British west indies

It may be that some apology is needed for again bringing before the Geological Society the subject of West-Indian Geology. I should not, indeed, have ventured to do so, but for the circumstance that the considerations involved do not alone concern the geology of the West Indies, but have an important bearing on several questions connected with the distribution of organic beings in Europe and Asia, and on the correlation of deposits in those countries. These questions have much interest for geologists; and I believe that the facts and arguments presented in this communication are such that my labour in bringing them together will not be lost, even if the hypothetical views I have built upon them should prove to be untenable. Moreover the present communication forms a necessary sequel to those I have already had the honour of laying before the Society. My object now is to present some general remarks on the results obtained by recent investigations into the geology and palæontology of the West-Indian islands. But before going into these, it may be as well that I should review our knowledge of the deposits, beginning with the oldest Tertiary formations. §2. Eocene Formations. The existence of Eocene strata in Jamaica has been demonstrated by Mr. Barrett and by Dr. Duncan and Mr. Wall Determinable fossils are rare; but three species of corals have been enumerated by Dr. Duncan, none of which are new.No strata of ascertained Eocene date have been shown to exist elsewhere in the

@article{doi101144gsljgs1866022010253,
    author = "Guppy, R. J. Lechmere",
    title = "On the Relations of the Tertiary Formations of the West Indies",
    year = "1866",
    journal = "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "It may be that some apology is needed for again bringing before the Geological Society the subject of West-Indian Geology. I should not, indeed, have ventured to do so, but for the circumstance that the considerations involved do not alone concern the geology of the West Indies, but have an important bearing on several questions connected with the distribution of organic beings in Europe and Asia, and on the correlation of deposits in those countries. These questions have much interest for geologists; and I believe that the facts and arguments presented in this communication are such that my labour in bringing them together will not be lost, even if the hypothetical views I have built upon them should prove to be untenable. Moreover the present communication forms a necessary sequel to those I have already had the honour of laying before the Society. My object now is to present some general remarks on the results obtained by recent investigations into the geology and palæontology of the West-Indian islands. But before going into these, it may be as well that I should review our knowledge of the deposits, beginning with the oldest Tertiary formations. §2. Eocene Formations. The existence of Eocene strata in Jamaica has been demonstrated by Mr. Barrett and by Dr. Duncan and Mr. Wall Determinable fossils are rare; but three species of corals have been enumerated by Dr. Duncan, none of which are new.No strata of ascertained Eocene date have been shown to exist elsewhere in the",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.jgs.1866.022.01-02.53",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.jgs.1866.022.01-02.53",
    openalex = "W2126042974"
}

T he object of this communication, is to present some observations on the succession and geological relations of the beds which have long been known in Trinidad as the Naparima Marls. This name was given to these beds by Wall & Sawkins in 1860, on account of their occupying a large part of the Naparima district, east and south-east of San Fernando (see map, fig. 1, p. 182). The beds so named formed one of the five series which were described by these authors under the head of the ‘Newer Parian Group.’ The names given to these five series were (a) Nariva Series, (b) Naparima Marls, (c) Tamana Series, (d) Caroni Series, and (e) Moruga Series; but it was explained on a subsequent page that these subdivisions do not form a definite succession. The Nariva Series occupies a central or axial position, and this Wall & Sawkins considered to be the oldest. The Tamana and the Caroni Series occur only to the north of it, while the Nariva and the Moruga lie on the southern side, and they thought that these two sets of deposits might be correlative one with another, the Nariva corresponding to the Tamana and the Moruga to the Caroni Series. In their general section across the island from north to south, Wall & Sawkins show the Nariva Beds dipping southward below the Naparima Marls, and the latter passing in the same direction beneath the Moraga sands; while stiU farther south they indicate a syncline occupied by

@article{harrison1899the,
    author = "Harrison, J. B. and Jukes-Browne, A. J.",
    title = "The Oceanic Deposits of Trinidad (British West Indies)",
    year = "1899",
    journal = "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London",
    abstract = "T he object of this communication, is to present some observations on the succession and geological relations of the beds which have long been known in Trinidad as the Naparima Marls. This name was given to these beds by Wall \& Sawkins in 1860, on account of their occupying a large part of the Naparima district, east and south-east of San Fernando (see map, fig. 1, p. 182). The beds so named formed one of the five series which were described by these authors under the head of the ‘Newer Parian Group.’ The names given to these five series were (a) Nariva Series, (b) Naparima Marls, (c) Tamana Series, (d) Caroni Series, and (e) Moruga Series; but it was explained on a subsequent page that these subdivisions do not form a definite succession. The Nariva Series occupies a central or axial position, and this Wall \& Sawkins considered to be the oldest. The Tamana and the Caroni Series occur only to the north of it, while the Nariva and the Moruga lie on the southern side, and they thought that these two sets of deposits might be correlative one with another, the Nariva corresponding to the Tamana and the Moruga to the Caroni Series. In their general section across the island from north to south, Wall \& Sawkins show the Nariva Beds dipping southward below the Naparima Marls, and the latter passing in the same direction beneath the Moraga sands; while stiU farther south they indicate a syncline occupied by",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.jgs.1899.055.01-04.12",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.jgs.1899.055.01-04.12",
    number = "1-4",
    openalex = "W2046603604",
    pages = "177-189",
    volume = "55"
}

@article{churchill1913the,
    author = "Churchill, William and Aspinall, Algernon E.",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "1913",
    journal = "Bulletin of the American Geographical Society",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/200289",
    doi = "10.2307/200289",
    number = "12",
    pages = "933",
    volume = "45"
}

@misc{booy1918certain,
    author = "Booy, Theodoor Hendrik Nikolaas de",
    title = "Certain archaeological investigations in Trinidad, British West Indies",
    year = "1918",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.451244.39088016090698",
    doi = "10.5479/sil.451244.39088016090698",
    openalex = "W2072506591"
}

@article{crossref1925rainfall,
    title = "RAINFALL CORRELATIONS IN TRINIDAD, BRITISH WEST INDIES",
    year = "1925",
    journal = "Monthly Weather Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1925)53<76a:rcitbw>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1175/1520-0493(1925)53<76a:rcitbw>2.0.co;2",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W4254087033",
    pages = "76-76",
    volume = "53"
}

@article{mansfield1925miocene,
    author = "Mansfield, Wendell C.",
    title = "Miocene gastropods and scaphopods from Trinidad, British West Indies",
    year = "1925",
    journal = "Proceedings of the United States National Museum",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5479/si.00963801.66-2559.1",
    doi = "10.5479/si.00963801.66-2559.1",
    number = "2559",
    openalex = "W2093115102",
    pages = "1-65",
    volume = "66"
}

The island of Trinidad lies off the east coast of Venezuela, being separated from the mainland by a shallow gulf. It is about 50 miles long by 30 miles wide and divided into five zones by three nearly parallel east-west ranges. The Northern Range is of schists and altered limestones of Cretaceous or earlier age. The Central Range is of Tertiary deposits, including great thicknesses of clays. Oil is produced from anticlinal structures in the southern part of the island, at depths of 300–2,000 feet, chiefly from Miocene beds. The oil varies in gravity from 16°–41° Baumé, the present production being about 12,000 barrels daily, from eleven pools.

@article{waring1925geology,
    author = "Waring, G. A. and Carlson, C. G.",
    title = "GEOLOGY AND OIL RESOURCES OF TRINIDAD, BRITISH WEST INDIES",
    year = "1925",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "The island of Trinidad lies off the east coast of Venezuela, being separated from the mainland by a shallow gulf. It is about 50 miles long by 30 miles wide and divided into five zones by three nearly parallel east-west ranges. The Northern Range is of schists and altered limestones of Cretaceous or earlier age. The Central Range is of Tertiary deposits, including great thicknesses of clays. Oil is produced from anticlinal structures in the southern part of the island, at depths of 300–2,000 feet, chiefly from Miocene beds. The oil varies in gravity from 16°–41° Baumé, the present production being about 12,000 barrels daily, from eleven pools.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/3d9326e7-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/3d9326e7-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "6",
    openalex = "W1977389084",
    pages = "1000-1008",
    volume = "9"
}

@article{crossref1927xxi,
    title = "XXI. British West Indies",
    year = "1927",
    journal = "Historical Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2281.1927.tb00428.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1468-2281.1927.tb00428.x",
    number = "12",
    pages = "160-161",
    volume = "4"
}

The first lots of material on which this report is based were sent to T. W. Vaughan at the U. S. National Museum by Messrs. F. W. Penny and J. A. Bullbrook prior to Vaughan’s removal in January 1924 from Washington, D. C., to La Jolla, California. Mr. Bullbrook sent a large collection during the latter part of 1923. Vaughan had intended either to make or to have someone else make a detailed study of this collection in order to compare the geological horizons represented in Trinidad with those found on the islands and the continental areas adjacent to...

@incollection{doi101130spe30p1,
    author = "Vaughan, Thomas Wayland and Cole, William S.",
    title = "Preliminary Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary Larger Foraminifera of Trinidad British West Indies",
    year = "1941",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America Special Papers",
    abstract = "The first lots of material on which this report is based were sent to T. W. Vaughan at the U. S. National Museum by Messrs. F. W. Penny and J. A. Bullbrook prior to Vaughan’s removal in January 1924 from Washington, D. C., to La Jolla, California. Mr. Bullbrook sent a large collection during the latter part of 1923. Vaughan had intended either to make or to have someone else make a detailed study of this collection in order to compare the geological horizons represented in Trinidad with those found on the islands and the continental areas adjacent to...",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe30-p1",
    doi = "10.1130/spe30-p1",
    openalex = "W1835842343"
}

Summary and ConclusionsIn the area selected for this investigation, which included two scattered communities in the cocoa growing districts of Tamana Reserve, four species of Anopheles were found: A. bellator, A. oswaldoi, A. mediopunctatus, and A. nimbus. A. mediopunctatus and A. nimbus were rare and A. oswaldoi could be collected with regularity, but none of these species is abundant enough, under present conditions, to be involved in the transmission of malaria in this highly malarious area of Trinidad. A. bellator, the predominant species, was present in great numbers.A. bellator attacked man viciously, literally swarming about people during the hours when the females became active. Although attracted to cows and donkeys, it seemed to prefer the blood of man to that of animals. A. oswaldoi fed readily on man, but appeared to be associated primarily with animals, especially cattle.A. bellator will attack man throughout the afternoon, especially on dark days and in the shade of the forest, but the real flight begins at about 5:30 p.m., and continues until about 8:00 p.m., with the peak occurring between 6:30 and 7:00 p.m. The species becomes active early in the morning also, between four and six-thirty o'clock, but the morning flight is light as compared with the evening flight.A. bellator will feed on man both indoors and out of doors. It will enter houses, and even bed nets, in search of human blood, but it attacks more readily out of doors or under the roofs of cocoa-drying or similar sheds without walls. The females do not remain in houses after feeding, but return immediately to their jungle resting places.The larvae of A. bellator were found only in Bromeliaceae, and of four species of bromeliads examined, the larvae were collected from two: a species of Wittmackia, and one of Gravisia. Gravisia is the chief A. bellator producing bromeliad in Trinidad.Experimental infections of A. bellator were obtained twice, and proved that the species is very susceptible to at least one of the species of Plasmodium causing human malaria. Oöcysts were found in two of four A. oswaldoi that fed on a P. vivax gametocyte carrier.Three of 725 “wild” A. bellator were found to be naturally infected with Plasmodium; one had a single mature oöcyst on the stomach wall, another had infected salivary glands, and the third had nine small oöcysts on the stomach wall.The evidence presented confirms the conclusion of De Verteuil, that A. bellator is the vector of malaria in the interior cocoa growing districts of Trinidad.

@article{doi104269ajtmh1942s12283,
    author = "Rozeboom, Lloyd E. and Laird, R. L.",
    title = "Anopheles (Kerteszia) Bellator Dyar and Knab as a Vector of Malaria in Trinidad, British West Indies",
    year = "1942",
    journal = "˜The œAmerican journal of tropical medicine.",
    abstract = "Summary and ConclusionsIn the area selected for this investigation, which included two scattered communities in the cocoa growing districts of Tamana Reserve, four species of Anopheles were found: A. bellator, A. oswaldoi, A. mediopunctatus, and A. nimbus. A. mediopunctatus and A. nimbus were rare and A. oswaldoi could be collected with regularity, but none of these species is abundant enough, under present conditions, to be involved in the transmission of malaria in this highly malarious area of Trinidad. A. bellator, the predominant species, was present in great numbers.A. bellator attacked man viciously, literally swarming about people during the hours when the females became active. Although attracted to cows and donkeys, it seemed to prefer the blood of man to that of animals. A. oswaldoi fed readily on man, but appeared to be associated primarily with animals, especially cattle.A. bellator will attack man throughout the afternoon, especially on dark days and in the shade of the forest, but the real flight begins at about 5:30 p.m., and continues until about 8:00 p.m., with the peak occurring between 6:30 and 7:00 p.m. The species becomes active early in the morning also, between four and six-thirty o'clock, but the morning flight is light as compared with the evening flight.A. bellator will feed on man both indoors and out of doors. It will enter houses, and even bed nets, in search of human blood, but it attacks more readily out of doors or under the roofs of cocoa-drying or similar sheds without walls. The females do not remain in houses after feeding, but return immediately to their jungle resting places.The larvae of A. bellator were found only in Bromeliaceae, and of four species of bromeliads examined, the larvae were collected from two: a species of Wittmackia, and one of Gravisia. Gravisia is the chief A. bellator producing bromeliad in Trinidad.Experimental infections of A. bellator were obtained twice, and proved that the species is very susceptible to at least one of the species of Plasmodium causing human malaria. Oöcysts were found in two of four A. oswaldoi that fed on a P. vivax gametocyte carrier.Three of 725 “wild” A. bellator were found to be naturally infected with Plasmodium; one had a single mature oöcyst on the stomach wall, another had infected salivary glands, and the third had nine small oöcysts on the stomach wall.The evidence presented confirms the conclusion of De Verteuil, that A. bellator is the vector of malaria in the interior cocoa growing districts of Trinidad.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1942.s1-22.83",
    doi = "10.4269/ajtmh.1942.s1-22.83",
    openalex = "W2465452788"
}

@article{beard1946the,
    author = "Beard, J. S.",
    title = "The Mora Forests of Trinidad, British West Indies",
    year = "1946",
    journal = "The Journal of Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2256464",
    doi = "10.2307/2256464",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2323547198",
    pages = "173",
    volume = "33"
}

@article{china1946new,
    author = "China, W. E.",
    title = "NEW CRYPTOSTEMMATIDAE (HEMIPTERA) FROM TRINIDAD, BRITISH WEST INDIES",
    year = "1946",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Series B, Taxonomy",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3113.1946.tb01401.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3113.1946.tb01401.x",
    number = "11-12",
    openalex = "W2105541882",
    pages = "148-154",
    volume = "15"
}

@article{downs1946bromeliad,
    author = "Downs, Wilbur G. and Pittendrigh, Colin S.",
    title = "Bromeliad Malaria in Trinidad, British West Indies",
    year = "1946",
    journal = "The American Journal of Tropical Medicine",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1946.s1-26.47",
    doi = "10.4269/ajtmh.1946.s1-26.47",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2297491472",
    pages = "47-66",
    volume = "s1-26"
}

@article{bronnimann1950the1,
    author = "Bronnimann, P",
    title = "The genus Hantkenina Cushman in Trinidad and Barbados, B.W.I",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Journal of Paleontology, v. 24, p. 397-420",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bronnimann, P., 1950, The genus Hantkenina Cushman in Trinidad and Barbados, B.W.I: Journal of Paleontology, v. 24, p. 397-420.}"
}

@article{branch1952the,
    author = "Branch, E. D. L.",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "International Affairs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2604153",
    doi = "10.2307/2604153",
    number = "2",
    pages = "268-269",
    volume = "28"
}

@article{arnold1956islandforming,
    author = "Arnold, Ralph and MacReady, George A.",
    title = "ISLAND-FORMING MUD VOLCANO IN TRINIDAD, BRITISH WEST INDIES",
    year = "1956",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5ceae5e0-16bb-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5ceae5e0-16bb-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "11",
    openalex = "W2002259165",
    pages = "2748-2758",
    volume = "40"
}

Armored mud balls similar to those described from river deposits in California by Bell (1940) are found on the coasts of Trinidad, West Indies. Among the Recent examples has been found one fine specimen of a fossil armored mud ball derived from Miocene Cruse sediments. Ellipsoidal, with a long axis of about 6 inches, it is composed of hard, dense mudstone with an armor of chert, quartz, and quartzitic sandstone pebbles.

@article{doi101086626607,
    author = "Kügler, Hans and Saunders, John B.",
    title = "Occurrence of Armored Mud Balls in Trinidad, West Indies",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "Armored mud balls similar to those described from river deposits in California by Bell (1940) are found on the coasts of Trinidad, West Indies. Among the Recent examples has been found one fine specimen of a fossil armored mud ball derived from Miocene Cruse sediments. Ellipsoidal, with a long axis of about 6 inches, it is composed of hard, dense mudstone with an armor of chert, quartz, and quartzitic sandstone pebbles.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/626607",
    doi = "10.1086/626607",
    openalex = "W2049616113"
}

@article{knox1962the,
    author = "Knox, Graham",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Hispanic American Historical Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1215/00182168-42.2.282a",
    doi = "10.1215/00182168-42.2.282a",
    number = "2",
    pages = "282-283",
    volume = "42"
}

@article{millard1962british,
    author = "Millard, D. Ralph and McNeill, Kenneth A.",
    title = "British West Indies peregrinations",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "British Journal of Plastic Surgery",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0007-1226(62)80057-5",
    doi = "10.1016/s0007-1226(62)80057-5",
    pages = "325-337",
    volume = "15"
}

ABSTRACT In August, 1964, a new mud island appeared above the sea about 1½ miles offshore from Chatham on the south coast of Trinidad. It rose to a maximum height of approximately 25 feet above mean sea-level and had an original area of about 10½ acres at low tide. It lay close to the axis of the Southern anticline, a tectonic feature that shows well-marked mud-volcano activity on the adjacent land. The mass of the island was composed of silty clay containing numerous boulders that ranged from a few inches to 2½ feet in diameter. The components ranged in age from Late Cretaceous to Miocene but it is considered probable that all those older than Miocene were derived from rubble beds of that age associated with the Southern Range anticline. Extrusion of soft mud took place during the first 2 days, apparently beginning from the east and extending along a line trending NNW.-SSE. Growth ceased in a few days and compaction and erosion followed until the island disappeared below sea-level 8 months later. The main force causing the extrusion of the mud and the formation of the island could have been tectonic, the result of gas pressure, or a combination of both. Although gas was given off in quantity, the lack of evidence for the high pressures necessary to extrude the estimated 9 million cubic feet of material leads the writers to believe that tectonic movement was the principal reason for the phenomenon.

@article{doi1013065d25b78f16c111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Higgins, Geraldine and Saunders, John B.",
    title = "Report on 1964 Chatham Mud Island, Erin Bay, Trinidad, West Indies",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT In August, 1964, a new mud island appeared above the sea about 1½ miles offshore from Chatham on the south coast of Trinidad. It rose to a maximum height of approximately 25 feet above mean sea-level and had an original area of about 10½ acres at low tide. It lay close to the axis of the Southern anticline, a tectonic feature that shows well-marked mud-volcano activity on the adjacent land. The mass of the island was composed of silty clay containing numerous boulders that ranged from a few inches to 2½ feet in diameter. The components ranged in age from Late Cretaceous to Miocene but it is considered probable that all those older than Miocene were derived from rubble beds of that age associated with the Southern Range anticline. Extrusion of soft mud took place during the first 2 days, apparently beginning from the east and extending along a line trending NNW.-SSE. Growth ceased in a few days and compaction and erosion followed until the island disappeared below sea-level 8 months later. The main force causing the extrusion of the mud and the formation of the island could have been tectonic, the result of gas pressure, or a combination of both. Although gas was given off in quantity, the lack of evidence for the high pressures necessary to extrude the estimated 9 million cubic feet of material leads the writers to believe that tectonic movement was the principal reason for the phenomenon.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25b78f-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25b78f-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1967482682",
    references = "arnold1956islandforming, doi101086626607, openalexw363527677"
}

@incollection{crossref1972british,
    title = "British West Indies",
    year = "1972",
    booktitle = "Minerva. Internationales Verzeichnis Wissenschaftlicher Institutionen",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110826050-019",
    doi = "10.1515/9783110826050-019",
    pages = "100-100"
}

The British West Indies in 1815 consisted of a large number of islands and territories acquired over two centuries. The economies of the British West Indies in the nineteenth century have been the source of considerable debate. Although different in their economies and their political structures, all British West Indian colonies were slave societies. The abolitionists decided to establish a new organization and a new policy to deal with the problem of colonial slavery. By ending the apprenticeship system early, planters in the British West Indies believed they would no longer be subject to further Imperial legislation. Crown Colony government brought certain advantages and problems.

@incollection{heuman1999the,
    author = "Heuman, Gad",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "1999",
    booktitle = "The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century",
    abstract = "The British West Indies in 1815 consisted of a large number of islands and territories acquired over two centuries. The economies of the British West Indies in the nineteenth century have been the source of considerable debate. Although different in their economies and their political structures, all British West Indian colonies were slave societies. The abolitionists decided to establish a new organization and a new policy to deal with the problem of colonial slavery. By ending the apprenticeship system early, planters in the British West Indies believed they would no longer be subject to further Imperial legislation. Crown Colony government brought certain advantages and problems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205654.003.0021",
    doi = "10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205654.003.0021",
    pages = "470-493"
}

@incollection{higman1999the,
    author = "Higman, B. W.",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "1999",
    booktitle = "The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205661.003.0007",
    doi = "10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205661.003.0007",
    pages = "134-145"
}

@incollection{crossref2002british,
    title = "British West Indies",
    year = "2002",
    booktitle = "Societies After Slavery",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.11498458.4",
    doi = "10.2307/jj.11498458.4",
    pages = "1-128"
}

During the vast stretches of early geologic time, the islands of the Caribbean archipelago separated from continental land masses, rose and sank many times, merged with and broke from other land masses, and then by the mid-Cenozoic period settled into the current pattern known today. By the time Native Americans arrived, the islands had developed complex, stable ecosystems. The actions these first colonists took on the landscape timber clearing, cultivation, animal hunting and domestication, fishing and exploitation of reef species affected fragile land and sea biotic communities in both beneficial and harmful ways.On Land and Sea examines the condition of biosystems on Caribbean islands at the time of colonization, human interactions with those systems through time, and the current state of biological resources in the West Indies. Drawing on a massive data set collected from long-term archaeological research, the study reconstructs past lifeways on these small tropical islands. The work presents a wide range of information, including types of fuel and construction timber used by inhabitants, cooking techniques for various shellfish, availability and use of medicinal and ritual plants, the effects on native plants and animals of cultivation and domestication, and diet and nutrition of native populations.The islands of the Caribbean basin continue to be actively excavated and studied in the quest to understand the earliest human inhabitants of the New World. This comprehensive work will ground current and future studies and will be valuable to archaeologists, anthropologists, botanists, ecologists, Caribbeanists, Latin American historians, and anyone studying similar island environments.

@article{doi105860choice423514,
    title = "On land and sea: Native American uses of biological resources in the West Indies",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "During the vast stretches of early geologic time, the islands of the Caribbean archipelago separated from continental land masses, rose and sank many times, merged with and broke from other land masses, and then by the mid-Cenozoic period settled into the current pattern known today. By the time Native Americans arrived, the islands had developed complex, stable ecosystems. The actions these first colonists took on the landscape timber clearing, cultivation, animal hunting and domestication, fishing and exploitation of reef species affected fragile land and sea biotic communities in both beneficial and harmful ways.On Land and Sea examines the condition of biosystems on Caribbean islands at the time of colonization, human interactions with those systems through time, and the current state of biological resources in the West Indies. Drawing on a massive data set collected from long-term archaeological research, the study reconstructs past lifeways on these small tropical islands. The work presents a wide range of information, including types of fuel and construction timber used by inhabitants, cooking techniques for various shellfish, availability and use of medicinal and ritual plants, the effects on native plants and animals of cultivation and domestication, and diet and nutrition of native populations.The islands of the Caribbean basin continue to be actively excavated and studied in the quest to understand the earliest human inhabitants of the New World. This comprehensive work will ground current and future studies and will be valuable to archaeologists, anthropologists, botanists, ecologists, Caribbeanists, Latin American historians, and anyone studying similar island environments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.42-3514",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.42-3514",
    openalex = "W627830219"
}

@incollection{holder2007west,
    author = "Holder, Calvin B.",
    title = "West Indies. Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Martinique, St. Kitts, Trinidad",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "The New Americans",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674044937-050",
    doi = "10.4159/9780674044937-050",
    openalex = "W2495821567",
    pages = "674-686"
}

Abstract Current models for the tectonic evolution of northeastern South America invoke a Palaeogene phase of inter-American convergence, followed by diachronous dextral oblique collision with the Caribbean Plate, becoming strongly transcurrent in the Late Miocene. Heavy mineral analysis of Cretaceous to Pleistocene rocks from eastern Venezuela, Barbados and Trinidad allow us to define six primary clastic domains, refine our palaeogeographic maps, and relate them to distinct stages of tectonic development: (1) Cretaceous passive margin of northern South America; (2) Palaeogene clastics related to the dynamics of the Proto-Caribbean Inversion Zone before collision with the Caribbean Plate; (3) Late Eocene–Oligocene southward-transgressive clastic sediments fringing the Caribbean foredeep during initial collision; (4) Oligocene–Middle Miocene axial fill of the Caribbean foredeep; (5) Late Eocene–Middle Miocene northern proximal sedimentary fringe of the Caribbean thrustfront; and (6) Late Miocene–Recent deltaic sediments flowing parallel to the orogen during its post-collisional, mainly transcurrent stage. Domain 1–3 sediments are highly mature, comprising primary Guayana Shield-derived sediment or recycled sediment of shield origin eroded from regional Palaeogene unconformities. In Trinidad, palinspastic restoration of Neogene deformation indicates that facies changes once interpreted as north to south are in fact west to east, reflecting progradation from the Maturín Basin into central Trinidad across the NW–SE trending Bohordal marginal offset, distorted by about 70 km of dextral shear through Trinidad. There is no mineralogical indication of a northern or northwestern erosional sediment source until Oligocene onset of Domain 4 sedimentation. Paleocene–Middle Eocene rocks of the Scotland Formation sandstones in Barbados do show an immature orogenic signature, in contrast to Venezuela–Trinidad Domain 2 sediments, this requires: (1) at least a bathymetric difference, if not a tectonic barrier, between them; and (2) that the Barbados deep-water depocentre was within turbidite transport distance of the Early Palaeogene orogenic source areas of western Venezuela and/or Colombia. Domains 4–6 (from Late Oligocene) show a strong direct or recycled influence of Caribbean Orogen igneous and metamorphic terranes in addition to substantial input from the shield areas to the south. The delay in the appearance of common Caribbean detritus in the east, relative to the Paleocene and Eocene appearance of Caribbean-influenced sands in the west, reflects the diachronous, eastward migration of Caribbean foredeep subsidence and sedimentation as a response to eastward-younging collision of the Caribbean Plate and the South American margin.

@article{doi101144sp32829,
    author = "Pindell, James and Kennan, Lorcan and Wright, David and Erikson, Johan P.",
    title = "Clastic domains of sandstones in central/eastern Venezuela, Trinidad, and Barbados: heavy mineral and tectonic constraints on provenance and palaeogeography",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Abstract Current models for the tectonic evolution of northeastern South America invoke a Palaeogene phase of inter-American convergence, followed by diachronous dextral oblique collision with the Caribbean Plate, becoming strongly transcurrent in the Late Miocene. Heavy mineral analysis of Cretaceous to Pleistocene rocks from eastern Venezuela, Barbados and Trinidad allow us to define six primary clastic domains, refine our palaeogeographic maps, and relate them to distinct stages of tectonic development: (1) Cretaceous passive margin of northern South America; (2) Palaeogene clastics related to the dynamics of the Proto-Caribbean Inversion Zone before collision with the Caribbean Plate; (3) Late Eocene–Oligocene southward-transgressive clastic sediments fringing the Caribbean foredeep during initial collision; (4) Oligocene–Middle Miocene axial fill of the Caribbean foredeep; (5) Late Eocene–Middle Miocene northern proximal sedimentary fringe of the Caribbean thrustfront; and (6) Late Miocene–Recent deltaic sediments flowing parallel to the orogen during its post-collisional, mainly transcurrent stage. Domain 1–3 sediments are highly mature, comprising primary Guayana Shield-derived sediment or recycled sediment of shield origin eroded from regional Palaeogene unconformities. In Trinidad, palinspastic restoration of Neogene deformation indicates that facies changes once interpreted as north to south are in fact west to east, reflecting progradation from the Maturín Basin into central Trinidad across the NW–SE trending Bohordal marginal offset, distorted by about 70 km of dextral shear through Trinidad. There is no mineralogical indication of a northern or northwestern erosional sediment source until Oligocene onset of Domain 4 sedimentation. Paleocene–Middle Eocene rocks of the Scotland Formation sandstones in Barbados do show an immature orogenic signature, in contrast to Venezuela–Trinidad Domain 2 sediments, this requires: (1) at least a bathymetric difference, if not a tectonic barrier, between them; and (2) that the Barbados deep-water depocentre was within turbidite transport distance of the Early Palaeogene orogenic source areas of western Venezuela and/or Colombia. Domains 4–6 (from Late Oligocene) show a strong direct or recycled influence of Caribbean Orogen igneous and metamorphic terranes in addition to substantial input from the shield areas to the south. The delay in the appearance of common Caribbean detritus in the east, relative to the Paleocene and Eocene appearance of Caribbean-influenced sands in the west, reflects the diachronous, eastward migration of Caribbean foredeep subsidence and sedimentation as a response to eastward-younging collision of the Caribbean Plate and the South American margin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/sp328.29",
    doi = "10.1144/sp328.29",
    openalex = "W2164956276",
    references = "doi1013063d933be416b111d78645000102c1865d"
}

@misc{ayearst2023the,
    author = "Ayearst, Morley",
    title = "The British West Indies",
    year = "2023",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003362043",
    doi = "10.4324/9781003362043"
}