus it remains an open question as to whether generalized prejudice, as traditionally studied, is about devaluing outgroups or devaluing marginalized groups. We present 7 studies, including experiments and national probability samples (N = 9,907 and 4,037) assessing the importance of outgroup devaluation, versus status- or power based devaluations, for understanding the nature of generalized prejudice, and its links to personality. Results show that (a) personality variables do not predict ingroup/outgroup biases in settings where power and status differences are absent, (b) women and overweight people who score high on generalized prejudice devalue their own groups, and (c) personality variables are far more predictive of prejudice toward low-compared with high-status targets. Together, these findings suggest that the personality explanation of prejudice including the generalized prejudice concept is not about ingroups versus outgroups per se, but rather about devaluing marginalized groups. (PsycINFO Database Record", url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000064", doi = "10.1037/pspi0000064", openalex = "W2514285634", references = "doi101016jridd200507003" } @article{doi101111jir12353, author = "Pelleboer-Gunnink, Hannah A. and van Oorsouw, W.M.W.J. and van Weeghel, Jaap and Embregts, P.J.C.M.", title = "Mainstream health professionals' stigmatising attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review", year = "2017", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Equal access to mainstream healthcare services for people with intellectual disabilities (ID) still requires attention. Although recent studies suggest that health professionals hold positive attitudes towards people with ID, stigmatising attitudes may influence their efforts to serve people with ID in community healthcare practice. To stimulate inclusion in mainstream healthcare services, this systematic review focussed on barriers in attitudes of mainstream health professionals towards people with ID. METHOD: Five electronic databases were systematically searched and references in full text articles were checked for studies published in the English language between January 1994 and January 2016. A social-psychological triad of cognitive, affective and behavioural dimensions of stigmatising attitudes is used to structure and discuss the results. RESULTS: The literature search generated 2190 records with 30 studies that passed our exclusion criteria. Studies were mostly cross-sectional and of moderate quality. With respect to stigma, a lack of familiarity with and knowledge about people with ID was found. ID was considered as a stable condition not under personal control. Moreover, mainstream health professionals had either low or high expectations of the capabilities of people with ID. Professionals reported stress, lack of confidence, fear and anxiety, a tendency to treat people with ID differently and a lack of supporting autonomy. CONCLUSIONS: Stigmatising attitudes towards people with ID appeared to be present among mainstream health professionals. This might affect the ongoing challenges regarding inclusion in mainstream healthcare services. To facilitate inclusion in mainstream healthcare services, it is recommended to include contact and collaboration with experts-by-experience in education programs of health professionals. Future research should progress beyond descriptive accounts of stigma towards exploring relationships between cognitive, affective and behavioural dimensions as pointers for intervention. Finally, inclusion would benefit from an understanding of 'equal' treatment that means reasonable adjustments instead of undifferentiated treatment.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12353", doi = "10.1111/jir.12353", openalex = "W2588152389", references = "doi101016jridd201107005" } @article{doi101111jocn13988, author = "Kritsotakis, George and Galanis, Petros and Papastefanakis, Emmanouil and Meidani, Flora and Philalithis, Αnastas and Kalokairinou, Athena and Sourtzi, Panayota", title = "Attitudes towards people with physical or intellectual disabilities among nursing, social work and medical students", year = "2017", journal = "Journal of Clinical Nursing", abstract = {AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To examine and compare undergraduate healthcare students' attitudes towards people with physical or intellectual disabilities in Greece. BACKGROUND: The experience that people with disabilities have with health care is a complex interaction between their medical condition and the social and physical environment. Attitudes of the nursing and healthcare staff affect the quality of care and people's adaptation to their disability, self-image and rehabilitation outcomes. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional survey. METHODS: Nursing, Social Work and Medicine students (N = 1007, 79.4\% female) attending three universities (Athens, Crete) completed during 2014-2016 two standardised scales regarding physical (ATDP-B) and intellectual disability (CLAS-ID). Descriptive and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Attitudes towards people with physical disabilities in Greece (ATDP-B scores) were poor with scores just above the mid-point. Medical studies and higher knowledge and work with individuals with physical disabilities signified marginally more positive attitudes. Gender and age displayed no associations with attitudes. Regarding intellectual disability (CLAS-ID scores), nursing students had slightly less positive attitudes in "Similarity" but more positive attitudes in "Sheltering" subscales. Previous work and contact was related to more favourable and higher age to less favourable "Similarity" and "Sheltering" attitudes. Males had higher "Exclusion" scores. Those who knew people with intellectual disabilities had less favourable "Empowerment" attitudes. Knowledge was related to more positive attitudes in all four CLAS-ID subscales. CONCLUSIONS: Greek health and social care students showed poor attitudes towards people with physical and intellectual disability. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: When holding unfavourable attitudes, healthcare professionals become less involved with the people they care for and they do not provide nursing care to the best of their abilities. Undergraduate and continuing education, along with workplace enhancements, should aim to provide high-quality health care to people with disabilities.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.13988", doi = "10.1111/jocn.13988", openalex = "W2742450933", references = "doi1011770265407510385494" } @article{doi101111jir12510, author = "Morin, Diane and Valois, Philippe and Crocker, Anne G. and Robitaille, Claire and Lopes, Thiago Inácio Barros", title = "Attitudes of health care professionals toward people with intellectual disability: a comparison with the general population", year = "2018", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Few studies have examined attitudes that may promote the social inclusion of persons with an intellectual disability (ID) among health care providers (HCPs). Yet these attitudes could impact the accessibility and quality of services provided to this population, as well as the general attitudes of HCPs. The objectives of this study were to (1) examine HCPs' pro-inclusion attitudes toward people with ID, (2) compare these to the general population's attitudes and (3) examine how HCPs' attitudes vary as a function of their socio-demographic characteristics. METHOD: The Attitudes Toward Intellectual Disability Questionnaire was administered to 367 HCPs and a representative sample of the Québec population (N = 1605). RESULTS: Results indicated that at least half of HCPs displayed positive attitudes, that is, attitudes that are compatible with notions of social inclusion and equal rights, toward individuals with ID. Positive attitudes were less frequently observed for the Interaction and the Sensitivity or tenderness factors measured by the Attitudes Toward Intellectual Disability Questionnaire. In comparison with the general population, HCPs exhibited more positive attitudes on the Knowledge of causes and Sensitivity or tenderness factors and less positive attitudes on the Interaction factor. HCPs who regarded themselves as more knowledgeable about ID and those who reported higher quality contacts or interactions with persons with ID expressed attitudes that were more favourable toward social inclusion. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to providing general knowledge about ID and the specific health care needs of individuals with ID, training programmes should also promote interactions with this population. Further studies are needed to document HCPs' pro-inclusion attitudes toward people with ID and to assess the impact of interventions on these attitudes.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12510", doi = "10.1111/jir.12510", openalex = "W2810475251", references = "doi101016jridd201507032" } @article{doi101111jar12654, author = "Mazza, Mario Gennaro and Rossetti, Aurora and Crespi, Giovanna and Clerici, Massimo", title = "Prevalence of co‐occurring psychiatric disorders in adults and adolescents with intellectual disability: A systematic review and meta‐analysis", year = "2019", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Subjects with intellectual disability (ID) are vulnerable to experience psychiatric disorders. The present authors performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of co-occurring psychiatric disorders, excluding co-occurring autism spectrum disorders, in subjects with intellectual disability. METHOD: The present authors performed a random-effects meta-analysis of the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in adults and adolescents with intellectual disability. RESULTS: Twenty-two studies were included. The pooled prevalence of any co-occurring psychiatric disorders in intellectual disability was 33.6\% (95\% CI: 25.2\%-43.1\%) with high heterogeneity but no publication bias. Prevalence was lower in population-based studies, in studies that used ICD criteria for the psychopathology and in studies with low risk of bias. The prevalence was higher in mild, moderate and severe intellectual disability than in profound intellectual disability. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatric disorders are common in subjects with intellectual disability, and the present authors found that clinical and methodological moderators affect the pooled prevalence.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12654", doi = "10.1111/jar.12654", openalex = "W2969369821" } @article{doi101111jir12590, author = "Marcone, Roberto and Caputo, Angelo and Esposito, Simona and Senese, Vincenzo Paolo", title = "Prejudices towards people with intellectual disabilities: reliability and validity of the Italian Modern and Classical Prejudices Scale", year = "2019", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disability Research", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Prejudices and negative attitudes towards intellectual disabilities (IDs) may hinder social inclusion of ID individuals, limiting their well-being. This study investigated the psychometric characteristics of the Italian Modern and Classical Prejudices Scale (MCPS-IT) towards people with ID and the effects of gender, age and socio-economic status (SES) on prejudices. METHOD: The MCPS-IT was administered to 474 adults (69\% women, age range 18-70 years, M = 33.13) in conjunction with a questionnaire evaluating socio-demographic information (SES), the contact and the education about ID people and the social dominance orientation. RESULTS: Results confirmed that Italian MCPS has a two-factor structure that measures in a reliable and valid way prejudice towards people with ID. Multivariate analyses of variance confirmed a weak gender difference in both scales and age differences in modern scale. No SES differences were found. CONCLUSION: The Italian MCPS represents a valid scale that can be used to monitor the social context of people with ID.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12590", doi = "10.1111/jir.12590", openalex = "W2911050365", references = "doi1010021099099220000708304521aidejsp530co2n, doi101002per526, doi101016jridd201107005, doi10103700223514674741, doi10103700223514682199, doi10103700223514703491, doi101080096382800296782, doi1013520047676520020400457cmaaoq20co2, openalexw2753145733" } @article{doi10135219349556574263, author = "Friedman, Carli", title = "The Relationship Between Disability Prejudice and Institutionalization of People With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", year = "2019", journal = "Intellectual and developmental disabilities", abstract = "There are decades of research indicating ableism is extremely prominent. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between disability prejudice and institutionalization of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This study had two research questions: (1) How does disability prejudice impact the number of people with IDD who are institutionalized in a state? and (2) How does disability prejudice impact spending on institutions? To do so, we utilized secondary data about state utilization of institutions (fiscal year 2015), and disability prejudice data from 325,000 people. Findings revealed, states with higher disability prejudice institutionalize more people, even when controlling for size. Moreover, states with higher disability prejudice also spend more on institutional funding, regardless of size or wealth.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-57.4.263", doi = "10.1352/1934-9556-57.4.263", openalex = "W2965629875", references = "doi101016027795369090212b, doi10103700223514815774, doi10103700223514852197, doi10108002674648766780021, doi101080096382800296782, doi1010801366825031000086902, doi10432497802030778878, doi105334jopdac, doi105860choice476932" } @incollection{doi101007978303059687314, author = "Mpofu, Elias and Houck, Elizabeth J. and Linden, April and Fernandez, Crystal", title = "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Wellbeing", year = "2020", url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59687-3\_14", doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-59687-3\_14", openalex = "W3123055845", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi101016jridd2020103765, author = "Alnahdi, Ghaleb H. and Elhadi, Ayman and Schwab, Susanne", title = "The positive impact of knowledge and quality of contact on university students’ attitudes towards people with intellectual disability in the Arab world", year = "2020", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103765", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103765", openalex = "W3082740561", references = "doi101016074959789190020t, doi10108010705519909540118, doi10108013603110903030089, doi101111jir12590, doi101146annurevpsych49165, doi1011770146167295211007, doi1015159783110208856203, doi1023668psycharchives12784, doi1043249781315757421, openalexw2034328075, openalexw3951449" } @article{doi1010800362331920201799176, author = "Servidio, Rocco and Marcone, Roberto", title = "Classical and modern prejudice towards individuals with intellectual disabilities: A study on a sample of Italian university students", year = "2020", journal = "The Social Science Journal", abstract = "The present study aims to explore classical and modern prejudice towards individuals with Intellectual Disabilities (ID) among a sample of Italian university students who attend Social Sciences and Physical Sciences degree courses. A convenience sample of 280 university students (51.4\% doing Social Sciences degrees, and 48.6\% doing Physical Sciences degrees) participated in this research. Two separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses were carried out to examine the relationship between the variables in order to identify which predictors affect the expression of prejudice towards people with ID. The results showed that classical prejudice was predicted by males, no prior work experience with individuals with ID, Big Five, personality traits such as agreeableness and openness, low reactive empathy, reduced quality of contact, and intergroup anxiety. Modern prejudice was predicted by males, students who attended Physical Sciences degree courses, no prior work experience with individuals with ID, low parallel and reactive empathy. Limitations and practical implications are discussed.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2020.1799176", doi = "10.1080/03623319.2020.1799176", openalex = "W3083737392", references = "doi101001jama2013281053, doi101002ejsp504, doi101007s0003801204163, doi101016019188699290236i, doi101016jchb201111001, doi10108010705519909540118, doi101111j154045601985tb01134x, doi101111jir12590, doi101176appibooks9780890425596, doi1011771088868308319226, doi1041359781506326139" } @article{doi1021037tp20200202, author = "Patel, Dilip R. and Cabral, Maria Demma and Ho, Arlene and Merrick, Joav", title = "A clinical primer on intellectual disability", year = "2020", journal = "Translational Pediatrics", abstract = "Between 1\% and 3\% of persons in general population are estimated to have some degree of intellectual disability. A diagnosis of intellectual disability is based on clinical history, level of intellectual ability and level of adaptive function. Both, the intellectual and adaptive functioning are measured using individually administered standardized tests. More than 75\% of persons who have intellectual disability have mild intellectual disability and an underlying specific etiology is less likely to be identified; whereas, in a small percentage of persons with severe intellectual disability, an underlying specific biologic cause is highly likely to be identified. Genetic abnormalities, inborn errors of metabolism and brain malformations are major categories of causes identified in severe to profound intellectual disability. The initial clinical presentation and recognition depends on the severity and underlying cause of intellectual disability. The etiology, severity, cognitive abilities, and adaptive function, vary among persons with intellectual disability and need consideration in developing a treatment plan. The physician plays an essential role in the evaluation, treatment of associated medical conditions and preventive care, and in facilitating and coordinating consultative services and community based care.", url = "https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2020.02.02", doi = "10.21037/tp.2020.02.02", openalex = "W3006158900" } @incollection{doi10100797830306644118, author = "Hansen, Sarah G. and DeMarco, Jessica and Etchison, Hannah", title = "Training Parents and Staff to Implement Interventions to Improve the Adaptive Behavior of Their Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disability", year = "2021", booktitle = "Autism and child psychopathology series", url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66441-1\_8", doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-66441-1\_8", openalex = "W3158969816", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi101007s12144021019645, author = "Marcone, Roberto and Caputo, Antonietta", title = "Covert-overt prejudices towards the intellectual disabilities at school: A study on teachers and non-teachers of southern Italy", year = "2021", journal = "Current Psychology", abstract = "Abstract Intellectual Disabilities (ID) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with considerable individual variability in type and severity. Due to overt and covert prejudices around ID, however, society tends to generalize this condition. Also, in schools, teachers’ attitudes toward students with IDs often differ from those toward regular students. The purpose of this study is to examine the levels of overt and covert prejudices toward ID of curricular and support teachers and non-teachers, in a sample of Southern Italian citizens, by evaluating age, gender and socioeconomic differences, as well as the associations of prejudice with education about and contact with ID. Six hundred and sixty-four participants (484 F; 38\% teachers), 18–70 years old (M = 38.72; SD = 14.79) participated in the study. The Modern and Classical Prejudices Scale was administered in paper and online forms. Sociodemographic measures, as well as measures around ID education and contact with people with ID were collected. The results show that teachers had higher levels of classical prejudices compared to non-teacher participants. Teachers of primary schools showed higher levels of classical and modern prejudices. No gender and socioeconomic status (SES) differences were found in the whole sample. The entry of children with Intellectual Disabilities into primary school can be strongly influenced by teachers’ prejudices. Therefore, the need for teachers’ information and training on Intellectual Disabilities is evident.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01964-5", doi = "10.1007/s12144-021-01964-5", openalex = "W3172734905", references = "doi101016jridd201107005, doi10103700223514682199, doi1010800362331920201799176, doi10108008856250210129056, doi1010801359866x2010540850, doi10108013603110903030089, doi101111jir12590, doi101176appibooks9780890425596, doi1013520047676520020400457cmaaoq20co2, doi1031020013189x028009004, openalexw2144454532, openalexw2906253013" } @article{doi101111jar12968, author = "Kármán, Bianka and Szekeres, Ágota and Papp, Gabriella", title = "Interventions for acceptance and inclusion of people with intellectual disability: A systematic review", year = "2021", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "BACKGROUND: The inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities is limited due to a high prevalence of prejudice towards this population. We reviewed studies to identify the most effective intervention methods that focus on acceptance of people with intellectual disabilities. METHOD: A literature review was conducted using several databases-EBSCO, Web of Science, Google Scholar. The search resulted in 6728 articles, of which 26 met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Studies were largely consistent in reporting positive changes after interventions. Although there is no obvious pattern to determine the efficacy of an, long interventions or those involving direct contact may have the most beneficial effects on the relationships between people with and those without intellectual disabilities. CONCLUSION: The evidence suggests that several types of interventions impact the knowledge, change in the attitudes, behaviour and self-related constructs that lead to the acceptance of people with intellectual disability.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12968", doi = "10.1111/jar.12968", openalex = "W4200245505", references = "doi101016jridd2020103765" } @article{doi101136bmjopen2020045360, author = "Landes, Scott D. and Turk, Margaret A. and Bisesti, Erin", title = "Uncertainty and the reporting of intellectual disability on death certificates: a cross-sectional study of US mortality data from 2005 to 2017", year = "2021", journal = "BMJ Open", abstract = "OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether uncertainty surrounding the death is associated with the inaccurate reporting of intellectual disability as the underlying cause of death. DESIGN: National Vital Statistics System 2005-2017 US Multiple Cause-of-Death Mortality files. SETTING: USA. PARTICIPANTS: Adults with an intellectual disability reported on their death certificate, aged 18 and over at the time of death. The study population included 26 555 adults who died in their state of residence between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2017. PRIMARY OUTCOME AND MEASURES: Decedents with intellectual disability reported on their death certificate were identified using the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision code for intellectual disability (F70-79). Bivariate analysis and multilevel logistic regression models were used to investigate whether individual-level and state-level characteristics indicative of increased uncertainty at the time of death were associated with the inaccurate reporting of intellectual disability as the underlying cause of death. RESULTS: Inaccurate reporting of intellectual disability as the underlying cause of death was associated with sociodemographic characteristics, death context characteristics and comorbidities indicative of an increased amount of uncertainty surrounding the death. Most striking were increased odds of having intellectual disability reported as the underlying cause of death for decedents who had a choking event (OR=14.7; 95\% CI 12.9 to 16.6, p<0.001), an external cause of death associated with a high degree of uncertainty, reported on their death certificate. CONCLUSION: It is imperative that medical personnel not let increased uncertainty lead to the inaccurate reporting of intellectual disability as the underlying cause of death as this practice obscures cause of death trends for this population. Instead, even in instances when increased uncertainty surrounds the death, certifiers should strive to accurately identify the disease or injury causing death, and report the disability in Part II of the death certificate.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045360", doi = "10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045360", openalex = "W3128723552", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi101352194475581266439, author = "Schalock, Robert L. and Luckasson, Ruth and Tassé, Marc J.", title = "An Overview of Intellectual Disability: Definition, Diagnosis, Classification, and Systems of Supports (12th ed.)", year = "2021", journal = "American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", abstract = "The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) has published terminology and classification manuals since 1921. Their goals over the last 100 years have been consistent: To fulfill the Association's continued responsibility to be the primary repository of intellectual disability-related research and best practices; to publish a scientific definition of intellectual disability (ID) and its assumptions based on research and one that provides a long, stable definitional history; to provide a singular focus on ID and the lives of people with ID and their families; and to communicate professional standards, ethics, and best practices regarding diagnosis, classification, and planning supports. Consistent with these historical goals, the goals of the 12th edition of the AAIDD manual (Schalock et al. 2021) are to: (a) integrate material published in the 11th edition (Schalock et al., 2010) of the AAIDD manual with post-2010 developments and historical markers; (b) develop a user-friendly manual that combines the theoretical and conceptual thoroughness of a manual with the practical aspects of a user's guide; (c) describe a systematic approach to the diagnosis, optional subgroup classification, and planning of supports for people with intellectual disability based on conceptual models, a clear rationale and purpose, and evidence-based practices; (d) combine current empirical knowledge and best practices into an integrative approach to intellectual disability; and (e) provide practice guidelines that frame best practices, increase understanding, and facilitate precise, valid, and effective decisions, recommendations, and actions.The content of the 12th edition reflects the transformation that is occurring in the field of ID. This transformation, which is occurring to various degrees internationally, is characterized by using precise terminology, incorporating a functional and holistic approach to ID, embracing the supports model and evidence-based practices, implementing outcome evaluation, empowering individuals and families, understanding better the multidimensional properties of context, and incorporating an explicit notion of professional responsibility (Schalock et al., in press). As a result of this transformation, the manual contains both modifications of previous concepts and terminology, and the addition of new terms and concepts. These modifications and additions are reflected in the definition of intellectual disability, the evidence-based approach to diagnosis and optional postdiagnosis subgroup classification, the operationalization of systems of supports, and the incorporation of an integrative approach to ID. Throughout the manual, human functioning is viewed from a systems perspective towards understanding human functioning, which includes human functioning dimensions, interactive systems of supports, and human functioning outcomes.Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates during the developmental period, which is defined operationally as before the individual attains age 22. As with previous editions of the AAIDD manual, there are five assumptions that are essential to the application of the definition.In reference to the age of onset criterion for a diagnosis of ID, there has been historic consistency that ID originates during the developmental period. Recent scientific research has demonstrated, however, that the developmental period extends longer than previously understood. The age of onset criterion (“before the individual attains age 22”) found in the 12th edition is based on recent research that has shown that important brain development continues into our 20s. Research using advanced imaging techniques has documented that a number of critical areas of the human brain continue their growth and development into early adulthood, including cortical gray matter volume, corpus callosum, and white matter (Giedd et al., 1999; Jiang \& Nardelli, 2016; Mills et al., 2014). As discussed further in the manual, this criterion of “before the individual attains age 22” is also consistent with age 22 in the Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 2000 (DD Act, 2000) and the standards used for a diagnosis of ID by the Social Security Administration (2021).A diagnosis of ID requires the presence of significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills, and a verification that the disability originated during the developmental period. Although the three criteria of a diagnosis of ID (significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, and age of onset) have remained consistent over time, the 9th to 11th editions of the AAIDD manual established greater precision in the diagnostic process. This greater precision required the use of individually administered standardized assessment instruments (first introduced in the 9th edition; Luckasson et al., 1992), the operational definition of significant limitations as an intelligence quotient (IQ) score or adaptive behavior score that is approximately two standard deviations below the population mean (introduced in the 10th edition; Luckasson et al., 2002), and the use of the standard error of measurement to establish a statistical confidence interval within which a person's true score falls (9th and 10th edition for intellectual functioning; 11th edition for both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior).Classification in the field of ID is an optional postdiagnosis organizing scheme. As described in the manual, classification involves using an explicit framework and a systematic process to subdivide the group of individuals with ID into smaller groups based on the established important purpose for the subgrouping. The three major purposes of subgroup classification are to describe (a) the intensity of support needs; (b) the extent of limitations in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills; or (c) the extent of limitations in intellectual functioning.A multidimensional approach to subgroup classification (as reflected in a-c in the previous paragraph) was first introduced in the 9th edition of the AAIDD manual. As the field shifted at that time to a more social-ecological model of disability, and with the introduction of the supports paradigm, four levels of classification based on the intensity of needed supports were proposed in the 9th edition (i.e., intermittent, limited, extensive, and pervasive). These levels did not appear in subsequent editions of the manual (although a discussion of “classification by levels of needed supports” did) due to the lack of standardized data on which to establish psychometrically sound classification bands. As described in Chapter 4 of the 12th edition, current standardized scales of supports intensity yield standard scores that permit a data-based approach to classifying support intensity levels, as was initially proposed in the 9th edition.The 9th edition of the AAIDD manual introduced the supports paradigm to the field. Subsequent editions of the manual introduced a supports delivery model and a supports evaluation model (10th edition), as well as a process for assessing, planning, monitoring, and evaluating individual supports; a community health supports model; and a listing of the support needs of persons with ID who have higher IQ scores (11th edition). The 12th edition of the AAIDD manual updates these areas and relates them to the standardized assessment of support needs, the multiple uses of assessed support need information, systems of supports, and the parameters of support evaluation.Systems of supports are resources and strategies that promote the development and interests of the person and enhance an individual's functioning and personal well-being. Systems of supports are (a) person-centered, comprehensive, coordinated, and outcome oriented; (b) built on values, facilitating conditions, and support relationships; (c) incorporate choice and personal autonomy, inclusive environments, generic supports, and specialized supports; and (d) integrate and align personal goals, support needs, and valued outcomes.With the systematic approach presented in the 11th edition of the AAIDD manual in place and referenced in the professional literature and legal decisions, the 12th edition synthesizes the 11th edition with post-2010 developments in the field and presents an integrative approach to ID. The integrative approach to ID described in the manual combines current knowledge and best practices into a holistic, unified, and systematic approach to defining, diagnosing, classifying, and planning supports for people with ID. The components and associated benefits of an integrative approach to ID include a comprehensive framework, precise terminology, evidence-based practices, clinical judgment standards, an increased understanding of human functioning, and a shared vision of valued outcomes.The role of clinical judgment in the diagnosis of ID, optional postdiagnosis subgroup classification of people with ID, planning supports for people with ID, and implementing an integrative approach to ID are discussed throughout the manual. Clinical judgment is an essential component of one's professional responsibility, which also includes being knowledgeable in the current evidence-based practices of one's profession, maintaining professional standards, and abiding by a professional code of ethics. Throughout the manual, the term clinical judgment is used to refer to the processes, strategies, and standards that clinicians use to enhance the quality, precision, and validity of their decisions and recommendations. Clinical judgment is defined as a special type of judgment that is built on respect for the person, and emerges from the clinician's training and experience, specific knowledge of the person and their environments, analysis of extensive data, and the use of critical thinking skills.The practice guidelines found at the end of each chapter were critiqued, edited, and validated by a peer-review panel of 32 international experts who served as the 12th Edition Advisory Committee. The basis of these practice guidelines is current research, expert opinion, legal decisions, and peer-reviewed publications. The purposes of the Guidelines are to (a) facilitate best practices regarding the definition, diagnosis, classification, and planning supports for people with ID; (b) provide an integrated approach to disability policy development, implementation, and evaluation; (c) suggest a holistic framework for ID-related research; (d) connect foundational concepts to valued policy; and (e) enhance the functioning and well-being of people with ID.The Glossary, which is found at the end of the manual, provides current literature-based definitions of the major terms and concepts found in the manual and the field. The Glossary provides a common language and understanding of important terms for clinicians, researchers, teachers, policy makers, service/support providers, and people with ID and their families.The 12th edition incorporates the significant advancements that have occurred in the field over the last 2 decades. These advancements relate to the increased understanding of ID that comes from the multiple perspectives of ID; the standardized measurement of intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior; the emphasis on the human and legal rights of persons with disabilities, including self-advocacy and consumer empowerment; the application of the capacities approach to disability and the supports paradigm; the establishment of community-based alternatives and inclusive environments; and the emphasis on evidence-based practices and outcomes evaluation.This 12th edition has been developed recognizing the diverse interests and needs of those who will read and use the manual. Thus, every effort was made to develop a user-friendly manual that combines theoretical and conceptual material with practical application guidelines for the individuals and groups who will use the manual. In addition, the authors recognize that knowledge is cumulative and emerges from evidence-based information and an active dialog among stakeholders. Both the members of the 12th Edition Advisory Committee and members of the Disability Experience Expert Panel of The Ohio State University contributed significantly to this dialog and consequently to the manual.The field of ID will continue to evolve based on continuing advancements in the understanding of ID and its amelioration. This 12th edition of the AAIDD manual provides a strong foundation for the field's continuing evolution and for further opportunities for people with ID to create their desired futures. During the field's continued evolution, it is important that AAIDD continue to carry out its definitional responsibilities, as AAIDD is the only professional organization specifically focused on ID with the historical engagement, expertise, and resources to accomplish the work.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-126.6.439", doi = "10.1352/1944-7558-126.6.439", openalex = "W3210500589" } @article{doi101007s10882022098861, author = "Friedman, Carli", title = "A Report on the Increased Payment Rates for HCBS for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities During the COVID-19 Pandemic", year = "2022", journal = "Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-022-09886-1", doi = "10.1007/s10882-022-09886-1", openalex = "W4313325305", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi1010801361767220222125674, author = "Maftei, Alexandra and Gherguț, Alois and Roca, Diana and Dănilă, Oana", title = "Transitioning from decades of segregation: religiosity and the attitudes towards intellectual disability in Romania", year = "2022", journal = "Journal of Beliefs and Values", abstract = "As a post-communist country still transitioning from a culture of segregation of people with disability, Romania marks a distinct cultural space for studying the attitudes towards intellectual disability. In the current study, we investigated a prediction model which included age, gender, and religiosity as variables accounting for the variations in Romanian’s attitudes towards intellectual disability. Additionally, we measured the associations between participants’ educational level, knowledge about intellectual disability, and interaction with people with intellectual disabilities. Our sample consisted of 523 participants aged 18 to 74 (M = 29.02, SD = 9.57). The results suggested that older and male participants held more favourable attitudes. Furthermore, the regression analysis highlighted a significant prediction model for the attitudes towards intellectual disability, with religiosity being the most significant predictor. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the current findings given the social and cultural particularities.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2125674", doi = "10.1080/13617672.2022.2125674", openalex = "W4297369833", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi1010802047386920222044594, author = "Himmelberger, Zachary M. and Faught, Gayle G. and Tungate, Andrew S. and Conners, Frances A. and Merrill, Edward C.", title = "Personality traits predict attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disability", year = "2022", journal = "International Journal of Developmental Disabilities", abstract = "Findings suggest personality factors can influence attitudes toward individuals with ID, and further emphasize the importance of quality of contact. Implications for the social inclusion of individuals with ID are discussed.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2022.2044594", doi = "10.1080/20473869.2022.2044594", openalex = "W4214629321", references = "doi101016jridd2020103765" } @article{doi101111jar12990, author = "Elahdi, Ayman and Alnahdi, Ghaleb H.", title = "Factors associated with workers' attitudes towards employment of persons with intellectual disabilities in Saudi Arabia", year = "2022", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Persons with intellectual disabilities have the right to pursue and acquire gainful employment and thereby obtain the psychological, social and economic benefits derived from employment. AIMS: This study aimed to examine workers' attitudes towards and perspectives with respect to the challenges of employing persons with intellectual disabilities. METHOD: The sample was composed of 168 persons (60\% male). Participants responded to a questionnaire that assessed their attitudes towards working with persons with intellectual disabilities (ATWQ) and a challenges questionnaire (CHQ). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: This study found that familiarity (frequency of contact) and having a previous work experience with someone with an intellectual disability were positively associated with workers' attitudes towards employing persons with intellectual disabilities. Furthermore, owners and supervisors were more reluctant to accept the practice of employing persons with intellectual disabilities than were employees. No differences were found by gender. Implications based on the findings are discussed herein.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12990", doi = "10.1111/jar.12990", openalex = "W4213147294", references = "doi101016019188699490040x, doi101016jridd2020103765, doi101017cbo9780511542138, doi101017jrc20132, doi1010801034912x20151049127, doi101093jpepsy114517, doi101111dmcn12326, doi101111j13652788200500781x, doi101111j14683148200900514x, doi101111jir12590, doi1011770265407510385494, openalexw1552503111" } @article{doi101806025512, author = "Presnell, Jade and Keesler, John M.", title = "Community Inclusion for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", year = "2022", journal = "Advances in Social Work", abstract = "Many people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are isolated and lack meaningful opportunities to participate and develop social networks within their communities. Sharing membership with a community that fosters connection and belonging is essential to well-being. As a human rights profession, social work is uniquely situated to overcome the macro barriers that prevent full community inclusion for people with IDD. However, the experiences and needs of those with IDD have largely been left out of the profession’s discourse on diversity and oppression. This article presents a call-to-action for social work to engage in strategies and solutions to resolve macro barriers to community inclusion, to dismantle the injustices that people with IDD continue to experience, and to move the promise of community inclusion from rhetoric to reality. Social workers can promote community inclusion for people with IDD through a variety of approaches, including using a human rights-based framework, aligning with person-centered planning, fostering evidence-based practices, using participatory action research, increasing disability content in social work curricula, and engaging in community action and advocacy.", url = "https://doi.org/10.18060/25512", doi = "10.18060/25512", openalex = "W4214727566", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi102147prbms358181, author = "Jelleli, Hilmi and Guelmami, Noomen and Mohamed, Khouloud Ben and Hindawi, Omar and Bouassida, Anissa", title = "Reliability and Validity of the Arabic Version of Attitudes Towards Intellectual Disability Questionnaire-Short Form (A-ATTID-S)", year = "2022", journal = "Psychology Research and Behavior Management", abstract = "Purpose: Positive attitudes toward intellectual disability contribute to the effective inclusion of people with intellectual disability (PWID) in society, thereby enhancing their quality of life. The literature on tools for measuring attitudes towards PWID in Arabic is limited. The aim of this study was to adapt and validate the Attitudes towards Intellectual Disability Questionnaire-Short Form (ATTID-S) using an Arab population to assess its factor structure and reliability. Materials and Methods: A total of 812 Arabic native speakers who lived in Tunisia were recruited. The exploratory sample consisted of 223 subjects divided into male (n = 121, 54.26\%) and female (n = 102, 45.74\%) with an age range of between 18 and 64 (mean = 32.7 ±9.2 years). The confirmatory sample comprised 589 participants, male (n = 357, 60.61\%) and female (n = 232, 39.38\%), with a mean age of 31.61 (SD = 12.43). A cross-cultural translation of ATTID-S was carried. The Arab attitudes towards intellectual disability scale (A-ATTID-S) was tested using exploratory factor analysis, followed by confirmatory factor analysis. Results: Exploratory factor analysis revealed a five-factor solution explaining up to 68.74 of the total variation, with items having lambda factor loadings ranging from 0.53 to 0.9. Subsequently, confirmatory factor analysis, which used a wide range of goodness-of-fit indices that met the recommended standards, confirmed the measure's robustness. The internal consistency reliability of each of the subscales was investigated using reliability analysis. Cronbach's alpha scores for the subscales and total score were satisfactory. Moreover, differences in the A-ATTID-S scores between male and female with age as covariate were demonstrated. Conclusion: The A-ATTID-S is a good psychometric scale that can be used to assess the attitude of a general population towards intellectual disability in the Arabic-speaking world.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s358181", doi = "10.2147/prbm.s358181", openalex = "W4280504104", references = "doi101016jjcps200909003, doi101016jridd201107005, doi101016s0895435698000857, doi101080193158642011651682, doi101111jir12008, doi101111jir12590, doi10117700343552070500030401, doi1011770265407510385494, doi10117710442073040150020401, doi1011771359105305048552, doi101352194475581266439" } @article{doi101016jridd2023104537, author = "Marcone, Roberto and Borghese, Vincenza", title = "Parental stress and support perception in southern Italy’s households with intellectual disabilities and/or autistic spectrum disorder before and during the COVID-19 pandemic", year = "2023", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2023.104537", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2023.104537", openalex = "W4376604916", references = "doi101007s12144021019645, doi1010800362331920201799176" } @article{doi1010802047386920232230825, author = "Orm, Stian and Blikstad-Blumenthal, Celina and Fjermestad, Krister W.", title = "Attitudes toward people with intellectual disabilities in Norway", year = "2023", journal = "International Journal of Developmental Disabilities", abstract = "Background: We investigated attitudes toward individuals with an intellectual disability (ID) in a Norwegian sample and tested the psychometric properties of a Norwegian translation of the Community Living Attitudes Scale - Intellectual Disability (CLAS-ID). Method: = 133). Results: The four-factor structure of the CLAS-ID showed good model fit in a confirmatory factor analysis of the Norwegian translation with adequate internal consistency. Participants with working experience with ID or a family member with ID reported more favorable attitudes compared with participants without working experience or without a family member with ID, respectively. Women and older participants reported more positive attitudes compared to men and younger participants. Conclusion: The Norwegian translation of the CLAS-ID appears to be a valid tool for assessing attitudes toward individuals with an ID. Individuals with first-hand experience with individuals with an ID have more positive attitudes than those without, and women and older people have more positive attitudes than men and younger people.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2023.2230825", doi = "10.1080/20473869.2023.2230825", openalex = "W4383879162", references = "doi101016jijintrel201103001, doi101016jridd201107005, doi101016jridd2020103765, doi101111j14679221201000765x, doi101111jan14399, doi101111jar12654, doi101111jir12590, doi101146annurevpsych49165, doi101177135910457000100301, doi1021037tp20200202, doi102150020112084854, doi103758bf03193146" } @article{doi10135219349556614269, author = "Friedman, Carli", title = "Medicaid Home- and Community-Based Services Waivers for People With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", year = "2023", journal = "Intellectual and developmental disabilities", abstract = "Medicaid Home- and Community-Based Services (HCBS) 1915(c) waivers are the most prominent funding mechanism for the long-term services and supports (LTSS) of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This study's aim was to conduct an in-depth national analysis of fiscal year (FY) 2021 HCBS 1915(c) waivers for people with IDD. In FY 2021, over $43.2 billion was projected for the HCBS of 861,038 people with IDD. An average of $47,315 was projected per person with IDD annually. The services that received the most funding were: residential habilitation; supports to live in one's own home; and day habilitation. HCBS is necessary so people with IDD can live and thrive in their communities.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-61.4.269", doi = "10.1352/1934-9556-61.4.269", openalex = "W4385520760", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi1052291ijse20233811, author = "Alshemari, Hawaa and Brusnahan, L. Lynn Stansberry and Albagshi, Amira", title = "Kuwait Parents’ Attitudes toward Inclusive Education for Students with Intellectual Disabilities in General Education", year = "2023", journal = "International Journal of Special Education (IJSE)", abstract = "This study investigated the attitudes (i.e., beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions) of Kuwaiti parents about providing students with intellectual disabilities (ID) an inclusive education in general education classrooms. One hundred seventy-seven parents from the six governorates in Kuwait participated in this study. The researchers utilized a survey method to examine the parents’ attitudes with a concentration on eight demographic attributes: gender, age, level of education, knowledge about people with ID, having a child with a disability, contact with a person with ID, having school-age children, and the governorate where they live. The results indicated that parents who had contact with or had children with ID held the most positive attitudes toward providing students with disabilities an inclusive education in general education. The findings of the study provide a comprehensive view of the importance of the inclusion of people with disabilities in attitude. In this study, we identified predictor factors that affect the attitudes of parents and implications.", url = "https://doi.org/10.52291/ijse.2023.38.11", doi = "10.52291/ijse.2023.38.11", openalex = "W4376849863", references = "doi103390math9141637" } @article{doi1058304ijts20230305, author = "Patel, Nadya Shaznay", title = "Empathetic and Dialogic Interactions: Modelling Intellectual Empathy and Communicating Care", year = "2023", journal = "International Journal of TESOL Studies", abstract = "Recently, in light of the global pandemic and calls for a shift in teaching with care (e.g. Bovill, 2020; Gravett, 2021), research has focused on the kinds of classroom discourse that create a supportive environment and establish social connectedness in blended learning environments or, in other words, teaching with care. According to Noddings (2012), teaching with care requires empathy. In fact, empathetic dialogue incorporated purposefully as part of a teacher’s instructional strategy can produce positive learning outcomes and may be considered relational pedagogy. Relational pedagogy focuses on establishing meaningful interpersonal relationships between teachers and their students (Hickey \& Riddle, 2021). Yet, teachers find it hard to weave intentional empathy in their instruction. They find it challenging to sustain empathetic and dialogic interactions in class as many consider teaching to be ‘mechanical’ (p. 6) and their relationship with students to be more ‘business-oriented rather than a personal one’ (Sarki \& Anjum, 2020, p. 24). This study aims to show that it could be done. It shows how I sought to be socially connected with and emotionally present for my students by focusing on empathetic and dialogic interactions in a critical thinking and communicating course. Data for this study were drawn from transcriptions of teacher-student interactions, student evaluation feedback and critical reflections. A convergent qualitative analysis through open and template coding revealed that empathetic and dialogic interactions do not need to be separately adopted instructional practices. They can be woven into classroom discourse while the teacher and students are engaged in intellectual discussions. Further, 38 pharmaceutical engineering undergraduates described their experiences of empathetic, dialogic interactions when they feel (1) cared for as individuals, (2) supported in their learning, and (3) acknowledged for the struggles they face. This study recommends that teachers of higher education adopt a relational pedagogy, focusing on their relationships with students and practising empathetic interactions. The practical suggestions of modelling the language of intellectual empathy and the communication of care will build a safe space for our students within diverse classrooms and a landscape of global uncertainties.", url = "https://doi.org/10.58304/ijts.20230305", doi = "10.58304/ijts.20230305", openalex = "W4380269390", references = "doi1022329ilv31i23063" } @article{doi101016jaggp2024100102, author = "Shimizu, Yuho", title = "Negative attitudes toward the majority and perceived hostile and modern prejudices: Focus on older adults and people with disabilities", year = "2024", journal = "Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics Plus", abstract = "With the growing emphasis on diversity in recent years, we need to form a society wherein older adults and people with disabilities can play active roles together with younger and able-bodied people. However, hostile and modern prejudices against older adults and people with disabilities have inhibited their participation in society. This study examined the association between perceived prejudices against older adults and people with disabilities and their attitudes toward younger and able-bodied people. We administered an online survey to 503 older adults (aged 65–97, M = 74.08 years; 267 women) and 518 people with disabilities (aged 18–64, M = 40.25 years; 180 women). The results showed that older adults (people with disabilities) with more perceived hostile and modern prejudices had more negative attitudes toward younger (able-bodied) people.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aggp.2024.100102", doi = "10.1016/j.aggp.2024.100102", openalex = "W4404502980", references = "doi1010800362331920201799176, doi103390ijerph21030355" } @article{doi101016jdhjo2024101708, author = "Friedman, Carli", title = "Transportation for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities in Home- and Community-Based Services", year = "2024", journal = "Disability and health journal", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2024.101708", doi = "10.1016/j.dhjo.2024.101708", openalex = "W4402629490", references = "doi10135219349556574263" } @article{doi10117721651434241296075, author = "Alshuayl, Mohammed and Alkhattabi, Shoroq O. and Ryndak, Diane Lea", title = "Transitioning to Adult Life for Students With Intellectual Disability in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Literature Review", year = "2024", journal = "Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals", abstract = "Although transition services for individuals with intellectual disability (ID) in Saudi Arabia are required by special education law and regulations, no literature synthesizes peer-reviewed studies focused on transition services for individuals with ID in Saudi Arabia. The purpose of this systematic literature review was to describe the peer-reviewed studies that have been published in English and Arabic over the past 15 years (2008–2023) related to transition services for individuals with ID in Saudi Arabia, the period in which the Saudi Arabian government has provided a new focus on the needs of individuals with disabilities. Our search yielded 22 studies that met the inclusion criteria for this systematic review. Results were discussed in terms of the lack of research focused on transition services and the lack of transition services available for individuals with ID in Saudi Arabia. A discussion of the limitations of this study, as well as the implications for future research, are provided.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434241296075", doi = "10.1177/21651434241296075", openalex = "W4404416642", references = "doi101111jar12990" } @misc{doi1020944preprints2024020115v1, author = "Servidio, Rocco and Cammarata, Ivan Giuseppe and Abbate, Costanza Scaffidi and Boca, Stefano", title = "Classical and modern prejudice toward Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities: The role of Experienced Contact, Beliefs in a Just World, and Social Dominance Orientation", year = "2024", booktitle = "Preprints.org", abstract = "This study investigates the impact of experienced contact on prejudiced attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID), examining beliefs in a just world (BJW) and social dominance orientation (SDO) as potential serial mediators. Data were collected from 224 university students (M = 23.02, SD = 2.48). Path analysis modeling assessed the structural relationships between the study variables. The findings revealed that experienced contact was negatively and significantly associated with BJW and SDO. Additionally, BJW and SDO fully mediated the relationship between experienced contact and overt prejudice. These findings underscore the influence of individual differences on attitudes toward individuals with ID, establishing a crucial foundation for future research and the development of interventions aimed at reducing prejudice and discrimination.", url = "https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202402.0115.v1", doi = "10.20944/preprints202402.0115.v1", openalex = "W4391537329", references = "doi1010800362331920201799176, doi1010802047386920232230825" } @article{doi1031091366825020232295244, author = "Desbrow, Joanne Mampaso and Ruano, Álvaro Moraleda and Casado, Diego Galán and Ruiz-Vicente, Diana", title = "Stigmatising young people with intellectual disability: Perceptions of the main stakeholders at a Spanish university", year = "2024", journal = "Journal of Intellectual \& Developmental Disability", abstract = "BACKGROUND: One of the main challenges facing individuals with an intellectual disability is the stigma associated with the various obstacles that hinder their process of full integration. Despite the efforts made, more research is called for to explore the reference environments and reveal how public and self-stigma are perceived in higher education. This scientific paper's overriding aim is to analyse how different university stakeholders (students, lecturers, and admin and service staff) perceive the presence of young people with intellectual disability. METHOD: An ex post facto design has been used with a sample of 306 participants and a validated instrument for measuring the perception of individuals with an intellectual disability. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that women perceive less stigma than men, and when the analysis is broken down into the collectives involved, students with disability are clearly more conscious of public or self-stigma than their peers without any disability. CONLCUSION: The disparity between gender and roles underscores the need for socioeducational interventions to promote inclusion in higher education and address self-stigma, thereby fostering self-sufficiency and emotional wellbeing among young individuals with intellectual disabilities.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2023.2295244", doi = "10.3109/13668250.2023.2295244", openalex = "W4391174788", references = "doi1025115ejrepv20i564761" } @article{doi103390ijerph21030355, author = "Servidio, Rocco and Cammarata, Ivan Giuseppe and Abbate, Costanza Scaffidi and Boca, Stefano", title = "Classical and Modern Prejudice toward Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities: The Role of Experienced Contact, Beliefs in a Just World and Social Dominance Orientation", year = "2024", journal = "International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health", abstract = "This study investigates the impact of experienced contact on prejudiced attitudes towards individuals with intellectual disabilities (IDs), examining beliefs in a just world (BJW) and social dominance orientation (SDO) as potential serial mediators. Data were collected from 224 university students (M = 23.02, SD = 2.48). Path analysis modelling assessed the structural relationships between the study variables. The findings revealed that experienced contact was negatively and significantly associated with BJW and SDO. Additionally, BJW and SDO fully mediated the relationship between experienced contact and overt prejudice. These findings underscore the influence of individual differences on attitudes towards individuals with ID, establishing a crucial foundation for future research and the development of interventions aimed at reducing prejudice and discrimination.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21030355", doi = "10.3390/ijerph21030355", openalex = "W4392915333", references = "doi101001jama2013281053, doi101002per526, doi1010079781489904485, doi101016s0065260101800046, doi101017cbo9781139175043, doi10103700223514674741, doi1010800362331920201799176, doi1010802047386920232230825, doi101111jir12590, doi1011770146167205284282, doi1011771368430203006001011, doi1018637jssv048i02, doi103758brm403879" } @article{doi101016jridd2025105026, author = "Alnahdi, Ghaleb H.", title = "Healthcare providers' attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities: Implications for education and practice in Saudi Arabia", year = "2025", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105026", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105026", openalex = "W4409639086", references = "doi101111jar12990" } @article{doi1010802329701820252549803, author = "Beunza‐García, Silvia and Carpinteto-Molina, Elvira and Bel‐Fenellós, Cristina", title = "Attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review", year = "2025", journal = "Research and Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/23297018.2025.2549803", doi = "10.1080/23297018.2025.2549803", openalex = "W4415366279", references = "doi101007s12144021019645, doi1010800362331920201799176, doi1010802047386920232230825" } @article{doi101111jar70012, author = "Ruano, Álvaro Moraleda and Ruiz-Vicente, Diana and Desbrow, Joanne Mampaso and Casado, Diego Galán", title = "Inclusive Education for University Students With and Without Intellectual Disabilities: Effectiveness of an Anti‐Stigma Intervention", year = "2025", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "BACKGROUND: This study examines stigma and self-stigma towards individuals with intellectual disabilities among university students, focusing on cognitive, emotional and behavioural dimensions. It highlights the negative impact on social inclusion and the importance of educational interventions. METHODS: A quantitative pre-/post-test design with a control group assessed stigma towards intellectual disabilities. Differences based on the presence of intellectual disabilities and the effectiveness of an anti-stigma intervention was evaluated using the Goratu questionnaire. RESULTS: No significant gender differences in stigma levels were found. Students with intellectual disabilities showed significantly higher stigma levels compared to their peers without disabilities. The anti-stigma intervention improved attitudes in the experimental group versus the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the efficacy of educational interventions in reducing stigma and promoting inclusive attitudes. Despite limitations like potential social desirability bias, this research offers valuable insights for policymakers and educators to enhance social inclusion and reduce stigma.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.70012", doi = "10.1111/jar.70012", openalex = "W4406784344", references = "doi1010802047386920232230825" } @article{doi101111jar70045, author = "Milanović‐Dobrota, Biljana and Jelić, Sara and Buha, Nataša and Japundža‐Milisavljević, Mirjana", title = "Employer Perspectives on Hiring Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities: A Case Study From Serbia †", year = "2025", journal = "Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = "BACKGROUND: Individuals with intellectual disabilities have the lowest employment rates amongst all disability types, despite available job opportunities. Employer bias is a significant barrier to their workforce participation. This research examines employers' opinions towards hiring individuals with intellectual disabilities in Serbia. METHOD: The sample included 358 employers. General attitudes and opinions on hiring individuals with intellectual disabilities were assessed using the Community Living Attitudes Scale and the Work for People with Disability Scale. RESULTS: Employers' perspectives towards hiring individuals with intellectual disabilities are ambiguous. However, those with positive contact experiences view their employment more favourably, particularly regarding social acceptance in the workplace compared to work performance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that employers in Serbia are not yet prepared to provide equal opportunities to individuals with intellectual disabilities. Increased engagement from relevant institutions is essential to develop new intervention programmes that enhance employment outcomes.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.70045", doi = "10.1111/jar.70045", openalex = "W4408991765", references = "doi101111jar12990" } @article{doi10117717446295251319386, author = "Bennett, Roger and Vijaygopal, Rohini", title = "Employment situation and the formation of stigmatising attitudes towards people with intellectual disabilities", year = "2025", journal = "Journal of Intellectual Disabilities", abstract = {This study questioned whether knowledge of the employment situation of a person with an intellectual disability affected stigmatising attitudes towards that individual among a sample of 507 people who did not have intellectual disabilities. A hypothetical individual with a mild intellectual disability was described as either (i) in paid employment, or (ii) living entirely on state social security benefits. Sample members, none of whom were themselves intellectually disabled, unemployed, or living on social security benefits, completed a questionnaire concerning their attitudes towards the person. Many participants who were informed that a person with an intellectual disability worked for a living exhibited more positive attitudes towards the individual than participants advised that the person relied on welfare. The results suggest the existence of a "welfare slur" among some sample members. The level of an observer's self-reported social status impacted on the favorability of certain attitudes.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/17446295251319386", doi = "10.1177/17446295251319386", openalex = "W4407237390", references = "doi103390ijerph21030355" } @article{doi103390educsci15020151, author = "Uria-Olaizola, Naroa and Atutxa, Garazi Yurrebaso and León-Guereño, Patxi", title = "The Impact of Programs Aimed at Raising Awareness About Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities in Schools: A Systematic Review", year = "2025", journal = "Education Sciences", abstract = "The awareness and inclusion of school children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are garnering growing attention in educational research. Schools are increasingly focused on creating inclusive environments, and programs aimed at improving students’ attitudes toward peers with disabilities are key to this effort. This article reviews studies on the impact of these programs on primary and secondary education. A systematic search of the WOS, Scopus, PubMed, and ERIC databases was conducted using the PRISMA statement. This yielded nine relevant articles published either in Spanish or English. This review found that awareness programs had a generally positive effect on students’ perceptions of their peers with disabilities. However, the awareness of intellectual and developmental disabilities remained lower than that of physical, visual, or hearing disabilities. The most effective strategies involved direct interaction and information sharing, with simulation techniques also having positive outcomes. Despite some successful results, challenges remain, particularly involving the need to engage educational staff and ensure the long-term sustainability of these programs within the curriculum. Future research should investigate the long-term impact of these interventions and their effectiveness across different educational settings.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020151", doi = "10.3390/educsci15020151", openalex = "W4406843105", references = "doi1025115ejrepv20i564761" } @article{doi103390educsci15070908, author = "Darwish, Sughra and Alodat, Ali M. and Al-Hendawi, Maha and Ianniello, Annalisa", title = "General Education Teachers’ Perspectives on Challenges to the Inclusion of Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Qatar", year = "2025", journal = "Education Sciences", abstract = "This study examines the challenges that general education teachers face in implementing inclusive education for students with intellectual disabilities in Qatar. Employing a mixed-methods approach, quantitative data were collected from 255 teachers via a structured questionnaire, complemented by qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews with five participants. The findings indicate that teachers encounter moderate to high levels of difficulty, particularly in areas related to the school environment and the availability of educational resources. Significant demographic differences were observed, with male teachers and those working in primary schools reporting greater perceived barriers. Thematic analysis revealed six key factors influencing teachers’ perceptions: student diversity, instructional practices, teacher preparedness, school culture and environment, family and community involvement, and logistical challenges. Despite national policy support for inclusive education, the study reveals ongoing deficits in teacher training, institutional backing, and resource provision. These findings underscore the complex intersection of individual, institutional, and societal factors shaping inclusive education efforts. The study offers valuable insights for localizing inclusive education efforts in Qatar and similar contexts, with implications for educators, policymakers, and educational leaders committed to fostering equitable learning environments.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070908", doi = "10.3390/educsci15070908", openalex = "W4413067352", references = "doi103390math9141637" } @article{doi101016jridd2025105200, author = "Alnahdi, GH and Morin, Diane", title = "Validation of the Arabic version of the attitudes toward intellectual disability questionnaire (ATTID-AR)", year = "2026", journal = "Research in Developmental Disabilities", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105200", doi = "10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105200", openalex = "W7118786182", references = "doi102147prbms358181" }