Biospheric evolution

@article{theodoridis1969information,
    author = "THEODORIDIS, GEORGE C. and STARK, LAWRENCE",
    title = "Information as a Quantitative Criterion of Biospheric Evolution",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/224860a0",
    doi = "10.1038/224860a0",
    number = "5222",
    pages = "860-863",
    volume = "224"
}

@article{mayo1972information,
    author = "Mayo, O.",
    title = "Information as a quantitative criterion of biospheric evolution",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Experientia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01928744",
    doi = "10.1007/bf01928744",
    number = "3",
    pages = "365-366",
    volume = "28"
}

The beginnings of biospheric evolution had far-reaching biogeochemical consequences for the related evolutions of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Feedback to the sedimentary record from these several simultaneously interacting aspects of crustal evolution provides the evidence from which historical biogeology is reconstructed. The interpretation of that evidence, however, is beset with pitfalls. Both biogenicity and a primary origin need to be demonstrated, or confidence limits established for each supposed morphological and biochemical fossil. Relevance to biospheric or related evolutions must be critically evaluated for every geochemical and sedimentological anomaly. Indirect evidence suggests primitive, oxygen-generating autotrophy by ∼ 3.8 × 10 9 years ago (3.8 Gyr or gigayears), while free O 2 first began to accumulate only ∼ 2 Gyr ago. Various reduced substances in the atmosphere and in solution functioned as oxygen sinks, keeping photolytic and biogenic O 2 at levels tolerable by primitive anaerobic and microaerophilic procaryotes. The oldest demonstrably biogenic and certainly primary microstructures are procaryotes from ∼ or > 2 Gyr old strata around Lake Superior. Improved biologic O 2 mediation, continued carbon segregation, and filling of O 2 sinks initiated atmospheric O 2 buildup, leading to an ozone screen ∼ or 2 shielding of anaerobic intracellular processes, heralding the eucaryotic cell. Probable eucaryotes appear in ∼ 1.3 Gyr old rocks in California as large unicells and large-diameter, branched, septate filaments. Likely consequences of eucaryotic evolution were increased atmospheric O 2, increased carbonate and sulfate ion, and the rise of sexuality. Meiosis had definitely evolved > 0.7 Gyr ago and probably > 1.3 Gyr ago, perhaps simultaneously with the mitosing cell. Whatever the timing, it completed the evolution of the eucaryotic heredity mechanism and foreshadowed (given sufficient free O 2) the differentiation of tissues, organs, and advanced forms of life—with all their potential for biogeochemical feedback to sedimentary, diagenetic, and metallogenic processes. The first Metazoa appeared ∼ 0.7 Gyr ago. Being dependent on simple diffusion for O 2, they lacked exoskeletons. The latter appeared, perhaps 0.6 Gyr ago, when increasing O 2 levels favored the emergence of more advanced respiratory systems.

@article{cloud1976beginnings,
    author = "Cloud, Preston",
    title = "Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "The beginnings of biospheric evolution had far-reaching biogeochemical consequences for the related evolutions of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Feedback to the sedimentary record from these several simultaneously interacting aspects of crustal evolution provides the evidence from which historical biogeology is reconstructed. The interpretation of that evidence, however, is beset with pitfalls. Both biogenicity and a primary origin need to be demonstrated, or confidence limits established for each supposed morphological and biochemical fossil. Relevance to biospheric or related evolutions must be critically evaluated for every geochemical and sedimentological anomaly. Indirect evidence suggests primitive, oxygen-generating autotrophy by ∼ 3.8 × 10 9 years ago (3.8 Gyr or gigayears), while free O 2 first began to accumulate only ∼ 2 Gyr ago. Various reduced substances in the atmosphere and in solution functioned as oxygen sinks, keeping photolytic and biogenic O 2 at levels tolerable by primitive anaerobic and microaerophilic procaryotes. The oldest demonstrably biogenic and certainly primary microstructures are procaryotes from ∼ or > 2 Gyr old strata around Lake Superior. Improved biologic O 2 mediation, continued carbon segregation, and filling of O 2 sinks initiated atmospheric O 2 buildup, leading to an ozone screen ∼ or 2 shielding of anaerobic intracellular processes, heralding the eucaryotic cell. Probable eucaryotes appear in ∼ 1.3 Gyr old rocks in California as large unicells and large-diameter, branched, septate filaments. Likely consequences of eucaryotic evolution were increased atmospheric O 2, increased carbonate and sulfate ion, and the rise of sexuality. Meiosis had definitely evolved > 0.7 Gyr ago and probably > 1.3 Gyr ago, perhaps simultaneously with the mitosing cell. Whatever the timing, it completed the evolution of the eucaryotic heredity mechanism and foreshadowed (given sufficient free O 2) the differentiation of tissues, organs, and advanced forms of life—with all their potential for biogeochemical feedback to sedimentary, diagenetic, and metallogenic processes. The first Metazoa appeared ∼ 0.7 Gyr ago. Being dependent on simple diffusion for O 2, they lacked exoskeletons. The latter appeared, perhaps 0.6 Gyr ago, when increasing O 2 levels favored the emergence of more advanced respiratory systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s009483730000498x",
    doi = "10.1017/s009483730000498x",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2478338812",
    pages = "351-387",
    volume = "2",
    references = "doi1010160009254171900404, doi1010160012825273900020, doi101073pnas6851024, doi101111j150239311971tb01864x, doi101126science1473658563, doi101126science148366627, doi101126science1603829729, doi101144pygs313211, doi102113gsecongeo6871135, doi102475ajs26791017, doi102475ajs2728752, doi1031389781487589684, doi104095106437, openalexw203640937, openalexw2326083785, openalexw2622880403, openalexw332631162"
}

@misc{cloud1976beginnings1,
    author = "Cloud, P. E",
    title = "Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Paleobiology, v. 2, p. 351-387",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cloud, P. E., 1976, Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences: Paleobiology, v. 2, p. 351-387.}"
}

The beginnings of biospheric evolution had far-reaching biogeochemical consequences for the related evolutions of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Feedback to the sedimentary record from these several simultaneously interacting aspects of crustal evolution provides the evidence from which historical biogeology is reconstructed. The interpretation of that evidence, however, is beset with pitfalls. Both biogenicity and a primary origin need to be demonstrated, or confidence limits established for each supposed morphological and biochemical fossil. Relevance to biospheric or related evolutions must be critically evaluated for every geochemical and sedimentological anomaly. Indirect evidence suggests primitive, oxygen-generating autotrophy by ∼ 3.8 × 10 9 years ago (3.8 Gyr or gigayears), while free O 2 first began to accumulate only ∼ 2 Gyr ago. Various reduced substances in the atmosphere and in solution functioned as oxygen sinks, keeping photolytic and biogenic O 2 at levels tolerable by primitive anaerobic and microaerophilic procaryotes. The oldest demonstrably biogenic and certainly primary microstructures are procaryotes from ∼ or > 2 Gyr old strata around Lake Superior. Improved biologic O 2 mediation, continued carbon segregation, and filling of O 2 sinks initiated atmospheric O 2 buildup, leading to an ozone screen ∼ or 0.7 Gyr ago and probably > 1.3 Gyr ago, perhaps simultaneously with the mitosing cell. Whatever the timing, it completed the evolution of the eucaryotic heredity mechanism and foreshadowed (given sufficient free O 2) the differentiation of tissues, organs, and advanced forms of life—with all their potential for biogeochemical feedback to sedimentary, diagenetic, and metallogenic processes. The first Metazoa appeared ∼ 0.7 Gyr ago. Being dependent on simple diffusion for O 2, they lacked exoskeletons. The latter appeared, perhaps 0.6 Gyr ago, when increasing O 2 levels favored the emergence of more advanced respiratory systems.

@article{doi101017s009483730000498x,
    author = "Cloud, Preston E.",
    title = "Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "The beginnings of biospheric evolution had far-reaching biogeochemical consequences for the related evolutions of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Feedback to the sedimentary record from these several simultaneously interacting aspects of crustal evolution provides the evidence from which historical biogeology is reconstructed. The interpretation of that evidence, however, is beset with pitfalls. Both biogenicity and a primary origin need to be demonstrated, or confidence limits established for each supposed morphological and biochemical fossil. Relevance to biospheric or related evolutions must be critically evaluated for every geochemical and sedimentological anomaly. Indirect evidence suggests primitive, oxygen-generating autotrophy by ∼ 3.8 × 10 9 years ago (3.8 Gyr or gigayears), while free O 2 first began to accumulate only ∼ 2 Gyr ago. Various reduced substances in the atmosphere and in solution functioned as oxygen sinks, keeping photolytic and biogenic O 2 at levels tolerable by primitive anaerobic and microaerophilic procaryotes. The oldest demonstrably biogenic and certainly primary microstructures are procaryotes from ∼ or > 2 Gyr old strata around Lake Superior. Improved biologic O 2 mediation, continued carbon segregation, and filling of O 2 sinks initiated atmospheric O 2 buildup, leading to an ozone screen ∼ or 0.7 Gyr ago and probably > 1.3 Gyr ago, perhaps simultaneously with the mitosing cell. Whatever the timing, it completed the evolution of the eucaryotic heredity mechanism and foreshadowed (given sufficient free O 2) the differentiation of tissues, organs, and advanced forms of life—with all their potential for biogeochemical feedback to sedimentary, diagenetic, and metallogenic processes. The first Metazoa appeared ∼ 0.7 Gyr ago. Being dependent on simple diffusion for O 2, they lacked exoskeletons. The latter appeared, perhaps 0.6 Gyr ago, when increasing O 2 levels favored the emergence of more advanced respiratory systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s009483730000498x",
    doi = "10.1017/s009483730000498x",
    openalex = "W2478338812",
    references = "doi1010160009254171900404, doi101073pnas6851024, doi101111j150239311971tb01864x, doi101126science1473658563, doi101126science148366627, doi101126science1603829729, doi102113gsecongeo6871135, openalexw203640937, openalexw2326083785, openalexw332631162"
}

@incollection{degens1989biogeochemical,
    author = "Degens, Egon T.",
    title = "Biogeochemical Evolution",
    year = "1989",
    booktitle = "Perspectives on Biogeochemistry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-48879-5\_12",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-48879-5\_12",
    openalex = "W4211053721",
    pages = "342-392",
    references = "doi1010160016703757900248, doi101038249810a0, doi101038326655a0, doi10106311749327, doi101073pnas74115088, doi101126science1173046528, doi101126science13334651702, doi101126science20844481095, doi101126science23547931156, doi101180mono5"
}

@incollection{furukawa2005biogeochemical,
    author = "Furukawa, Yoko",
    title = "Biogeochemical consequences of infaunal activities",
    year = "2005",
    booktitle = "Coastal and Estuarine Studies",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/ce060p0159",
    doi = "10.1029/ce060p0159",
    openalex = "W1509360788",
    pages = "159-177",
    references = "doi1010160009254194900620, doi1010160016703764901644, doi101016s0016703798000441, doi101023a1003980226194, doi101128aem5738478561991, doi101357002224098321667413, doi102475ajs2963197, doi104319lo19853010111, doi104319lo19954081430, openalexw657177744"
}

How photosynthesis by Precambrian cyanobacteria oxygenated Earth's biosphere remains incompletely understood. Here it is argued that the oxic transition, which took place between approximately 2.3 and 0.5 Gyr ago, required a great proliferation of cyanobacteria, and this in turn depended on their ability to fix nitrogen via the nitrogenase enzyme system. However, the ability to fix nitrogen was not a panacea, and the rate of biospheric oxygenation may still have been affected by nitrogen constraints on cyanobacterial expansion. Evidence is presented for why cyanobacteria probably have a greater need for fixed nitrogen than other prokaryotes, underscoring the importance of their ability to fix nitrogen. The connection between nitrogen fixation and the evolution of photosynthesis is demonstrated by the similarities between nitrogenase and enzymes critical for the biosynthesis of (bacterio)chlorophyll. It is hypothesized that biospheric oxygenation would not have occurred if the emergence of cyanobacteria had not been preceded by the evolution of nitrogen fixation, and if these organisms had not also acquired the ability to fix nitrogen at the beginning of or very early in their history. The evolution of nitrogen fixation also appears to have been a precondition for the evolution of (bacterio)chlorophyll-based photosynthesis. Given that some form of chlorophyll is obligatory for true photosynthesis, and its light absorption and chemical properties make it a ‘universal pigment’, it may be predicted that the evolution of nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis are also closely linked on other Earth-like planets.

@article{grula2005evolution,
    author = "Grula, John W.",
    title = "Evolution of photosynthesis and biospheric oxygenation contingent upon nitrogen fixation?",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "International Journal of Astrobiology",
    abstract = "How photosynthesis by Precambrian cyanobacteria oxygenated Earth's biosphere remains incompletely understood. Here it is argued that the oxic transition, which took place between approximately 2.3 and 0.5 Gyr ago, required a great proliferation of cyanobacteria, and this in turn depended on their ability to fix nitrogen via the nitrogenase enzyme system. However, the ability to fix nitrogen was not a panacea, and the rate of biospheric oxygenation may still have been affected by nitrogen constraints on cyanobacterial expansion. Evidence is presented for why cyanobacteria probably have a greater need for fixed nitrogen than other prokaryotes, underscoring the importance of their ability to fix nitrogen. The connection between nitrogen fixation and the evolution of photosynthesis is demonstrated by the similarities between nitrogenase and enzymes critical for the biosynthesis of (bacterio)chlorophyll. It is hypothesized that biospheric oxygenation would not have occurred if the emergence of cyanobacteria had not been preceded by the evolution of nitrogen fixation, and if these organisms had not also acquired the ability to fix nitrogen at the beginning of or very early in their history. The evolution of nitrogen fixation also appears to have been a precondition for the evolution of (bacterio)chlorophyll-based photosynthesis. Given that some form of chlorophyll is obligatory for true photosynthesis, and its light absorption and chemical properties make it a ‘universal pigment’, it may be predicted that the evolution of nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis are also closely linked on other Earth-like planets.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1473550405002776",
    doi = "10.1017/s1473550405002776",
    number = "3-4",
    pages = "251-257",
    volume = "4"
}

@article{srivastava2005vindhyan,
    author = "Srivastava, Purnima",
    title = "Vindhyan Akinites: An Indicator of Mesoproterozoic Biospheric Evolution",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-005-8765-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s11084-005-8765-z",
    number = "2",
    pages = "175-185",
    volume = "35"
}

@article{piontkivska2006hyperthermophilic,
    author = "Piontkivska, H. and Schwartzman, D.W. and Lineweaver, C.H.",
    title = "Hyperthermophilic biogenesis and early biospheric evolution",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.1452",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.1452",
    number = "18",
    pages = "A495",
    volume = "70"
}

High-resolution geochemical analyses of organic-rich shale and carbonate through the 2500 million-year-old Mount McRae Shale in the Hamersley Basin of northwestern Australia record changes in both the oxidation state of the surface ocean and the atmospheric composition. The Mount McRae record of sulfur isotopes captures the widespread and possibly permanent activation of the oxidative sulfur cycle for perhaps the first time in Earth's history. The correlation of the time-series sulfur isotope signals in northwestern Australia with equivalent strata from South Africa suggests that changes in the exogenic sulfur cycle recorded in marine sediments were global in scope and were linked to atmospheric evolution. The data suggest that oxygenation of the surface ocean preceded pervasive and persistent atmospheric oxygenation by 50 million years or more.

@article{kaufman2007late,
    author = "Kaufman, Alan J. and Johnston, David T. and Farquhar, James and Masterson, Andrew L. and Lyons, Timothy W. and Bates, Steve and Anbar, Ariel D. and Arnold, Gail L. and Garvin, Jessica and Buick, Roger",
    title = "Late Archean Biospheric Oxygenation and Atmospheric Evolution",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "High-resolution geochemical analyses of organic-rich shale and carbonate through the 2500 million-year-old Mount McRae Shale in the Hamersley Basin of northwestern Australia record changes in both the oxidation state of the surface ocean and the atmospheric composition. The Mount McRae record of sulfur isotopes captures the widespread and possibly permanent activation of the oxidative sulfur cycle for perhaps the first time in Earth's history. The correlation of the time-series sulfur isotope signals in northwestern Australia with equivalent strata from South Africa suggests that changes in the exogenic sulfur cycle recorded in marine sediments were global in scope and were linked to atmospheric evolution. The data suggest that oxygenation of the surface ocean preceded pervasive and persistent atmospheric oxygenation by 50 million years or more.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1138700",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1138700",
    number = "5846",
    pages = "1900-1903",
    volume = "317"
}

@article{kleidon2009maximum,
    author = "Kleidon, A.",
    title = "Maximum entropy production and general trends in biospheric evolution",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Paleontological Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1134/s0031030109080164",
    doi = "10.1134/s0031030109080164",
    number = "8",
    pages = "980-985",
    volume = "43"
}

Iron formations are economically important sedimentary rocks that are most common in Precambrian sedi-mentary successions. Although many aspects of their origin remain unresolved, it is widely accepted that sec-ular changes in the style of their deposition are linked to environmental and geochemical evolution of Earth. Two types of Precambrian iron formations have been recognized with respect to their depositional setting. Al-goma-type iron formations are interlayered with or stratigraphically linked to submarine-emplaced volcanic rocks in greenstone belts and, in some cases, with volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. In contrast, larger Superior-type iron formations are developed in passive-margin sedimentary rock successions and gener-ally lack direct relationships with volcanic rocks. The early distinction made between these two iron-formation types, although mimimized by later studies, remains a valid first approximation. Texturally, iron formations were also divided into two groups. Banded iron formation (BIF) is dominant in Archean to earliest Paleopro-terozoic successions, whereas granular iron formation (GIF) is much more common in Paleoproterozoic suc-cessions. Secular changes in the style of iron-formation deposition, identified more than 20 years ago, have

@article{doi102113gsecongeo1053467,
    author = "Bekker, Andrey and Slack, John F. and Planavsky, Noah J. and Krapež, B. and Hofmann, Axel and Konhauser, Kurt O. and Rouxel, Olivier",
    title = "Iron Formation: The Sedimentary Product of a Complex Interplay among Mantle, Tectonic, Oceanic, and Biospheric Processes",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Economic Geology",
    abstract = "Iron formations are economically important sedimentary rocks that are most common in Precambrian sedi-mentary successions. Although many aspects of their origin remain unresolved, it is widely accepted that sec-ular changes in the style of their deposition are linked to environmental and geochemical evolution of Earth. Two types of Precambrian iron formations have been recognized with respect to their depositional setting. Al-goma-type iron formations are interlayered with or stratigraphically linked to submarine-emplaced volcanic rocks in greenstone belts and, in some cases, with volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. In contrast, larger Superior-type iron formations are developed in passive-margin sedimentary rock successions and gener-ally lack direct relationships with volcanic rocks. The early distinction made between these two iron-formation types, although mimimized by later studies, remains a valid first approximation. Texturally, iron formations were also divided into two groups. Banded iron formation (BIF) is dominant in Archean to earliest Paleopro-terozoic successions, whereas granular iron formation (GIF) is much more common in Paleoproterozoic suc-cessions. Secular changes in the style of iron-formation deposition, identified more than 20 years ago, have",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.467",
    doi = "10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.467",
    openalex = "W2168225982",
    references = "doi101007bf00203209, doi101016001670379290334f, doi1010292001pa000623, doi101038nature06811, doi101098rstb20061843, doi101126science11536492, doi101126science1183325, doi101126science148366627, doi101126science1631544, doi101130b263281, doi101146annurevearth36031207124139, doi102113gsecongeo6871135, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992, openalexw1882072473, openalexw2738937425, openalexw2912219260"
}

@article{schwartzman2020biospheric,
    author = "Schwartzman, David",
    title = "Biospheric Evolution Is Coarsely Deterministic",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Big History",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.22339/jbh.v4i2.4230",
    doi = "10.22339/jbh.v4i2.4230",
    number = "2",
    pages = "60-66",
    volume = "4"
}

@misc{allison2024biogeochemical,
    author = "Allison, Steven and Goulden, Michael and Martiny, Adam and Martiny, Jennifer and Treseder, Kathleen and Brodie, Eoin and Karaoz, Ulas",
    title = "Biogeochemical consequences of microbial evolution under drought (Final technical report)",
    year = "2024",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2172/2263525",
    doi = "10.2172/2263525",
    openalex = "W4392860750"
}