@book{carlquist1965island1, author = "Carlquist, S", title = "Island Life", year = "1965", publisher = "A Natural History of the Islands of the World: Garden City, New York, Natural History Press", note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Carlquist, S., 1965, Island Life: A Natural History of the Islands of the World: Garden City, New York, Natural History Press.}" } @article{doi1023073565005, author = "Ulfstrand, Staffan", title = "Life Cycles of Benthic Insects in Lapland Streams (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Diptera Simuliidae)", year = "1968", journal = "Oikos", abstract = "A large material of larvae and nymphs of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera Simuliidae from lotic biotopes in Lapland streams was used for an analysis of life cycle patterns. Flight-periods were determined from collection of winged insects. Although each species had its own distinctive life cycle, certain patterns prevailed and could be classified in several phenological types. The study area was situated on the border between the high boreal and subalpine zones and had an accordingly severe climate with a long period of ice-cover. However, life cycle patterns were not consistently different from those of the same or related species in regions with a milder climate. The life cycles of some species varied from place to place. Some such differences are probably explicable in terms of local temperature differences. The life cycles of some species varied from year to year. Within the same species, some individuals took one year, others two years before reaching emergence.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3565005", doi = "10.2307/3565005", openalex = "W2116358497" } @article{doi101086282591, author = "Waters, Thomas F.", title = "The Turnover Ratio in Production Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates", year = "1969", journal = "The American Naturalist", abstract = "The turnover ratio of freshwater benthic invertebrates, expressed as the ratio of a cohort's production to the mean standing crop, has been observed to be relatively constant, about 2.5 to 5, with a mode of about 3.5. Turnover ratios were computed from Allen growth-survivorship curves under various combinations of hypothetical conditions to determine the theoretical range. The effects of varying curve shape, initial individual weight relative to maximum, final population size in numbers relative to initial population, and growth pattern were tested with several series of Allen curves. With moderate variation in these factors around the most probable conditions, the theoretical turnover ratio varied from about 3 to 4 for aquatic insects, but it is probable somewhat larger for crustaceans. Turnover ratios were also considered as equal to instantaneous growth rates computed over an entire single life cycle for several invertebrate species. These were similar to those obtained with the Allen curves, although about 1 unit larger on the average.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/282591", doi = "10.1086/282591", openalex = "W2040223763" } @article{doi1023072258151, author = "Lund, J. W. G. and Hynes, H. B. N.", title = "The Ecology of Running Waters.", year = "1971", journal = "Journal of Ecology", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2258151", doi = "10.2307/2258151", openalex = "W4243425747" } @article{doi101139z72099, author = "Moodie, G. E. E.", title = "Morphology, life history, and ecology of an unusual stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in the Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada", year = "1972", journal = "Canadian Journal of Zoology", abstract = "In Mayer Lake Black sticklebacks shared an exposed environment with several predatory fish, whereas leiurus, the typical freshwater form of Gasterosteus aculeatus, was the only fish inhabiting the vegetation-choked margins of the inlet streams and stream mouths. Black sticklebacks and, to a lesser extent, leiurus were seldom collected outside their respective habitats. Breeding Black males were probably at least 2 years old. They preferred to nest near vegetation, on sandy, gently sloping substrates. The length of the breeding season and the number of breeding cycles in the season were similar to those of other populations. Males of different phenotypes appeared to nest in habitats differing in water depth and proximity to shelter. Some differences in habitat of the nest site were seemingly correlated with breeding success. Black sticklebacks are distinguished from leiurus by their large size and pelvic spines; high gill raker, vertebral and lateral plate counts; streamlined shape; melanism and drab breeding colors. Black sticklebacks probably meet the requirements of a biologically defined species.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/z72-099", doi = "10.1139/z72-099", openalex = "W2019241156", references = "doi101086280888, doi101139f67138, doi101139f70014, doi101139z62028, doi1023071292845, doi1023071438375, doi1023071441696, doi105860choice426486" } @article{doi101111j136524271974tb00111x, author = "Winterbourn, Michael J.", title = "The life histories, trophic relations and production of Stenoperla prasina (Plecoptera) and Deleatidium sp. (Ephemeroptera) in a New Zealand river", year = "1974", journal = "Freshwater Biology", abstract = "Summary The life history, feeding relations and production of the stonefly Stenoperla prasina were studied for 16 months in the Selwyn River, South Island, New Zealand. Larval life is about 1 year with growth occurring in all months. Although emergence of adults was observed only from November to February, egg hatching probably occurred over an extended period as small larvae were present in most months. Larvae were mainly carnivorous except in early instars when most guts contained detritus. Larvae of a mayfly, Deleatidium sp. and a chironomid, Orthocladiinae sp. were the most important prey items. In April of two successive years the guts of most stoneflies examined were filled with diatoms (Gomphonema sp.) and filamentous algae which were abundant in the river only at these times. Algal feeding was not found in other months. Larvae of the main prey species, Deleatidium, were present in all months, being most abundant in summer and declining in numbers during winter. Maximum emergence occurred in March and April. The annual cycle of Deleatidium was diflicuit to interpret as larvae of all sizes were present in all months. Two generations probably occurred in a year, a fast‐growing summer generation and a slower‐growing and less synchronized winter generation. Mean annual standing biomass, annual production and turnover ratios (P/B) were calculated for both species. The latter were within the range of values given by Waters (1969) but may be subject to error from several sources. Shortcomings in the method used to estimate production are discussed.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.1974.tb00111.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2427.1974.tb00111.x", openalex = "W2105576425", references = "doi101007bf00141925, doi101086282591, doi101146annureven10010165001001, doi101146annureven18010173001151, doi101577154886591972101743eopowo20co2, doi1023071934780, doi1023072258151, doi1023073565005, doi1023073798237, doi104319lo19691450771" } @article{doi101139f79047, author = "Resh, Vincent H.", title = "Sampling Variability and Life History Features: Basic Considerations in the Design of Aquatic Insect Studies", year = "1979", journal = "Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada", abstract = "Sampling variability in benthic studies may result from sampling device operation, physical features of the environment, laboratory sorting procedures, and biological features of study populations. Selected factors and procedures that influence variability, samplers affected, and proposed remedies are presented. Consequences of not considering autecological components in sampling designs are illustrated by analysis of larval counts of Cheumatopsyche pettiti (Banks), a multiple cohort caddisfly with an aggregated population. The range of mean numbers of C. pettiti was great with low sample numbers. Aggregation is more reliably measured at low sample numbers with the Index of Dispersion and the Mean Crowding Index than with the dispersion parameter k, the calculation of which from the maximum-likelihood equation, is integrally related to sample size. Nonrandom patterns of C. pettiti observed from samples collected in an Indiana, USA, stream riffle, may result from a failure to consider hyporheic distributions, spatial influences (e.g. sampling both favored and nonfavored microhabitats), instar-specific differences, and behavioral features. Variability in secondary production estimates of an aggregated population of Ceraclea ancylus (Vorhies) from a Kentucky, USA, stream indicated similar relationships to sample size.The size of the mean, the degree of aggregation, and the desired precision of the mean estimate will influence the number of samples required to estimate densities of benthic populations. Sample size requirements calculated from data reported in previous studies were high to achieve accepted levels of precision. Habitat stratification may reduce the numbers of samples required. Dicosmoecus gilvipes (Hagen) exhibited nonaggregated patterns and required fewer samples to estimate density in uniform substrate areas of a California, USA, river pool than did aggregated populations in both mixed substrate areas and the entire pool. Ceraclea ancylus required fewer samples for density estimates in stratified (by habitat or substrate type) than unstratified habitats, the fewest samples being necessary when the individual stone was the sampling unit. Judicious choice of study populations may permit larger numbers of samples to be collected and processed with reduced cost, as an alternative to stratification. Larvae of C. ancylus and D. gilvipes could be separated in the field; density underestimation due to a hyporheic population component was eliminated because of surface dwelling behavior or by choice of study sites; and compounded spatial distributions due to co-occurring instar-specific patterns were absent because the populations have a single cohort.Larger numbers of samples may be necessary than are generally taken in benthic studies. Further research is needed to assess variability in secondary production estimates and community diversity analyses. Improved methods for substrate surface area estimation and increased use of experimental approaches and sequential sampling techniques should be considered in future benthic sampling designs. Key words: sampling, benthos, aquatic, macroinvertebrate, Trichoptera, insect, experimental design, autecology, life history, variability", url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/f79-047", doi = "10.1139/f79-047", openalex = "W2087785897" } @article{doi101146annureves10110179001051, author = "Cummins, Kenneth W. and Klug, Michael J.", title = "Feeding Ecology of Stream Invertebrates", year = "1979", journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics", abstract = "Species distribution models (SDMs) are numerical tools that combine observations of species occurrence or abundance with environmental estimates. They are used to gain ecological and evolutionary insights and to predict distributions across landscapes,...Read More", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.10.110179.001051", doi = "10.1146/annurev.es.10.110179.001051", openalex = "W2172628932" } @article{doi1023072408012, author = "Wilbur, Henry M. and Travis, Joseph and Roughgarden, Jonathan", title = "Theory of Population Genetics and Evolutionary Ecology: An Introduction.", year = "1980", journal = "Evolution", abstract = "0. Introductory Survey of Population Phenomena. I. THE BASICS OF POPULATION GENETICS. 1. An Overview of Population Genetics. 2. The Hardy-Weinberg Law. 3. Natural Selection and Mutation at One Locus with Two Alleles. 4. The Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection. 5. Genetic Drift. 6. The Neutrality Controversy. II. COMPLEX GENETIC SYSTEMS. 7. Natural Selection with Multiple Alleles at One Locus. 8. Population Genetics with Multiple Loci. 9. Natural Selection and Quantitative Inheritance. 10. Nonrandom Mating. III. SPECIAL TOPICS IN EVOLUTION. 11. Evolution of the Genetic System. 12. Evolution in Spatially Varying Environments. 13. Natural Selection in Temporally Varying Environments. 14. The Evolution of Altruism: Kin Selection and Group Selection. IV. EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF SINGLE POPULATIONS. 15. An Overview of Evolutionary Ecology. 16. Exponential and Logistic Population Growth. 17. Density-Dependent Natural Selection. 18. Population Growth with Age Structure. 19. Age-Specific Selection and Life History Strategies. 20. Stochastic Environments: Extinction, Resource Tracking, and Patchiness. V. EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF INTERACTING POPULATIONS. 21. Competition. 22. Predation. 23. Coevolution in Ecological Systems. 24. Niche Theory and Island Biogeography. VI. APPENDICES. A1. The Mean and Variance. A2. How to Write a Computer Program in BASIC. A3. Matrix Algebra and Stability Theory. Index. Bibliography.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2408012", doi = "10.2307/2408012", openalex = "W3144923870" } @article{doi1023074143, author = "Elliott, Joshua", title = "A Quantitative Study of the Life Cycle of the Net-Spinning Caddis Philopotamus montanus (Trichoptera: Philopotamidae) in a Lake District Stream", year = "1981", journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4143", doi = "10.2307/4143", openalex = "W2332043266" } @article{doi101111j136524271982tb00619x, author = "Elliott, J. M.", title = "A quantitative study of the life cycle of the case‐building caddis Odontocerum albicorne (Trichoptera: Odontoceridae) in a Lake District stream", year = "1982", journal = "Freshwater Biology", abstract = "SUMMARY. Odontocerum albicorne (Scopoli) took 1 year to complete its life cycle in a 3‐year study of this species in a small, stony stream in the English Lake District. Adults were present from May to August (1967, 1968) or from June to September (1969); most eggs were laid in July and August. There were five larval instarsand most larvae were in instars III, IV and V by October. Larvae usually overwintered in instar V or III and some third instars were in a resting state in sealed cases. Most fifth instars became male pupae in spring; most third instars grew rapidly to instar V in spring and then became female pupae. The duration of the pupal stage was short, and was shown in laboratory experiments to require 87.5 degree‐days (95\% C L = 79–98 degree‐days) above a threshold temperature of 6.7±0.01°C. Pupation in the stream did not commence until temperatures exceeded 6.8°C. As the sample variance‐mean relationship followed a power‐law, the spatial distribution of larvae and pupae was density dependent. Relative clumping remained fairly constant between year‐classes but increased markedly between the larval and pupal stages. Although population density varied between year‐classes, it remained remarkably constant in each year‐class for about 9 months between the end of egg hatching and the start of adult emergence. The growth pattern was similar in each year‐class but growth rates varied between year‐classes. The mean instantaneous growth rate was highest (range 3.9–8.0\% dry wt day ‐1)in the first 3 months of the life cycle (August‐October), close to zero in winter (November‐February) and slightly higher than 1\% day ‐1 (range 1.1–1.7\%) for the rest of the life cycle (March‐August). Production varied considerably between years and year‐classes, and was closely related to growth rates for March‐August. Annual production estimates were 243, 160 and 257 mg dry wt m ‐2 in 1967, 1968 and 1969. respectively. The ratio of production to mean standing crop (P/B) also varied between year‐classes and the mean annual value was 3.9 (range 3.2–4.5). Life tables were similar for the 1966 (latter part only), 1967, 1968 and 1969 year‐classes. Losses were very high (c. 99\%) in the egg stage and early instars. About 30\% (range 27–31\%) of the population in instars III‐V did not reach the pupal stage, and c. 25\% (range 20–29\%) of the pupal population died. About 37\% (range 35–39\%) of the emerging adults were females.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.1982.tb00619.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2427.1982.tb00619.x", openalex = "W1986300179" } @article{doi101139z84044, author = "Mackay, Rosemary J.", title = "Life history patterns of Hydropsyche bronta and H. morosa (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in summer-warm rivers of southern Ontario", year = "1984", journal = "Canadian Journal of Zoology", abstract = "Life history patterns are described for Hydropsyche bronta and Hydropsyche morosa in the Credit and Humber rivers of southern Ontario. In the lower reaches (stream orders 4 and 5) of these rivers, summer water temperatures exceed 24 °C for 3 months and reach maxima of 27–30 °C. Here H. morosa appeared to be bivoltine while at least half of the H. bronta population at each of four sites was trivoltine. At a fifth site below an impoundment on a second-order tributary to the Humber, H. bronta was bivoltine; H. morosa was extremely rare at this site and in upper reaches in general. Hydropsyche bronta is smaller than H. morosa and tends to overwinter in slightly older larval instars than H. morosa. Both these characteristics, and the fact that H. bronta is probably living in the optimal part of its habitat range in the Credit and Humber, may explain its ability to be trivoltine.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/z84-044", doi = "10.1139/z84-044", openalex = "W2039514325" } @article{doi1023071942455, author = "Benke, Arthur C. and van Arsdall, Thomas C. and Gillespie, David M. and Parrish, Fred K.", title = "Invertebrate Productivity in a Subtropical Blackwater River: The Importance of Habitat and Life History", year = "1984", journal = "Ecological Monographs", abstract = "Habitat and life history are critical elements in assessing the production dynamics of invertebrates and their role in aquatic ecosystems. We studied invertebrate productivity at two sites in a subtropical blackwater river (the Satilla) in the Lower Coastal Plain of Georgia, USA, and found that submerged wooden substrates, or snags, are heavily colonized by aquatic insects. We compared invertebrate productivity on the snag habitat with productivity in the sandy benthic habitat of the main channel, and the muddy benthic habitat of the backwaters. The size—frequency method was applied to individual taxa in order to determine total invertebrate productivity. Emphasis was placed on the importance of the length of larval life, or the cohort production interval, in determining biomass turnover rates. The diversity of taxa was much higher on the snag habitat than in either of the benthic habitats. Filter—feeding caddisflies (especially Hydropsyche spp.) and black flies (Simulium spp.) were the major consumers on the snag habitat. Several species of midges, mayflies, and beetles also were abundant. Total densities, standing stock biomass, and production were very high for primary consumers on snags. Annual production was 51.9 and 67.1 g°m — 2 °yr — 1 (dry mass per surface area of snag, or effective habitat) for the two sites. Hellgrammites, dragonflies, and stoneflies were the major insect predators colonizing snags, and their production was 5.5 and 5.2 g@mm — 2 °yr — 1 (effective habitat). Annual production/biomass ratios (P/B) were usually 5—10 for insects that had univoltine or bivoltine life cycles. Annual P/B estimates were very high for midges (>100) and black flies (>70), since length of larval life was estimated to be very short. The sandy—substrate benthos consisted almost exclusively of very small midges with oligochaetes of lesser abundance. Densities were quite high (>20 000/m 2), but biomass was very low (° 100 mg/m 2 or less). Production of primary consumers was >11 g°m — 2 °yr — 1 with a very high estimate of annual P/B (166—227). The major predators were Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) larvae with an annual production of 1.6—2.6 g°m — 2 °yr — 1. The muddy—substrate benthos consisted primarily of oligochaetes (Limnodrilus) and midges. Annual production was °7—10 g°m — 2 °yr — 1 for primary consumers. The major predators were larger Tanypodinae midges. On a substrate surface area basis, standing stock biomass on snags was 20—50 times higher than in the sandy habitat and 5—10 times higher than in the muddy habitat. Production on snags was only 3—4 times higher than production in the benthic habitats, with higher annual P/B in the latter. The production estimates for the snag habitat are among the highest yet reported for lotic ecosystems, and it appears that production on snags is limited by available substrate. Habitat areas per length of shoreline were estimated so that we could approximate relative amounts of biomass and production for a stretch of river. Although the snag habitat accounted for only °6\% of the effective habitat substrate over a stretch of river, it was responsible for over half of invertebrate biomass, and °15—16\% of production. Taxa within each habitat were categorized to functional feeding groups, and habitat—specific functional groupings were evaluated using numbers, biomass, and production. Filtering collectors predominated on snags, and gathering collectors in benthic habitats. When corrected for habitat abundance, the distribution of biomass among filtering collectors, gathering collectors, and predators was very close. However, the distribution of production was °12\% filtering collectors, 71\% gathering collectors, and 17\% predators. We suggest that production is the most meaningful parameter to consider in functional group analysis and that the use of numbers or biomass alone can sometimes result in misleading conclusions. As a middle order (5th—6th) stream, the distribution of production or biomass among functional groups in the Satilla River differs considerably from that predicted by the river continuum concept, predicting a high percentage of grazing consumers.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942455", doi = "10.2307/1942455", openalex = "W2169934922", references = "doi101111j136524271974tb00111x, doi1023071937161, doi1023072937256" } @article{doi1023071942578, author = "McNaughton, S. J.", title = "Ecology of a Grazing Ecosystem: The Serengeti", year = "1985", journal = "Ecological Monographs", abstract = "Primary productivity and herbivory were studied in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, and Masai Mara Game Reserve, Kenya, during the annual cycle of 1974—1975, and wet—dry season transitions in 1976—1979. Basic state variables measured were aboveground plant biomass inside permanent and temporary fences, and outside fences. Productivity was calculated as the sum of positive plant biomass increments. Control productivity (cPn) was calculated from biomass dynamics inside permanent fences. Temporary fences were moved in concert with grazing by the region's abundant ungulates to estimate actual aboveground primary productivity (aPn). Primary productivity was highly stochastic with productive periods poorly synchronized even among nearby sites. Short—term productivities could be extremely high, exceeding 30 g°m — 2 °d — 1. Grazing animals adjusted their densities in relation to grassland productivity. The average proportion of annual aPn that was consumed by herbivores was 0.66, with a minimum of 0.15 and a maximum of 0.94. Green forage was available everywhere late in the wet season in May but was available only at high rainfall sites in the northwest late in the dry season in November. By the end of the dry season, the residual plant biomass outside fences averaged only 8\% of cPn. Nomadic grazers moved seasonally in response to grassland productivity. The growing season ranged from 76 d in low rainfall areas to virtually continuous in high rainfall areas. Annual cPn was linearly related to rainfall and averaged 357 g°m — 2 °yr — 1 over the year and 1.89 g°m — 2 °d — 1 during the growing season. Actual aPn was substantially greater than cPn at most sites, averaging 664 g°m — 2 °yr — 1. Growing season aPn averaged 3.78 g°m — 2 °d — 1. Grazing stimulated net primary productivity at most locations, with the maximum stimulation at intermediate grazing intensities. Stimulation was dependent upon soil moisture status at the time of grazing. Rain had a diminishing effect on primary productivity as the wet season progressed and plant biomass accumulated. Part of the stimulation of grassland productivity by grazing was due to maintenance of the vegetation in an immature, rapidly growing state similar to that at the beginning of the rainy season. Since grazers overrode rainfall—determined productivity patterns, aPn was more closely related to grazing intensity than to ranfall. Grazing was heavier on grasslands that were intrinsically more productive. Rate of energy flow per unit of plant biomass was much higher in grazed vegetation. Grazers ate green leaves almost exclusively during the wet season, but species composition of the diets of different grazers differed markedly. Diets of nomadic grazers were very different in the wet and dry seasons. Vegetation dried out rapidly at the onset of the dry season and dry plant tissues made up a substantial proportion of ungulate dry season diets. However, green forage commonly was more abundant in diets than in the vegetation. Grazing increased both forage quality and its rate of production. Zebras supplemented a high—bulk diet by eating the seeds of awnless grasses. The foraging patterns of different grazers were differentiated by several vegetation properties, including productivity, structure, and species composition, in a manner suggesting resource partitioning. The relationship between the stability of vegetation functional properties and community species diversity was positive in five of seven tests. Greater species diversity was associated with greater biomass stability through the seasons, greater resistance to grazing by a single species of ungulate in both the wet and dry seasons, and greater resilience after grazing. Species diversity was not associated with greater resistance to grazing by several ungulate species or to plant species extinction. Specific properties of trophic web members were identified that produced greater functional stability in more diverse communities. Fire does not appear to have important effects upon the functional properties of the grasslands except for a weak stimulation of productivity in the wet season immediately following dry season burning. Fire did have an important effect upon structural properties of the vegetation that would tend to regulate ungulate feeding. The ecology of neither the plants nor the animals in the Serengeti ecosystem can be understood in isolation; many traits of both suggest coevolution among trophic web members. The functional dynamics of the trophic web suggest that the acceleration of energy and nutrient flow rates due to intense herbivory has resulted in the development of an entire consumer food web due to additive fluxes rather than mere quasi—parasitic fluxes from plants to animals.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942578", doi = "10.2307/1942578", openalex = "W2042612678", references = "doi101126science2114485887, doi101163156853974x00345" } @article{doi1023074515, author = "Elliott, Joshua and Resh, Vincent H. and Rosenberg, David M.", title = "The Ecology of Aquatic Insects", year = "1985", journal = "Journal of Animal Ecology", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4515", doi = "10.2307/4515", openalex = "W2322153143" } @article{doi1023071467296, author = "Statzner, Bernhard and Gore, James A. and Resh, Vincent H.", title = "Hydraulic Stream Ecology: Observed Patterns and Potential Applications", year = "1988", journal = "Journal of the North American Benthological Society", abstract = {Although it is well known that metabolism, feeding, and behaviour of lotic organisms is influenced by various flow characteristics, hydraulic variables usually are not accurately measured in lotic ecology studies. Using an approach we call "hydraulic stream ecology", we link organismic responses to a more comprehensive treatment of the physical environment. Since a unified analytical solution for all important hydraulic variables in running waters does not exist at the moment, we advocate a simpler view of the physical system. We demonstrate methods for estimating complex hydraulic key characteristics, like turbulence in the free flow, turbulence close to the stream bottom, and the force of flow prevailing at the bottom. Calculations of these complex key characteristics require measurement of simple hydraulic characteristics like mean velocity, water surface slope, depth, bottom roughness, kinematic viscosity, and density of the water. The hydraulic environment shows characteristic patterns within whole catchments or within reaches of different types of running waters (e.g., high gradient mountain stream, lowland stream, mid-order river). Examples from lotic macroinvertebrates, in particular original data on the water bug Aphelocheirus aestivalis (Fabr.), demonstrate how organismic responses are linked to the hydraulic environment. The body shapes of many lotic zoobenthos are not well adapted to minimize forces of flow, as has been generally believed. Indeed, flow forces are rather stressful for these animals. Critical resources in swift flowing microzones can often be exploited by zoobenthos for only restricted periods, a view that is consistent with the temporal, vertical migration patterns observed for most stream invertebrates. The stress of flow and temporal exposure to it may be correlated with the distribution of lotic zoobenthos. Substratum characteristics, usually perceived as a major factor explaining the distribution of lotic macroinvertebrates, is less important than mean velocity and the complex hydraulic key characteristics. Complex hydraulic characteristics are most useful in modeling specific relationships between the distribution of zoobenthos within a stream reach and the physical habitat, which differ depending on developmental stage of the organism, season, and site. On the catchment scale, the distribution of zoobenthos, and, consequently, longitudinal zonation are also largely dependent on hydraulics. Other groups of organisms found in running waters (e.g., microorganisms and fish) show responses to hydraulics that are comparable to those of lotic macroinvertebrates. There is evidence that some species can alter the hydraulic environment for other individuals (or species). Hydraulic stream ecology provides methods to scale flow in lotic research, which will lead to an increase in replicability and predictability in studies of running water ecosystems. We suggest that researchers who have measured relevant simple hydraulic characteristics in many past studies reevaluate their data considering the role of complex hydraulic key characteristics for the distribution of organisms.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1467296", doi = "10.2307/1467296", openalex = "W2320062698", references = "doi1010160022098181901118" } @article{openalexw2162671978, author = "Collier, Kevin J.", title = "Invertebrate food supplies and diet of blue duck on rivers in two regions of the North Island, New Zealand", year = "1991", journal = "Research Commons (University of Waikato)", abstract = "Benthic invertebrates and samples of blue duck faeces were collected in September 1988 from sites along Manganuiateao River, central North Island, and in November 1988 from seven rivers and streams on the East Cape. The occurrence of invertebrate taxa in the faeces varied within and between rivers, and within pairs of birds and family groups on the East Cape. In both regions, most blue duck had been consuming large proportions of cased caddisfly larvae. These are thought to have been mainly species of Helicopsyche and Pycnocentrodes at the East Cape sites and Beraeoptera roria at the Manganuiateao sites. Plecoptera larvae were also relatively abundant in blue duck faeces from most Manganuiateao sites in September. Overall, blue duck consumed proportionately more cased caddisfly larvae than occurred in the benthos (especially at the East Cape sites), but fewer Chironomidae, Coloburiscus humeralis and leptophlebiid mayfly (mainly Deleatidium spp.) larvae. Factors that affect the type of invertebrate foods available to blue duck at a particular site could include habitat heterogeneity, chance encounter, frequency and magnitude of floods, and geographic differences in the pool of invertebrate colonists. Apparent selectivity or avoidance of some benthic invertebrate groups by blue duck may partly reflect predator evasion by fast-moving invertebrate species, and differences in activity and distribution on upper stone surfaces where invertebrates should be more susceptible to predation by blue duck.", openalex = "W2162671978", references = "doi10108003014223197810423816" } @article{doi1023071467649, author = "Willis, Lawrence and Hendricks, Albert C.", title = "Life History, Growth, Survivorship, and Production of Hydropsyche slossonae in Mill Creek, Virginia", year = "1992", journal = "Journal of the North American Benthological Society", abstract = "We describe life history and production of Hydropsyche slossonae Banks in Mill Creek, Virginia, a first-order stream in the Central Appalachian Ridges and Valleys ecoregion. Each adult female laid approximately 230 eggs which hatched in 13 d. Five larval instars were recorded with most individuals overwintering in instars III and IV. Pupation and emergence occurred primarily over a 6-wk period in May and June. No mortality in the egg stage was detected, while high mortality in instar I (92.9\%) was due partly to sibling cannibalism. Instars II-V showed constant low mortality, with high mortality again in the pupal stage; 0.5\% of the original eggs survived to adulthood. Growth analysis revealed two distinct growth phases: one from hatching through instar IV (0.007 mg/d) and a much faster growth rate for instar V in May (0.148 mg/d). Production estimates for the entire generation ranged from approximately 3 to 5 g/m 2 and were highly variable. On a per-day basis, production occurred at specific times of the year. Yield per day peaked slightly later than peaks in production. High daily production occurred immediately after hatching as a result of growth of many small individuals. At the end of the generation, there was another period of high daily production due to fast growth by fewer larger individuals. Most production occurred from March through June. At other times, daily production was relatively low. It may be more accurate to estimate production by predicting biomass from survivorship and growth functions than directly from sample data.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1467649", doi = "10.2307/1467649", openalex = "W2000087663", references = "doi101016s0065250408602354, doi101111j136524271982tb00619x, doi101139z84044, doi101146annureves12110181001301, doi1023071467309, doi1023071936468, doi1023074143, doi104319lo19873261342, openalexw2625486699, openalexw598294016" } @article{openalexw2325359977, author = "Harding, Jon S.", title = "LIFE HISTORY VARIABILITY AND' LARVAL ECOLOGY OF AOTEAPSYCHE COLONICA (TRICHOPTERA: HYDROPSYCHIDAE) IN THE SOUTH ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND", year = "1993", abstract = "Winterbourn, M. J. Sc Harding, J. S. (1993). Life history variability and larval ecology of Aoteapsyche colonica (TrichopterarHydropsychidae) in the South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Natural Sciences 20:23-33. The larval life history oiAoteapsyche colonica was examined at four stream sites, including two lake outlets, in the South Island of New Zealand. The first two instars occurred most frequently in early summer or late autumn-winter, and populations were dominated by fourth and fifth instar larvae in spring. Populations were essentially univoltine although some eariy hatching individuals may complete larval development (and possibly emerge) in 5-6 months where autumn watertemperatures permit sufficiently rapid growth. Annual production estimates fortwo ofthe four populations were 3.55 and 2.9 g DW m2. In all months gut contents of final instar larvae from Grasmere Stream, Cass consisted predominantly of plant detritus, filamentous algae, and to a lesser extent diatoms and arthropod prey. Small conspecifics were taken by some larvae in summer when the former were most abundant. In the same stream, larval density was significantly correlated with current velocity in two of five months when measurements were made. Larvae were also overrepresented at higher current velocities in Blue Duck Creek, Kaikoura, but substrate size relationships differed La successive years. The broad habitat and food requirements ofthe larvae are consistent with their distribution in a wide range of running waters.", url = "https://openalex.org/W2325359977", openalex = "W2325359977", references = "doi1010800028833019909516399, doi1010800028833019909516432, doi1010800028833019919516470, doi10108003014223197810423816, doi101111j136524271974tb00111x, doi1023071467649, doi1023071937161, doi1023071938734, doi1023073766, doi1026021367" } @article{doi1010800028833019959516681, author = "Harding, Jon S. and Winterbourn, Michael J.", title = "Effects of contrasting land use on physico‐chemical conditions and benthic assemblages of streams in a Canterbury (South Island, New Zealand) river system", year = "1995", journal = "New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research", abstract = "Physico‐chemical conditions and benthic invertebrate assemblages in streams draining catchments dominated by different land use activities were investigated near Hanmer Springs, South Island. Four streams in pastoral, scrubland, exotic pine plantation forest (primarily Pinus spp.), and native beech forest (Nothofagus spp.) catchments were sampled in four seasons. Alkalinity, pH, and calcium concentrations were highest among scrubland streams, whereas iron and potassium concentrations were highest in pastoral streams. Both taxonomic richness and invertebrate biomass were greatest in the beech forest streams where most species of Ephe‐meroptera, Plecoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera were found. Forest streams were dominated by the mayflies Deleatidium and Coloburiscus humeralls, the stonefly Stenoperla prasina, and the caddisfly Olinga feredayi. The facultative shredder Austroperla cyrene was also abundant in pine forest streams. However, mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly taxa were poorly represented in pastoral streams. In contrast, molluscs were most prolific in pastoral streams, where the hydrobiid snail Potamopyrgus antipodarum dominated and the chironomid Eukiefferiella sp. was also abundant. Streams in the four land use types represented a series of progressively more modified systems, ranging from pristine beech forested streams to highly modified streams draining agriculturally developed catchments. The structure of the stream communities changed along this “ecological gradient”.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.1995.9516681", doi = "10.1080/00288330.1995.9516681", openalex = "W1981528161", references = "doi10108003014223197810423816, openalexw2325359977" } @article{doi105860choice324494, author = "Vogel, Steven", title = "Life in moving fluids: the physical biology of flow", year = "1995", journal = "Choice Reviews Online", abstract = "Both a landmark text and reference book, Steven Vogel's Life in Moving Fluids has also played a catalytic role in research involving the applications of fluid mechanics to biology. In this revised edition, Vogel continues to combine humor and clear explanations as he addresses biologists and general readers interested in biological fluid mechanics, offering updates on the field over the last dozen years and expanding the coverage of the biological literature. His discussion of the relationship between fluid flow and biological design now includes sections on jet propulsion, biological pumps, swimming, blood flow, and surface waves, and on acceleration reaction and Murray's law. This edition contains an extensive bibliography for readers interested in designing their own experiments.", url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.32-4494", doi = "10.5860/choice.32-4494", openalex = "W2048266952" } @article{doi105860choice336317, title = "Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions", year = "1996", journal = "Choice Reviews Online", abstract = "Animals, plants, water, wind, materials and people flow at different rates, according to spatial patterns common to almost all landscapes and regions. This up-to-date synthesis explores the ecology of heterogeneous land areas, where natural processes and human activities spatially interact, to produce an ever changing mosaic. The subject has great relevance to today's society, and this book reflects the breadth of its importance; there are many ideas and applications for planning, conservation, design, management, sustainability and policy. Spatial solutions are provided for society's land-use objectives. An appealing book, with a highly-readable text on this major emerging field. Students and professionals alike will be drawn by the attractive and informative illustrations, the conceptual synthesis, the wide international perspective and the range of topics and research covered.", url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.33-6317", doi = "10.5860/choice.33-6317", openalex = "W2093945120" } @article{doi1023072265966, author = "Ray, Chris and Hoopes, Martha F. and Hanski, Ilkka and Gilpin, Michael E.", title = "Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution.", year = "1997", journal = "Ecology", abstract = "Conceptual Foundation: Introduction. Empirical Evidence for Metapopulation Dynamics. Metapopulation Dynamics and Landscape Ecology. Theory of Metapopulation Dynamics. Metapopulation Dynamics: Form Concepts and Observations to Predictive Models. Structures Metapopulation Models. Two-Species Metapopulation Models. From Metapopulation Dynamics to Community Structure: Some Consequences of Spatial Heterogeneity. Genetic Effective Size of a Metapopulation. The Evolution of Metapopulations. Metapopulation Processes: Extinction Models for Local Populations. Studying Transfer Processes in Metapopulations: Immigration, Migration, And Colonization. Migration Within Metapopulations: The Impact Upon Local Population Dynamics. Evolution of Migration Rate and Other Traits: The Metapopulation Effect. Spatial Processes in Host-Parasite Genetics. Case Studies: Butterfly Metapopulations. Tritrophic Metapopulation Dynamics: A Case Study of Ragworth, The Cinnabar Moth, And the Parasitoid Cotesia Popularis. Spatially Correlated Dynamics in a Pika Metapopulation. A Case Study of Genetic Structure in a Plant Metapopulation. Subject Index.", url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2265966", doi = "10.2307/2265966", openalex = "W2002117208" } @article{doi101086286190, author = "Chown, Steven L. and Gremmen, Niek J.M. and Gaston, Kevin J.", title = "Ecological Biogeography of Southern Ocean Islands: Species‐Area Relationships, Human Impacts, and Conservation", year = "1998", journal = "The American Naturalist", abstract = "Previous studies have concluded that southern ocean islands are anomalous because past glacial extent and current temperature apparently explain most variance in their species richness. Here, the relationships between physical variables and species richness of vascular plants, insects, land and seabirds, and mammals were reexamined for these islands. Indigenous and introduced species were distinguished, and relationships between the latter and human occupancy variables were investigated. Most variance in indigenous species richness was explained by combinations of area and temperature (56\%)-vascular plants; distance (nearest continent) and vascular plant species richness (75\%)-insects; area and chlorophyll concentration (65\%)-seabirds; and indigenous insect species richness and age (73\%)-land birds. Indigenous insects and plants, along with distance (closest continent), explained most variance (70\%) in introduced land bird species richness. A combination of area and temperature explained most variance in species richness of introduced vascular plants (73\%), insects (69\%), and mammals (69\%). However, there was a strong relationship between area and number of human occupants. This suggested that larger islands attract more human occupants, increasing the risk of propagule transfer, while temperature increases the chance of propagule establishment. Consequently, human activities on these islands should be regulated more tightly.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/286190", doi = "10.1086/286190", openalex = "W1969147993" } @article{doi101126science27953592115, author = "Losos, Jonathan B. and Jackman, Todd R. and Larson, Allan and de Queiroz, Kevin and Rodrı́guez-Schettino, Lourdes", title = "Contingency and Determinism in Replicated Adaptive Radiations of Island Lizards", year = "1998", journal = "Science", abstract = "The vagaries of history lead to the prediction that repeated instances of evolutionary diversification will lead to disparate outcomes even if starting conditions are similar. We tested this proposition by examining the evolutionary radiation of Anolis lizards on the four islands of the Greater Antilles. Morphometric analyses indicate that the same set of habitat specialists, termed ecomorphs, occurs on all four islands. Although these similar assemblages could result from a single evolutionary origin of each ecomorph, followed by dispersal or vicariance, phylogenetic analysis indicates that the ecomorphs originated independently on each island. Thus, adaptive radiation in similar environments can overcome historical contingencies to produce strikingly similar evolutionary outcomes.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.279.5359.2115", doi = "10.1126/science.279.5359.2115", openalex = "W2103549209", references = "doi101007bf02100115, doi101017cbo9780511608568, doi101017s0094837300011350, doi101093oso97801985464120010001, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva025706, doi101111j155856461983tb05533x, doi1023071943062, doi1023072408332, doi105860choice273873, doi105860choice295104, openalexw2273605253" } @article{doi101016s0169534799016882, author = "Bergstrom, Dana M. and Bergstrom, Dana M. and Chown, Steven L. and Chown, Steven L.", title = "Life at the front: history, ecology and change on southern ocean islands", year = "1999", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01688-2", doi = "10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01688-2", openalex = "W2057975701", references = "doi1010160006320794903530, doi101029ar048, doi101029jb087ib05p03644, doi10103835842, doi101086286190, doi1023071551734, doi1023071551980, doi1023071939337, doi1023073545939, openalexw584353599" } @article{doi101016s0169534799017243, author = "Benton, Tim G. and Benton, Tim G. and Grant, Alastair and Grant, Alastair", title = "Elasticity analysis as an important tool in evolutionary and population ecology", year = "1999", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01724-3", doi = "10.1016/s0169-5347(99)01724-3", openalex = "W2040762081", references = "doi1018900012965820000810694sssaan20co2, doi102307177366" } @article{doi101038sjhdy6885841, author = "Gillespie, Rosemary G.", title = "Island Biogeography — Ecology, Evolution and Conservation", year = "1999", journal = "Heredity", url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.hdy.6885841", doi = "10.1038/sj.hdy.6885841", openalex = "W1503840956", references = "doi1023072419593" } @book{openalexw1596646469, author = "Whittaker, R. H.", title = "Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation", year = "1999", abstract = "PART 1 - ISLANDS AS NATURAL LABORATORIES 1. The natural laboratory paradigm 2. Island environments 3. The biogeography of island life: biodiversity hotspots in context PART 2- ISLAND ECOLOGY 4. Species number games: the macroecology of island biotas 5. Community assembly and dynamics 6. Scale and island ecological theory: towards a new synthesis PART 3- ISLAND EVOLUTION 7. Arrival and change 8. Speciation and the island condition 9. Emergent models of island evolution PART 4- ISLANDS AND CONSERVATION 10. Island theory and conservation 11. Anthropogenic losses and threats to island ecosystems 12. Island remedies: the conservation of islands ecosystems", url = "https://openalex.org/W1596646469", openalex = "W1596646469" } @article{doi101046j13652699200000377x, author = "Lomolino, Mark V.", title = "Ecology’s most general, yet protean 1 pattern: the species‐area relationship", year = "2000", journal = "Journal of Biogeography", abstract = "The species-area relationship is often referred to as the closest thing to a rule in ecology (31). Along a gradient of ecosystems of increasing size, the numbers of species inhabiting those ecosystems increases; rapidly at first, but then more slowly for the larger ecosystems. The pattern appears to be so common that it would be much more expedient to report the few exceptions (e.g. see 7) than the many hundreds, and possibly thousands of studies reporting this pattern for a wide variety of taxa and types of ecosystems. The species-area relationship has been studied for decades and is evidenced by paleontological as well as contemporary patterns (see reviews by 21; 29; 4). Given the great wealth of research on this long-studied pattern, it might seem that the relationship truly deserves the status of a rule, and that we can confidently use it as a universal tool for understanding and conserving biological diversity. The species-area relationship was, in fact, fundamental to development of 18, 19 equilibrium theory, which quickly became the paradigm of island biogeography theory and has remained so for the past three decades. As they wrote in their seminal monograph (19: 8–9), ‘theories, like islands, are often reached by stepping stones. The species-area curves are such stepping stones.’ Beyond the general, qualitative pattern (i.e. monotonic, but attenuating increase in richness with area), it has become axiomatic that the actual form of the relationship generally approximates what 28 termed a ‘canonical’ relationship: a curve which, for isolated ecosystems, is typically approximated by the quantitative model, S=C A.25 (also known as the power, or 1 model, where S is species richness, and C is a fitted constant that varies in a poorly understood manner among taxa and types of ecosystems). The generality of this ‘canonical’ relationship is so widely accepted that it is one of the most commonly used tools of conservation biologists attempting to design nature reserves or to predict extinctions during biotic collapse: i.e. the loss of species due to reduction in habitat area (see 33). Such applications, however, greatly overestimate the generality of the quantitative, canonical form of the species-area relationship. For the power model described above, species richness varies with the value C as well as with the exponent (z). Although z-values tend to be conservative (typically ranging from 0.10 to 0.50), C-values vary by orders of magnitudes. Which values, then, should we use as applied or basic ecologists? While biogeography theory provides some predictions as to how z-values should vary among archipelagoes (see 19: 25–32; see also 31; 5; 46; 34; 12, 13), I am unaware of any comparable body of theory for C-values. To further complicate the issue, while the power model appears to be the most commonly used model to investigate species-area relationships, a semi-log model (the Gleasonian model [8]; S = k0 + k1 Log (Area)) is often used by other ecologists, especially phytogeographers. Unlike the power model, there seems to be no generally accepted, ‘canonical’, values for parameters of the Gleasonian model. Perhaps the above comments may seem to some to be just quibbling over methodological approaches. The species-area relationship may, indeed, be one of nature’s most general patterns, but we may be using the wrong, or at least an overly simplistic, model. The actual form of the relationship may differ fundamentally from that predicted by conventional models. Regardless of the transformations used and the precise constants and exponents assigned, the power and semi-log models both approximate relatively simple, monotonic relationships. Two critical shortcomings of such models are that they lack an asymptote (for the larger ecosystems) and that they ignore the possibility of what has been termed the small island effect. First, because isolated faunas are ultimately derived from a limited pool of species, the species-area relationship should asymptotically approach or level off at that maximum value of richness (Spool in Fig. 1). Second, ecologists including 19 noted that richness may be independent of island area for collections of relatively small islands (region a in 1, 2; see studies by 7; 39; 38; 45; 22; see also discussion of the small island effect by 4). Granted, the small island effect is not a frequently reported pattern. Yet the paucity of studies reporting this phenomenon may be attributed, at least in part, to sampling biases inherent in most biogeographic studies. That is, we tend to design biogeographic surveys to focus on islands that include an appreciable diversity of species, and then habitually apply one of the above, statistical models (power or semi-log) to summarize the overall pattern. Therefore, either we include very few islands in region a of 1, 2, or we tend to ignore the tendency for small islands to deviate from the overall trend in log-transformed space. A hypothetical, sigmoidal species-area curve based on the assumption that frequency distributions of population densities, or space and energy requirements of species, are unimodal. Species richness (the accumulative frequency distribution curve, marked by solid line) may appear independent of island area for collections of relatively small islands (i.e. the small island effect; region a) and for collections of the largest islands (region c), where richness should asymptote or level off at that of the species pool (Spool). Examples of insular biotas exhibiting what appear to be small island effects (i.e. the lack of a significant species-area relationship for the smaller islands: open circles within range in area delimited by bracket a; see Fig. 1). (a) Higher plants of the Kapingamarangi Atoll, Micronesia (19; after 25); (b) terrestrial isopods of the central Aegean islands, Greece (after 32); (c) ponerine ants of the Moluccan and Melanesian Islands (after 42); (d) land birds of the Malaysian Faunal Region (after 31); (e) non-volant mammals of old-growth, temperate rainforest fragments in Olympic National Forest, Washington, USA (after 16). These biases of survey and analytical protocols do not, however, render the small island effect irrelevant. Most islands or patches of habitat are relatively small (i.e. frequency distributions of patch size should be strongly skewed to the right; Fig. 3), yet most biogeographic studies tend to include a highly disproportionate number of large islands. In contrast, the domain of applied ecology in general, and conservation biology in particular, is largely constrained to collections of small patches of isolated or fragmented habitats. In such cases, community structure may be much more strongly influenced by features other than area, such as natural and anthropogenic disturbance, habitat characteristics within and among patches, patch shape, and degree of isolation (11; 26; 37; 17; 15, 16; 27). Frequency distribution of sizes of 123 fragments (grey shading) of old-growth, temperate rainforest of the Hoodsport District, Olympic National Forest, Washington, USA. Note that the frequency distribution of sites actually surveyed by 16; black shading, N = 20) did not differ substantially from the distribution of available fragment sizes (see corresponding species-area relationship, including small island effect, in Fig. 2-f). In most biogeographic studies, however, sampling biases (where larger islands or fragments are over-represented) may be common and may lead to under-estimation of the relative importance of small island effects and to an inability to detect the possible, sigmoidal nature of the species-area relationship. Taken together, the asymptotic nature of the species-area relationship and the possibility that small island effects are more common than presently perceived argue strongly for a fundamental change in our approach to studying this important relationship. If these phenomena are important, then the species-area relationship should be sigmoidal—with richness remaining relatively low and apparently independent of area for the smaller islands, increasing rapidly to rise through an inflection point for islands of intermediate size, and then asymptotically approaching, or leveling off at the richness of the species pool for the largest islands (Fig. 1). In addition to empirical reasons discussed above, there is an emerging body of theory that also predicts sigmoidal species-area relationships (14; 44; 40; 30; 35). Whether based on views of deterministic or stochastic community organization, these models share at least one common feature: they assume that frequency distributions of population density, energy requirements, or space use are unimodal. Given this, small island effects may correspond to a range of island sizes where resource levels are insufficient to maintain populations of most species (region a in 1, 2). On these islands, habitat characteristics, episodic disturbances, isolation and interspecific interactions are much more likely to determine how many and which of the few, space conservative species maintain populations (see 17; 37). Such features become less important as island size increases and approaches the space and energy requirements of the modal species (region b in Fig. 1). In addition to the five examples of small island effects illustrated in Fig. 2, other apparent cases of such effects include species-area relationships for birds of paramos, sky islands in the Northern Andes, birds and reptiles of the Caribbean islands, plants of Australian islands (see 29: Figs 2.12, 2.6 and 2.7), birds and mammals of the Krakatau and Sunda Shelf islands, and freshwater fish of North American lakes (see 4: Figs 13.25 and 13.22). Finally, because frequency distributions of space and energy use tend to be right-skewed (2), increments between space (i.e. area) requirements of the remaining, space and energy intensive species increases along this gradient of island size. Thus, the slope of species-area curves should decline (fewer species accumulated for each increment of area) on the larger islands (region c in Fig. 1). The origins of this view of the species-area relationship may be quite old and, ironically, may date back to Preston’s initial articulation of the ‘canonical’ pattern. His ideas on the potential sigmoidal form the species-area relationship are included in the following statements (28: 187). ‘This area is at first so small that not until we are within about 9 octaves [a measure of total number of individuals which is also an indirect measures of island area] of the mode … have we accumulated enough area to correspond to a single species. This is the beginning of the real, finite distribution. As we continue to the right [larger islands] we accumulate species rapidly; then we pass the mode and accumulate them increasingly slowly. Finally we reach a point some 9 octaves to the right of the mode where the remaining area is scarcely enough to hold one more species.’ Later in the same paper 28: 214–215) refers to what he termed ‘Vestal’s sigmoidal’ curve. ‘In 1949 Vestal in the U.S.A. and Archibald in Britain reached the conclusion that in the case of vegetation stands there was a tendency for the species-log area (Gleason) curve to be sigmoid; it began at a low slope, steepened considerably, and then became less steep. I see no reason why the effect should not sometimes exist … The possibility that such curves may exist can hardly be disputed on theoretical grounds; how often they occur in practices is a matter for observation.’ Thus, in what is certainly one of the seminal studies of the species-area relationship, Preston raised the possibility that the relationship might be sigmoidal and he called for additional empirical studies to evaluate this possibility. A number of statistical models may be used to analyse sigmoidal patterns, including logistic regression (e.g. see 30) and the extreme-value-function (40, 41). The sigmoidal-hill function, often used in physiological studies, also may provide some distinct advantages over other models. It includes three parameters, all of which are readily interpretable in this application (Smax = the maximum richness, or asymptote, Hillslope is a direct measure of the slope of the curve through the inflection point, and A50 = the area yielding a richness equal to 50\% of the maximum richness; S = Smax/[1 + (Hillslope^(Log(A50/Area)))]. All three of these parameters can be estimated using non-linear, iterative regression methods, or, if Smax is known, it can be entered as a constant in the model before estimating values for Hillslope and A50. Application of this approach to a hypothetical data set is illustrated in Fig. 4. An illustration of applying the sigmoidal hill function to analyse species-area relationships. The pattern for this hypothetical data set (n = 27) was analyzed using non-linear, iterative regression (36) and the regression model: S = Smax/ [1 + (Hillslope^(Log(A50/Area)))]; where Smax = the maximum richness, or asymptote, Hillslope is a direct measure of the slope of the curve through the inflection point, and A50 = the area yielding a richness equal to 50\% of the maximum richness. Non-linear regression yielded the following estimates for these data: Smax = 93.23 (t = 51.36, P < 0.01), Hillslope = 24.2 (t = 3.46, P < 0.05) and A50 = 199.4 (t = 25.5, P < 0.01). The foregoing discussion was based on the assumption that insular communities are largely influenced by stochastic events or deterministic, ecological forces; i.e. the immigration/extinction dynamics envisioned by 19. Yet we know that if we consider longer time scales and broader ranges of island area, then insular species richness will also be influenced by in situ speciation (see 10). This fact was well appreciated by MacArthur and Wilson and by Eugene Gordon 23, 24 in his original articulation of an equilibrium theory of island biogeography, well over a decade before 18, 19 independent development of their theory (see 4). ‘Where speciation is important, as in large islands and continents, the expected size of the fauna is exceeded, but the relationship between area and size of fauna is not lost, but accentuated.’ (24: 53) Munroe’s dissertation focused on Caribbean butterflies, and it still provides an illustrative case study of the intricacies and protean nature of the species-area relationship (see also 6 update of Munroe’s surveys). Species-area patterns of Caribbean anoles (after 17, and Losos, pers. comm., 1999) parallel those of the butterflies (Fig. 5). On smaller islands (arbitrarily chosen as those < 2,000 km2), in situ speciation should be unimportant and richness should be a function of the interplay between stochastic events such as severe storms (especially on the smallest islands) and immigration/extinction dynamics. Within such ecological temporal and spatial scales, the species-area relationship should be a curvilinear, and possibly sigmoidal relationship for reasons discussed above. An illustration of the scale-dependent nature of species-area curves for Caribbean butterflies and anoles. Species-area relationships vary in a similar manner for these faunas, but differ substantially over different ranges of island area. Collections of smaller islands (graphs a and d) appear to exhibit small island effects. The conventional approach to graph and analyze these patterns in log-transformed space (insets of c and e) masks some of the more interesting features of the species-area relationship (see Fig. 6). As we consider larger (and more isolated) islands, however, the species-area relationship should be deflected upward—or in Munroe’s terms, the relationship should be ‘accentuated’ by the effects of in situ speciation. The differences between the two curves should represent the contribution of endemic species to total richness of these insular faunas (Fig. 5, dashed versus solid lines for insular communities primarily influenced by ecological, or by both ecological and evolutionary processes, respectively). Note, however, that these potentially insightful, scale-dependent features of the species-area relationship are rendered undetectable in log-transformed space (Fig. 5 c and f, insets); i.e. the conventional approach employed by most biogeographic studies to simplify and linearize the species-area relationship. The loss of biologically meaningful and heuristically valuable information should be obvious. These questions on the fundamental nature of the species-area relationship suggest several important lines of research for both basic and applied ecologists. First, they call for a reassessment of the potential importance and generality of the small island effect and the influence of scale on the nature of the species-area relationship (see 20). While this may in some cases require altering the design of biogeographic surveys (to include a broader range of island area and greater representation of small islands), it is likely that sufficient information is available to allow a re-assessment and meta-analysis based on existing data sets. Second, existing data sets also can be analysed to compare the efficacy and heuristic value of statistical models based on power, sigmoidal or other forms of species-area curves (e.g. 30; 9). Third, such analyses can be used to search for central tendencies in parameters of these models (e.g. C, A50, and Hillslope), and to investigate whether these parameters vary in any regular manner among taxa, functional groups or ecosystem types, or across different spatial scales. Alternatively, it may prove more instructive to abandon the more traditional exercise of comparing partial slopes (i.e. z-values) of species-area curves and instead compare asymptotes of species richness (at ecological scales) or key thresholds of island area. Over a sufficiently broad range of island areas, we may detect at least two such thresholds (Fig. 6). The scale-dependent nature of the species-area relationship may best be studied by focusing on thresholds which delineate ranges of area where, (1) richness seems to be independent of area and is largely determined by stochastic factors, (area < Threshold 1), and (2) species richness is a function of immigration/extinction dynamics as envisioned by 19; range in area between Thresholds 1 and 2, or (3) islands large enough to allow in situ speciation (i.e. those beyond Threshold 2). One corresponding to the upper limit of small island effects, below which episodic disturbances and other stochastic events may play a major role in determining species richness (S appears to be largely independent of area until this threshold is exceeded). A second threshold delineating the area beyond which islands are large enough for in situ speciation to occur. Between thresholds 1 and 2, insular species richness is largely determined by immigration/extinction dynamics within ecological time scales. As island area increases beyond Threshold 2, the relative importance of evolutionary processes increases, while immigration/extinction dynamics become less important determinants of inter-island differences in species richness (see 43 and models by 10). Future studies that assess and compare such thresholds among taxa or archipelagoes are likely to provide some fundamental insights into the forces structuring isolated and fragmented ecosystems over a broad range of temporal and spatial scales. What was thought to be most general pattern in ecology and biogeography, one studied for over two centuries, may prove to be much more complex than we have appreciated. This complexity may be disheartening to some, rendering simple analyses and comparisons of one statistical parameter (z), highly suspect. Others, however, will likely embrace this complexity as a more accurate reflection of the complexity of nature and the combined, scale-dependent influences of stochastic factors, immigration and extinction dynamics, and speciation. the of this I from National and Losos, and and comments on the discussed", url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00377.x", doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00377.x", openalex = "W2070319443", references = "doi101038sjhdy6885841, doi101086283438, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101111j20060906759004272x, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023071931976, doi1023072255763, doi105860choice290892, doi105860choice332720, openalexw1596646469" } @book{doi101093oso97801985052350010001, author = "Schluter, Dolph", title = "The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation", year = "2000", abstract = "Abstract Adaptive radiation is a spectacular feature of evolution. It is also widespread, more so than the list of familiar cases, including the Galapagos finches, the cichlid fishes of East African lakes, and the Hawaiian silversword alliance, alone would suggest. Much of life’s diversity, perhaps even most of it, has arisen during similar episodes of speciation and phenotypic and ecological divergence. My main goal in this book is to assess how far we have come in understanding the causes of this remarkable process. Before I began the book I held the naive notion that my years of study on the Galapagos finches, where my fascination with adaptive radiation began, on African and American finches, and more recently on fishes of postglacial lakes, had taught me enough about adaptive radiation that my task would involve little more than writing down all I knew before I forgot it. As the book got underway the limits of my knowledge became distressingly apparent, and I now feel I learned most of its contents along the way. Here I aim to put the results of many studies together to ask whether they conform or contra st with the dominant ‘ecological’ theory of adaptive radiation that was formulated in the first half of the last century.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198505235.001.0001", doi = "10.1093/oso/9780198505235.001.0001", openalex = "W1603923763" } @article{doi101146annurevecolsys311565, author = "Stowe, Kirk A. and Marquis, Robert J. and Hochwender, Cris G. and Simms, Ellen L.", title = "The Evolutionary Ecology of Tolerance to Consumer Damage", year = "2000", journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics", abstract = "▪ Abstract Recent theoretical studies suggest that the ability to tolerate consumer damage can be an important adaptive response by plants to selection imposed by consumers. Empirical studies have also found that tolerance is a common response to consumers among plants. Currently recognized mechanisms underlying tolerance include several general sets of traits: allocation patterns; plant architecture; and various other traits that may respond to consumer damage, e.g., photosynthetic rate. Theoretical studies suggest that tolerance to consumer damage may be favored under a range of conditions, even when the risk and intensity of damage varies. However, most of these models assume that the evolution of tolerance is constrained by internal resource allocation trade-offs. While there is some empirical evidence for such trade-offs, it is also clear that external constraints such as pollinator abundance or nutrient availability may also limit the evolution of tolerance. Current research also suggests that a full understanding of plant adaptation to consumers can only be achieved by investigating the joint evolution of tolerance and resistance. While tolerance to consumer damage has just recently received significant attention in the ecological literature, our understanding of it is rapidly increasing as its profound ecological and evolutionary implications become better appreciated.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.565", doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.565", openalex = "W2096952029", references = "doi101086284531" } @article{doi101146annurevento45183, author = "Huryn, Alexander D. and Wallace, J. Bruce", title = "Life History and Production of Stream Insects", year = "2000", journal = "Annual Review of Entomology", abstract = "Studies of the production of stream insects are now numerous, and general factors controlling the secondary production of stream communities are becoming evident. In this review we focus on how life-history attributes influence the production dynamics of stream insects and other macroinvertebrates. Annual production of macroinvertebrate communities in streams world-wide ranges from approximately 10(0) to 10(3) g dry mass m-2. High levels are reported for communities dominated by filter feeders in temperate streams. Filter feeding enables the accrual and support of high biomass, which drives the very highest production. Frequently disturbed communities in warm-temperate streams are also highly productive. Biomass accrual by macroinvertebrates is limited in these streams, and production is driven by rapid growth rates rather than high biomass. The lowest production, reported for macroinvertebrate communities of cool-temperate and arctic streams, is due to the constraints of low seasonal temperatures and nutrient or food limitation. Geographical bias, paucity of community-wide studies, and limited knowledge of the effects of biotic interactions limit current understanding of mechanisms controlling stream productivity.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.83", doi = "10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.83", openalex = "W2108667207", references = "doi1010800028833019909516432, doi1023071467649" } @book{doi1015159781400881376, author = "MacArthur, Robert H. and Wilson, Edward O.", title = "The Theory of Island Biogeography", year = "2001", booktitle = "Princeton University Press eBooks", abstract = {Biogeography was stuck in a "natural history phase" dominated by the collection of data, the young Princeton biologists Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson argued in 1967. In this book, the authors developed a general theory to explain the facts of island biogeography. The theory builds on the first principles of population ecology and genetics to explain how distance and area combine to regulate the balance between immigration and extinction in island populations. The authors then test the theory against data. The Theory of Island Biogeography was never intended as the last word on the subject. Instead, MacArthur and Wilson sought to stimulate new forms of theoretical and empirical studies, which will lead in turn to a stronger general theory. Even a third of a century since its publication, the book continues to serve that purpose well. From popular books like David Quammen's Song of the Dodo to arguments in the professional literature, The Theory of Island Biogeography remains at the center of discussions about the geographic distribution of species. In a new preface, Edward O. Wilson reviews the origins and consequences of this classic book.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400881376", doi = "10.1515/9781400881376", openalex = "W1936774573", references = "doi101111j155856461967tb00125x, doi105962bhltitle48635, openalexw2962976424" } @article{doi101644154515422001082024720co2, title = "An Illustrated Guide to Theoretical Ecology", year = "2001", journal = "Journal of Mammalogy", abstract = "PART I: POPULATION ECOLOGY 1. Exponential and Geometric Population Growth 2. Spatial, Temporal, and Individual Variation in Birth and Death Rates 3. Population Growth and Age Structure 4. Demographic Relationships 5. Density Dependent Population Growth 6. Population Regulation, Limiting Factors, and Temporal Variability 7. Life History Trade-offs 8. Reproductive Value and the Evolutionary Theory of Ageing 9. Density Dependent Selection on Life History Traits PART II: SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND COMMUNITY ECOLOGY 10. Predator-Prey Systems: The Dynamics of Exploited Prey 11. The Mechanics of Predation 12. Predator-Prey Systems: Predator Dynamics and Effects on Prey 13. Stability of Predator-Prey Systems: Analytical Methods 14. Competitors 15. Multi-species Dynamics 16. Space, Islands, and Metapopulations (with Mike Gilpin) PART III: APPENDICES Appendix 1: Preparation, Part 1: Visualizing Equations Preparation, Part 2: Terms and Methods of Model Building in Population Dynamics Appendix 2: Some Matrix Operations Appendix 3: Solving for Equilibrium Points in Dynamical Systems and Finding the Inverse of a Square Matrix Appendix 4: Some Useful Mathematical Identities Appendix 5: Some Stochastic Distributions and Their Properties", url = "https://doi.org/10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0247:>2.0.co;2", doi = "10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0247:>2.0.co;2", openalex = "W1488045558", references = "doi101101sqb195702201017, doi1023071358, doi1023071541415, doi104039ent912935" } @article{doi1018900012965820020830612pcicim20co2, author = "Peckarsky, Barbara L. and McIntosh, Angus R. and Taylor, Brad W. and Dahl, Jonas", title = "PREDATOR CHEMICALS INDUCE CHANGES IN MAYFLY LIFE HISTORY TRAITS: A WHOLE-STREAM MANIPULATION", year = "2002", journal = "Ecology", abstract = "In high-elevation streams of western Colorado, mayflies (Baetis bicaudatus) develop faster, but mature at a smaller size where trout are present compared to streams where fish are absent. These life history traits reduce the time of larval exposure to trout predation, but cost reduced fecundity. We designed a field experiment involving manipulation of whole streams to determine whether these changes were caused by the presence of brook trout, and specifically, whether they could be triggered by trout chemical cues. In 1999 and 2000, we introduced water from containers with brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) into five naturally fishless streams, and fishless stream water into five adjacent control streams, to determine whether these cues alone could induce the mayfly life history traits we have observed in natural trout streams. As in previous small-scale experiments, the size at which mayflies matured declined significantly in streams with added trout chemicals but did not change in streams with fishless water only. Thus, life history traits similar to those observed in the field were induced within the natural variability inherent in streams. These results demonstrate the strength of this predator–prey interaction and indicate that brook trout are an important agent of natural selection on mayfly life history traits.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0612:pcicim]2.0.co;2", doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0612:pcicim]2.0.co;2", openalex = "W2107607075", references = "doi1010800028833019919516470" } @article{doi101016jtree200310005, author = "Suding, Katharine N. and Gross, Katherine L. and Houseman, Gregory R.", title = "Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology", year = "2003", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.005", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.005", openalex = "W2160537686" } @article{doi101016jtree200310013, author = "Johnson, Jerald B. and Omland, Kristian Shawn", title = "Model selection in ecology and evolution", year = "2003", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.013", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.013", openalex = "W2146081698", references = "doi101007978146121694015, doi10108000063659909477239, doi101080106351501753462876, doi101093genetics1551431, doi101126science1065889, doi101126science1483671754, doi101146annurevge22120188002513, doi1023072937171, doi1023073802723, doi1023073803199, doi105860choice351501, doi105860choice375647, openalexw1546962148, openalexw3041231242" } @article{doi101016jtree200409011, author = "Wiens, John J. and Donoghue, Michael J.", title = "Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness", year = "2004", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.09.011", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2004.09.011", openalex = "W2126611358", references = "doi1010029780470999592, doi10100797814615678136, doi101086282487, doi101111j109583122001tb01368x, doi101111j155856461982tb05453x, doi101126science1067179, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi101146annurevecolsys34012103144032, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023071446122, doi1023071940431, doi1023072413039, doi1023073071998, openalexw1498087204, openalexw2273605253" } @article{doi101890039000, author = "Brown, James H. and Gillooly, James F. and Allen, Andrew P. and Savage, Van M. and West, Geoffrey B.", title = "TOWARD A METABOLIC THEORY OF ECOLOGY", year = "2004", journal = "Ecology", abstract = "Metabolism provides a basis for using first principles of physics, chemistry, and biology to link the biology of individual organisms to the ecology of populations, communities, and ecosystems. Metabolic rate, the rate at which organisms take up, transform, and expend energy and materials, is the most fundamental biological rate. We have developed a quantitative theory for how metabolic rate varies with body size and temperature. Metabolic theory predicts how metabolic rate, by setting the rates of resource uptake from the environment and resource allocation to survival, growth, and reproduction, controls ecological processes at all levels of organization from individuals to the biosphere. Examples include: (1) life history attributes, including development rate, mortality rate, age at maturity, life span, and population growth rate; (2) population interactions, including carrying capacity, rates of competition and predation, and patterns of species diversity; and (3) ecosystem processes, including rates of biomass production and respiration and patterns of trophic dynamics. Data compiled from the ecological literature strongly support the theoretical predictions. Eventually, metabolic theory may provide a conceptual foundation for much of ecology, just as genetic theory provides a foundation for much of evolutionary biology.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/03-9000", doi = "10.1890/03-9000", openalex = "W2114795157", references = "doi101007bf00344996, doi101007bf00386231, doi101016c20120016547, doi101017cbo9780511565403, doi101017cbo9780511608551, doi101038118558a0, doi101038119012b0, doi10103823251, doi10103835098076, doi101086282063, doi101086282171, doi101086285144, doi101086285270, doi101086381872, doi101093geronj113298, doi101126science1061967, doi101126science1643877262, doi101126science24148721441, doi101126science2765309122, doi101126science28454201677, doi101242jeb9711, doi1015159781400885695, doi1023071930126, doi1023072298330, doi1023072532815, doi1023073071998, doi103733hilgv06n11p315, doi105860choice324498, doi105962bhltitle4489, openalexw1558456135, openalexw1577806554, openalexw2145250129, openalexw656806957" } @article{doi101017s1464793105006871, author = "Peck, Lloyd S. and Convey, Peter and Barnes, David K. A.", title = "Environmental constraints on life histories in Antarctic ecosystems: tempos, timings and predictability", year = "2005", journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society", abstract = "Knowledge of Antarctic biotas and environments has increased dramatically in recent years. There has also been a rapid increase in the use of novel technologies. Despite this, some fundamental aspects of environmental control that structure physiological, ecological and life-history traits in Antarctic organisms have received little attention. Possibly the most important of these is the timing and availability of resources, and the way in which this dictates the tempo or pace of life. The clearest view of this effect comes from comparisons of species living in different habitats. Here, we (i) show that the timing and extent of resource availability, from nutrients to colonisable space, differ across Antarctic marine, intertidal and terrestrial habitats, and (ii) illustrate that these differences affect the rate at which organisms function. Consequently, there are many dramatic biological differences between organisms that live as little as 10 m apart, but have gaping voids between them ecologically. Identifying the effects of environmental timing and predictability requires detailed analysis in a wide context, where Antarctic terrestrial and marine ecosystems are at one extreme of the continuum of available environments for many characteristics including temperature, ice cover and seasonality. Anthropocentrically, Antarctica is harsh and as might be expected terrestrial animal and plant diversity and biomass are restricted. By contrast, Antarctic marine biotas are rich and diverse, and several phyla are represented at levels greater than global averages. There has been much debate on the relative importance of various physical factors that structure the characteristics of Antarctic biotas. This is especially so for temperature and seasonality, and their effects on physiology, life history and biodiversity. More recently, habitat age and persistence through previous ice maxima have been identified as key factors dictating biodiversity and endemism. Modern molecular methods have also recently been incorporated into many traditional areas of polar biology. Environmental predictability dictates many of the biological characters seen in all of these areas of Antarctic research.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1464793105006871", doi = "10.1017/s1464793105006871", openalex = "W2162114355", references = "doi101016s0169534799016882, openalexw2980052577" } @article{doi101111j13652699200501314x, author = "Lomolino, Mark V.", title = "Body size evolution in insular vertebrates: generality of the island rule", year = "2005", journal = "Journal of Biogeography", abstract = "Abstract Aim My goals here are to (1) assess the generality of the island rule – the graded trend from gigantism in small species to dwarfism in larger species – for mammals and other terrestrial vertebrates on islands and island‐like ecosystems; (2) explore some related patterns of body size variation in insular vertebrates, in particular variation in body size as a function of island area and isolation; (3) offer causal explanations for these patterns; and (4) identify promising areas for future studies on body size evolution in insular vertebrates. Location Oceanic and near‐shore archipelagos, and island‐like ecosystems world‐wide. Methods Body size measurements of insular vertebrates (non‐volant mammals, bats, birds, snakes and turtles) were obtained from the literature, and then regression analyses were conducted to test whether body size of insular populations varies as a function of body size of the species on the mainland (the island rule) and with characteristics of the islands (i.e. island isolation and area). Results The island rule appears to be a general phenomenon both with mammalian orders (and to some degree within families and particular subfamilies) as well as across the species groups studied, including non‐volant mammals, bats, passerine birds, snakes and turtles. In addition, body size of numerous species in these classes of vertebrates varies significantly with island isolation and island area. Main conclusions The patterns observed here – the island rule and the tendency for body size among populations of particular species to vary with characteristics of the islands – are actually distinct and scale‐dependent phenomena. Patterns within archipelagos reflect the influence of island isolation and area on selective pressures (immigration filters, resource limitation, and intra‐ and interspecific interactions) within particular species. These patterns contribute to variation about the general trend referred to as the island rule, not the signal for that more general, large‐scale pattern. The island rule itself is an emergent pattern resulting from a combination of selective forces whose importance and influence on insular populations vary in a predictable manner along a gradient from relatively small to large species. As a result, body size of insular species tends to converge on a size that is optimal, or fundamental, for a particular bau plan and ecological strategy.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01314.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01314.x", openalex = "W2127677734", references = "doi1010029780470999592, doi1010160169534795900330, doi101038202234a0, doi101038nature02999, doi101038sjhdy6885841, doi101086285558, doi1023072412740, doi105860choice330294, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, doi107312rens91062, openalexw1596646469, openalexw2145250129" } @article{doi101016jtree200602002, author = "McGill, Brian J. and Enquist, Brian J. and Weiher, Evan and Westoby, Mark", title = "Rebuilding community ecology from functional traits", year = "2006", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.002", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.002", openalex = "W2107625277", references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi101038nature02403, doi101086283633, doi101086285558, doi101086381872, doi101111j14610248200400608x, doi101111j155856461953tb00072x, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi1015159780691206912, doi101890039000, doi1023073803199, openalexw1558456135, openalexw2062594085, openalexw2169917233, openalexw2971318137" } @article{doi101093molbevmsl150, author = "Benton, Michael J. and Donoghue, Philip C. J.", title = "Paleontological Evidence to Date the Tree of Life", year = "2006", journal = "Molecular Biology and Evolution", abstract = {The role of fossils in dating the tree of life has been misunderstood. Fossils can provide good "minimum" age estimates for branches in the tree, but "maximum" constraints on those ages are poorer. Current debates about which are the "best" fossil dates for calibration move to consideration of the most appropriate constraints on the ages of tree nodes. Because fossil-based dates are constraints, and because molecular evolution is not perfectly clock-like, analysts should use more rather than fewer dates, but there has to be a balance between many genes and few dates versus many dates and few genes. We provide "hard" minimum and "soft" maximum age constraints for 30 divergences among key genome model organisms; these should contribute to better understanding of the dating of the animal tree of life.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msl150", doi = "10.1093/molbev/msl150", openalex = "W2061352595", references = "doi101007bf02101113, doi101007bf02101694, doi1010160031018279901639, doi1010160169534789901626, doi101016b9780444594259000196, doi101016b9780444594259000238, doi101016b9780444594259000287, doi101016b9781483227344500176, doi101016jtig200403007, doi101016jtoxlet200611011, doi101016jtree200504008, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017cbo9780511536045020, doi101017s000632310000548x, doi101017s009483730000508x, doi101017s1464793102006103, doi101038260293a0, doi10103835054550, doi10103835084063, doi101038371306a0, doi101038377720a0, doi101038416816a, doi10103846965, doi101038nature00879, doi101038nature01264, doi101038nature01420, doi101038nature03150, doi101038nature04890, doi101071zo9550654, doi101073pnas0334222100, doi10108002724634199110011426, doi101098rstb19990489, doi101111j109636421985tb01796x, doi101111j109636421995tb00932x, doi101126science1107765, doi101126science147365368, doi101126science1503697743, doi101126science17740541065, doi101371journalpbio0040088, doi1015159781400881376, doi101643004585112002002053220co2, doi105281zenodo16171435, doi105860choice332720, doi105860choice355657, doi105860choice405235, doi105860choice432801, openalexw1587561751, openalexw1599677799, openalexw1900040508, openalexw78894702" } @article{doi101371journalpbio0040321, author = "Millien, Virginie", title = "Morphological Evolution Is Accelerated among Island Mammals", year = "2006", journal = "PLoS Biology", abstract = "Dramatic evolutionary changes occur in species isolated on islands, but it is not known if the rate of evolution is accelerated on islands relative to the mainland. Based on an extensive review of the literature, I used the fossil record combined with data from living species to test the hypothesis of an accelerated morphological evolution among island mammals. I demonstrate that rates of morphological evolution are significantly greater--up to a factor of 3.1--for islands than for mainland mammal populations. The tendency for faster evolution on islands holds over relatively short time scales--from a few decades up to several thousands of years--but not over larger ones--up to 12 million y. These analyses form the first empirical test of the long held supposition of accelerated evolution among island mammals. Moreover, this result shows that mammal species have the intrinsic capacity to evolve faster when confronted with a rapid change in their environment. This finding is relevant to our understanding of species' responses to isolation and destruction of natural habitats within the current context of rapid climate warming.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040321", doi = "10.1371/journal.pbio.0040321", openalex = "W2151998529", references = "doi101038202234a0, doi101038nature02999, doi101111j13652699200501314x, doi101111j14610248200500812x, doi101111j155856461999tb04550x, doi1012019781315273075, doi101256004316502320517344, doi10230720033020, doi1023072533527" } @article{doi101890040645, author = "Hobbs, N. Thompson and Hilborn, Ray", title = "Alternatives To Statistical Hypothesis Testing In Ecology: A Guide To Self Teaching", year = "2006", journal = "Ecological Applications", abstract = "Statistical methods emphasizing formal hypothesis testing have dominated the analyses used by ecologists to gain insight from data. Here, we review alternatives to hypothesis testing including techniques for parameter estimation and model selection using likelihood and Bayesian techniques. These methods emphasize evaluation of weight of evidence for multiple hypotheses, multimodel inference, and use of prior information in analysis. We provide a tutorial for maximum likelihood estimation of model parameters and model selection using information theoretics, including a brief treatment of procedures for model comparison, model averaging, and use of data from multiple sources. We discuss the advantages of likelihood estimation, Bayesian analysis, and meta-analysis as ways to accumulate understanding across multiple studies. These statistical methods hold promise for new insight in ecology by encouraging thoughtful model building as part of inquiry, providing a unified framework for the empirical analysis of theoretical models, and by facilitating the formal accumulation of evidence bearing on fundamental questions.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0645", doi = "10.1890/04-0645", openalex = "W1966269030", references = "doi101644154515422001082024720co2" } @article{doi101098rspb20071056, author = "Meiri, Shai and Cooper, Natalie and Purvis, Andy", title = "The island rule: made to be broken?", year = "2007", journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences", abstract = "The island rule is a hypothesis whereby small mammals evolve larger size on islands while large insular mammals dwarf. The rule is believed to emanate from small mammals growing larger to control more resources and enhance metabolic efficiency, while large mammals evolve smaller size to reduce resource requirements and increase reproductive output. We show that there is no evidence for the existence of the island rule when phylogenetic comparative methods are applied to a large, high-quality dataset. Rather, there are just a few clade-specific patterns: carnivores; heteromyid rodents; and artiodactyls typically evolve smaller size on islands whereas murid rodents usually grow larger. The island rule is probably an artefact of comparing distantly related groups showing clade-specific responses to insularity. Instead of a rule, size evolution on islands is likely to be governed by the biotic and abiotic characteristics of different islands, the biology of the species in question and contingency.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2007.1056", doi = "10.1098/rspb.2007.1056", openalex = "W2156762362", references = "doi101111j13652699200501314x" } @article{doi101111j1469185x200700010x, author = "Réale, D. and Reader, S. and Sol, D. and McDougall, P. T. and Dingemanse, N.", title = "Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution", year = "2007", journal = "Biological Reviews", abstract = "Temperament describes the idea that individual behavioural differences are repeatable over time and across situations. This common phenomenon covers numerous traits, such as aggressiveness, avoidance of novelty, willingness to take risks, exploration, and sociality. The study of temperament is central to animal psychology, behavioural genetics, pharmacology, and animal husbandry, but relatively few studies have examined the ecology and evolution of temperament traits. This situation is surprising, given that temperament is likely to exert an important influence on many aspects of animal ecology and evolution, and that individual variation in temperament appears to be pervasive amongst animal species. Possible explanations for this neglect of temperament include a perceived irrelevance, an insufficient understanding of the link between temperament traits and fitness, and a lack of coherence in terminology with similar traits often given different names, or different traits given the same name. We propose that temperament can and should be studied within an evolutionary ecology framework and provide a terminology that could be used as a working tool for ecological studies of temperament. Our terminology includes five major temperament trait categories: shyness‐boldness, exploration‐avoidance, activity, sociability and aggressiveness. This terminology does not make inferences regarding underlying dispositions or psychological processes, which may have restrained ecologists and evolutionary biologists from working on these traits. We present extensive literature reviews that demonstrate that temperament traits are heritable, and linked to fitness and to several other traits of importance to ecology and evolution. Furthermore, we describe ecologically relevant measurement methods and point to several ecological and evolutionary topics that would benefit from considering temperament, such as phenotypic plasticity, conservation biology, population sampling, and invasion biology.", url = "https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/25732/reader\_07\_integratinganimaltemperament.pdf?sequence=1\&isAllowed=y", doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00010.x", is_oa = "true", number = "2", pages = "291-318", semanticscholar_citation_count = "3268", semanticscholar_id = "6c8a3a23a9dda76402597d002ba0ca649befabe0", volume = "82" } @article{doi1018900601501, author = "Newsome, Seth D. and Rio, Carlos M. Del and Bearhop, Stuart and Phillips, Donald L.", title = "A niche for isotopic ecology", year = "2007", journal = "Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment", abstract = "Fifty years ago, GE Hutchinson defined the ecological niche as a hypervolume in n-dimensional space with environmental variables as axes. Ecologists have recently developed renewed interest in the concept, and technological advances now allow us to use stable isotope analyses to quantify these niche dimensions. Analogously, we define the isotopic niche as an area (in δ-space) with isotopic values (δ-values) as coordinates. To make isotopic measurements comparable to other niche formulations, we propose transforming δ-space to p-space, where axes represent relative proportions of isotopically distinct resources incorporated into an animal's tissues. We illustrate the isotopic niche with two examples: the application of historic ecology to conservation biology and ontogenetic niche shifts. Sustaining renewed interest in the niche requires novel methods to measure the variables that define it. Stable isotope analyses are a natural, perhaps crucial, tool in contemporary studies of the ecological niche.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/060150.1", doi = "10.1890/060150.1", openalex = "W1978380534", references = "doi101146annurevearth261573, doi1018900012965820020832936milrs20co2" } @article{openalexw2117551548, author = "Adams, William M. and Hutton, Jon", title = "People, Parks and Poverty: Political Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation", year = "2007", journal = "Digital Library Of The Commons Repository (Indiana University)", abstract = {"Action to conserve biodiversity, particularly through the creation of protected areas (PAs), is inherently political. Political ecology is a field of study that embraces the interactions between the way nature is understood and the politics and impacts of environmental action. This paper explores the political ecology of conservation, particularly the establishment of PAs. It discusses the implications of the idea of pristine nature, the social impacts of and the politics of PA establishment and the way the benefits and costs of PAs are allocated. It considers three key political issues in contemporary international conservation policy: the rights of indigenous people, the relationship between biodiversity conservation and the reduction of poverty, and the arguments of those advocating a return to conventional PAs that exclude people."}, openalex = "W2117551548", references = "doi101111j13669516200500143x, doi105860choice330904, openalexw1546506088" } @article{doi101163156853908792451539, author = "Heins, David C. and King, Richard and Baker, John A. and Foster, Susan A.", title = "An overview of life-history variation in female threespine stickleback", year = "2008", journal = "Behaviour", abstract = "[The threespine stickleback superspecies has become a model for evolutionary studies of morphology, behaviour, early-life development and host–parasite relationships. Its potential value for studying life-history evolution is also great. Fourteen years ago, a review of female stickleback life-history illustrated both the potential of the system to inform life-history evolution, and the limitations of the data at the time. In the succeeding years much more information has become available, especially from northwestern North America. Additionally, much more information is now available for the ancestral marine stickleback, a deficiency that was highlighted in the first stickleback book. One purpose of this review was to update information on female life history in the species. To this end, variation in the major life-history correlates (reproductive effort, clutch size, egg size and age/size at reproduction) is described, and a description of geographical structuring of this variation is provided. A second goal was to go beyond variation in individual traits to explore variation in trait correlations. The review ends with an exploration of allometric relationships between life-history traits and female size., The threespine stickleback superspecies has become a model for evolutionary studies of morphology, behaviour, early-life development and host–parasite relationships. Its potential value for studying life-history evolution is also great. Fourteen years ago, a review of female stickleback life-history illustrated both the potential of the system to inform life-history evolution, and the limitations of the data at the time. In the succeeding years much more information has become available, especially from northwestern North America. Additionally, much more information is now available for the ancestral marine stickleback, a deficiency that was highlighted in the first stickleback book. One purpose of this review was to update information on female life history in the species. To this end, variation in the major life-history correlates (reproductive effort, clutch size, egg size and age/size at reproduction) is described, and a description of geographical structuring of this variation is provided. A second goal was to go beyond variation in individual traits to explore variation in trait correlations. The review ends with an exploration of allometric relationships between life-history traits and female size.]", url = "https://doi.org/10.1163/156853908792451539", doi = "10.1163/156853908792451539", openalex = "W2043410477", references = "doi101139z72099" } @article{doi101073pnas0810306106, author = "Kier, Gerold and Kreft, Holger and Lee, Tien Ming and Jetz, Walter and Ibisch, Pierre L. and Nowicki, Christoph and Mutke, Jens and Barthlott, Wilhelm", title = "A global assessment of endemism and species richness across island and mainland regions", year = "2009", journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", abstract = {Endemism and species richness are highly relevant to the global prioritization of conservation efforts in which oceanic islands have remained relatively neglected. When compared to mainland areas, oceanic islands in general are known for their high percentage of endemic species but only moderate levels of species richness, prompting the question of their relative conservation value. Here we quantify geographic patterns of endemism-scaled richness ("endemism richness") of vascular plants across 90 terrestrial biogeographic regions, including islands, worldwide and evaluate their congruence with terrestrial vertebrates. Endemism richness of plants and vertebrates is strongly related, and values on islands exceed those of mainland regions by a factor of 9.5 and 8.1 for plants and vertebrates, respectively. Comparisons of different measures of past and future human impact and land cover change further reveal marked differences between mainland and island regions. While island and mainland regions suffered equally from past habitat loss, we find the human impact index, a measure of current threat, to be significantly higher on islands. Projected land-cover changes for the year 2100 indicate that land-use-driven changes on islands might strongly increase in the future. Given their conservation risks, smaller land areas, and high levels of endemism richness, islands may offer particularly high returns for species conservation efforts and therefore warrant a high priority in global biodiversity conservation in this century.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0810306106", doi = "10.1073/pnas.0810306106", openalex = "W2037682422", references = "doi101017s1464793103006171, doi101073pnas0608361104, doi101111j13669516200500143x, doi101126science1127609" } @article{doi101098rstb20090012, author = "Post, David M. and Palkovacs, Eric P.", title = "Eco-evolutionary feedbacks in community and ecosystem ecology: interactions between the ecological theatre and the evolutionary play", year = "2009", journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences", abstract = "Interactions between natural selection and environmental change are well recognized and sit at the core of ecology and evolutionary biology. Reciprocal interactions between ecology and evolution, eco-evolutionary feedbacks, are less well studied, even though they may be critical for understanding the evolution of biological diversity, the structure of communities and the function of ecosystems. Eco-evolutionary feedbacks require that populations alter their environment (niche construction) and that those changes in the environment feed back to influence the subsequent evolution of the population. There is strong evidence that organisms influence their environment through predation, nutrient excretion and habitat modification, and that populations evolve in response to changes in their environment at time-scales congruent with ecological change (contemporary evolution). Here, we outline how the niche construction and contemporary evolution interact to alter the direction of evolution and the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. We then present five empirical systems that highlight important characteristics of eco-evolutionary feedbacks: rotifer–algae chemostats; alewife–zooplankton interactions in lakes; guppy life-history evolution and nutrient cycling in streams; avian seed predators and plants; and tree leaf chemistry and soil processes. The alewife–zooplankton system provides the most complete evidence for eco-evolutionary feedbacks, but other systems highlight the potential for eco-evolutionary feedbacks in a wide variety of natural systems.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0012", doi = "10.1098/rstb.2009.0012", openalex = "W2113720451", references = "doi101007978146124018114, doi101016b0122268652001759, doi101016s016953470102198x, doi101086282400, doi101111j13652435200701275x, doi101111j13652435200701278x, doi101111j13652435200701289x, doi101126science150369228, doi101146annurevecolsys31179, doi1015159781400847266, doi1023071312990, doi1023073545850, doi107208chicago97802261186970010001, openalexw1973833797, openalexw2040817479" } @article{doi101111j13652664200801601x, author = "Bergstrom, Dana M. and Lucieer, Arko and Kiefer, Kate and Wasley, Jane and Belbin, Lee and Pedersen, Tore K. and Chown, Steven L.", title = "Indirect effects of invasive species removal devastate World Heritage Island", year = "2009", journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology", abstract = "Summary Owing to the detrimental impacts of invasive alien species, their control is often a priority for conservation management. Whereas the potential for unforeseen consequences of management is recognized, their associated complexity and costs are less widely appreciated. We demonstrate that theoretically plausible trophic cascades associated with invasive species removal not only take place in reality, but can also result in rapid and drastic landscape‐wide changes to ecosystems. Using a combination of population data from of an invasive herbivore, plot‐scale vegetation analyses, and satellite imagery, we show how a management intervention to eradicate a mesopredator has inadvertently and rapidly precipitated landscape‐wide change on sub‐Antarctic Macquarie Island. This happened despite the eradication being positioned within an integrated pest management framework. Following eradication of cats Felis catus in 2001, rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus numbers increased substantially although a control action was in place (Myxoma virus), resulting in island‐wide ecosystem effects. Synthesis and applications. Our results highlight an important lesson for conservation agencies working to eradicate invasive species globally; that is, risk assessment of management interventions must explicitly consider and plan for their indirect effects, or face substantial subsequent costs. On Macquarie Island, the cost of further conservation action will exceed AU$24 million.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01601.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01601.x", openalex = "W2098282696", references = "doi101016s0169534799016882" } @article{doi101146annurevecolsys110308120317, author = "Sexton, Jason P. and McIntyre, Patrick J. and Angert, Amy L. and Rice, Kevin J.", title = "Evolution and Ecology of Species Range Limits", year = "2009", journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics", abstract = "Species range limits involve many aspects of evolution and ecology, from species distribution and abundance to the evolution of niches. Theory suggests myriad processes by which range limits arise, including competitive exclusion, Allee effects, and gene swamping; however, most models remain empirically untested. Range limits are correlated with a number of abiotic and biotic factors, but further experimentation is needed to understand underlying mechanisms. Range edges are characterized by increased genetic isolation, genetic differentiation, and variability in individual and population performance, but evidence for decreased abundance and fitness is lacking. Evolution of range limits is understudied in natural systems; in particular, the role of gene flow in shaping range limits is unknown. Biological invasions and rapid distribution shifts caused by climate change represent large-scale experiments on the underlying dynamics of range limits. A better fusion of experimentation and theory will advance our understanding of the causes of range limits.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120317", doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120317", openalex = "W2138877869", references = "doi1010160169534794902488, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101046j14610248200200297x, doi101046j15231739199206030324x, doi101093biomet3812196, doi101093oso97801985264070010001, doi101098rspa19270118, doi101111j14610248200500739x, doi101111j14610248200801277x, doi101111j146918091937tb02153x, doi101126science2925517673, doi101146annurevecolsys271597, doi101146annurevecolsys37091305110100, doi101146annurevecolsys39110707173430, doi1015159780691209418, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023072408012, doi102307jctvx5wbbh, doi105962bhltitle59991, openalexw2151235472" } @article{doi101002tax595003, author = "Givnish, Thomas J.", title = "Ecology of plant speciation", year = "2010", journal = "Taxon", abstract = "Abstract Ecology affects each of the three principal processes leading to speciation: genetic differentiation among populations within species, acquisition of reproductive isolation among populations, and the rise of ecological differentiation among such populations, allowing them to coexist. Until recently, however, the ties between ecology and speciation in plants have received relatively little attention. This paper reviews some exciting new insights into the role of ecology in speciation, focusing on the angiosperms. I consider five main topics, including (1) the determinants of the spatial scale of genetic differentiation within species; (2) the role and limits of adaptive radiation in increasing net rates of plant diversification; (3) the potential role of ecological speciation; (4) the contributions of hybridization to speciation, adaptive radiation, and the ecological breadth of clades; and (5) the ecological determinants of net diversification rate for individual lineages, and of the species richness for regional floras. Limited dispersal, especially of seeds, favors genetic differentiation at small spatial scales and is likely to foster rapid speciation and narrow endemism. Meta­analyses show that the minimum area required for in situ speciation on islands increases with the spatial scale of gene flow in various organisms. In angiosperms, fleshy fruits dispersed by vertebrates often increase the distance over which seeds are dispersed, but can decrease it in forest understories. Nutrient‐poor soils should work against the evolution of fleshy fruits and promote speciation and narrow endemism. Selection for adaptation to different conditions drives adaptive radiation, the rise of a diversity of ecological roles and attendant adaptations within a lineage. On islands, adaptive radiation often leads to woodiness, monocarpy, developmental heterophylly, and sexual dimorphism, as well as differences in habitat, growth form, and floral morphology. Adaptive radiation appears to accelerate speciation in only some plant clades. Extensive radiation in some lineages has been ascribed to early colonization, large amounts of heritable genetic variation, “genetic lines of least resistance” upon which selection could act, absence of potential competitors, and possession of “key innovations” that provide access to novel resources. To these should be added large island area, organismal abundance, saturation of ecological space, and the synergism action of limited dispersal and divergent selection producing parallel radiations in isolated regions. Data for Hawaiian lobeliads suggest that within­island species richness of Cyanea—involving divergence in elevation and flower tube length—saturates within 0.6 and 1.5 Ma. Adaptive radiation in pollinators is an important mechanism of ecological speciation: adaptation to different pollinators leads to pollinator partitioning and reproductive isolation. Selection for longer nectar spurs and pollinator mouth parts led to increased speciation in Aquilegia and other groups. A similar process may work once tubular flowers evolve from cup­shaped blossoms. Selection for floral divergence may be limited in forest understories illuminated by dim, greenish light, which may account for the predominance of small, visually inconspicuous flowers in temperate and tropical understory species. Hybridization can stimulate speciation by forming transgressive phenotypes that exceed the range seen in parental taxa, and by introgressing adaptive gene combinations. The likelihood of transgressive phenotypes increases with the genetic divergence between parental taxa, so speciation via transgressive hybridization may be most likely among taxa with intermediate amounts of divergence. Several large adaptive radiations appear to have occurred after hybridization, suggesting a special role for the extensive amount of genetic variation that can be supplied and refreshed by syngameons. Rates of net species diversification are greater in herbs (especially annuals) vs. woody plants; in animal­ vs. wind­pollinated species; in plants with poorly dispersed seeds; in families with a greater diversity of growth forms, pollination and seed dispersal mechanisms, and species distributions; in families at lower latitudes; in families with higher rates of genetic evolution; in hermaphroditic or monoecious vs. dioecious clades; in earlier­maturing woody plants; in plants with bilateral vs. radial flowers; in plants with hummingbird­pollinated flowers; in epiphytic vs. terrestrial bromeliads and orchids; in bromeliads differentiating along geographically extensive cordilleras; and in young vs. old clades. Evidence for the last pattern may, however, be an artifact of (auto)regressing (ln N) / t vs. t. High rates of diversification in epiphytic orchids are tied to small effective population sizes, suggesting a role for intermittent genetic drift alternating with strong selection on floral traits. Across angiosperms, a massive increase in diversification rates was preceded by a major increase in leaf vein density and hydraulic conductance between 140 and 110 Ma ago, leading to higher photosynthetic rates than coexisting ferns and gymnosperms. Based on the economic theory of plant defense, this should have led to lower allocation to anti­herbivore defenses, selecting for low­cost qualitative toxins rather than all­purpose but highly expensive qualitative defenses, triggering an arms' race between angiosperm and their herbivores. Finally, regional plant species richness increases with regional area and proxies for latitude, rainfall, topographic heterogeneity, and vegetation stratification. The Cape Floristic Province has roughly twice as many species as expected from its area and environmental conditions, most likely reflecting the predominance of short­distance dispersal associated with poor soils and myrmecochory in the Cape Province, as well as low rates of regeneration and competitive exclusion following fire.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/tax.595003", doi = "10.1002/tax.595003", openalex = "W2486763840", references = "doi101111j10958312200400400x" } @article{doi101086652373, author = "Vellend, Mark", title = "Conceptual Synthesis in Community Ecology", year = "2010", journal = "The Quarterly Review of Biology", abstract = {Community ecology is often perceived as a "mess, "given the seemingly vast number of processes that can underlie the many patterns of interest, and the apparent uniqueness of each study system. However, at the most general level, patterns in the composition and diversity of species--the subject matter of community ecology--are influenced by only four classes of process: selection, drift, speciation, and dispersal. Selection represents deterministic fitness differences among species, drift represents stochastic changes in species abundance, speciation creates new species, and dispersal is the movement of organisms across space. All theoretical and conceptual models in community ecology can be understood with respect to their emphasis on these four processes. Empirical evidence exists for all of these processes and many of their interactions, with a predominance of studies on selection. Organizing the material of community ecology according to this framework can clarify the essential similarities and differences among the many conceptual and theoretical approaches to the discipline, and it can also allow for the articulation of a very general theory of community dynamics: species are added to communities via speciation and dispersal, and the relative abundances of these species are then shaped by drift and selection, as well as ongoing dispersal to drive community dynamics.}, url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/652373", doi = "10.1086/652373", openalex = "W2006802554", references = "doi101007s001140040515y, doi101016jtree200602002, doi101017cbo9780511623387, doi10103714088000, doi10103835098000, doi101111j14610248200600996x, doi101126science2354785167, doi101146annurevecolsys281495, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi1015159781400881376, doi1015159781400885695, doi101890024045, doi101890039000, doi1023071933500, doi1023071939377, doi1023072298330, doi1023072531471, doi1023073071998, doi1023074549, doi102307jctvjghw98, doi105860choice332720, doi105860choice415286, doi105962bhltitle59991, openalexw1596646469, openalexw2273605253" } @book{doi101093acprofoso97801992132760010001, author = "Wich, Serge A. and Utami, Sri and Setia, Tatang Mitra and van Schaik, Carel P.", title = "Orangutans: geographic variation in behavioral ecology and conservation", year = "2010", booktitle = "Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)", abstract = "This book describes one of our closest relatives, the orangutan, and the only extant great ape in Asia. It is increasingly clear that orangutan populations show extensive variation in behavioral ecology, morphology, life history, and genes. Indeed, on the strength of the latest genetic and morphological evidence, it has been proposed that orangutans actually constitute two species which diverged more than a million years ago — one on the island of Sumatra the other on Borneo, with the latter comprising three subspecies. This book has two main aims. The first is to carefully compare data from every orangutan research site, examining the differences and similarities between orangutan species, subspecies and populations. The second is to develop a theoretical framework in which these differences and similarities can be explained. To achieve these goals the book synthesizes and compares the data, quantify the similarities or differences, and seeks to explain them.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199213276.001.0001", doi = "10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199213276.001.0001", openalex = "W1585749120" } @article{doi101016jtree201101009, author = "Bolnick, Daniel I. and Amarasekare, Priyanga and Araújo, Márcio S. and Bürger, Reinhard and Levine, Jonathan M. and Novák, Márk and Rudolf, Volker H. W. and Schreiber, Sebastian J. and Urban, Mark C. and Vasseur, David A.", title = "Why intraspecific trait variation matters in community ecology", year = "2011", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.01.009", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2011.01.009", openalex = "W2108654968", references = "doi101086652373, doi101098rstb20090012, doi101111j109583121972tb00690x, doi1023071935620, doi105860choice355054, openalexw2273605253, openalexw2318111898" } @article{doi101111j13652699201102652x, author = "Triantis, Kostas A. and Guilhaumon, François and Whittaker, Robert J.", title = "The island species–area relationship: biology and statistics", year = "2011", journal = "Journal of Biogeography", abstract = "Abstract Aim We conducted the most extensive quantitative analysis yet undertaken of the form taken by the island species–area relationship (ISAR), among 20 models, to determine: (1) the best‐fit model, (2) the best‐fit model family, (3) the best‐fit ISAR shape (and presence of an asymptote), (4) system properties that may explain ISAR form, and (5) parameter values and interpretation of the logarithmic implementation of the power model. Location World‐wide. Methods We amassed 601 data sets from terrestrial islands and employed an information‐theoretic framework to test for the best‐fit ISAR model, family, and shape, and for the presence/absence of an asymptote. Two main criteria were applied: generality (the proportion of cases for which the model provided an adequate fit) and efficiency (the overall probability of a model, when adequate, being the best at explaining ISARs; evaluated using the mean overall AIC c weight). Multivariate analyses were used to explore the potential of island system properties to explain trends in ISAR form, and to describe variation in the parameters of the logarithmic power model. Results Adequate fits were obtained for 465 data sets. The simpler models performed best, with the power model ranked first. Similar results were obtained at model family level. The ISAR form is most commonly convex upwards, without an asymptote. Island system traits had low descriptive power in relation to variation in ISAR form. However, the z and c parameters of the logarithmic power model show significant pattern in relation to island system type and taxon. Main conclusions Over most scales of space, ISARs are best represented by the power model and other simple models. More complex, sigmoid models may be applicable when the spatial range exceeds three orders of magnitude. With respect to the log power model, z ‐values are indicative of the process(es) establishing species richness and composition patterns, while c ‐values are indicative of the realized carrying capacity of the system per unit area. Variation in ISAR form is biologically meaningful, but the signal is noisy, as multiple processes constrain the ecological space available within island systems and the relative importance of these processes varies with the spatial scale of the system.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02652.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02652.x", openalex = "W1861062512", references = "doi101038nature07893, doi101046j13652699200000377x" } @article{doi101016jtree201111014, author = "Violle, Cyrille and Enquist, Brian J. and McGill, Brian J. and Jiang, Lin and Albert, Cécile H. and Hulshof, Catherine M. and Jung, Vincent and Messier, Julie", title = "The return of the variance: intraspecific variability in community ecology", year = "2012", journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution", url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.11.014", doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2011.11.014", openalex = "W2032081489", references = "doi101038nature08251, doi101038nrg1877, doi101073pnas6951109, doi101086282379, doi101086284167, doi101111j13652435200701275x, doi101111j13652486201102451x, doi101111j14610248200901314x, doi101111j14610248201001509x" } @article{doi101111j14610248201201846x, author = "Dall, Sasha R. X. and Bell, Alison M. and Bolnick, Daniel I. and Ratnieks, Francis L. W.", title = "An evolutionary ecology of individual differences", year = "2012", journal = "Ecology Letters", abstract = "Individuals often differ in what they do. This has been recognised since antiquity. Nevertheless, the ecological and evolutionary significance of such variation is attracting widespread interest, which is burgeoning to an extent that is fragmenting the literature. As a first attempt at synthesis, we focus on individual differences in behaviour within populations that exceed the day-to-day variation in individual behaviour (i.e. behavioural specialisation). Indeed, the factors promoting ecologically relevant behavioural specialisation within natural populations are likely to have far-reaching ecological and evolutionary consequences. We discuss such individual differences from three distinct perspectives: individual niche specialisations, the division of labour within insect societies and animal personality variation. In the process, while recognising that each area has its own unique motivations, we identify a number of opportunities for productive 'cross-fertilisation' among the (largely independent) bodies of work. We conclude that a complete understanding of evolutionarily and ecologically relevant individual differences must specify how ecological interactions impact the basic biological process (e.g. Darwinian selection, development and information processing) that underpin the organismal features determining behavioural specialisations. Moreover, there is likely to be co-variation amongst behavioural specialisations. Thus, we sketch the key elements of a general framework for studying the evolutionary ecology of individual differences.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01846.x", doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01846.x", openalex = "W2144684753", references = "doi1018900012965820020832936milrs20co2" } @article{doi1011112041210x12146, author = "Merow, Cory and Dahlgren, Johan P. and Metcalf, C. Jessica E. and Childs, Dylan Z. and Evans, Margaret E. K. and Jongejans, Eelke and Record, Sydne and Rees, Mark and Salguero‐Gómez, Roberto and McMahon, Sean M.", title = "Advancing population ecology with integral projection models: a practical guide", year = "2013", journal = "Methods in Ecology and Evolution", abstract = "Summary Integral projection models (IPM s) use information on how an individual's state influences its vital rates – survival, growth and reproduction – to make population projections. IPM s are constructed from regression models predicting vital rates from state variables (e.g. size or age) and covariates (e.g. environment). By combining regressions of vital rates, an IPM provides mechanistic insight into emergent ecological patterns such as population dynamics, species geographic distributions or life‐history strategies. Here, we review important resources for building IPM s and provide a comprehensive guide, with extensive R code, for their construction. IPM s can be applied to any stage‐structured population; here, we illustrate IPM s for a series of plant life histories of increasing complexity and biological realism, highlighting the utility of various regression methods for capturing biological patterns. We also present case studies illustrating how IPM s can be used to predict species' geographic distributions and life‐history strategies. IPM s can represent a wide range of life histories at any desired level of biological detail. Much of the strength of IPM s lies in the strength of regression models. Many subtleties arise when scaling from vital rate regressions to population‐level patterns, so we provide a set of diagnostics and guidelines to ensure that models are biologically plausible. Moreover, IPM s can exploit a large existing suite of analytical tools developed for matrix projection models.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12146", doi = "10.1111/2041-210x.12146", openalex = "W2087346971", references = "doi1018900012965820000810694sssaan20co2" } @article{doi101111jbi12096, author = "Lomolino, Mark V. and van der Geer, Alexandra and Lyras, George and Palombo, María Rita and Sax, Dov F. and Rozzi, Roberto", title = "Of mice and mammoths: generality and antiquity of the island rule", year = "2013", journal = "Journal of Biogeography", abstract = "Abstract Aim We assessed the generality of the island rule in a database comprising 1593 populations of insular mammals (439 species, including 63 species of fossil mammals), and tested whether observed patterns differed among taxonomic and functional groups. Location Islands world‐wide. Methods We measured museum specimens (fossil mammals) and reviewed the literature to compile a database of insular animal body size (S i = mean mass of individuals from an insular population divided by that of individuals from an ancestral or mainland population, M). We used linear regressions to investigate the relationship between S i and M, and ANCOVA to compare trends among taxonomic and functional groups. Results S i was significantly and negatively related to the mass of the ancestral or mainland population across all mammals and within all orders of extant mammals analysed, and across palaeo‐insular (considered separately) mammals as well. Insular body size was significantly smaller for bats and insectivores than for the other orders studied here, but significantly larger for mammals that utilized aquatic prey than for those restricted to terrestrial prey. Main conclusions The island rule appears to be a pervasive pattern, exhibited by mammals from a broad range of orders, functional groups and time periods. There remains, however, much scatter about the general trend; this residual variation may be highly informative as it appears consistent with differences among species, islands and environmental characteristics hypothesized to influence body size evolution in general. The more pronounced gigantism and dwarfism of palaeo‐insular mammals, in particular, is consistent with a hypothesis that emphasizes the importance of ecological interactions (time in isolation from mammalian predators and competitors was 0.1 to > 1.0 Myr for palaeo‐insular mammals, but < 0.01 Myr for extant populations of insular mammals). While ecological displacement may be a major force driving diversification in body size in high‐diversity biotas, ecological release in species‐poor biotas often results in the convergence of insular mammals on the size of intermediate but absent species.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12096", doi = "10.1111/jbi.12096", openalex = "W2079339346", references = "doi101073pnas1120774109, doi101111j13652699200501314x, doi101371journalpbio0040321" } @article{doi101111ele12398, author = "Warren, Ben H. and Simberloff, Daniel and Ricklefs, Robert E. and Aguilée, Robin and Condamine, Fabien L. and Gravel, Dominique and Morlon, Hélène and Mouquet, Nicolas and Rosindell, James and Casquet, Juliane and Conti, Elena and Cornuault, Josselin and Fernández‐Palacios, José María and Hengl, Tomislav and Norder, Sietze J. and Rijsdijk, Kenneth F. and Sanmartín, Isabel and Strasberg, Dominique and Triantis, Kostas A. and Valente, Luís and Whittaker, Robert J. and Gillespie, Rosemary G. and Emerson, Brent C. and Thébaud, Christophe", title = "Islands as model systems in ecology and evolution: prospects fifty years after MacArthur‐Wilson", year = "2015", journal = "Ecology Letters", abstract = "The study of islands as model systems has played an important role in the development of evolutionary and ecological theory. The 50th anniversary of MacArthur and Wilson's (December 1963) article, 'An equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography', was a recent milestone for this theme. Since 1963, island systems have provided new insights into the formation of ecological communities. Here, building on such developments, we highlight prospects for research on islands to improve our understanding of the ecology and evolution of communities in general. Throughout, we emphasise how attributes of islands combine to provide unusual research opportunities, the implications of which stretch far beyond islands. Molecular tools and increasing data acquisition now permit re-assessment of some fundamental issues that interested MacArthur and Wilson. These include the formation of ecological networks, species abundance distributions, and the contribution of evolution to community assembly. We also extend our prospects to other fields of ecology and evolution - understanding ecosystem functioning, speciation and diversification - frequently employing assets of oceanic islands in inferring the geographic area within which evolution has occurred, and potential barriers to gene flow. Although island-based theory is continually being enriched, incorporating non-equilibrium dynamics is identified as a major challenge for the future.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12398", doi = "10.1111/ele.12398", openalex = "W2156521347", references = "doi101038nature07893, doi101038nrg3644, doi101126science1157966, doi101126science1193954" } @article{doi103897zookeys4698439, author = "Csiki‐Sava, Zoltán and Buffetaut, Éric and Ősi, Attila and Suberbiola, Xabier Pereda and Brusatte, Stephen L.", title = "Island life in the Cretaceous - faunal composition, biogeography, evolution, and extinction of land-living vertebrates on the Late Cretaceous European archipelago", year = "2015", journal = "ZooKeys", abstract = "The Late Cretaceous was a time of tremendous global change, as the final stages of the Age of Dinosaurs were shaped by climate and sea level fluctuations and witness to marked paleogeographic and faunal changes, before the end-Cretaceous bolide impact. The terrestrial fossil record of Late Cretaceous Europe is becoming increasingly better understood, based largely on intensive fieldwork over the past two decades, promising new insights into latest Cretaceous faunal evolution. We review the terrestrial Late Cretaceous record from Europe and discuss its importance for understanding the paleogeography, ecology, evolution, and extinction of land-dwelling vertebrates. We review the major Late Cretaceous faunas from Austria, Hungary, France, Spain, Portugal, and Romania, as well as more fragmentary records from elsewhere in Europe. We discuss the paleogeographic background and history of assembly of these faunas, and argue that they are comprised of an endemic 'core' supplemented with various immigration waves. These faunas lived on an island archipelago, and we describe how this insular setting led to ecological peculiarities such as low diversity, a preponderance of primitive taxa, and marked changes in morphology (particularly body size dwarfing). We conclude by discussing the importance of the European record in understanding the end-Cretaceous extinction and show that there is no clear evidence that dinosaurs or other groups were undergoing long-term declines in Europe prior to the bolide impact.", url = "https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.469.8439", doi = "10.3897/zookeys.469.8439", openalex = "W2133891947", references = "apesteguía2011tunasniyoj, doi101002mmng20010040112, doi101006cres20000236, doi101007s0001500812473, doi101007s0011401209171, doi101016004019518690199x, doi101016jcretres200802004, doi101016jearscirev201009005, doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jgloplacha201312007, doi101016jpalaeo200412005, doi101016jpalaeo200909018, doi101016jpalaeo201206008, doi101016s0012825202000752, doi101016s1631068303000022, doi101017cbo9780511608377011, doi101017s0016756800012413, doi101017s1477201907002246, doi101038nature04633, doi101038ncomms1815, doi101038sjhdy6885841, doi101073pnas1006970107, doi101073pnas1211526110, doi101080089129632012763034, doi101080089129632013777533, doi10108010420940601006859, doi101080147720192011630927, doi101098rspb20090229, doi101111brv12128, doi101111j10963642200900617x, doi101111j10963642201000642x, doi101111j13652699200501314x, doi101111j136531211990tb00103x, doi101126science23547931156, doi1011302014250315, doi101139e72031, doi101139e93176, doi101144gsljgs1934090010405, doi101146annurevearth31100901141308, doi1012067481, doi101371journalpbio0040321, doi101371journalpone0012292, doi101371journalpone0020011, doi101371journalpone0044318, doi101371journalpone0054991, doi101371journalpone0072579, doi101371journalpone0080405, doi101525california97805202420980030015, doi10166612041, doi10167102724634200727931dtftco20co2, doi1016710390290428, doi103090610262296200073181198, doi104202app20120121, doi105860choice435902, doi105860choice514447, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle68064, garilli2009first, lehman1987late, leloeuff1994the, martinsander2006bone, openalexw3015256845, openalexw51761775" } @article{doi101126scienceaam8326, author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Fernández‐Palacios, José María and Matthews, Thomas J. and Borregaard, Michael K. and Triantis, Kostas A.", title = "Island biogeography: Taking the long view of nature’s laboratories", year = "2017", journal = "Science", abstract = "Islands provide classic model biological systems. We review how growing appreciation of geoenvironmental dynamics of marine islands has led to advances in island biogeographic theory accommodating both evolutionary and ecological phenomena. Recognition of distinct island geodynamics permits general models to be developed and modified to account for patterns of diversity, diversification, lineage development, and trait evolution within and across island archipelagos. Emergent patterns of diversity include predictable variation in island species-area relationships, progression rule colonization from older to younger land masses, and syndromes including loss of dispersability and secondary woodiness in herbaceous plant lineages. Further developments in Earth system science, molecular biology, and trait data for islands hold continued promise for unlocking many of the unresolved questions in evolutionary biology and biogeography.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam8326", doi = "10.1126/science.aam8326", openalex = "W2753087252", references = "doi101038nature07893, doi101073pnas1411762111" } @article{doi101128mmbr0000217, author = "Zhou, Jizhong and Ning, Daliang", title = "Stochastic Community Assembly: Does It Matter in Microbial Ecology?", year = "2017", journal = "Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews", abstract = "Understanding the mechanisms controlling community diversity, functions, succession, and biogeography is a central, but poorly understood, topic in ecology, particularly in microbial ecology. Although stochastic processes are believed to play nonnegligible roles in shaping community structure, their importance relative to deterministic processes is hotly debated. The importance of ecological stochasticity in shaping microbial community structure is far less appreciated. Some of the main reasons for such heavy debates are the difficulty in defining stochasticity and the diverse methods used for delineating stochasticity. Here, we provide a critical review and synthesis of data from the most recent studies on stochastic community assembly in microbial ecology. We then describe both stochastic and deterministic components embedded in various ecological processes, including selection, dispersal, diversification, and drift. We also describe different approaches for inferring stochasticity from observational diversity patterns and highlight experimental approaches for delineating ecological stochasticity in microbial communities. In addition, we highlight research challenges, gaps, and future directions for microbial community assembly research.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/mmbr.00002-17", doi = "10.1128/mmbr.00002-17", openalex = "W2761955173", references = "doi101016jshpsc200806005, doi101016jtree201206001, doi10103835012228, doi101038nature06813, doi101038nature11148, doi101038nature14486, doi101038nmicrobiol201648, doi101038nrmicro1341, doi101086282505, doi101086381004, doi101086652373, doi101093bioinformaticsbtq166, doi1011111365243512425, doi101111j144299931993tb00438x, doi101111j14429993200101070ppx, doi101111j14610248200400608x, doi101111j14610248200600996x, doi101111j14610248200901314x, doi101111j14610248201001509x, doi101126science27953592115, doi101126science28454232124, doi101126scienceaac9323, doi101128mmbr0005112, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150448, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023072259756, doi1023072531471, doi1023073071998, openalexw2273605253" } @article{doi101146annurevenviron101718033245, author = "Russell, James C. and Kueffer, Christoph", title = "Island Biodiversity in the Anthropocene", year = "2019", journal = "Annual Review of Environment and Resources", abstract = "Biodiversity on marine islands is characterized by unique biogeographic, phylogenetic and functional characteristics. Islands hold a disproportionate amount of the world's biodiversity, and they have also experienced a disproportionate loss of it. Following human contact, island biodiversity has sustained negative human impacts increasing in rate and magnitude as islands transitioned from primary through secondary to tertiary economies. On islands, habitat transformation and invasive non-native species have historically been the major threats to biodiversity, and although these threats will continue in new forms, new impacts such as human-induced climate change and sea-level rise are emerging. Island biodiversity is changing with some species going extinct, others changing in abundance, non-native species becoming a part of many ecosystems, and humans shaping many ecological processes. Islands thus are microcosms for the emerging biodiversity and socioecological landscapes of the Anthropocene. Islands will require new strategies for the protection and restoration of their biodiversity, including maintaining biological and cultural heritage through regenerative practices, mainstreaming biodiversity in cultural and production landscapes, and engaging with the reality of novel ecosystems.", url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033245", doi = "10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033245", openalex = "W2966379503", references = "doi101016jtree201208024, doi101111j13652699200501314x" }