Camera eye

@article{crossref1939clinical,
    title = "CLINICAL EYE CAMERA",
    year = "1939",
    journal = "American Journal of Optometry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2330-9482.1939.tb00802.x",
    doi = "10.1002/j.2330-9482.1939.tb00802.x",
    number = "10",
    pages = "384-385",
    volume = "16"
}

@article{davis1942the,
    author = "Davis, D. Dwight and Walls, Gordon Lynn",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1942",
    journal = "Journal of Mammalogy",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1375060",
    doi = "10.2307/1375060",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2346060790",
    pages = "453",
    volume = "23"
}

@book{doi105962bhltitle7369,
    author = "Walls, Gordon L.",
    title = "The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation [by] Gordon Lynn Walls.",
    year = "1942",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.7369",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.7369",
    openalex = "W4237583003"
}

@misc{walls1942the1,
    author = "Walls, G. L",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1942",
    howpublished = "Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, The Cranbrook Institute of Science",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walls, G. L., 1942, The Vertebrate Eye and its Adaptive Radiation: Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, The Cranbrook Institute of Science.}"
}

@article{crossref1943the,
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Journal of the American Medical Association",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1943.02840160064031",
    doi = "10.1001/jama.1943.02840160064031",
    number = "16",
    openalex = "W2024935827",
    pages = "1314",
    volume = "121"
}

@article{merriman1943the,
    author = "Merriman, Daniel and Walls, Gordon Lynn",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Copeia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1437897",
    doi = "10.2307/1437897",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2318517747",
    pages = "63",
    volume = "1943"
}

@article{post1943the,
    author = "Post, Lawrence T.",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "American Journal of Ophthalmology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9394(43)91539-9",
    doi = "10.1016/s0002-9394(43)91539-9",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2072996492",
    pages = "204-205",
    volume = "26"
}

@article{roaf1943the,
    author = "ROAF, H. E.",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/151236a0",
    doi = "10.1038/151236a0",
    number = "3826",
    openalex = "W2061653507",
    pages = "236-236",
    volume = "151"
}

@article{sheard1943the,
    author = "Sheard, Charles",
    title = "THE VERTEBRATE EYE AND ITS ADAPTIVE RADIATION",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Optometry and Vision Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1097/00006324-194301000-00005",
    doi = "10.1097/00006324-194301000-00005",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2021876515",
    pages = "30-32",
    volume = "20"
}

@article{smelser1943the,
    author = "Smelser, G. K.",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation.",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Archives of Ophthalmology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1943.00880180190021",
    doi = "10.1001/archopht.1943.00880180190021",
    number = "6",
    openalex = "W2065792687",
    pages = "1040-1040",
    volume = "29"
}

@article{hodgson1944the,
    author = "HODGSON, T. H.",
    title = "The Vertebrate Eye and Its Adaptive Radiation",
    year = "1944",
    journal = "American Journal of Psychiatry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.100.5.721-b",
    doi = "10.1176/ajp.100.5.721-b",
    number = "5",
    openalex = "W2019228806",
    pages = "721-b-721",
    volume = "100"
}

@article{walls1944the,
    author = "Walls, Gordon Lynn.",
    title = "THE VERTEBRATE EYE AND ITS ADAPTIVE RADIATION",
    year = "1944",
    journal = "The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-194409000-00057",
    doi = "10.1097/00005053-194409000-00057",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W4230511665",
    pages = "332",
    volume = "100"
}

@incollection{humm1988camera,
    author = "Humm, Peter",
    title = "Camera Eye/Private Eye",
    year = "1988",
    booktitle = "American Crime Fiction",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-19225-0\_3",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-349-19225-0\_3",
    pages = "23-38"
}

1.1 The Function of Astronomical Telescopes Astronomical telescopes are devices which collect as much radiation from astronomical (stellar) objects and put it in as sharp (small) an image as possible. Both collecting area and angular resolution play a role. The relative merit of these two functions has changed over the years in optical astronomy, with the angular resolution initially dominating and then, as the atmospheric seeing limit was reached, the collecting area becoming the most important factor. Therefore it is the habit these days to express the quality of a telescope by its (collecting) diameter rather than by its angular resolution. With the introduction of techniques that overcome the limits set by atmospheric seeing, the emphasis is changing back to angular res­ olution. This time, however, the constraint is set by the diffraction limit of the telescope so that both angular resolution and collecting power of a telescope will be determined by its diameter. Both telescope functions will therefore go hand-in-hand. Although speckle image reconstruction techniques have been successful in giving diffraction-limited images, the most powerful and promising technique for all astronomical applications is the one using adaptive optics. For an unresolved image, this technique puts most of the collected photons in as small an image as possible, thereby allowing better discrimination against the sky background, improving high spectral and spatial resolution spectroscopy, and enhancing inter-

@article{doi101146annurevaa31090193000305,
    author = "Beckers, J. M.",
    title = "Adaptive Optics for Astronomy: Principles, Performance, and Applications",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics",
    abstract = "1.1 The Function of Astronomical Telescopes Astronomical telescopes are devices which collect as much radiation from astronomical (stellar) objects and put it in as sharp (small) an image as possible. Both collecting area and angular resolution play a role. The relative merit of these two functions has changed over the years in optical astronomy, with the angular resolution initially dominating and then, as the atmospheric seeing limit was reached, the collecting area becoming the most important factor. Therefore it is the habit these days to express the quality of a telescope by its (collecting) diameter rather than by its angular resolution. With the introduction of techniques that overcome the limits set by atmospheric seeing, the emphasis is changing back to angular res­ olution. This time, however, the constraint is set by the diffraction limit of the telescope so that both angular resolution and collecting power of a telescope will be determined by its diameter. Both telescope functions will therefore go hand-in-hand. Although speckle image reconstruction techniques have been successful in giving diffraction-limited images, the most powerful and promising technique for all astronomical applications is the one using adaptive optics. For an unresolved image, this technique puts most of the collected photons in as small an image as possible, thereby allowing better discrimination against the sky background, improving high spectral and spatial resolution spectroscopy, and enhancing inter-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.000305",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.000305",
    openalex = "W2136742755"
}

Even when corrected with the best spectacles or contact lenses, normal human eyes still suffer from monochromatic aberrations that blur vision when the pupil is large. We have successfully corrected these aberrations using adaptive optics, providing normal eyes with supernormal optical quality. Contrast sensitivity to fine spatial patterns was increased when observers viewed stimuli through adaptive optics. The eye's aberrations also limit the resolution of images of the retina, a limit that has existed since the invention of the ophthalmoscope. We have constructed a fundus camera equipped with adaptive optics that provides unprecedented resolution, allowing the imaging of microscopic structures the size of single cells in the living human retina.

@article{doi101364josaa14002884,
    author = "Liang, Junzhong and Williams, David R. and Miller, Donald T.",
    title = "Supernormal vision and high-resolution retinal imaging through adaptive optics",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Journal of the Optical Society of America A",
    abstract = "Even when corrected with the best spectacles or contact lenses, normal human eyes still suffer from monochromatic aberrations that blur vision when the pupil is large. We have successfully corrected these aberrations using adaptive optics, providing normal eyes with supernormal optical quality. Contrast sensitivity to fine spatial patterns was increased when observers viewed stimuli through adaptive optics. The eye's aberrations also limit the resolution of images of the retina, a limit that has existed since the invention of the ophthalmoscope. We have constructed a fundus camera equipped with adaptive optics that provides unprecedented resolution, allowing the imaging of microscopic structures the size of single cells in the living human retina.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/josaa.14.002884",
    doi = "10.1364/josaa.14.002884",
    openalex = "W2126550790"
}

We have developed a prototype apparatus for real-time closed-loop measurement and correction of aberrations in the human eye. The apparatus uses infrared light to measure the wave-front aberration at 25 Hz with a Hartmann-Shack sensor. Defocus is removed by a motorized optometer, and higher-order aberrations are corrected by a membrane deformable mirror. The device was first tested with an artificial eye. Correction of static aberrations takes approximately five iterations, making the system capable of following aberration changes at 5 Hz. This capability allows one to track most of the aberration dynamics in the eye. Results in living eyes showed effective closed-loop correction of aberrations, with a residual uncorrected wave front of 0.1microm for a 4.3-mm pupil diameter. Retinal images of a point source in different subjects with and without adaptive correction of aberrations were estimated in real time. The results demonstrate real-time closed-loop correction of aberration in the living eye. An application of this device is as electro-optic "spectacles" to improve vision.

@article{doi101364ol26000746,
    author = "Fernández, Enrique J. and Iglesias, Ignacio and Artal, Pablo",
    title = "Closed-loop adaptive optics in the human eye",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Optics Letters",
    abstract = {We have developed a prototype apparatus for real-time closed-loop measurement and correction of aberrations in the human eye. The apparatus uses infrared light to measure the wave-front aberration at 25 Hz with a Hartmann-Shack sensor. Defocus is removed by a motorized optometer, and higher-order aberrations are corrected by a membrane deformable mirror. The device was first tested with an artificial eye. Correction of static aberrations takes approximately five iterations, making the system capable of following aberration changes at 5 Hz. This capability allows one to track most of the aberration dynamics in the eye. Results in living eyes showed effective closed-loop correction of aberrations, with a residual uncorrected wave front of 0.1microm for a 4.3-mm pupil diameter. Retinal images of a point source in different subjects with and without adaptive correction of aberrations were estimated in real time. The results demonstrate real-time closed-loop correction of aberration in the living eye. An application of this device is as electro-optic "spectacles" to improve vision.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/ol.26.000746",
    doi = "10.1364/ol.26.000746",
    openalex = "W2049456205"
}

We present the first scanning laser ophthalmoscope that uses adaptive optics to measure and correct the high order aberrations of the human eye. Adaptive optics increases both lateral and axial resolution, permitting axial sectioning of retinal tissue in vivo. The instrument is used to visualize photoreceptors, nerve fibers and flow of white blood cells in retinal capillaries.

@article{doi101364oe10000405,
    author = "Roorda, Austin and Romero‐Borja, Fernando and Donnelly, William J. and Queener, Hope M and Hebert, T.J. and Campbell, Melanie C. W.",
    title = "Adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Optics Express",
    abstract = "We present the first scanning laser ophthalmoscope that uses adaptive optics to measure and correct the high order aberrations of the human eye. Adaptive optics increases both lateral and axial resolution, permitting axial sectioning of retinal tissue in vivo. The instrument is used to visualize photoreceptors, nerve fibers and flow of white blood cells in retinal capillaries.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.10.000405",
    doi = "10.1364/oe.10.000405",
    openalex = "W1987146434"
}

@misc{crossref2004eye,
    title = "Eye Camera",
    year = "2004",
    booktitle = "Dictionary of Marketing Communications",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452229669.n1236",
    doi = "10.4135/9781452229669.n1236"
}

@incollection{damsteegt2004camera,
    author = "Damsteegt, Theo",
    title = "Camera Eye",
    year = "2004",
    booktitle = "The Present Tense in Modern Hindi Fiction",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004486102\_015",
    doi = "10.1163/9789004486102\_015",
    pages = "166-175"
}

Merging of ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography (UHR OCT) and adaptive optics (AO), resulting in high axial (3 microm) and improved transverse resolution (5-10 microm) is demonstrated for the first time to our knowledge in in vivo retinal imaging. A compact (300 mm x 300 mm) closed-loop AO system, based on a real-time Hartmann-Shack wave-front sensor operating at 30 Hz and a 37-actuator membrane deformable mirror, is interfaced to an UHR OCT system, based on a commercial OCT instrument, employing a compact Ti:sapphire laser with 130-nm bandwidth. Closed-loop correction of both ocular and system aberrations results in a residual uncorrected wave-front rms of 0.1 microm for a 3.68-mm pupil diameter. When this level of correction is achieved, OCT images are obtained under a static mirror configuration. By use of AO, an improvement of the transverse resolution of two to three times, compared with UHR OCT systems used so far, is obtained. A significant signal-to-noise ratio improvement of up to 9 dB in corrected compared with uncorrected OCT tomograms is also achieved.

@article{doi101364ol29002142,
    author = "Hermann, B. and Fernández, Enrique J. and Unterhuber, Angelika and Sattmann, Harald and Fercher, Adolf F. and Drexler, Wolfgang and Prieto, Pedro M. and Artal, Pablo",
    title = "Adaptive-optics ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Optics Letters",
    abstract = "Merging of ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography (UHR OCT) and adaptive optics (AO), resulting in high axial (3 microm) and improved transverse resolution (5-10 microm) is demonstrated for the first time to our knowledge in in vivo retinal imaging. A compact (300 mm x 300 mm) closed-loop AO system, based on a real-time Hartmann-Shack wave-front sensor operating at 30 Hz and a 37-actuator membrane deformable mirror, is interfaced to an UHR OCT system, based on a commercial OCT instrument, employing a compact Ti:sapphire laser with 130-nm bandwidth. Closed-loop correction of both ocular and system aberrations results in a residual uncorrected wave-front rms of 0.1 microm for a 3.68-mm pupil diameter. When this level of correction is achieved, OCT images are obtained under a static mirror configuration. By use of AO, an improvement of the transverse resolution of two to three times, compared with UHR OCT systems used so far, is obtained. A significant signal-to-noise ratio improvement of up to 9 dB in corrected compared with uncorrected OCT tomograms is also achieved.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/ol.29.002142",
    doi = "10.1364/ol.29.002142",
    openalex = "W1983059581"
}

We have combined Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography (FD-OCT) with a closed-loop adaptive optics (AO) system using a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor and a bimorph deformable mirror. The adaptive optics system measures and corrects the wavefront aberration of the human eye for improved lateral resolution (~4 μm) of retinal images, while maintaining the high axial resolution (~6 μm) of stand alone OCT. The AO-OCT instrument enables the three-dimensional (3D) visualization of different retinal structures in vivo with high 3D resolution (4×4×6 μm). Using this system, we have demonstrated the ability to image microscopic blood vessels and the cone photoreceptor mosaic.

@article{doi101364opex13008532,
    author = "Zawadzki, Robert J. and Jones, Steven M. and Olivier, Scot S. and Zhao, Mingtao and Bower, B. and Izatt, Joseph A. and Choi, Stacey S. and Laut, Sophie and Werner, John S.",
    title = "Adaptive-optics optical coherence tomography for high-resolution and high-speed 3D retinal in vivo imaging",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Optics Express",
    abstract = "We have combined Fourier-domain optical coherence tomography (FD-OCT) with a closed-loop adaptive optics (AO) system using a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor and a bimorph deformable mirror. The adaptive optics system measures and corrects the wavefront aberration of the human eye for improved lateral resolution (\textasciitilde 4 μm) of retinal images, while maintaining the high axial resolution (\textasciitilde 6 μm) of stand alone OCT. The AO-OCT instrument enables the three-dimensional (3D) visualization of different retinal structures in vivo with high 3D resolution (4×4×6 μm). Using this system, we have demonstrated the ability to image microscopic blood vessels and the cone photoreceptor mosaic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/opex.13.008532",
    doi = "10.1364/opex.13.008532",
    openalex = "W2104674704"
}

Summary The role of phenotypic plasticity in evolution has historically been a contentious issue because of debate over whether plasticity shields genotypes from selection or generates novel opportunities for selection to act. Because plasticity encompasses diverse adaptive and non‐adaptive responses to environmental variation, no single conceptual framework adequately predicts the diverse roles of plasticity in evolutionary change. Different types of phenotypic plasticity can uniquely contribute to adaptive evolution when populations are faced with new or altered environments. Adaptive plasticity should promote establishment and persistence in a new environment, but depending on how close the plastic response is to the new favoured phenotypic optimum dictates whether directional selection will cause adaptive divergence between populations. Further, non‐adaptive plasticity in response to stressful environments can result in a mean phenotypic response being further away from the favoured optimum or alternatively increase the variance around the mean due to the expression of cryptic genetic variation. The expression of cryptic genetic variation can facilitate adaptive evolution if by chance it results in a fitter phenotype. We conclude that adaptive plasticity that places populations close enough to a new phenotypic optimum for directional selection to act is the only plasticity that predictably enhances fitness and is most likely to facilitate adaptive evolution on ecological time‐scales in new environments. However, this type of plasticity is likely to be the product of past selection on variation that may have been initially non‐adaptive. We end with suggestions on how future empirical studies can be designed to better test the importance of different kinds of plasticity to adaptive evolution.

@article{doi101111j13652435200701283x,
    author = "Ghalambor, Cameron K. and McKay, John and Carroll, Scott P. and Reznick, David N.",
    title = "Adaptive versus non‐adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new environments",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Functional Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary The role of phenotypic plasticity in evolution has historically been a contentious issue because of debate over whether plasticity shields genotypes from selection or generates novel opportunities for selection to act. Because plasticity encompasses diverse adaptive and non‐adaptive responses to environmental variation, no single conceptual framework adequately predicts the diverse roles of plasticity in evolutionary change. Different types of phenotypic plasticity can uniquely contribute to adaptive evolution when populations are faced with new or altered environments. Adaptive plasticity should promote establishment and persistence in a new environment, but depending on how close the plastic response is to the new favoured phenotypic optimum dictates whether directional selection will cause adaptive divergence between populations. Further, non‐adaptive plasticity in response to stressful environments can result in a mean phenotypic response being further away from the favoured optimum or alternatively increase the variance around the mean due to the expression of cryptic genetic variation. The expression of cryptic genetic variation can facilitate adaptive evolution if by chance it results in a fitter phenotype. We conclude that adaptive plasticity that places populations close enough to a new phenotypic optimum for directional selection to act is the only plasticity that predictably enhances fitness and is most likely to facilitate adaptive evolution on ecological time‐scales in new environments. However, this type of plasticity is likely to be the product of past selection on variation that may have been initially non‐adaptive. We end with suggestions on how future empirical studies can be designed to better test the importance of different kinds of plasticity to adaptive evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01283.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01283.x",
    openalex = "W2164403987",
    references = "doi10100797814615695655, doi101007bf02763457, doi101007bf02984069, doi101016s0065266008600486, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101038150563a0, doi10103824550, doi101038nrg1041, doi101038scientificamerican117998, doi101086276408, doi101086346135, doi101093genetics16297, doi101093oso97801951223430010001, doi101111j13652435200701283x, doi101111j155856461985tb00391x, doi101111j155856461998tb01823x, doi1015159780691209418, doi1015159781400820108, doi1023072529912, doi105860choice364478, doi105962bhltitle27468"
}

PURPOSE: To investigate the optical performance of a large-stroke deformable mirror in correcting large aberrations in highly aberrated eyes. METHODS: A large-stroke deformable mirror (Mirao 52D; Imagine Eyes) and a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor were used in an adaptive optics system. Closed-loop correction of the static aberrations of a phase plate designed for an advanced keratoconic eye was performed for a 6-mm pupil. The same adaptive optics system was also used to correct the aberrations in one eye each of two moderate keratoconic and three normal human eyes for a 6-mm pupil. RESULTS: With closed-loop correction of the phase plate, the total root-mean-square (RMS) over a 6-mm pupil was reduced from 3.54 to 0.04 microm in 30 to 40 iterations, corresponding to 3 to 4 seconds. Adaptive optics closed-loop correction reduced an average total RMS of 1.73+/-0.998 to 0.10+/-0.017 microm (higher order RMS of 0.39+/-0.124 to 0.06+/-0.004 microm) in the three normal eyes and 2.73+/-1.754 to 0.10+/-0.001 microm (higher order RMS of 1.82+/-1.058 to 0.05+/-0.017 microm) in the two keratoconic eyes. CONCLUSIONS: Aberrations in both normal and highly aberrated eyes were successfully corrected using the large-stroke deformable mirror to provide almost perfect optical quality. This mirror can be a powerful tool to assess the limit of visual performance achievable after correcting the aberrations, especially in eyes with abnormal corneal profiles.

@article{doi1039281081597x2007110116,
    author = "Sabesan, Ramkumar and Ahmad, Kamran and Yoon, Geunyoung",
    title = "Correcting Highly Aberrated Eyes Using Large-stroke Adaptive Optics",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Refractive Surgery",
    abstract = "PURPOSE: To investigate the optical performance of a large-stroke deformable mirror in correcting large aberrations in highly aberrated eyes. METHODS: A large-stroke deformable mirror (Mirao 52D; Imagine Eyes) and a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor were used in an adaptive optics system. Closed-loop correction of the static aberrations of a phase plate designed for an advanced keratoconic eye was performed for a 6-mm pupil. The same adaptive optics system was also used to correct the aberrations in one eye each of two moderate keratoconic and three normal human eyes for a 6-mm pupil. RESULTS: With closed-loop correction of the phase plate, the total root-mean-square (RMS) over a 6-mm pupil was reduced from 3.54 to 0.04 microm in 30 to 40 iterations, corresponding to 3 to 4 seconds. Adaptive optics closed-loop correction reduced an average total RMS of 1.73+/-0.998 to 0.10+/-0.017 microm (higher order RMS of 0.39+/-0.124 to 0.06+/-0.004 microm) in the three normal eyes and 2.73+/-1.754 to 0.10+/-0.001 microm (higher order RMS of 1.82+/-1.058 to 0.05+/-0.017 microm) in the two keratoconic eyes. CONCLUSIONS: Aberrations in both normal and highly aberrated eyes were successfully corrected using the large-stroke deformable mirror to provide almost perfect optical quality. This mirror can be a powerful tool to assess the limit of visual performance achievable after correcting the aberrations, especially in eyes with abnormal corneal profiles.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3928/1081-597x-20071101-16",
    doi = "10.3928/1081-597x-20071101-16",
    openalex = "W1602176321"
}

We evaluated the visual benefit of correcting astigmatism and high-order aberrations with adaptive optics (AO) on visual acuity (VA) measured at 7 different luminances (ranging from 0.8 to 50 cd/m(2)) and two contrast polarities (black letters on white background, BoW, and white letters on black background, WoB) on 7 subjects. For the BoW condition, VA increased with background luminance in both natural and AO-corrected conditions, and there was a benefit of AO correction at all luminances (by a factor of 1.29 on average across luminances). For WoB VA increased with foreground luminance but decreased for the highest luminances. In this reversed polarity condition AO correction increased VA by a factor of 1.13 on average and did not produce a visual benefit at high luminances. The improvement of VA (averaged across conditions) was significantly correlated (p = 0.04) with the amount of corrected aberrations (in terms of Strehl ratio). The improved performance with WoB targets with respect to BoW targets is decreased when correcting aberrations, suggesting a role of ocular aberrations in the differences in visual performance between contrast polarities.

@article{doi1011678131,
    author = "Marcos, S. and Sawides, Lucie and Gambra, Enrique and Dorronsoro, Carlos",
    title = "Influence of adaptive-optics ocular aberration correction on visual acuity at different luminances and contrast polarities",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Vision",
    abstract = "We evaluated the visual benefit of correcting astigmatism and high-order aberrations with adaptive optics (AO) on visual acuity (VA) measured at 7 different luminances (ranging from 0.8 to 50 cd/m(2)) and two contrast polarities (black letters on white background, BoW, and white letters on black background, WoB) on 7 subjects. For the BoW condition, VA increased with background luminance in both natural and AO-corrected conditions, and there was a benefit of AO correction at all luminances (by a factor of 1.29 on average across luminances). For WoB VA increased with foreground luminance but decreased for the highest luminances. In this reversed polarity condition AO correction increased VA by a factor of 1.13 on average and did not produce a visual benefit at high luminances. The improvement of VA (averaged across conditions) was significantly correlated (p = 0.04) with the amount of corrected aberrations (in terms of Strehl ratio). The improved performance with WoB targets with respect to BoW targets is decreased when correcting aberrations, suggesting a role of ocular aberrations in the differences in visual performance between contrast polarities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1167/8.13.1",
    doi = "10.1167/8.13.1",
    openalex = "W1970046760",
    references = "doi101016s0886335003003341, doi101113jphysiol1965sp007784, doi101163156856897x00357, doi101167444, doi101167448, doi101167449, doi101364josaa14002884, doi101364oe10000405, doi101364ol29002142, openalexw2004472265"
}

PURPOSE: To evaluate the impact of higher-order aberrations on depth of focus using an adaptive optics visual simulator. SETTING: Refractive Surgery Department, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. METHODS: An adaptive optics simulator was used to optically introduce individual aberrations in eyes of subjects with a 6.0 mm pupil under cycloplegia (coma and trefoil, magnitudes +/-0.3 microm; spherical aberration, magnitudes +/-0.3, +/-0.6, +/-0.9 microm). A through-focus response curve was assessed by recording the percentage of Sloan letters at a fixed size identified at various target distances. The subject's ocular depth of focus and center of focus were computed as the half-maximum width and the midpoint of the through-focus response curve. RESULTS: The dominant eyes of 10 subjects were evaluated. The simulation of positive or negative spherical aberration had the effect of enhancing depth of focus and resulted in linearly shifting of the center of focus by 2.6 diopters (D)/microm of error. This increase in depth of focus reached a maximum of approximately 2.0 D with 0.6 microm of spherical aberration and became smaller when the aberration was increased to 0.9 microm. Trefoil and coma appeared to neither shift the center of focus nor significantly modify the depth of focus. CONCLUSION: The introduction of both positive and negative spherical aberration using adaptive optics technology significantly shifted and expanded the subject's overall depth of focus; simulating coma or trefoil did not produce such effects.

@article{doi101016jjcrs200905059,
    author = "Rocha, Karolinne Maia and Vabre, Laurent and Château, Nicolas and Krueger, Ronald R.",
    title = "Expanding depth of focus by modifying higher-order aberrations induced by an adaptive optics visual simulator",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Cataract \& Refractive Surgery",
    abstract = "PURPOSE: To evaluate the impact of higher-order aberrations on depth of focus using an adaptive optics visual simulator. SETTING: Refractive Surgery Department, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. METHODS: An adaptive optics simulator was used to optically introduce individual aberrations in eyes of subjects with a 6.0 mm pupil under cycloplegia (coma and trefoil, magnitudes +/-0.3 microm; spherical aberration, magnitudes +/-0.3, +/-0.6, +/-0.9 microm). A through-focus response curve was assessed by recording the percentage of Sloan letters at a fixed size identified at various target distances. The subject's ocular depth of focus and center of focus were computed as the half-maximum width and the midpoint of the through-focus response curve. RESULTS: The dominant eyes of 10 subjects were evaluated. The simulation of positive or negative spherical aberration had the effect of enhancing depth of focus and resulted in linearly shifting of the center of focus by 2.6 diopters (D)/microm of error. This increase in depth of focus reached a maximum of approximately 2.0 D with 0.6 microm of spherical aberration and became smaller when the aberration was increased to 0.9 microm. Trefoil and coma appeared to neither shift the center of focus nor significantly modify the depth of focus. CONCLUSION: The introduction of both positive and negative spherical aberration using adaptive optics technology significantly shifted and expanded the subject's overall depth of focus; simulating coma or trefoil did not produce such effects.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrs.2009.05.059",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jcrs.2009.05.059",
    openalex = "W2056918294",
    references = "doi1039281081597x2005050105"
}

Compared to most ophthalmic technologies, adaptive optics, or AO, is relatively young. The first working systems were presented in 1997 and, owing in part to its complexity, the development of AO systems has been relatively slow. Nevertheless, AO for vision science is coming of age and the scope of applications continues to increase. Applications of AO can be broadly split along two lines; for retinal imaging and for testing visual function. This review will focus on the applications of adaptive optics for testing visual function. Since this represents only a subset of the field of AO for ophthalmoscopy, it is possible to cite virtually every paper that has been published in the field to date. As such, this is a comprehensive review whose intent is to get all readers up to speed on the state of the art. More importantly, perhaps, this review will focus on the types of science that can be accomplished with AO with a view to future applications. The reference list alone is informative, since the reader will quickly discover that the community that is using AO for vision science is rather small. Looking at the dates for the cited papers, the reader will also discover that the field is rapidly expanding.

@article{doi1011671156,
    author = "Roorda, Austin",
    title = "Adaptive optics for studying visual function: A comprehensive review",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Vision",
    abstract = "Compared to most ophthalmic technologies, adaptive optics, or AO, is relatively young. The first working systems were presented in 1997 and, owing in part to its complexity, the development of AO systems has been relatively slow. Nevertheless, AO for vision science is coming of age and the scope of applications continues to increase. Applications of AO can be broadly split along two lines; for retinal imaging and for testing visual function. This review will focus on the applications of adaptive optics for testing visual function. Since this represents only a subset of the field of AO for ophthalmoscopy, it is possible to cite virtually every paper that has been published in the field to date. As such, this is a comprehensive review whose intent is to get all readers up to speed on the state of the art. More importantly, perhaps, this review will focus on the types of science that can be accomplished with AO with a view to future applications. The reference list alone is informative, since the reader will quickly discover that the community that is using AO for vision science is rather small. Looking at the dates for the cited papers, the reader will also discover that the field is rapidly expanding.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1167/11.5.6",
    doi = "10.1167/11.5.6",
    openalex = "W1996104232",
    references = "doi1011678131, doi101167964"
}

A broadband adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscope (BAOSO) consisting of four afocal telescopes, formed by pairs of off-axis spherical mirrors in a non-planar arrangement, is presented. The non-planar folding of the telescopes is used to simultaneously reduce pupil and image plane astigmatism. The former improves the adaptive optics performance by reducing the root-mean-square (RMS) of the wavefront and the beam wandering due to optical scanning. The latter provides diffraction limited performance over a 3 diopter (D) vergence range. This vergence range allows for the use of any broadband light source(s) in the 450-850 nm wavelength range to simultaneously image any combination of retinal layers. Imaging modalities that could benefit from such a large vergence range are optical coherence tomography (OCT), multi- and hyper-spectral imaging, single- and multi-photon fluorescence. The benefits of the non-planar telescopes in the BAOSO are illustrated by resolving the human foveal photoreceptor mosaic in reflectance using two different superluminescent diodes with 680 and 796 nm peak wavelengths, reaching the eye with a vergence of 0.76 D relative to each other.

@article{doi101364boe2001757,
    author = "Dubra, Alfredo and Sulai, Yusufu N.",
    title = "Reflective afocal broadband adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscope",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "A broadband adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscope (BAOSO) consisting of four afocal telescopes, formed by pairs of off-axis spherical mirrors in a non-planar arrangement, is presented. The non-planar folding of the telescopes is used to simultaneously reduce pupil and image plane astigmatism. The former improves the adaptive optics performance by reducing the root-mean-square (RMS) of the wavefront and the beam wandering due to optical scanning. The latter provides diffraction limited performance over a 3 diopter (D) vergence range. This vergence range allows for the use of any broadband light source(s) in the 450-850 nm wavelength range to simultaneously image any combination of retinal layers. Imaging modalities that could benefit from such a large vergence range are optical coherence tomography (OCT), multi- and hyper-spectral imaging, single- and multi-photon fluorescence. The benefits of the non-planar telescopes in the BAOSO are illustrated by resolving the human foveal photoreceptor mosaic in reflectance using two different superluminescent diodes with 680 and 796 nm peak wavelengths, reaching the eye with a vergence of 0.76 D relative to each other.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.2.001757",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.2.001757",
    openalex = "W2115504344",
    references = "doi101364ao31003594"
}

The rod photoreceptors are implicated in a number of devastating retinal diseases. However, routine imaging of these cells has remained elusive, even with the advent of adaptive optics imaging. Here, we present the first in vivo images of the contiguous rod photoreceptor mosaic in nine healthy human subjects. The images were collected with three different confocal adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscopes at two different institutions, using 680 and 775 nm superluminescent diodes for illumination. Estimates of photoreceptor density and rod:cone ratios in the 5°-15° retinal eccentricity range are consistent with histological findings, confirming our ability to resolve the rod mosaic by averaging multiple registered images, without the need for additional image processing. In one subject, we were able to identify the emergence of the first rods at approximately 190 μm from the foveal center, in agreement with previous histological studies. The rod and cone photoreceptor mosaics appear in focus at different retinal depths, with the rod mosaic best focus (i.e., brightest and sharpest) being at least 10 μm shallower than the cones at retinal eccentricities larger than 8°. This study represents an important step in bringing high-resolution imaging to bear on the study of rod disorders.

@article{doi101364boe2001864,
    author = "Dubra, Alfredo and Sulai, Yusufu N. and Norris, Jennifer L. and Cooper, Robert F. and Dubis, Adam M. and Williams, David R. and Carroll, Joseph",
    title = "Noninvasive imaging of the human rod photoreceptor mosaic using a confocal adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscope",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "The rod photoreceptors are implicated in a number of devastating retinal diseases. However, routine imaging of these cells has remained elusive, even with the advent of adaptive optics imaging. Here, we present the first in vivo images of the contiguous rod photoreceptor mosaic in nine healthy human subjects. The images were collected with three different confocal adaptive optics scanning ophthalmoscopes at two different institutions, using 680 and 775 nm superluminescent diodes for illumination. Estimates of photoreceptor density and rod:cone ratios in the 5°-15° retinal eccentricity range are consistent with histological findings, confirming our ability to resolve the rod mosaic by averaging multiple registered images, without the need for additional image processing. In one subject, we were able to identify the emergence of the first rods at approximately 190 μm from the foveal center, in agreement with previous histological studies. The rod and cone photoreceptor mosaics appear in focus at different retinal depths, with the rod mosaic best focus (i.e., brightest and sharpest) being at least 10 μm shallower than the cones at retinal eccentricities larger than 8°. This study represents an important step in bringing high-resolution imaging to bear on the study of rod disorders.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.2.001864",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.2.001864",
    openalex = "W2050534471",
    references = "doi101364ao31003594"
}

Evidence is reviewed from a wide range of studies relevant to the evolution of vertebrate photoreceptors and phototransduction, in order to permit the synthesis of a scenario for the major steps that occurred during the evolution of cones, rods and the vertebrate retina. The ancestral opsin originated more than 700 Mya (million years ago) and duplicated to form three branches before cnidarians diverged from our own lineage. During chordate evolution, ciliary opsins (C-opsins) underwent multiple stages of improvement, giving rise to the 'bleaching' opsins that characterise cones and rods. Prior to the '2R' rounds of whole genome duplication near the base of the vertebrate lineage, 'cone' photoreceptors already existed; they possessed a transduction cascade essentially the same as in modern cones, along with two classes of opsin: SWS and LWS (short- and long-wave-sensitive). These cones appear to have made synaptic contact directly onto ganglion cells, in a two-layered retina that resembled the pineal organ of extant non-mammalian vertebrates. Interestingly, those ganglion cells appear to be descendants of microvillar photoreceptor cells. No lens was associated with this two-layered retina, and it is likely to have mediated circadian timing rather than spatial vision. Subsequently, retinal bipolar cells evolved, as variants of ciliary photoreceptors, and greatly increased the computational power of the retina. With the advent of a lens and extraocular muscles, spatial imaging information became available for central processing, and gave rise to vision in vertebrates more than 500 Mya. The '2R' genome duplications permitted the refinement of cascade components suitable for both rods and cones, and also led to the emergence of five visual opsins. The exact timing of the emergence of 'true rods' is not yet clear, but it may not have occurred until after the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates.

@article{doi101016jpreteyeres201306001,
    author = "Lamb, Trevor D.",
    title = "Evolution of phototransduction, vertebrate photoreceptors and retina",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Progress in Retinal and Eye Research",
    abstract = "Evidence is reviewed from a wide range of studies relevant to the evolution of vertebrate photoreceptors and phototransduction, in order to permit the synthesis of a scenario for the major steps that occurred during the evolution of cones, rods and the vertebrate retina. The ancestral opsin originated more than 700 Mya (million years ago) and duplicated to form three branches before cnidarians diverged from our own lineage. During chordate evolution, ciliary opsins (C-opsins) underwent multiple stages of improvement, giving rise to the 'bleaching' opsins that characterise cones and rods. Prior to the '2R' rounds of whole genome duplication near the base of the vertebrate lineage, 'cone' photoreceptors already existed; they possessed a transduction cascade essentially the same as in modern cones, along with two classes of opsin: SWS and LWS (short- and long-wave-sensitive). These cones appear to have made synaptic contact directly onto ganglion cells, in a two-layered retina that resembled the pineal organ of extant non-mammalian vertebrates. Interestingly, those ganglion cells appear to be descendants of microvillar photoreceptor cells. No lens was associated with this two-layered retina, and it is likely to have mediated circadian timing rather than spatial vision. Subsequently, retinal bipolar cells evolved, as variants of ciliary photoreceptors, and greatly increased the computational power of the retina. With the advent of a lens and extraocular muscles, spatial imaging information became available for central processing, and gave rise to vision in vertebrates more than 500 Mya. The '2R' genome duplications permitted the refinement of cascade components suitable for both rods and cones, and also led to the emergence of five visual opsins. The exact timing of the emergence of 'true rods' is not yet clear, but it may not have occurred until after the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.06.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.06.001",
    openalex = "W2038892197",
    references = "doi1010079783642866593, doi101007bf02028391, doi101007bf02584045, doi1010160002939482901581, doi1010160042698975902151, doi101016b0123708788001257, doi101016c20091037423, doi101038nature05633, doi101038nature09941, doi101038nature10689, doi101038nrn1497, doi101038nrn2283, doi101073pnas1010350107, doi101098rsbl20070545, doi101098rstb19960022, doi101126science1206375, doi101126science17239871052, doi101126science860134, doi101136bjo592111c, doi101159000079744, doi1023071437897, doi1023074444260, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle68064, merriman1943the, ruiz1991the, smelser1943the"
}

Principles of Adaptive Optics describes the foundations, principles, and applications of adaptive optics (AO) and its enabling technologies. Addressing the fundamentals of AO at the core of new uses in biomedical imaging, communications, high-energy lasers, and astronomy, this fully revised and significantly expanded Fourth Edition:Contains all-new

@book{doi101201b19712,
    author = "Tyson, Robert K.",
    title = "Principles of Adaptive Optics",
    year = "2015",
    abstract = "Principles of Adaptive Optics describes the foundations, principles, and applications of adaptive optics (AO) and its enabling technologies. Addressing the fundamentals of AO at the core of new uses in biomedical imaging, communications, high-energy lasers, and astronomy, this fully revised and significantly expanded Fourth Edition:Contains all-new",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/b19712",
    doi = "10.1201/b19712",
    openalex = "W1995330649"
}

The activity patterns of mammals are generally categorized as nocturnal, diurnal, crepuscular (active at twilight), and cathemeral (active throughout the day). These patterns are highly variable across regions and seasons even within the same species. However, quantitative data is still lacking, particularly for sympatric species. We monitored the seasonal and diel activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in Hokkaido, Japan. Through an intensive camera-trap survey a total of 13,279 capture events were recorded from eight mammals over 20,344 camera-trap days, i.e., two years. Diel activity patterns were clearly divided into four categories: diurnal (Eurasian red squirrels), nocturnal (raccoon dogs and raccoons), crepuscular (sika deer and mountain hares), and cathemeral (Japanese martens, red foxes, and brown bears). Some crepuscular and cathemeral mammals shifted activity peaks across seasons. Particularly, sika deer changed peaks from twilight during spring-autumn to day-time in winter, possibly because of thermal constraints. Japanese martens were cathemeral during winter-summer, but nocturnal in autumn. We found no clear indication of predator-prey and competitive interactions, suggesting that animal densities are not very high or temporal niche partitioning is absent among the target species. This long-term camera-trap survey was highly cost-effective and provided one of the most detailed seasonal and diel activity patterns in multiple sympatric mammals under natural conditions.

@article{doi101371journalpone0163602,
    author = "IKEDA, Takashi and Uchida, Kenta and Matsuura, Yukiko and Takahashi, Hiroshi and Yoshida, T. and Kaji, Koichi and Koizumi, Itsuro",
    title = "Seasonal and Diel Activity Patterns of Eight Sympatric Mammals in Northern Japan Revealed by an Intensive Camera-Trap Survey",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "The activity patterns of mammals are generally categorized as nocturnal, diurnal, crepuscular (active at twilight), and cathemeral (active throughout the day). These patterns are highly variable across regions and seasons even within the same species. However, quantitative data is still lacking, particularly for sympatric species. We monitored the seasonal and diel activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in Hokkaido, Japan. Through an intensive camera-trap survey a total of 13,279 capture events were recorded from eight mammals over 20,344 camera-trap days, i.e., two years. Diel activity patterns were clearly divided into four categories: diurnal (Eurasian red squirrels), nocturnal (raccoon dogs and raccoons), crepuscular (sika deer and mountain hares), and cathemeral (Japanese martens, red foxes, and brown bears). Some crepuscular and cathemeral mammals shifted activity peaks across seasons. Particularly, sika deer changed peaks from twilight during spring-autumn to day-time in winter, possibly because of thermal constraints. Japanese martens were cathemeral during winter-summer, but nocturnal in autumn. We found no clear indication of predator-prey and competitive interactions, suggesting that animal densities are not very high or temporal niche partitioning is absent among the target species. This long-term camera-trap survey was highly cost-effective and provided one of the most detailed seasonal and diel activity patterns in multiple sympatric mammals under natural conditions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163602",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0163602",
    openalex = "W2530480733",
    references = "doi101159000089694"
}

Adaptive Optics (AO) retinal imaging has provided revolutionary tools to scientists and clinicians for studying retinal structure and function in the living eye. From animal models to clinical patients, AO imaging is changing the way scientists are approaching the study of the retina. By providing cellular and subcellular details without the need for histology, it is now possible to perform large scale studies as well as to understand how an individual retina changes over time. Because AO retinal imaging is non-invasive and when performed with near-IR wavelengths both safe and easily tolerated by patients, it holds promise for being incorporated into clinical trials providing cell specific approaches to monitoring diseases and therapeutic interventions. AO is being used to enhance the ability of OCT, fluorescence imaging, and reflectance imaging. By incorporating imaging that is sensitive to differences in the scattering properties of retinal tissue, it is especially sensitive to disease, which can drastically impact retinal tissue properties. This review examines human AO retinal imaging with a concentration on the use of the Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope (AOSLO). It first covers the background and the overall approaches to human AO retinal imaging, and the technology involved, and then concentrates on using AO retinal imaging to study the structure and function of the retina.

@article{doi101016jpreteyeres201808002,
    author = "Burns, Stephen A. and Elsner, Ann E. and Sapoznik, Kaitlyn and Warner, Raymond L. and Gast, Thomas",
    title = "Adaptive optics imaging of the human retina",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Progress in Retinal and Eye Research",
    abstract = "Adaptive Optics (AO) retinal imaging has provided revolutionary tools to scientists and clinicians for studying retinal structure and function in the living eye. From animal models to clinical patients, AO imaging is changing the way scientists are approaching the study of the retina. By providing cellular and subcellular details without the need for histology, it is now possible to perform large scale studies as well as to understand how an individual retina changes over time. Because AO retinal imaging is non-invasive and when performed with near-IR wavelengths both safe and easily tolerated by patients, it holds promise for being incorporated into clinical trials providing cell specific approaches to monitoring diseases and therapeutic interventions. AO is being used to enhance the ability of OCT, fluorescence imaging, and reflectance imaging. By incorporating imaging that is sensitive to differences in the scattering properties of retinal tissue, it is especially sensitive to disease, which can drastically impact retinal tissue properties. This review examines human AO retinal imaging with a concentration on the use of the Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope (AOSLO). It first covers the background and the overall approaches to human AO retinal imaging, and the technology involved, and then concentrates on using AO retinal imaging to study the structure and function of the retina.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.08.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.08.002",
    openalex = "W2888854438",
    references = "doi101016jvisres201701006"
}

The flow of erythrocytes in parafoveal capillaries was imaged in the living human eye with an adaptive optics near-confocal ophthalmoscope at a frame rate of 800 Hz with a low coherence near-infrared (NIR) light source. Spatiotemporal traces of the erythrocyte movement were extracted from consecutive images. Erythrocyte velocity was measured using custom software based on the Radon transform. The impact of imaging speed on velocity measurement was estimated using images of frame rates of 200, 400, and 800 Hz. The NIR light allowed for long imaging periods without visually stimulating the retina and disturbing the natural rheological state. High speed near-confocal imaging enabled direct and accurate measurement of erythrocyte velocity, and revealed a distinctively cardiac-dependent pulsatile velocity waveform of the erythrocyte flow in retinal capillaries, disclosed the impact of the leukocytes on erythrocyte motion, and provided new metrics for precise assessment of erythrocyte movement. The approach may facilitate new investigations on the pathophysiology of retinal microcirculation with applications for ocular and systemic diseases.

@article{doi101364boe9003653,
    author = "Gu, Boyu and Wang, Xiaolin and Twa, Michael D. and Tam, Johnny and Girkin, Christopher A. and Zhang, Yuhua",
    title = "Noninvasive in vivo characterization of erythrocyte motion in human retinal capillaries using high-speed adaptive optics near-confocal imaging",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "The flow of erythrocytes in parafoveal capillaries was imaged in the living human eye with an adaptive optics near-confocal ophthalmoscope at a frame rate of 800 Hz with a low coherence near-infrared (NIR) light source. Spatiotemporal traces of the erythrocyte movement were extracted from consecutive images. Erythrocyte velocity was measured using custom software based on the Radon transform. The impact of imaging speed on velocity measurement was estimated using images of frame rates of 200, 400, and 800 Hz. The NIR light allowed for long imaging periods without visually stimulating the retina and disturbing the natural rheological state. High speed near-confocal imaging enabled direct and accurate measurement of erythrocyte velocity, and revealed a distinctively cardiac-dependent pulsatile velocity waveform of the erythrocyte flow in retinal capillaries, disclosed the impact of the leukocytes on erythrocyte motion, and provided new metrics for precise assessment of erythrocyte movement. The approach may facilitate new investigations on the pathophysiology of retinal microcirculation with applications for ocular and systemic diseases.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.9.003653",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.9.003653",
    openalex = "W2830179841",
    references = "doi101016jvisres201701006"
}

Synaptic interactions to extract information about wavelength, and thus color, begin in the vertebrate retina with three classes of light-sensitive cells: rod photoreceptors at low light levels, multiple types of cone photoreceptors that vary in spectral sensitivity, and intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells that contain the photopigment melanopsin. When isolated from its neighbors, a photoreceptor confounds photon flux with wavelength and so by itself provides no information about color. The retina has evolved elaborate color opponent circuitry for extracting wavelength information by comparing the activities of different photoreceptor types broadly tuned to different parts of the visible spectrum. We review studies concerning the circuit mechanisms mediating opponent interactions in a range of species, from tetrachromatic fish with diverse color opponent cell types to common dichromatic mammals where cone opponency is restricted to a subset of specialized circuits. Distinct among mammals, primates have reinvented trichromatic color vision using novel strategies to incorporate evolution of an additional photopigment gene into the foveal structure and circuitry that supports high-resolution vision. Color vision is absent at scotopic light levels when only rods are active, but rods interact with cone signals to influence color perception at mesopic light levels. Recent evidence suggests melanopsin-mediated signals, which have been identified as a substrate for setting circadian rhythms, may also influence color perception. We consider circuits that may mediate these interactions. While cone opponency is a relatively simple neural computation, it has been implemented in vertebrates by diverse neural mechanisms that are not yet fully understood.

@article{doi101152physrev000272018,
    author = "Thoreson, Wallace B. and Dacey, Dennis M.",
    title = "Diverse Cell Types, Circuits, and Mechanisms for Color Vision in the Vertebrate Retina",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Physiological Reviews",
    abstract = "Synaptic interactions to extract information about wavelength, and thus color, begin in the vertebrate retina with three classes of light-sensitive cells: rod photoreceptors at low light levels, multiple types of cone photoreceptors that vary in spectral sensitivity, and intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells that contain the photopigment melanopsin. When isolated from its neighbors, a photoreceptor confounds photon flux with wavelength and so by itself provides no information about color. The retina has evolved elaborate color opponent circuitry for extracting wavelength information by comparing the activities of different photoreceptor types broadly tuned to different parts of the visible spectrum. We review studies concerning the circuit mechanisms mediating opponent interactions in a range of species, from tetrachromatic fish with diverse color opponent cell types to common dichromatic mammals where cone opponency is restricted to a subset of specialized circuits. Distinct among mammals, primates have reinvented trichromatic color vision using novel strategies to incorporate evolution of an additional photopigment gene into the foveal structure and circuitry that supports high-resolution vision. Color vision is absent at scotopic light levels when only rods are active, but rods interact with cone signals to influence color perception at mesopic light levels. Recent evidence suggests melanopsin-mediated signals, which have been identified as a substrate for setting circadian rhythms, may also influence color perception. We consider circuits that may mediate these interactions. While cone opponency is a relatively simple neural computation, it has been implemented in vertebrates by diverse neural mechanisms that are not yet fully understood.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00027.2018",
    doi = "10.1152/physrev.00027.2018",
    openalex = "W2946843829",
    references = "sheard1943the"
}

PURPOSE: Adaptive Optics allows measurement and manipulation of the optical aberrations of the eye. We review two Adaptive Optics set-ups implemented at the Visual Optics and Biophotonics Laboratory, and present examples of their use in better understanding of the role of optical aberrations on visual perception, in normal and treated eyes. RECENT FINDINGS: Two systems (AOI and AOII) are described that measure ocular aberrations with a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor, which operates in closed-loop with an electromagnetic deformable mirror, and visual stimuli are projected in a visual display for psychophysical measurements. AOI operates in infrared radiation (IR) light. AOII is provided with a supercontiniuum laser source (IR and visible wavelengths), additional elements for simulation (spatial light modulator, temporal multiplexing with optotunable lenses, phase plates, cuvette for intraocular lenses-IOLs), and a double-pass retinal camera. We review several studies undertaken with these AO systems, including the evaluation of the visual benefits of AO correction, vision with simulated multifocal IOLs (MIOLs), optical aberrations in pseudophakic eyes, chromatic aberrations and their visual impact, and neural adaptation to ocular aberrations. SUMMARY: Monochromatic and chromatic aberrations have been measured in normal and treated eyes. AO systems have allowed understanding the visual benefit of correcting aberrations in normal eyes and the adaptation of the visual system to the eye's native aberrations. Ocular corrections such as intraocular and contact lenses modify the wave aberrations. AO systems allow simulating vision with these corrections before they are implanted/fitted in the eye, or even before they are manufactured, revealing great potential for industry and the clinical practice. This review paper is part of a special issue of Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics on women in visual optics, and is co-authored by all women scientists of the research team.

@article{doi101111opo12677,
    author = "Marcos, Susana and Benedí-García, Clara and Aissati, Sara and Gonzalez-Ramos, Ana M and Lago, Carmen M and Radhkrishnan, Aiswaryah and Romero, Mercedes and Vedhakrishnan, Shrilekha and Sawides, Lucie and Vinas, Maria",
    title = "VioBio lab adaptive optics: technology and applications by women vision scientists.",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Ophthalmic \& physiological optics: the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists)",
    abstract = "PURPOSE: Adaptive Optics allows measurement and manipulation of the optical aberrations of the eye. We review two Adaptive Optics set-ups implemented at the Visual Optics and Biophotonics Laboratory, and present examples of their use in better understanding of the role of optical aberrations on visual perception, in normal and treated eyes. RECENT FINDINGS: Two systems (AOI and AOII) are described that measure ocular aberrations with a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor, which operates in closed-loop with an electromagnetic deformable mirror, and visual stimuli are projected in a visual display for psychophysical measurements. AOI operates in infrared radiation (IR) light. AOII is provided with a supercontiniuum laser source (IR and visible wavelengths), additional elements for simulation (spatial light modulator, temporal multiplexing with optotunable lenses, phase plates, cuvette for intraocular lenses-IOLs), and a double-pass retinal camera. We review several studies undertaken with these AO systems, including the evaluation of the visual benefits of AO correction, vision with simulated multifocal IOLs (MIOLs), optical aberrations in pseudophakic eyes, chromatic aberrations and their visual impact, and neural adaptation to ocular aberrations. SUMMARY: Monochromatic and chromatic aberrations have been measured in normal and treated eyes. AO systems have allowed understanding the visual benefit of correcting aberrations in normal eyes and the adaptation of the visual system to the eye's native aberrations. Ocular corrections such as intraocular and contact lenses modify the wave aberrations. AO systems allow simulating vision with these corrections before they are implanted/fitted in the eye, or even before they are manufactured, revealing great potential for industry and the clinical practice. This review paper is part of a special issue of Ophthalmic \& Physiological Optics on women in visual optics, and is co-authored by all women scientists of the research team.",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32147855/",
    doi = "10.1111/opo.12677",
    openalex = "W3010814909",
    pmid = "32147855",
    references = "doi101016jvisres201701006, doi101038nn906, doi101097opx0000000000000808, doi1011678131, doi101167964, doi101167iovs1210565, doi101364ao31003594, doi101364josaa20001841, doi1039281081597x2005050105, openalexw1504485147"
}

Eye shine in the dark has attracted many researchers to the field of eye optics, but the initial studies of subwavelength arrangements in tapetum began only with the development of electronic microscopy at the end of the 20th century. As a result of a number of studies, it was shown that the reflective properties of the tapetum are due to their specialized cellular subwavelength microstructure (photonic crystals). These properties, together with the mutual orientation of the crystals, lead to a significant increase in reflection, which, in turn, enhances the sensitivity of the eye. In addition, research confirmed that optical mechanisms of reflection in the tapetum are very similar even for widely separated species. Due to progress in the field of nano-optics, researchers now have a better understanding of the main principles of this phenomenon. In this review, we summarize electron microscopic and functional studies of tapetal structures in the main vertebrate classes. This allows data on the microstructure of the tapetum to be used to improve our understanding of the visual system.

@article{doi101002jbio202200002,
    author = "Zueva, Lidia and Zayas‐Santiago, Astrid and Rojas, Legier V. and Sanabria, Priscila and Alves, Janaina and Tsytsarev, Vassiliy and Inyushin, Mikhail",
    title = "Multilayer subwavelength gratings or sandwiches with periodic structure shape light reflection in the tapetum lucidum of taxonomically diverse vertebrate animals",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Journal of Biophotonics",
    abstract = "Eye shine in the dark has attracted many researchers to the field of eye optics, but the initial studies of subwavelength arrangements in tapetum began only with the development of electronic microscopy at the end of the 20th century. As a result of a number of studies, it was shown that the reflective properties of the tapetum are due to their specialized cellular subwavelength microstructure (photonic crystals). These properties, together with the mutual orientation of the crystals, lead to a significant increase in reflection, which, in turn, enhances the sensitivity of the eye. In addition, research confirmed that optical mechanisms of reflection in the tapetum are very similar even for widely separated species. Due to progress in the field of nano-optics, researchers now have a better understanding of the main principles of this phenomenon. In this review, we summarize electron microscopic and functional studies of tapetal structures in the main vertebrate classes. This allows data on the microstructure of the tapetum to be used to improve our understanding of the visual system.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.202200002",
    doi = "10.1002/jbio.202200002",
    openalex = "W4214939518",
    references = "doi101111j143902641990tb00892x"
}

A unique bifocal compound eye visual system found in the now extinct trilobite, Dalmanitina socialis, may enable them to be sensitive to the light-field information and simultaneously perceive both close and distant objects in the environment. Here, inspired by the optical structure of their eyes, we demonstrate a nanophotonic light-field camera incorporating a spin-multiplexed bifocal metalens array capable of capturing high-resolution light-field images over a record depth-of-field ranging from centimeter to kilometer scale, simultaneously enabling macro and telephoto modes in a snapshot imaging. By leveraging a multi-scale convolutional neural network-based reconstruction algorithm, optical aberrations induced by the metalens are eliminated, thereby significantly relaxing the design and performance limitations on metasurface optics. The elegant integration of nanophotonic technology with computational photography achieved here is expected to aid development of future high-performance imaging systems.

@article{doi101038s4146702229568y,
    author = "Fan, Qingbin and Xu, Weizhu and Hu, Xuemei and Zhu, Wenqi and Yue, Tao and Zhang, Cheng and Yan, Feng and Chen, Lu and Lezec, Henri J. and Lu, Yanqing and Agrawal, Amit and Xu, Ting",
    title = "Trilobite-inspired neural nanophotonic light-field camera with extreme depth-of-field",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "A unique bifocal compound eye visual system found in the now extinct trilobite, Dalmanitina socialis, may enable them to be sensitive to the light-field information and simultaneously perceive both close and distant objects in the environment. Here, inspired by the optical structure of their eyes, we demonstrate a nanophotonic light-field camera incorporating a spin-multiplexed bifocal metalens array capable of capturing high-resolution light-field images over a record depth-of-field ranging from centimeter to kilometer scale, simultaneously enabling macro and telephoto modes in a snapshot imaging. By leveraging a multi-scale convolutional neural network-based reconstruction algorithm, optical aberrations induced by the metalens are eliminated, thereby significantly relaxing the design and performance limitations on metasurface optics. The elegant integration of nanophotonic technology with computational photography achieved here is expected to aid development of future high-performance imaging systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29568-y",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-022-29568-y",
    openalex = "W4224215722",
    references = "doi101038nn906"
}

Twenty-five years ago, adaptive optics (AO) was combined with fundus photography, thereby initiating a new era in the field of ophthalmic imaging. Since that time, clinical applications of AO ophthalmoscopy to investigate visual system structure and function in both health and disease abound. To date, AO ophthalmoscopy has enabled visualization of most cell types in the retina, offered insight into retinal and systemic disease pathogenesis, and been integrated into clinical trials. This article reviews clinical applications of AO ophthalmoscopy and addresses remaining challenges for AO ophthalmoscopy to become fully integrated into standard ophthalmic care.

@article{doi101364boe472274,
    author = "Morgan, Jessica I. W. and Chui, Toco Yuen Ping and Grieve, Kate",
    title = "Twenty-five years of clinical applications using adaptive optics ophthalmoscopy [Invited]",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "Twenty-five years ago, adaptive optics (AO) was combined with fundus photography, thereby initiating a new era in the field of ophthalmic imaging. Since that time, clinical applications of AO ophthalmoscopy to investigate visual system structure and function in both health and disease abound. To date, AO ophthalmoscopy has enabled visualization of most cell types in the retina, offered insight into retinal and systemic disease pathogenesis, and been integrated into clinical trials. This article reviews clinical applications of AO ophthalmoscopy and addresses remaining challenges for AO ophthalmoscopy to become fully integrated into standard ophthalmic care.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.472274",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.472274",
    openalex = "W4313302528",
    references = "doi101002cne902920402, doi101016jvisres201701006, doi10103817383, doi101038nbt4114, doi101038nrd2016245, doi101038s41572021002652, doi101111opo12677, doi101126science1957169, doi101152physrev000212004, doi101364josaa14002884, doi101364oe10000405, openalexw1599897764"
}

In their pioneering work demonstrating measurement and full correction of the eye's optical aberrations, Liang, Williams and Miller, [JOSA A14, 2884 (1997)10.1364/JOSAA.14.002884] showed improvement in visual performance using adaptive optics (AO). Since then, AO visual simulators have been developed to explore the spatial limits to human vision and as platforms to test non-invasively optical corrections for presbyopia, myopia, or corneal irregularities. These applications have allowed new psychophysics bypassing the optics of the eye, ranging from studying the impact of the interactions of monochromatic and chromatic aberrations on vision to neural adaptation. Other applications address new paradigms of lens designs and corrections of ocular errors. The current paper describes a series of AO visual simulators developed in laboratories around the world, key applications, and current trends and challenges. As the field moves into its second quarter century, new available technologies and a solid reception by the clinical community promise a vigorous and expanding use of AO simulation in years to come.

@article{doi101364boe473458,
    author = "Marcos, Susana and Artal, Pablo and Atchison, David A. and Hampson, Karen M. and Legras, Richard and Lundström, Linda and Yoon, Geunyoung",
    title = "Adaptive optics visual simulators: a review of recent optical designs and applications [Invited]",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "In their pioneering work demonstrating measurement and full correction of the eye's optical aberrations, Liang, Williams and Miller, [JOSA A14, 2884 (1997)10.1364/JOSAA.14.002884] showed improvement in visual performance using adaptive optics (AO). Since then, AO visual simulators have been developed to explore the spatial limits to human vision and as platforms to test non-invasively optical corrections for presbyopia, myopia, or corneal irregularities. These applications have allowed new psychophysics bypassing the optics of the eye, ranging from studying the impact of the interactions of monochromatic and chromatic aberrations on vision to neural adaptation. Other applications address new paradigms of lens designs and corrections of ocular errors. The current paper describes a series of AO visual simulators developed in laboratories around the world, key applications, and current trends and challenges. As the field moves into its second quarter century, new available technologies and a solid reception by the clinical community promise a vigorous and expanding use of AO simulation in years to come.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.473458",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.473458",
    openalex = "W4309617323",
    references = "doi1010160042698973900230, doi101016jclae2022101716, doi101016jpreteyeres201809004, doi101016jpreteyeres2020100923, doi101111opo12677, doi101113jphysiol1965sp007784, doi101167444, doi101364boe396469, doi101364boe419680, doi101364josaa14002884, doi101364josaa17001388, doi101364josaa19000266, doi101364ol26000746, doi1039281081597x2000090112"
}

Adaptive optics (AO) visual simulators are excellent platforms for non-invasive simulation visual performance with new intraocular lens (IOL) designs, in combination with a subject own ocular aberrations and brain. We measured the through focus visual acuity in subjects through a new refractive IOL physically inserted in a cuvette and projected onto the eye's pupil, while aberrations were manipulated (corrected, or positive/negative spherical aberration added) using a deformable mirror (DM) in a custom-developed AO simulator. The IOL increased depth-of-focus (DOF) to 1.53 ± 0.21D, while maintaining high Visual Acuity (VA, -0.07 ± 0.05), averaged across subjects and conditions. Modifying the aberrations did not alter IOL performance on average.

@article{doi101364boe473573,
    author = "Lago, Carmen M. and de Castro, Alberto and Benedí‐García, Clara and Aissati, Sara and Marcos, Susana",
    title = "Evaluating the effect of ocular aberrations on the simulated performance of a new refractive IOL design using adaptive optics",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "Adaptive optics (AO) visual simulators are excellent platforms for non-invasive simulation visual performance with new intraocular lens (IOL) designs, in combination with a subject own ocular aberrations and brain. We measured the through focus visual acuity in subjects through a new refractive IOL physically inserted in a cuvette and projected onto the eye's pupil, while aberrations were manipulated (corrected, or positive/negative spherical aberration added) using a deformable mirror (DM) in a custom-developed AO simulator. The IOL increased depth-of-focus (DOF) to 1.53 ± 0.21D, while maintaining high Visual Acuity (VA, -0.07 ± 0.05), averaged across subjects and conditions. Modifying the aberrations did not alter IOL performance on average.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.473573",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.473573",
    openalex = "W4308210932",
    references = "doi101016jclae2022101716"
}

Adaptive optics (AO) imaging enables direct, objective assessments of retinal cells. Applications of AO show great promise in advancing our understanding of the etiology of inherited retinal disease (IRDs) and discovering new imaging biomarkers. This scoping review systematically identifies and summarizes clinical studies evaluating AO imaging in IRDs. Ovid MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched on February 6, 2023. Studies describing AO imaging in monogenic IRDs were included. Study screening and data extraction were performed by 2 reviewers independently. This review presents (1) a broad overview of the dominant areas of research; (2) a summary of IRD characteristics revealed by AO imaging; and (3) a discussion of methodological considerations relating to AO imaging in IRDs. From 140 studies with AO outcomes, including 2 following subretinal gene therapy treatments, 75% included fewer than 10 participants with AO imaging data. Of 100 studies that included participants' genetic diagnoses, the most common IRD genes with AO outcomes are CNGA3, CNGB3, CHM, USH2A, and ABCA4. Confocal reflectance AO scanning laser ophthalmoscopy was the most reported imaging modality, followed by flood-illuminated AO and split-detector AO. The most common outcome was cone density, reported quantitatively in 56% of studies. Future research areas include guidelines to reduce variability in the reporting of AO methodology and a focus on functional AO techniques to guide the development of therapeutic interventions.

@article{doi101016jsurvophthal202309006,
    author = "Britten‐Jones, Alexis Ceecee and Thai, Lawrence and Flanagan, Jeremy P.M. and Bedggood, Phillip and Edwards, Thomas L. and Metha, Andrew and Ayton, Lauren N.",
    title = "Adaptive optics imaging in inherited retinal diseases: A scoping review of the clinical literature",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Survey of Ophthalmology",
    abstract = "Adaptive optics (AO) imaging enables direct, objective assessments of retinal cells. Applications of AO show great promise in advancing our understanding of the etiology of inherited retinal disease (IRDs) and discovering new imaging biomarkers. This scoping review systematically identifies and summarizes clinical studies evaluating AO imaging in IRDs. Ovid MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched on February 6, 2023. Studies describing AO imaging in monogenic IRDs were included. Study screening and data extraction were performed by 2 reviewers independently. This review presents (1) a broad overview of the dominant areas of research; (2) a summary of IRD characteristics revealed by AO imaging; and (3) a discussion of methodological considerations relating to AO imaging in IRDs. From 140 studies with AO outcomes, including 2 following subretinal gene therapy treatments, 75\% included fewer than 10 participants with AO imaging data. Of 100 studies that included participants' genetic diagnoses, the most common IRD genes with AO outcomes are CNGA3, CNGB3, CHM, USH2A, and ABCA4. Confocal reflectance AO scanning laser ophthalmoscopy was the most reported imaging modality, followed by flood-illuminated AO and split-detector AO. The most common outcome was cone density, reported quantitatively in 56\% of studies. Future research areas include guidelines to reduce variability in the reporting of AO methodology and a focus on functional AO techniques to guide the development of therapeutic interventions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2023.09.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.survophthal.2023.09.006",
    openalex = "W4387167025",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

Visual simulation is an emerging technology used in ophthalmology where a subject sees through manipulated optical conditions. The existing visual simulation tools are quite advanced and trailblazing. However, they cannot follow the miniaturization and mobility trends of the technology. Current visual simulators are bulky in size and require a tabletop arrangement for operation. Here we propose a novel handheld and portable adaptive optics visual simulator that can induce a variety of optical corrections and measure ocular aberrations in real-time while realizing the form-factor similar to the typical virtual reality headsets. The proposed device has two main parts: a wavefront shaping module for manipulation of visual stimuli and a wavefront sensing module for evaluation of ocular aberrations, which are integrated into a standalone handheld unit. The device incorporates a micro-display and a liquid crystal-on silicon (LCOS) phase modulator for wavefront shaping combined with a Hartmann-Shack (HS) wavefront sensor. Our prototype device incorporates miniature optical components and a path folding mechanism combined with in-house 3D printed mounts and covers to reduce the device footprints. The prototype device is tested by inducing the known values of defocus and astigmatism through a set of trial lenses, measuring the induced aberrations, and evaluating the simulated corrections. Our results show high measurement accuracy (R 2 >0.999) when tested on spherical and cylindrical trial lenses ranging from -10 to 10 diopters and -5 to 5 diopters, respectively. The visual correction performance shows better than 20/20 visual acuity resolution for the defocus correction of -5 to 5 diopters.

@article{doi101117122648339,
    author = "Soomro, Shoaib R. and Artal, Pablo",
    title = "A handheld adaptive optics device for personalized visual evaluation",
    year = "2023",
    abstract = "Visual simulation is an emerging technology used in ophthalmology where a subject sees through manipulated optical conditions. The existing visual simulation tools are quite advanced and trailblazing. However, they cannot follow the miniaturization and mobility trends of the technology. Current visual simulators are bulky in size and require a tabletop arrangement for operation. Here we propose a novel handheld and portable adaptive optics visual simulator that can induce a variety of optical corrections and measure ocular aberrations in real-time while realizing the form-factor similar to the typical virtual reality headsets. The proposed device has two main parts: a wavefront shaping module for manipulation of visual stimuli and a wavefront sensing module for evaluation of ocular aberrations, which are integrated into a standalone handheld unit. The device incorporates a micro-display and a liquid crystal-on silicon (LCOS) phase modulator for wavefront shaping combined with a Hartmann-Shack (HS) wavefront sensor. Our prototype device incorporates miniature optical components and a path folding mechanism combined with in-house 3D printed mounts and covers to reduce the device footprints. The prototype device is tested by inducing the known values of defocus and astigmatism through a set of trial lenses, measuring the induced aberrations, and evaluating the simulated corrections. Our results show high measurement accuracy (R 2 >0.999) when tested on spherical and cylindrical trial lenses ranging from -10 to 10 diopters and -5 to 5 diopters, respectively. The visual correction performance shows better than 20/20 visual acuity resolution for the defocus correction of -5 to 5 diopters.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2648339",
    doi = "10.1117/12.2648339",
    openalex = "W4324134614",
    references = "doi101364boe419680"
}

Purpose: To apply adaptive optics-optical coherence tomography (AO-OCT) to quantify multiple sclerosis (MS)-induced changes in axonal bundles in the macular nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell somas, and macrophage-like cells at the vitreomacular interface. Methods: We used AO-OCT imaging in a pilot study of MS participants (n = 10), including those without and with a history of optic neuritis (ON, n = 4), and healthy volunteers (HV, n = 9) to reveal pathologic changes to inner retinal cells and structures affected by MS. Results: We found that nerve fiber layer axonal bundles had 38% lower volume in MS participants (1.5 × 10-3 mm3) compared to HVs (2.4 × 10-3 mm3; P < 0.001). Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) density was 51% lower in MS participants (12.3 cells/mm2 × 1000) compared to HVs (25.0 cells/mm2 × 1000; P < 0.001). Spatial differences across the macula were observed in RGC density. RGC diameter was 15% higher in MS participants (11.7 µm) compared to HVs (10.1 µm; P < 0.001). A nonsignificant trend of higher density of macrophage-like cells in MS eyes was also observed. For all AO-OCT measures, outcomes were worse for MS participants with a history of ON compared to MS participants without a history of ON. AO-OCT measures were associated with key visual and physical disabilities in the MS cohort. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate the utility of AO-OCT for highly sensitive and specific detection of neurodegenerative changes in MS. Moreover, the results shed light on the mechanisms that underpin specific neuronal pathology that occurs when MS attacks the retina. The new findings support the further development of AO-based biomarkers for MS.

@article{doi101167iovs641421,
    author = "Hammer, Daniel X. and Kovalick, Katherine and Liu, Zhuolin and Chen, Chixiang and Saeedi, Osamah and Harrison, Daniel M.",
    title = "Cellular-Level Visualization of Retinal Pathology in Multiple Sclerosis With Adaptive Optics",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Investigative Ophthalmology \& Visual Science",
    abstract = "Purpose: To apply adaptive optics-optical coherence tomography (AO-OCT) to quantify multiple sclerosis (MS)-induced changes in axonal bundles in the macular nerve fiber layer, ganglion cell somas, and macrophage-like cells at the vitreomacular interface. Methods: We used AO-OCT imaging in a pilot study of MS participants (n = 10), including those without and with a history of optic neuritis (ON, n = 4), and healthy volunteers (HV, n = 9) to reveal pathologic changes to inner retinal cells and structures affected by MS. Results: We found that nerve fiber layer axonal bundles had 38\% lower volume in MS participants (1.5 × 10-3 mm3) compared to HVs (2.4 × 10-3 mm3; P < 0.001). Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) density was 51\% lower in MS participants (12.3 cells/mm2 × 1000) compared to HVs (25.0 cells/mm2 × 1000; P < 0.001). Spatial differences across the macula were observed in RGC density. RGC diameter was 15\% higher in MS participants (11.7 µm) compared to HVs (10.1 µm; P < 0.001). A nonsignificant trend of higher density of macrophage-like cells in MS eyes was also observed. For all AO-OCT measures, outcomes were worse for MS participants with a history of ON compared to MS participants without a history of ON. AO-OCT measures were associated with key visual and physical disabilities in the MS cohort. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate the utility of AO-OCT for highly sensitive and specific detection of neurodegenerative changes in MS. Moreover, the results shed light on the mechanisms that underpin specific neuronal pathology that occurs when MS attacks the retina. The new findings support the further development of AO-based biomarkers for MS.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.64.14.21",
    doi = "10.1167/iovs.64.14.21",
    openalex = "W4388723045",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

Visualization of the retinal structure is crucial for understanding the pathophysiology of ophthalmic diseases, as well as for monitoring their course and treatment effects. Until recently, evaluation of the retina at the cellular level was only possible using histological methods, because the available retinal imaging technology had insufficient resolution due to aberrations caused by the optics of the eye. Adaptive optics (AO) technology improved the resolution of optical systems to 2 µm by correcting optical wave-front aberrations, thereby revolutionizing methods for studying eye structures in vivo. Within 25 years of its first application in ophthalmology, AO has been integrated into almost all existing retinal imaging devices, such as the fundus camera (FC), scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO), and optical coherence tomography (OCT). Numerous studies have evaluated individual retinal structures, such as photoreceptors, blood vessels, nerve fibers, ganglion cells, lamina cribrosa, and trabeculum. AO technology has been applied in imaging structures in healthy eyes and in various ocular diseases. This article aims to review the roles of AO imaging in the diagnosis, management, and monitoring of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), glaucoma, hypertensive retinopathy (HR), central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR), and inherited retinal diseases (IRDs).

@article{doi1012659msm941926,
    author = "Szewczuk, Alina and Zaleska-Żmijewska, Anna and Dziedziak, Jacek and Szaflik, Jacek P.",
    title = "Clinical Application of Adaptive Optics Imaging in Diagnosis, Management, and Monitoring of Ophthalmological Diseases: A Narrative Review",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Medical Science Monitor",
    abstract = "Visualization of the retinal structure is crucial for understanding the pathophysiology of ophthalmic diseases, as well as for monitoring their course and treatment effects. Until recently, evaluation of the retina at the cellular level was only possible using histological methods, because the available retinal imaging technology had insufficient resolution due to aberrations caused by the optics of the eye. Adaptive optics (AO) technology improved the resolution of optical systems to 2 µm by correcting optical wave-front aberrations, thereby revolutionizing methods for studying eye structures in vivo. Within 25 years of its first application in ophthalmology, AO has been integrated into almost all existing retinal imaging devices, such as the fundus camera (FC), scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO), and optical coherence tomography (OCT). Numerous studies have evaluated individual retinal structures, such as photoreceptors, blood vessels, nerve fibers, ganglion cells, lamina cribrosa, and trabeculum. AO technology has been applied in imaging structures in healthy eyes and in various ocular diseases. This article aims to review the roles of AO imaging in the diagnosis, management, and monitoring of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR), glaucoma, hypertensive retinopathy (HR), central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR), and inherited retinal diseases (IRDs).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.941926",
    doi = "10.12659/msm.941926",
    openalex = "W4387956645",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

This review describes the progress that has been achieved since adaptive optics (AO) was incorporated into the ophthalmoscope a quarter of a century ago, transforming our ability to image the retina at a cellular spatial scale inside the living eye. The review starts with a comprehensive tabulation of AO papers in the field and then describes the technological advances that have occurred, notably through combining AO with other imaging modalities including confocal, fluorescence, phase contrast, and optical coherence tomography. These advances have made possible many scientific discoveries from the first maps of the topography of the trichromatic cone mosaic to exquisitely sensitive measures of optical and structural changes in photoreceptors in response to light. The future evolution of this technology is poised to offer an increasing array of tools to measure and monitor in vivo retinal structure and function with improved resolution and control.

@article{doi101364boe485371,
    author = "Williams, David R. and Burns, Stephen A. and Miller, Donald T. and Roorda, Austin",
    title = "Evolution of adaptive optics retinal imaging [Invited]",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "This review describes the progress that has been achieved since adaptive optics (AO) was incorporated into the ophthalmoscope a quarter of a century ago, transforming our ability to image the retina at a cellular spatial scale inside the living eye. The review starts with a comprehensive tabulation of AO papers in the field and then describes the technological advances that have occurred, notably through combining AO with other imaging modalities including confocal, fluorescence, phase contrast, and optical coherence tomography. These advances have made possible many scientific discoveries from the first maps of the topography of the trichromatic cone mosaic to exquisitely sensitive measures of optical and structural changes in photoreceptors in response to light. The future evolution of this technology is poised to offer an increasing array of tools to measure and monitor in vivo retinal structure and function with improved resolution and control.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.485371",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.485371",
    openalex = "W4320896631",
    references = "doi101364boe472274, doi101364boe473458"
}

Adaptive optics visual simulation is a powerful tool for vision testing and evaluation. However, the existing instruments either have fixed tabletop configurations or, being wearable, only offer the correction of defocus. This paper proposes a novel head-mounted adaptive optics visual simulator that can measure and modify complex ocular aberrations in real-time. The prototype is composed of two optical modules, one for the objective assessment of aberrations and the second for wavefront modulation, all of which are integrated into a wearable headset. The device incorporates a microdisplay for stimulus generation, a liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) spatial light modulator for wavefront manipulation, and a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor. Miniature optical components and optical path folding structures, together with in-house 3D printed mounts and housing, were adapted to realize the compact size. The system was calibrated by characterizing and compensating the internal aberrations of the visual relay. The performance of the prototype was analyzed by evaluating the measurement and compensation of low-order and higher-order aberrations induced through trial lenses and phase masks in an artificial eye. The defocus curves for a simulated bifocal diffractive lens were evaluated in real eyes. The results show high accuracy while measuring and compensating for the induced defocus, astigmatism, and higher-order aberrations, whereas the MTF analysis shows post-correction resolution of up to 37.5 cycles/degree (VA 1.25). Moreover, the subjective test results show the defocus curves closely matched to a commercial desktop visual simulator.

@article{doi101364boe506858,
    author = "Soomro, Shoaib R. and Sager, Santiago and Paniagua-Díaz, Alba M. and Prieto, Pedro M. and Artal, Pablo",
    title = "Head-mounted adaptive optics visual simulator",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "Adaptive optics visual simulation is a powerful tool for vision testing and evaluation. However, the existing instruments either have fixed tabletop configurations or, being wearable, only offer the correction of defocus. This paper proposes a novel head-mounted adaptive optics visual simulator that can measure and modify complex ocular aberrations in real-time. The prototype is composed of two optical modules, one for the objective assessment of aberrations and the second for wavefront modulation, all of which are integrated into a wearable headset. The device incorporates a microdisplay for stimulus generation, a liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) spatial light modulator for wavefront manipulation, and a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor. Miniature optical components and optical path folding structures, together with in-house 3D printed mounts and housing, were adapted to realize the compact size. The system was calibrated by characterizing and compensating the internal aberrations of the visual relay. The performance of the prototype was analyzed by evaluating the measurement and compensation of low-order and higher-order aberrations induced through trial lenses and phase masks in an artificial eye. The defocus curves for a simulated bifocal diffractive lens were evaluated in real eyes. The results show high accuracy while measuring and compensating for the induced defocus, astigmatism, and higher-order aberrations, whereas the MTF analysis shows post-correction resolution of up to 37.5 cycles/degree (VA 1.25). Moreover, the subjective test results show the defocus curves closely matched to a commercial desktop visual simulator.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.506858",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.506858",
    openalex = "W4390270402",
    references = "doi101364boe419680, doi101364boe473458"
}

Adaptive evolution is a process in which variation that confers an evolutionary advantage in a specific environmental context arises and is propagated through a population. When investigating this process, researchers have mainly focused on describing advantageous phenotypes or putative advantageous genotypes. A recent increase in molecular data accessibility and technological advances has allowed researchers to go beyond description and to make inferences about the mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution. In this systematic review, we discuss articles from 2016 to 2022 that investigated or reviewed the molecular mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution in vertebrates in response to environmental variation. Regulatory elements within the genome and regulatory proteins involved in either gene expression or cellular pathways have been shown to play key roles in adaptive evolution in response to most of the discussed environmental factors. Gene losses were suggested to be associated with an adaptive response in some contexts. Future adaptive evolution research could benefit from more investigations focused on noncoding regions of the genome, gene regulation mechanisms, and gene losses potentially yielding advantageous phenotypes. Investigating how novel advantageous genotypes are conserved could also contribute to our knowledge of adaptive evolution.

@article{doi103390genes14020416,
    author = "Sosa, Francelly Martínez and Pilot, Małgorzata",
    title = "Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Vertebrate Adaptive Evolution: A Systematic Review",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Genes",
    abstract = "Adaptive evolution is a process in which variation that confers an evolutionary advantage in a specific environmental context arises and is propagated through a population. When investigating this process, researchers have mainly focused on describing advantageous phenotypes or putative advantageous genotypes. A recent increase in molecular data accessibility and technological advances has allowed researchers to go beyond description and to make inferences about the mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution. In this systematic review, we discuss articles from 2016 to 2022 that investigated or reviewed the molecular mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution in vertebrates in response to environmental variation. Regulatory elements within the genome and regulatory proteins involved in either gene expression or cellular pathways have been shown to play key roles in adaptive evolution in response to most of the discussed environmental factors. Gene losses were suggested to be associated with an adaptive response in some contexts. Future adaptive evolution research could benefit from more investigations focused on noncoding regions of the genome, gene regulation mechanisms, and gene losses potentially yielding advantageous phenotypes. Investigating how novel advantageous genotypes are conserved could also contribute to our knowledge of adaptive evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14020416",
    doi = "10.3390/genes14020416",
    openalex = "W4319316982",
    references = "doi103389fevo201900321"
}

Ninagawa Mika’s works are highly referential, each endeavor rife with intertextuality. This video essay deconstructs the opening montage of her 2012 film Helter Skelter into its constituent parts through the organization of visual motifs to visualize Ninagawa’s own relationship to the camera gaze.

@article{laird2023eyecameraninagawa,
    author = "Laird, Colleen",
    title = "Eye-Camera-Ninagawa",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "[in]Transition",
    abstract = "Ninagawa Mika’s works are highly referential, each endeavor rife with intertextuality. This video essay deconstructs the opening montage of her 2012 film Helter Skelter into its constituent parts through the organization of visual motifs to visualize Ninagawa’s own relationship to the camera gaze.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.16995/intransition.11328",
    doi = "10.16995/intransition.11328",
    number = "2",
    volume = "10"
}

Adaptive Optics (AO) has emerged as a revolutionary technology in ophthalmology, offering an unprecedented view into the eye's microstructures with high-resolution imaging capabilities. Originally developed for astronomy, AO technology has been adapted to correct the eye's optical aberrations, enabling the visualization of individual cellular structures such as photoreceptors, retinal pigment epithelium cells, and capillaries within the retinal vasculature. This review provides a comprehensive overview of AO, discussing its historical background, technical principles, and incorporation into existing systems. We explore its transformative impact on ophthalmic research and clinical practice, highlighting its role in enhancing our understanding of ocular physiology, disease progression, and response to therapies. The clinical applications of AO, including early disease detection and monitoring, are examined alongside the patient experience and economic considerations. Despite its potential, AO's widespread adoption is currently limited by factors such as high costs, technical complexity, and patient cooperation challenges. We discuss these barriers and the innovative solutions emerging to overcome them, including system simplification, expanded fields of view, and advanced image analysis techniques. The article concludes by reflecting on the promising future of AO, with its evolving role in disease management, surgical planning, and systemic disease monitoring. As AO technology continues to advance, it promises to reshape the landscape of ophthalmic care, offering deeper insights into eye health and more precise patient care.

@article{doi101016jjfop2024100116,
    author = "Balas, Michael and Ramalingam, Vethushan and Pandya, Bhadra U. and Abdelaal, Ahmed and Shi, Runjie Bill",
    title = "Adaptive optics imaging in ophthalmology: Redefining vision research and clinical practice",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "JFO Open Ophthalmology",
    abstract = "Adaptive Optics (AO) has emerged as a revolutionary technology in ophthalmology, offering an unprecedented view into the eye's microstructures with high-resolution imaging capabilities. Originally developed for astronomy, AO technology has been adapted to correct the eye's optical aberrations, enabling the visualization of individual cellular structures such as photoreceptors, retinal pigment epithelium cells, and capillaries within the retinal vasculature. This review provides a comprehensive overview of AO, discussing its historical background, technical principles, and incorporation into existing systems. We explore its transformative impact on ophthalmic research and clinical practice, highlighting its role in enhancing our understanding of ocular physiology, disease progression, and response to therapies. The clinical applications of AO, including early disease detection and monitoring, are examined alongside the patient experience and economic considerations. Despite its potential, AO's widespread adoption is currently limited by factors such as high costs, technical complexity, and patient cooperation challenges. We discuss these barriers and the innovative solutions emerging to overcome them, including system simplification, expanded fields of view, and advanced image analysis techniques. The article concludes by reflecting on the promising future of AO, with its evolving role in disease management, surgical planning, and systemic disease monitoring. As AO technology continues to advance, it promises to reshape the landscape of ophthalmic care, offering deeper insights into eye health and more precise patient care.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfop.2024.100116",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jfop.2024.100116",
    openalex = "W4399388046",
    references = "doi101016jpreteyeres201808002, doi10103817383, doi10108009500349608232742, doi101086126606, doi101111opo12677, doi101146annurevaa31090193000305, doi101167iovs117199, doi101364josaa11001949, doi101364josaa14002884, doi101364oe10000405, doi101364opex13008532"
}

Adaptive optics (AO) is a powerful method for correcting dynamic aberrations in numerous applications. When applied to the eye, it enables cellular-resolution retinal imaging and enhanced visual performance and stimulation. Most ophthalmic AO systems correct dynamic aberrations up to 1-2 Hz, the commonly-known cutoff frequency for correcting ocular aberrations. However, this frequency may be grossly underestimated for more clinically relevant scenarios where the medical impact of AO will be greatest. Unfortunately, little is known about the aberration dynamics in these scenarios. A major bottleneck has been the lack of sufficiently fast AO systems to measure and correct them. We develop an ultrafast ophthalmic AO system that increases AO bandwidth by ~30× and improves aberration power rejection magnitude by 500×. We demonstrate that this much faster ophthalmic AO is possible without sacrificing other system performances. We find that the discontinuous-exposure AO-control scheme runs 32% slower yet achieves 53% larger AO bandwidth than the commonly used continuous-exposure scheme. Using the ultrafast system, we characterize ocular aberration dynamics in six clinically-relevant scenarios and find their power spectra to be 10-100× larger than normal. We show that ultrafast AO substantially improves aberration correction and retinal imaging performance in these scenarios compared with conventional AO.

@article{doi101038s4146702454687z,
    author = "Liu, Yan and Crowell, James A. and Kurokawa, Kazuhiro and Bernucci, Marcel T. and Ji, Qiuzhi and Lassoued, Ayoub and Jung, HaeWon and Keller, Matthew J. and Marte, Mary E. and Miller, Donald T.",
    title = "Ultrafast adaptive optics for imaging the living human eye",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "Adaptive optics (AO) is a powerful method for correcting dynamic aberrations in numerous applications. When applied to the eye, it enables cellular-resolution retinal imaging and enhanced visual performance and stimulation. Most ophthalmic AO systems correct dynamic aberrations up to 1-2 Hz, the commonly-known cutoff frequency for correcting ocular aberrations. However, this frequency may be grossly underestimated for more clinically relevant scenarios where the medical impact of AO will be greatest. Unfortunately, little is known about the aberration dynamics in these scenarios. A major bottleneck has been the lack of sufficiently fast AO systems to measure and correct them. We develop an ultrafast ophthalmic AO system that increases AO bandwidth by \textasciitilde 30× and improves aberration power rejection magnitude by 500×. We demonstrate that this much faster ophthalmic AO is possible without sacrificing other system performances. We find that the discontinuous-exposure AO-control scheme runs 32\% slower yet achieves 53\% larger AO bandwidth than the commonly used continuous-exposure scheme. Using the ultrafast system, we characterize ocular aberration dynamics in six clinically-relevant scenarios and find their power spectra to be 10-100× larger than normal. We show that ultrafast AO substantially improves aberration correction and retinal imaging performance in these scenarios compared with conventional AO.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54687-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-024-54687-z",
    openalex = "W3180837865",
    references = "doi101364boe472274, doi101364boe473458"
}

The fovea is a highly specialized region of the central retina, defined by an absence of inner retinal layers and the accompanying vasculature, an increased density of cone photoreceptors, a near absence of rod photoreceptors, and unique private-line photoreceptor to midget ganglion cell circuitry. These anatomical specializations support high-acuity vision in humans. While direct study of foveal shape and size is routinely performed using optical coherence tomography, examination of the other anatomical specializations of the fovea has only recently become possible using an array of adaptive optics (AO)-based imaging tools. These devices correct for the eye's monochromatic aberrations and permit cellular-resolution imaging of the living retina. In this article, we review the application of AO-based imaging techniques to conditions affecting the fovea, with an emphasis on how imaging has advanced our understanding of pathophysiology.

@article{doi101146annurevvision102122100022,
    author = "Kreis, Joseph and Carroll, Joseph",
    title = "Applications of Adaptive Optics Imaging for Studying Conditions Affecting the Fovea",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Annual Review of Vision Science",
    abstract = "The fovea is a highly specialized region of the central retina, defined by an absence of inner retinal layers and the accompanying vasculature, an increased density of cone photoreceptors, a near absence of rod photoreceptors, and unique private-line photoreceptor to midget ganglion cell circuitry. These anatomical specializations support high-acuity vision in humans. While direct study of foveal shape and size is routinely performed using optical coherence tomography, examination of the other anatomical specializations of the fovea has only recently become possible using an array of adaptive optics (AO)-based imaging tools. These devices correct for the eye's monochromatic aberrations and permit cellular-resolution imaging of the living retina. In this article, we review the application of AO-based imaging techniques to conditions affecting the fovea, with an emphasis on how imaging has advanced our understanding of pathophysiology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-vision-102122-100022",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-vision-102122-100022",
    openalex = "W4394908725",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

The change in ocular wavefront aberrations with visual angle determines the isoplanatic patch, defined as the largest field of view over which diffraction-limited retinal imaging can be achieved. Here, we study how the isoplanatic patch at the foveal center varies across 32 schematic eyes, each individualized with optical biometry estimates of corneal and crystalline lens surface topography, assuming a homogeneous refractive index for the crystalline lens. The foveal isoplanatic patches were calculated using real ray tracing through 2, 4, 6 and 8 mm pupil diameters for wavelengths of 400-1200 nm, simulating five adaptive optics (AO) strategies. Three of these strategies, used in flood illumination, point-scanning, and line-scanning ophthalmoscopes, apply the same wavefront correction across the entire field of view, resulting in almost identical isoplanatic patches. Two time-division multiplexing (TDM) strategies are proposed to increase the isoplanatic patch of AO scanning ophthalmoscopes through field-varying wavefront correction. Results revealed substantial variation in isoplanatic patch size across eyes (40-500%), indicating that the field of view in AO ophthalmoscopes should be adjusted for each eye. The median isoplanatic patch size decreases with increasing pupil diameter, coarsely following a power law. No statistically significant correlations were found between isoplanatic patch size and axial length. The foveal isoplanatic patch increases linearly with wavelength, primarily due to its wavelength-dependent definition (wavefront root-mean-squared, RMS <λ/14), rather than aberration chromatism. Additionally, ray tracing reveals that in strongly ametropic eyes, induced aberrations can result in wavefront RMS errors as large as λ/3 for an 8-mm pupil, with implications for wavefront sensing, open-loop ophthalmic AO, spectacle prescription and refractive surgery.

@article{doi101364boe536645,
    author = "Huang, Xiaojing and Hargrave, Aubrey and Bentley, Julie and Dubra, Alfredo",
    title = "Biometry study of foveal isoplanatic patch variation for adaptive optics retinal imaging",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "The change in ocular wavefront aberrations with visual angle determines the isoplanatic patch, defined as the largest field of view over which diffraction-limited retinal imaging can be achieved. Here, we study how the isoplanatic patch at the foveal center varies across 32 schematic eyes, each individualized with optical biometry estimates of corneal and crystalline lens surface topography, assuming a homogeneous refractive index for the crystalline lens. The foveal isoplanatic patches were calculated using real ray tracing through 2, 4, 6 and 8 mm pupil diameters for wavelengths of 400-1200 nm, simulating five adaptive optics (AO) strategies. Three of these strategies, used in flood illumination, point-scanning, and line-scanning ophthalmoscopes, apply the same wavefront correction across the entire field of view, resulting in almost identical isoplanatic patches. Two time-division multiplexing (TDM) strategies are proposed to increase the isoplanatic patch of AO scanning ophthalmoscopes through field-varying wavefront correction. Results revealed substantial variation in isoplanatic patch size across eyes (40-500\%), indicating that the field of view in AO ophthalmoscopes should be adjusted for each eye. The median isoplanatic patch size decreases with increasing pupil diameter, coarsely following a power law. No statistically significant correlations were found between isoplanatic patch size and axial length. The foveal isoplanatic patch increases linearly with wavelength, primarily due to its wavelength-dependent definition (wavefront root-mean-squared, RMS <λ/14), rather than aberration chromatism. Additionally, ray tracing reveals that in strongly ametropic eyes, induced aberrations can result in wavefront RMS errors as large as λ/3 for an 8-mm pupil, with implications for wavefront sensing, open-loop ophthalmic AO, spectacle prescription and refractive surgery.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.536645",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.536645",
    openalex = "W4401709372",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate correlations between photoreceptor and vascular parameters in varying stages of diabetic retinopathy (DR) using adaptive optics (AO) imaging. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this single-center, prospective cohort study, 29 participants (46 eyes) were classified into control/mild non-proliferative DR (NPDR), moderate/severe NPDR, and proliferative DR. AO images of photoreceptors and retinal vasculature were analyzed, and Spearman's correlation (ρ) was used to assess relationships between photoreceptor density and vascular parameters. RESULTS: = 0.04). These associations were primarily significant in mild NPDR. No significant correlations were found in advanced DR stages. CONCLUSION:.

@article{doi103928232581602024101503,
    author = "Balas, Michael and Issa, Mariam and Popovic, Marko M. and Zajner, Chris and Moayad, Lana and Aponte, Paola Oquendo and Hamli, Hesham and Yan, Peng and Wright, Tom and Melo, Isabela Martins and Muni, Rajeev H.",
    title = "Correlation Between Photoreceptor and Vascular Parameters in Diabetic Retinopathy Using Adaptive Optics",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Ophthalmic surgery, lasers \& imaging retina",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate correlations between photoreceptor and vascular parameters in varying stages of diabetic retinopathy (DR) using adaptive optics (AO) imaging. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this single-center, prospective cohort study, 29 participants (46 eyes) were classified into control/mild non-proliferative DR (NPDR), moderate/severe NPDR, and proliferative DR. AO images of photoreceptors and retinal vasculature were analyzed, and Spearman's correlation (ρ) was used to assess relationships between photoreceptor density and vascular parameters. RESULTS: = 0.04). These associations were primarily significant in mild NPDR. No significant correlations were found in advanced DR stages. CONCLUSION:.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3928/23258160-20241015-03",
    doi = "10.3928/23258160-20241015-03",
    openalex = "W4404320498",
    references = "doi101016jjfop2024100116"
}

To explore the molecular similarities and potential evolutionary origins of vertebrate photoreceptor types, we analyzed single-cell and -nucleus transcriptomic atlases from six vertebrate species: zebrafish, chicken, lizard, opossum, ground squirrel, and human. Comparative analyses identified conserved transcriptional signatures for the five ancestral photoreceptor types: red, blue, green, and UV cones, as well as rods. We further identified and validated molecular markers of the principal and accessory members of the tetrapod double cone. Comparative transcriptomics suggests that the principal member originated from ancestral red cones, although the origin of the accessory member is less clear. The gene expression variation among cone types mirrors their spectral order (red → green → blue → UV). We find that rods are highly dissimilar to all cone types, suggesting that rods may have diverged prior to the spectral diversification of cones.

@article{doi101016jcub202503060,
    author = "Tommasini, Dario and Yoshimatsu, Takeshi and Puthussery, Teresa and Baden, Tom and Shekhar, Karthik",
    title = "Comparative transcriptomic insights into the evolution of vertebrate photoreceptor types",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    abstract = "To explore the molecular similarities and potential evolutionary origins of vertebrate photoreceptor types, we analyzed single-cell and -nucleus transcriptomic atlases from six vertebrate species: zebrafish, chicken, lizard, opossum, ground squirrel, and human. Comparative analyses identified conserved transcriptional signatures for the five ancestral photoreceptor types: red, blue, green, and UV cones, as well as rods. We further identified and validated molecular markers of the principal and accessory members of the tetrapod double cone. Comparative transcriptomics suggests that the principal member originated from ancestral red cones, although the origin of the accessory member is less clear. The gene expression variation among cone types mirrors their spectral order (red → green → blue → UV). We find that rods are highly dissimilar to all cone types, suggesting that rods may have diverged prior to the spectral diversification of cones.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.03.060",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2025.03.060",
    openalex = "W4409541011",
    references = "doi101016jcell201505002, doi101016jcell201905031, doi101038nbt4314, doi101038nmeth2019, doi101038s41559023022917, doi101038s4155902302299z, doi101038s4159202001018x, doi101093bioinformaticsbtw313, doi101093bioinformaticsbtx364, doi101093nargky822, doi101242dev165753, hodgson1944the"
}

OBJECTIVE: Using adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (AO-SLO) to investigate the cone photoreceptor structure in children with anisometropic amblyopia and to examine its correlation with contrast sensitivity function (CSF). METHODS: Fifteen patients with monocular anisometropic amblyopia (amblyopic eyes, AE; fellow eyes, FE) and 15 age-matched controls (normal eyes, NE) were enrolled (45 eyes). Data on macular cone photoreceptor density, spacing, and regularity; retinal and choroidal thickness; superficial capillary plexus vessel density (SCP-VD); choroidal vascularity index (CVI); and contrast sensitivity function (CSF) were collected. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson correlation, and multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: Compared to the FE and NE groups, the AE group showed significantly reduced cone density (28,519.12 ± 2853.41 vs. 35,529.21 ± 2217.35 and 36,181.62 ± 3081.95 cells/mm², P < 0.01), increased spacing (6.36 ± 1.64 vs. 4.22 ± 0.41 vs. 4.13 ± 0.50 μm, P < 0.01), and decreased regularity (92.99 ± 1.49 % vs. 95.86 ± 1.20 % vs. 95.90 ± 1.03 %; P < 0.01). The Area Under the Log Contrast Sensitivity Function (AULCSF) of the AE group (1.61 ± 0.08) was significantly lower than that of the FE (1.84 ± 0.04) and NE groups (1.87 ± 0.08; P < 0.01). CSF was positively correlated with cone density (R² = 0.899, P < 0.001) and regularity (R² = 0.530, P = 0.002) and negatively correlated with cone spacing (R² = 0.539, P = 0.002). Multivariate regression analysis revealed that cone density (β = 0.701, P < 0.001) and cone regularity (β = 0.228, P = 0.026) had a positive predictive effect on AULCSF. CONCLUSION: Anisometropic amblyopia shows disrupted macular cone structure, including reduced density and irregular spacing, which closely relates to impaired contrast sensitivity. AO-SLO can help assess these retinal deficits in developmental visual disorders.

@article{doi101016jpdpdt2025105241,
    author = "Yang, Hang and Lv, Mingjiu and Peng, Jie and Luo, Qian and Wu, Zhengzheng and Tong, Yan Qun and Xie, Yanxi and Li, Jing and Yang, Yin and Zhou, Lin",
    title = "Morphologic and functional assessment of photoreceptors in anisometropic amblyopia using adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy",
    abstract = "OBJECTIVE: Using adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (AO-SLO) to investigate the cone photoreceptor structure in children with anisometropic amblyopia and to examine its correlation with contrast sensitivity function (CSF). METHODS: Fifteen patients with monocular anisometropic amblyopia (amblyopic eyes, AE; fellow eyes, FE) and 15 age-matched controls (normal eyes, NE) were enrolled (45 eyes). Data on macular cone photoreceptor density, spacing, and regularity; retinal and choroidal thickness; superficial capillary plexus vessel density (SCP-VD); choroidal vascularity index (CVI); and contrast sensitivity function (CSF) were collected. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson correlation, and multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: Compared to the FE and NE groups, the AE group showed significantly reduced cone density (28,519.12 ± 2853.41 vs. 35,529.21 ± 2217.35 and 36,181.62 ± 3081.95 cells/mm², P < 0.01), increased spacing (6.36 ± 1.64 vs. 4.22 ± 0.41 vs. 4.13 ± 0.50 μm, P < 0.01), and decreased regularity (92.99 ± 1.49 \% vs. 95.86 ± 1.20 \% vs. 95.90 ± 1.03 \%; P < 0.01). The Area Under the Log Contrast Sensitivity Function (AULCSF) of the AE group (1.61 ± 0.08) was significantly lower than that of the FE (1.84 ± 0.04) and NE groups (1.87 ± 0.08; P < 0.01). CSF was positively correlated with cone density (R² = 0.899, P < 0.001) and regularity (R² = 0.530, P = 0.002) and negatively correlated with cone spacing (R² = 0.539, P = 0.002). Multivariate regression analysis revealed that cone density (β = 0.701, P < 0.001) and cone regularity (β = 0.228, P = 0.026) had a positive predictive effect on AULCSF. CONCLUSION: Anisometropic amblyopia shows disrupted macular cone structure, including reduced density and irregular spacing, which closely relates to impaired contrast sensitivity. AO-SLO can help assess these retinal deficits in developmental visual disorders.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2025.105241",
    doi = "10.1016/j.pdpdt.2025.105241",
    openalex = "W4414804154",
    references = "doi101016jjfop2024100116"
}

BACKGROUND: Advancements in biomedical optical imaging have enabled researchers to achieve cellular-level imaging in the living human body. However, research-grade technology is not always widely available in routine clinical practice. In this paper, we incorporated artificial intelligence (AI) with standard clinical imaging to successfully obtain images of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in living human eyes. METHODS: Following intravenous injection of indocyanine green (ICG) dye, subjects were imaged by both conventional instruments and adaptive optics (AO) ophthalmoscopy. To improve the visibility of RPE cells in conventional ICG images, we demonstrate both a hardware approach using a custom lens add-on and an AI-based approach using a stratified cycleGAN network. RESULTS: We observe similar fluorescent mosaic patterns arising from labeled RPE cells on both conventional and AO images, suggesting that cellular-level imaging of RPE may be obtainable using conventional imaging, albeit at lower resolution. Results show that higher resolution ICG RPE images of both healthy and diseased eyes can be obtained from conventional images using AI with a potential 220-fold improvement in time. CONCLUSIONS: The application of using AI as an add-on module for existing instrumentation is an important step towards routine screening and detection of disease at earlier stages.

@article{doi101038s4385602500803z,
    author = "Li, Joanne and Liu, Jianfei and Das, Vineeta and Le, Hong and Aguilera, Nancy and Bower, Andrew J. and Giannini, John and Lu, Rongwen and Abouassali, Sarah and Chew, Emily Y. and Brooks, Brian P. and Zein, Wadih M. and Huryn, Laryssa A. and Volkov, A. I. and Liu, Tao and Tam, Johnny",
    title = "Artificial intelligence assisted clinical fluorescence imaging achieves in vivo cellular resolution comparable to adaptive optics ophthalmoscopy",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Communications Medicine",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: Advancements in biomedical optical imaging have enabled researchers to achieve cellular-level imaging in the living human body. However, research-grade technology is not always widely available in routine clinical practice. In this paper, we incorporated artificial intelligence (AI) with standard clinical imaging to successfully obtain images of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in living human eyes. METHODS: Following intravenous injection of indocyanine green (ICG) dye, subjects were imaged by both conventional instruments and adaptive optics (AO) ophthalmoscopy. To improve the visibility of RPE cells in conventional ICG images, we demonstrate both a hardware approach using a custom lens add-on and an AI-based approach using a stratified cycleGAN network. RESULTS: We observe similar fluorescent mosaic patterns arising from labeled RPE cells on both conventional and AO images, suggesting that cellular-level imaging of RPE may be obtainable using conventional imaging, albeit at lower resolution. Results show that higher resolution ICG RPE images of both healthy and diseased eyes can be obtained from conventional images using AI with a potential 220-fold improvement in time. CONCLUSIONS: The application of using AI as an add-on module for existing instrumentation is an important step towards routine screening and detection of disease at earlier stages.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-025-00803-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s43856-025-00803-z",
    openalex = "W4409704867",
    references = "doi101364boe472274"
}

Abstract The vertebrate retina is a uniquely complex and evolutionarily conserved structure among bilaterians, combining ciliary (rods and cones) and rhabdomeric (ganglion, amacrine, and horizontal) photoreceptor lineages within a multilayered circuit. This arrangement contrasts with the ancestral bilaterian cephalic pattern, where rhabdomeric photoreceptors dominate lateral eyes and ciliary photoreceptors are limited to unpigmented, non-visual median positions. We propose that the vertebrate retina evolved through the lateralization of a complex median photoreceptive organ already containing both photoreceptor types. This shift likely followed the loss of lateral rhabdomeric eyes in a burrowing, suspension-feeding deuterostome ancestor and the retention of a median eye. In the early chordates leading to vertebrates, this structure diversified into the pineal/parapineal complex and lateral retinas. Central to this transformation was the emergence of a bipolar cellular identity, linking ciliary and rhabdomeric circuits—an unusual feature in animal nervous systems. We suggest bipolar cells have dual evolutionary origins: Off bipolar cells from a ciliary ‘effector’ lineage and rod- On bipolar cells from a chimeric sensory cell. This model explains key similarities between retina and pineal and supports a scenario in which vertebrate vision emerged by integrating and repurposing preexisting circuits. It reframes the retina not as a de novo innovation, but as a modified and lateralized, solution to sensory challenges faced by early chordates.

@misc{doi10110120250911675609,
    author = "Kafetzis, George and Bok, Michael J. and Baden, Tom and Nilsson, Dan‐Eric",
    title = "A median eye origin of the vertebrate retina explains its unique circuitry",
    year = "2025",
    booktitle = "bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)",
    abstract = "Abstract The vertebrate retina is a uniquely complex and evolutionarily conserved structure among bilaterians, combining ciliary (rods and cones) and rhabdomeric (ganglion, amacrine, and horizontal) photoreceptor lineages within a multilayered circuit. This arrangement contrasts with the ancestral bilaterian cephalic pattern, where rhabdomeric photoreceptors dominate lateral eyes and ciliary photoreceptors are limited to unpigmented, non-visual median positions. We propose that the vertebrate retina evolved through the lateralization of a complex median photoreceptive organ already containing both photoreceptor types. This shift likely followed the loss of lateral rhabdomeric eyes in a burrowing, suspension-feeding deuterostome ancestor and the retention of a median eye. In the early chordates leading to vertebrates, this structure diversified into the pineal/parapineal complex and lateral retinas. Central to this transformation was the emergence of a bipolar cellular identity, linking ciliary and rhabdomeric circuits—an unusual feature in animal nervous systems. We suggest bipolar cells have dual evolutionary origins: Off bipolar cells from a ciliary ‘effector’ lineage and rod- On bipolar cells from a chimeric sensory cell. This model explains key similarities between retina and pineal and supports a scenario in which vertebrate vision emerged by integrating and repurposing preexisting circuits. It reframes the retina not as a de novo innovation, but as a modified and lateralized, solution to sensory challenges faced by early chordates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.09.11.675609",
    doi = "10.1101/2025.09.11.675609",
    openalex = "W4414118494",
    references = "doi101016jcub202503060"
}

SIGNIFICANCE: Access to diagnostic eye care could be expanded with high-throughput and easy-to-use tools. Phase mask-based imaging may improve the fundus camera by enabling computational refocusing with no moving parts, reducing hardware complexity and cost. Although phase mask-based imaging has been demonstrated in a model eye, this approach has not been shown in vivo. AIM: A computational fundus camera was designed, constructed, and evaluated with the goal of determining the feasibility and performance of phase mask-based computational imaging of the in vivo fundus. APPROACH: A holographic diffuser was introduced in a modified commercial fundus camera at a plane conjugate to the ocular pupil, resulting in a linear and shift-invariant point spread function that varies with refractive error. The image could be digitally refocused across a range of ≥ ± 10 diopters of defocus error. The device was tested for ocular safety, and a human imaging pilot study was performed. RESULTS: The device captured and digitally refocused color human fundus images. The field of view was ≥ 35 deg, and resolution was 7.7 to 9.6 line pairs per millimeter. CONCLUSION: We present the first in vivo diffuser-based fundus images, demonstrating the feasibility of computational imaging for ocular diagnostics.

@article{doi1011171bios24042306,
    author = "Simmerer, Corey and Morakis, Marisa and Tian, Lei and Gomez-Perez, Lia and Liu, T Y Alvin and Durr, Nicholas J",
    title = "In vivo fundus imaging and computational refocusing with a diffuser-based fundus camera.",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Biophotonics discovery",
    abstract = "SIGNIFICANCE: Access to diagnostic eye care could be expanded with high-throughput and easy-to-use tools. Phase mask-based imaging may improve the fundus camera by enabling computational refocusing with no moving parts, reducing hardware complexity and cost. Although phase mask-based imaging has been demonstrated in a model eye, this approach has not been shown in vivo. AIM: A computational fundus camera was designed, constructed, and evaluated with the goal of determining the feasibility and performance of phase mask-based computational imaging of the in vivo fundus. APPROACH: A holographic diffuser was introduced in a modified commercial fundus camera at a plane conjugate to the ocular pupil, resulting in a linear and shift-invariant point spread function that varies with refractive error. The image could be digitally refocused across a range of ≥ ± 10 diopters of defocus error. The device was tested for ocular safety, and a human imaging pilot study was performed. RESULTS: The device captured and digitally refocused color human fundus images. The field of view was ≥ 35 deg, and resolution was 7.7 to 9.6 line pairs per millimeter. CONCLUSION: We present the first in vivo diffuser-based fundus images, demonstrating the feasibility of computational imaging for ocular diagnostics.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13101061/",
    doi = "10.1117/1.BIOS.2.4.042306",
    pmcid = "PMC13101061",
    pmid = "42028299"
}

We present a new generation of binocular adaptive optics visual simulator (B-AOVS). As in earlier versions, the system optimizes hardware use by managing both eyes with a single intensity spatial light modulator for pupil control and a single phase modulator for aberration manipulation, both of them based on liquid-crystal-on-silicon (LCoS) technology. A single Hartmann-Shack sensor measures refraction and aberrations in both eyes, and a single tunable lens extends the correction and measurement range. Only the stimulus generation module is duplicated, using two HD microdisplays to ensure adequate resolution and field of view. The main improvement in this prototype is the addition of a motorized twin-periscope system that adjusts the vergence angle of the stimuli, enabling more realistic visual testing at multiple distances. Among other applications, this feature paves the way for studies requiring accommodative changes that would be otherwise unfeasible due to the vergence-accommodation conflict. For this particular reason, studies with past generations of B-AOVS were typically carried out in presbyopes or cyclopleged subjects, on the assumption that avoiding the conflict by preventing accommodation would render convergence irrelevant. To specifically test this assumption, our first use of the prototype was to measure defocus curves in one presbyopic and four cyclopleged subjects for varying levels of induced spherical aberration, with and without convergence control. In this non-accommodative situation, convergence showed minimal influence, as defocus curves remained similar, and therefore the validity of previous studies with B-AOVS under fixed convergence conditions remains unchallenged. Beyond this case, the new vergence control system enables accurate 3D stimulus presentation for visual simulation and opens avenues to study the impact of aberrations on the vergence-accommodation conflict.

@article{doi101364boe570747,
    author = "Sager, Santiago and Gambín, Adrián and Prieto, Pedro M. and Artal, Pablo",
    title = "Binocular adaptive optics visual simulator with convergence control",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Biomedical Optics Express",
    abstract = "We present a new generation of binocular adaptive optics visual simulator (B-AOVS). As in earlier versions, the system optimizes hardware use by managing both eyes with a single intensity spatial light modulator for pupil control and a single phase modulator for aberration manipulation, both of them based on liquid-crystal-on-silicon (LCoS) technology. A single Hartmann-Shack sensor measures refraction and aberrations in both eyes, and a single tunable lens extends the correction and measurement range. Only the stimulus generation module is duplicated, using two HD microdisplays to ensure adequate resolution and field of view. The main improvement in this prototype is the addition of a motorized twin-periscope system that adjusts the vergence angle of the stimuli, enabling more realistic visual testing at multiple distances. Among other applications, this feature paves the way for studies requiring accommodative changes that would be otherwise unfeasible due to the vergence-accommodation conflict. For this particular reason, studies with past generations of B-AOVS were typically carried out in presbyopes or cyclopleged subjects, on the assumption that avoiding the conflict by preventing accommodation would render convergence irrelevant. To specifically test this assumption, our first use of the prototype was to measure defocus curves in one presbyopic and four cyclopleged subjects for varying levels of induced spherical aberration, with and without convergence control. In this non-accommodative situation, convergence showed minimal influence, as defocus curves remained similar, and therefore the validity of previous studies with B-AOVS under fixed convergence conditions remains unchallenged. Beyond this case, the new vergence control system enables accurate 3D stimulus presentation for visual simulation and opens avenues to study the impact of aberrations on the vergence-accommodation conflict.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/boe.570747",
    doi = "10.1364/boe.570747",
    openalex = "W4413984859",
    references = "doi101364boe396469"
}

Vertebrate photoreceptors have been studied for well over a century, but a fixed nomenclature for referring to orthologous cell types across diverse species has been lacking. Instead, photoreceptors have been variably-and often confusingly-named according to morphology, presence/absence of 'rhodopsin', spectral sensitivity, chromophore usage, and/or the gene family of the opsin(s) they express. Here, we propose a unified nomenclature for vertebrate rods and cones that aligns with the naming systems of other retinal cell classes and that is based on the photoreceptor type's putative evolutionary history. This classification is informed by the functional, anatomical, developmental, and molecular identities of the neuron as a whole, including the expression of deeply conserved transcription factors required for development. The proposed names will be applicable across all vertebrates and indicative of the widest possible range of properties, including their postsynaptic wiring, and hence will allude to their common and species-specific roles in vision. Furthermore, the naming system is open-ended to accommodate the future discovery of as-yet unknown photoreceptor types.

@article{doi101371journalpbio3003157,
    author = "Baden, Tom and Angueyra, Juan M and Bosten, Jenny M. and Collin, Shaun P. and Conway, Bevil R. and Cortesi, Fabio and Dedek, Karin and Euler, Thomas and Flamarique, Iñigo Novales and Franklin, Anna and Haverkamp, Silke and Kelber, Almut and Neuhauss, Stephan C. F. and Li, Wei and Lucas, Robert J. and Osorio, Daniel and Shekhar, Karthik and Tommasini, Dario and Yoshimatsu, Takeshi and Corbo, Joseph C.",
    title = "A standardized nomenclature for the rods and cones of the vertebrate retina",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "PLoS Biology",
    abstract = "Vertebrate photoreceptors have been studied for well over a century, but a fixed nomenclature for referring to orthologous cell types across diverse species has been lacking. Instead, photoreceptors have been variably-and often confusingly-named according to morphology, presence/absence of 'rhodopsin', spectral sensitivity, chromophore usage, and/or the gene family of the opsin(s) they express. Here, we propose a unified nomenclature for vertebrate rods and cones that aligns with the naming systems of other retinal cell classes and that is based on the photoreceptor type's putative evolutionary history. This classification is informed by the functional, anatomical, developmental, and molecular identities of the neuron as a whole, including the expression of deeply conserved transcription factors required for development. The proposed names will be applicable across all vertebrates and indicative of the widest possible range of properties, including their postsynaptic wiring, and hence will allude to their common and species-specific roles in vision. Furthermore, the naming system is open-ended to accommodate the future discovery of as-yet unknown photoreceptor types.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3003157",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pbio.3003157",
    openalex = "W4410153702",
    references = "doi101016jcub202503060, doi101038s41559023022917"
}

Introduction: The study of polychromatic visual perception is challenging due to the number of entangled factors involved in the process, from the cues within visual information from the outside world, to the ocular optics, the retinal properties, and neural adaptation processes in the brain. Methods: In this study, we used an adaptive optics (AO)- based polychromatic visual simulator to investigate the perception of combined optical cues and its dependence on refractive error. Subjective best focus was obtained as the average of 3 repeated measurements for (1) polychromatic and five monochromatic wavelengths in the visible (450-670 nm); (2) three different visual stimuli (conventional binary sunburst, natural outdoor image, natural indoor image); and (3) under natural aberrations (no-AO) and corrected aberrations (AO) conditions. Repeatability was determined as the standard deviation across repetitions. Chromatic difference of focus (CDF) was calculated for Green-Blue (G-Blue, 550-470 nm) and Green-Red (G-Red, 550-700 nm). Longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) was estimated using a polynomial regression fit of the best subjective focus curves as a function of the wavelength. Nine young adults (28 ± 6 years) with different refractive profiles (6 myopic and 3 emmetropic) participated in this study. Results: < 0.05 Mann-Whitney U test). There was no effect of correcting natural aberrations. LCA does not vary with refractive error. Discussion: Overall, the results of this study suggest that the refractive profile may influence how visual information with specific chromatic properties is perceived and processed, potentially shaping visual mechanisms involved in chromatic defocus perception.

@article{doi103389fmed20251504560,
    author = "Rodríguez-López, Victor and Dotor-Goytia, Paulina and Moreno, Elena and Viñas, María",
    title = "Differences in perceived chromatic aberration between emmetropic and myopic eyes using adaptive optics",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Frontiers in Medicine",
    abstract = "Introduction: The study of polychromatic visual perception is challenging due to the number of entangled factors involved in the process, from the cues within visual information from the outside world, to the ocular optics, the retinal properties, and neural adaptation processes in the brain. Methods: In this study, we used an adaptive optics (AO)- based polychromatic visual simulator to investigate the perception of combined optical cues and its dependence on refractive error. Subjective best focus was obtained as the average of 3 repeated measurements for (1) polychromatic and five monochromatic wavelengths in the visible (450-670 nm); (2) three different visual stimuli (conventional binary sunburst, natural outdoor image, natural indoor image); and (3) under natural aberrations (no-AO) and corrected aberrations (AO) conditions. Repeatability was determined as the standard deviation across repetitions. Chromatic difference of focus (CDF) was calculated for Green-Blue (G-Blue, 550-470 nm) and Green-Red (G-Red, 550-700 nm). Longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) was estimated using a polynomial regression fit of the best subjective focus curves as a function of the wavelength. Nine young adults (28 ± 6 years) with different refractive profiles (6 myopic and 3 emmetropic) participated in this study. Results: < 0.05 Mann-Whitney U test). There was no effect of correcting natural aberrations. LCA does not vary with refractive error. Discussion: Overall, the results of this study suggest that the refractive profile may influence how visual information with specific chromatic properties is perceived and processed, potentially shaping visual mechanisms involved in chromatic defocus perception.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2025.1504560",
    doi = "10.3389/fmed.2025.1504560",
    openalex = "W4412882163",
    references = "doi101364boe396469"
}

The ultrafast laser processing of three-dimensional structures characterized by highly spatially resolved features is more efficiently realized by implementing adaptive optics. Adaptive optics allow for the correction of optical aberrations, introduced when focusing inside the machined material, by tailoring the focal intensity distribution for the specific texturing task, in a reduced processing time. The aberration corrections by adaptive optics allow for a simplified scan strategy for the selective laser micromachining of transparent materials using depth-independent processing parameters, overcoming the limits related to the previously necessary pulse energy adjustment for different z positions in the material volume. In this paper, recent developments in this field are presented and discussed, mainly focusing on the use of dynamic optical elements—deformable mirrors and liquid crystal spatial light modulators—to obtain a high degree of laser processing control by an in-time correction of optical aberrations on different workpieces and mainly of transparent materials.

@article{doi103390jmmp9040105,
    author = "Corsaro, Carmelo and Pelleriti, Priscilla and Crupi, Vincenza and Cosio, Daniele and Neri, F. and Fazio, Enza",
    title = "Adaptive Aberration Correction for Laser Processes Improvement",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing",
    abstract = "The ultrafast laser processing of three-dimensional structures characterized by highly spatially resolved features is more efficiently realized by implementing adaptive optics. Adaptive optics allow for the correction of optical aberrations, introduced when focusing inside the machined material, by tailoring the focal intensity distribution for the specific texturing task, in a reduced processing time. The aberration corrections by adaptive optics allow for a simplified scan strategy for the selective laser micromachining of transparent materials using depth-independent processing parameters, overcoming the limits related to the previously necessary pulse energy adjustment for different z positions in the material volume. In this paper, recent developments in this field are presented and discussed, mainly focusing on the use of dynamic optical elements—deformable mirrors and liquid crystal spatial light modulators—to obtain a high degree of laser processing control by an in-time correction of optical aberrations on different workpieces and mainly of transparent materials.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040105",
    doi = "10.3390/jmmp9040105",
    openalex = "W4408778359",
    references = "doi101016jjfop2024100116"
}

The vertebrate retina is a uniquely complex and evolutionarily conserved structure, combining ciliary (rod and cone) and rhabdomeric (ganglion, amacrine and horizontal cells) photoreceptor lineages within a multilayered circuit. This arrangement contrasts with the ancestral bilaterian cephalic pattern, where rhabdomeric photoreceptors dominate lateral eyes and ciliary photoreceptors are largely limited to unpigmented, non-visual median positions. Here, we make a case that the vertebrate retina evolved through the lateralization of a complex median photoreceptive organ already containing both photoreceptor types. This shift likely followed the loss of lateral rhabdomeric eyes in a burrowing, suspension-feeding deuterostome ancestor that retained a pool of median photoreceptors. In the early chordates leading to vertebrates, this structure diversified into the pineal/parapineal complex and lateral retinas. Central to this transformation was the emergence of a bipolar cellular identity, linking ciliary and rhabdomeric circuits - an unusual feature in animal nervous systems. We suggest that bipolar cells predate the retina and have dual evolutionary origins: Off bipolar cells deriving from a ciliary 'effector' lineage and rod-On bipolar cells deriving from a chimeric sensory cell. This model explains key similarities between the retina and the pineal gland and supports a scenario in which vertebrate vision emerged by integrating and repurposing preexisting circuits. It reframes the retina not as a de novo innovation, but as a modified and lateralized solution to sensory challenges faced by early chordates.

@article{doi101016jcub202512028,
    author = "Kafetzis, George and Bok, Michael J. and Baden, Tom and Nilsson, Dan-Eric",
    title = "Evolution of the vertebrate retina by repurposing of a composite ancestral median eye",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    abstract = "The vertebrate retina is a uniquely complex and evolutionarily conserved structure, combining ciliary (rod and cone) and rhabdomeric (ganglion, amacrine and horizontal cells) photoreceptor lineages within a multilayered circuit. This arrangement contrasts with the ancestral bilaterian cephalic pattern, where rhabdomeric photoreceptors dominate lateral eyes and ciliary photoreceptors are largely limited to unpigmented, non-visual median positions. Here, we make a case that the vertebrate retina evolved through the lateralization of a complex median photoreceptive organ already containing both photoreceptor types. This shift likely followed the loss of lateral rhabdomeric eyes in a burrowing, suspension-feeding deuterostome ancestor that retained a pool of median photoreceptors. In the early chordates leading to vertebrates, this structure diversified into the pineal/parapineal complex and lateral retinas. Central to this transformation was the emergence of a bipolar cellular identity, linking ciliary and rhabdomeric circuits - an unusual feature in animal nervous systems. We suggest that bipolar cells predate the retina and have dual evolutionary origins: Off bipolar cells deriving from a ciliary 'effector' lineage and rod-On bipolar cells deriving from a chimeric sensory cell. This model explains key similarities between the retina and the pineal gland and supports a scenario in which vertebrate vision emerged by integrating and repurposing preexisting circuits. It reframes the retina not as a de novo innovation, but as a modified and lateralized solution to sensory challenges faced by early chordates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2025.12.028",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2025.12.028",
    openalex = "W7131081640",
    references = "doi101016jcub202503060, doi101038s41559023022917, doi101038s4155902302299z"
}

Purpose: To present a non-mydriatic hyperspectral retinal camera based on spectral scanning, developed to achieve a practical balance among imaging performance, acquisition speed, and system simplicity for advanced retinal diagnostics. Methods: The system integrates LED-based broadband illumination, linear variable filters, custom optics, a monochrome sensor, and a motorized three-dimensional stage to capture high-resolution hyperspectral data across 29 wavebands from 450 to 850 nm. Optical performance was evaluated using standard metrics including spectral resolution, irradiance, uniformity, resolving power, field of view, and chromatic focal compensation. Imaging was performed on model eyes and human subjects to assess spectral signature capture and repeatability. Results: The system achieved a 40° field of view and a spectral resolution ranging from 20 to 80 nm. Chromatic focal correction and illumination uniformity were maintained across the spectral range. In vivo imaging demonstrated the ability to capture distinct spectral signatures of anatomical structures and ocular pathologies. Test-retest assessments showed high repeatability, with spectral variation below 5%. The device operated under non-mydriatic conditions with acquisition times of approximately 300 ms. Conclusions: The prototype demonstrates reliable and repeatable hyperspectral imaging of the retina in a compact and semi-automated form factor. The system offers a foundation for further optimization, including improved spectral precision, artifact reduction, and increased field of view. Translational Relevance: This technology enables non-invasive, high-content retinal imaging suitable for integration into clinical workflows.

@article{doi101167tvst1511,
    author = "Labrecque, Francis and Jannaud, Maxime and Dang, Darvy and Hodgson, Lauren and van Wijngaarden, Peter and Hadoux, Xavier",
    title = "Characterization of a LED-Based Non-Mydriatic Hyperspectral Retinal Camera",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Translational Vision Science \& Technology",
    abstract = "Purpose: To present a non-mydriatic hyperspectral retinal camera based on spectral scanning, developed to achieve a practical balance among imaging performance, acquisition speed, and system simplicity for advanced retinal diagnostics. Methods: The system integrates LED-based broadband illumination, linear variable filters, custom optics, a monochrome sensor, and a motorized three-dimensional stage to capture high-resolution hyperspectral data across 29 wavebands from 450 to 850 nm. Optical performance was evaluated using standard metrics including spectral resolution, irradiance, uniformity, resolving power, field of view, and chromatic focal compensation. Imaging was performed on model eyes and human subjects to assess spectral signature capture and repeatability. Results: The system achieved a 40° field of view and a spectral resolution ranging from 20 to 80 nm. Chromatic focal correction and illumination uniformity were maintained across the spectral range. In vivo imaging demonstrated the ability to capture distinct spectral signatures of anatomical structures and ocular pathologies. Test-retest assessments showed high repeatability, with spectral variation below 5\%. The device operated under non-mydriatic conditions with acquisition times of approximately 300 ms. Conclusions: The prototype demonstrates reliable and repeatable hyperspectral imaging of the retina in a compact and semi-automated form factor. The system offers a foundation for further optimization, including improved spectral precision, artifact reduction, and increased field of view. Translational Relevance: This technology enables non-invasive, high-content retinal imaging suitable for integration into clinical workflows.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.15.1.1",
    doi = "10.1167/tvst.15.1.1",
    openalex = "W7118181576",
    references = "doi101364boe396469"
}