@misc{langston1981pterosaurs1,
    author = "Langston, W",
    title = "Pterosaurs",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 244, no. 2, p. 122-136",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Langston, W., 1981, Pterosaurs: Scientific American, v. 244, no. 2, p. 122-136.}"
}

@misc{lewin1983how2,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "How did vertebrates take to the air?",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 221, p. 38- 39",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1983, How did vertebrates take to the air?: Science, v. 221, p. 38- 39.}"
}

@article{doi101098rspb20053278,
    author = "Wilkinson, Matthew T and Unwin, David M and Ellington, Charles P",
    title = "High lift function of the pteroid bone and forewing of pterosaurs.",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Proceedings. Biological sciences",
    abstract = "The pteroid bone is a rod-like element found only in pterosaurs, the flying reptiles of the Mesozoic. It articulated at the wrist, and supported a membranous forewing in front of the inner part of the wing spar. The function of this bone, particularly its orientation, has been much debated. It is widely believed that it pointed towards the body, and that the forewing was relatively narrow. An alternative hypothesis states that it was directed forwards during flight, resulting in a much broader forewing that acted as a leading edge flap. We tested scale models in a wind tunnel to determine the aerodynamic consequences of these conflicting hypotheses, and found that performance is greatly improved if the pteroid is directed forwards: the lift: drag ratios are superior and the maximum lift is exceptionally high in comparison with conventional aerofoils. This high lift capability may have enabled even the largest pterosaurs to take off and land without difficulty.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1560000/",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2005.3278",
    pmcid = "PMC1560000",
    pmid = "16519243"
}

@article{doi101371journalpbio2001663,
    author = "Longrich, Nicholas R and Martill, David M and Andres, Brian",
    title = "Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary.",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "PLoS biology",
    abstract = "Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight and the largest animals to ever take wing. The pterosaurs persisted for over 150 million years before disappearing at the end of the Cretaceous, but the patterns of and processes driving their extinction remain unclear. Only a single family, Azhdarchidae, is definitively known from the late Maastrichtian, suggesting a gradual decline in diversity in the Late Cretaceous, with the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction eliminating a few late-surviving species. However, this apparent pattern may simply reflect poor sampling of fossils. Here, we describe a diverse pterosaur assemblage from the late Maastrichtian of Morocco that includes not only Azhdarchidae but the youngest known Pteranodontidae and Nyctosauridae. With 3 families and at least 7 species present, the assemblage represents the most diverse known Late Cretaceous pterosaur assemblage and dramatically increases the diversity of Maastrichtian pterosaurs. At least 3 families-Pteranodontidae, Nyctosauridae, and Azhdarchidae-persisted into the late Maastrichtian. Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs show increased niche occupation relative to earlier, Santonian-Campanian faunas and successfully outcompeted birds at large sizes. These patterns suggest an abrupt mass extinction of pterosaurs at the K-Pg boundary.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5849296/",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663",
    pmcid = "PMC5849296",
    pmid = "29534059"
}

@article{doi101038s4159802192499z,
    author = "Naish, Darren and Witton, Mark P and Martin-Silverstone, Elizabeth",
    title = "Powered flight in hatchling pterosaurs: evidence from wing form and bone strength.",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Scientific reports",
    abstract = "Competing views exist on the behaviour and lifestyle of pterosaurs during the earliest phases of life. A 'flap-early' model proposes that hatchlings were capable of independent life and flapping flight, a 'fly-late' model posits that juveniles were not flight capable until 50\% of adult size, and a 'glide-early' model requires that young juveniles were flight-capable but only able to glide. We test these models by quantifying the flight abilities of very young juvenile pterosaurs via analysis of wing bone strength, wing loading, wingspan and wing aspect ratios, primarily using data from embryonic and hatchling specimens of Pterodaustro guinazui and Sinopterus dongi. We argue that a young Sinopterus specimen has been mischaracterised as a distinct taxon. The humeri of pterosaur juveniles are similar in bending strength to those of adults and able to withstand launch and flight; wing size and wing aspect ratios of young juveniles are also in keeping with powered flight. We therefore reject the 'fly-late' and 'glide-early' models. We further show that young juveniles were excellent gliders, albeit not reliant on specialist gliding. The wing forms of very young juveniles differ significantly from larger individuals, meaning that variation in speed, manoeuvrability, take-off angle and so on was present across a species as it matured. Juveniles appear to have been adapted for flight in cluttered environments, in contrast to larger, older individuals. We propose on the basis of these conclusions that pterosaur species occupied distinct niches across ontogeny.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8298463/",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-021-92499-z",
    pmcid = "PMC8298463",
    pmid = "34294737"
}

@incollection{crossref2022pterosaurs,
    title = "Pterosaurs: The First Flying Vertebrates",
    year = "2022",
    booktitle = "Methuselah's Zoo",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11497.003.0006",
    doi = "10.7551/mitpress/11497.003.0006",
    pages = "31-40"
}

@article{doi101038s41598022105072,
    author = "Pittman, Michael and Kaye, Thomas G and Campos, Hebert B and Habib, Michael B",
    title = "Quadrupedal water launch capability demonstrated in small Late Jurassic pterosaurs.",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Scientific reports",
    abstract = "Pterosaurs thrived in and around water for 160 + million years but their take-off from water is poorly understood. A purportedly low floating position and forward centre of gravity barred pterosaurs from a bird-like bipedal running launch. Quadrupedal water launch similar to extant water-feeding birds and bats has been proposed for the largest pterosaurs, such as Anhanguera and Quetzalcoatlus. However, quadrupedal water launch has never been demonstrated in smaller pterosaurs, including those living around the Tethys Sea in the Late Jurassic Solnhofen Lagoon. Using Laser-Stimulated Fluorescence, we singled out aurorazhdarchid specimen MB.R.3531 that alone preserved specific soft tissues among more than a dozen well-preserved Solnhofen pterosaur specimens. These soft tissues pertain to primary propulsive contact surfaces needed for quadrupedal water launch (pedal webbing and soft tissues from an articulated forelimb) that permit robust calculations of its dynamic feasibility without the need to make assumptions about contact areas. A first-principles-based dynamics model of MB.R.3531 reveals that quadrupedal water launch was theoretically feasible and that webbed feet significantly impacted launch performance. Three key factors limiting water launch performance in all pterosaurs are identified, providing a foundation for understanding water launch evolution: available propulsive contact area, forelimb extension range and forelimb extension power about the shoulder.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9023563/",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-022-10507-2",
    pmcid = "PMC9023563",
    pmid = "35449226"
}

@article{doi107717peerj17678,
    author = "Griffin, Benjamin W and Martin-Silverstone, Elizabeth and Pêgas, Rodrigo V and Meilak, Erik Anthony and Costa, Fabiana R and Palmer, Colin and Rayfield, Emily J",
    title = "Modelling take-off moment arms in an ornithocheiraean pterosaur.",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "PeerJ",
    abstract = "Take-off is a vital part of powered flight which likely constrains the size of birds, yet extinct pterosaurs are known to have reached far larger sizes. Three different hypothesised take-off motions (bipedal burst launching, bipedal countermotion launching, and quadrupedal launching) have been proposed as explanations for how pterosaurs became airborne and circumvented this proposed morphological limit. We have constructed a computational musculoskeletal model of a 5 m wingspan ornithocheiraean pterosaur, reconstructing thirty-four key muscles to estimate the muscle moment arms throughout the three hypothesised take-off motions. Range of motion constrained hypothetical kinematic sequences for bipedal and quadrupedal take-off motions were modelled after extant flying vertebrates. Across our simulations we did not find higher hindlimb moment arms for bipedal take-off motions or noticeably higher forelimb moment arms in the forelimb for quadrupedal take-off motions. Despite this, in all our models we found the muscles utilised in the quadrupedal take-off have the largest total launch applicable moment arms throughout the entire take-off sequences and for the take-off pose. This indicates the potential availability of higher leverage for a quadrupedal take-off than hypothesised bipedal motions in pterosaurs pending further examination of muscle forces.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11308997/",
    doi = "10.7717/peerj.17678",
    pmcid = "PMC11308997",
    pmid = "39119105"
}

@article{doi101098rstb20230418,
    author = "Schachner, Emma R and Moore, Andrew J",
    title = "Unidirectional airflow, air sacs or the horizontal septum: what does it take to make a bird lung?",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "In this review, we evaluate the differences between the pulmonary anatomy of birds and other sauropsids, specifically those traits that make the avian respiratory system distinct: a fully decoupled and immobilized, isovolumetric gas-exchanging lung separated from compliant ventilatory air sacs by a horizontal septum. Imaging data, three-dimensional digital anatomical models and dissection images from a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), common ostrich (Struthio camelus), barred owl (Strix varia), African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) and zebra finch (Taeniopygia castanotis) are used to demonstrate the anatomical variation seen in the pulmonary air sacs, diverticula and the horizontal septum. We address the current state of knowledge regarding the avian respiratory system and the myriad areas that require further study, including the comparative and quantitative ecomorphology of the bronchial tree and air sacs, the non-ventilatory functions of the sacs and diverticula, the fluid dynamics and anatomical mechanisms underlying unidirectional airflow, post-cranial skeletal pneumaticity, and how all of these factors impact reconstructions of respiratory tissues in extinct archosaurs, particularly ornithodirans (i.e. pterosaurs + non-avian dinosaurs). Specifically, we argue that without evidence for the horizontal septum, a fully avian lung should not be reconstructed in non-avian ornithodirans, despite the presence of post-cranial skeletal pneumaticity.This article is part of the theme issue 'The biology of the avian respiratory system'.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11864838/",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2023.0418",
    pmcid = "PMC11864838",
    pmid = "40010391"
}