Catskill wedge

@article{doi101130001676061971821305ndeitc20co2,
    author = "Walker, Roger G.",
    title = "Nondeltaic Depositional Environments in the Catskill Clastic Wedge (Upper Devonian) of Central Pennsylvania",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[1305:ndeitc]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[1305:ndeitc]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2005978581"
}

@article{walker1971nondeltaic,
    author = "WALKER, ROGER G.",
    title = "Nondeltaic Depositional Environments in the Catskill Clastic Wedge (Upper Devonian) of Central Pennsylvania",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[1305:ndeitc]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[1305:ndeitc]2.0.co;2",
    number = "5",
    pages = "1305",
    volume = "82"
}

@techreport{walker1971nondeltaic1,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Nondeltaic depositional environments in the Catskill clastic wedge (Upper Devonian) of central Pennsylvania",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1305-1326",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1971, Nondeltaic depositional environments in the Catskill clastic wedge (Upper Devonian) of central Pennsylvania: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1305-1326.}"
}

The focus of these notes is on the use of primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequence as tools for interpretation of depositional environment of clastic sediments, emphasizing advances in understanding that the authors judge to be important. To accomplish the primary objective, several topics have been selected. Experimental flume studies are summarized with emphasis on work which extends the understanding of distribution of bed forms over increased ranges of grain size, flow depths, or velocity. Studies of modern and ancient sedimentary sequences are used to illustrate and interpret environments of deposition. Fluvial sediments are reviewed to show how experimentally derived generalizations are applied or qualified to interpret natural environments.

@book{doi102110scn7502,
    author = "Harms, J. C. and Southard, John B. and Spearing, Darwin and Walker, Roger G.",
    title = "Depositional Environments as Interpreted from Primary Sedimentary and Stratigraphic Sequences",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "The focus of these notes is on the use of primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequence as tools for interpretation of depositional environment of clastic sediments, emphasizing advances in understanding that the authors judge to be important. To accomplish the primary objective, several topics have been selected. Experimental flume studies are summarized with emphasis on work which extends the understanding of distribution of bed forms over increased ranges of grain size, flow depths, or velocity. Studies of modern and ancient sedimentary sequences are used to illustrate and interpret environments of deposition. Fluvial sediments are reviewed to show how experimentally derived generalizations are applied or qualified to interpret natural environments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/scn.75.02",
    doi = "10.2110/scn.75.02",
    openalex = "W1527847239"
}

Abstract A delta is a partially subaerial, contiguous mass of sediment deposited around the point where a river enters a standing body of water. A deltaic system is a three-dimensional rock-stratigraphic unit composed of many adjacent delta lobes deposited as a part of a major cycle of terrigenous sediment influx. Delta morphology and internal stratigraphy are primarily the product of an interplay between fluvial sediment input and reworking of sediment by marine or lacustrine processes. Although sources of marine energy include oceanic and wind-generated currents, density currents, gravitational potential, tidal currents, storm surge, and wave surge, deltaic progradation is modified primarily by tidal currents and wave surge. Marine deltas can thus be characterized in terms of three end-member types: (1) fluvial-dominated deltas, (2) wave-dominated deltas, and (3) tide-dominated deltas. Modern fluvial-dominated deltas include the birdfoot lobe of the Holocene Mississippi Delta system and the Po and Danube deltas. The Rhone and Sao Francisco are typical wave-dominated deltas. The Ganges-Brahmaputra, Fly, and Colorado deltas are of the tide-dominated type. Gravity induced sediment transport tends to remove sediment basinward from the delta system into slope, submarine fan, and basin floor environments which are best considered separate depositional systems. Within deltaic depositional systems, longterm evolutionary trends can be recognized and interpreted in terms of response to changing process intensity. Pennsylvanian deltas of north-central Texas changed from fluvial-dominated elongate to wave-influenced or even wave-dominated lobate types as they prograded across a shallow platform into deeper, open marine water. Early Eocene (Wilcox) and Miocene clastic cycles of the Gulf Coast Tertiary basin evolved from fluvial-dominated elongate and lobate deltas of the regressive phase to wave-dominated deltas of the transgressive phase of the cycle.

@article{openalexw1604095676,
    author = "Galloway, William E.",
    title = "Process Framework for Describing the Morphologic and Stratigraphic Evolution of Deltaic Depositional Systems",
    year = "1975",
    abstract = "Abstract A delta is a partially subaerial, contiguous mass of sediment deposited around the point where a river enters a standing body of water. A deltaic system is a three-dimensional rock-stratigraphic unit composed of many adjacent delta lobes deposited as a part of a major cycle of terrigenous sediment influx. Delta morphology and internal stratigraphy are primarily the product of an interplay between fluvial sediment input and reworking of sediment by marine or lacustrine processes. Although sources of marine energy include oceanic and wind-generated currents, density currents, gravitational potential, tidal currents, storm surge, and wave surge, deltaic progradation is modified primarily by tidal currents and wave surge. Marine deltas can thus be characterized in terms of three end-member types: (1) fluvial-dominated deltas, (2) wave-dominated deltas, and (3) tide-dominated deltas. Modern fluvial-dominated deltas include the birdfoot lobe of the Holocene Mississippi Delta system and the Po and Danube deltas. The Rhone and Sao Francisco are typical wave-dominated deltas. The Ganges-Brahmaputra, Fly, and Colorado deltas are of the tide-dominated type. Gravity induced sediment transport tends to remove sediment basinward from the delta system into slope, submarine fan, and basin floor environments which are best considered separate depositional systems. Within deltaic depositional systems, longterm evolutionary trends can be recognized and interpreted in terms of response to changing process intensity. Pennsylvanian deltas of north-central Texas changed from fluvial-dominated elongate to wave-influenced or even wave-dominated lobate types as they prograded across a shallow platform into deeper, open marine water. Early Eocene (Wilcox) and Miocene clastic cycles of the Gulf Coast Tertiary basin evolved from fluvial-dominated elongate and lobate deltas of the regressive phase to wave-dominated deltas of the transgressive phase of the cycle.",
    openalex = "W1604095676"
}

ABSTRACT The vertical and lateral stratigraphic relations of facies and facies associations, palaeocurrent directions, and geometry and internal organization of associated thick‐bedded and coarse‐grained bodies of sandstone provide the framework for distinguishing five thin‐bedded turbidite facies in the Eocene Hecho Group, south‐central Pyrenees, Spain. Each facies is characterized by a number of primary features which are palaeoenvironmental indicators by themselves. These features and their palaeoenvironmental significance are summarized below. The impressive regularity and lateral persistence of bedding and depositional structures, combined with the association of thin hemipelagic intercalations are typical characteristics of the basin plain thin‐bedded turbidites. Lateral variations in bed thickness, internal structures, grain size, sand: shale ratio, and amounts of hemipelagic intercalations are present in these sediments, but take place so gradually that they cannot generally be recognized at the scale of even very large exposures. The basin plain facies has a remarkable character of uniformity over great distances and considerable stratigraphic thicknesses. Thickening‐upward and/or symmetric cycles with individual thicknesses ranging from a few metres to a few tens of metres are typical of lobe‐fringe thin‐bedded turbidites. The sediments that comprise the cycles contain small but recognizable variations in bed thickness and sand: shale ratio. The diagnostic cyclic pattern can be detected in relatively small exposures. It should be noted that in absence of coarse‐grained and thick‐bedded sandstone of the depositional lobes the above cyclic pattern is diagnostic of fan‐fringe areas. An extremely irregular bedding pattern with lensing, wedding, and amalgamation of individual beds over very short distances, sharp rippled tops of many beds, and internal depositional structures indicative of mainly tractional processes without substantial fallout, are typical and exclusive characteristics of channelmouth thin‐bedded turbidites. Bundles of interbedded thin‐bedded sandstone and mudstone as thick as a few metres that are separated in vertical sequences by mudstone units of roughly similar or greater thickness are typical of interchannel thin‐bedded turbidites. The most diagnostic feature of this depositional environment is the presence of beds of sandstone filling broad shallow channels as probable crevasse‐splays. Thin, thoroughly rippled sandstone beds with marked divergence of the bedding attitude characterize the channel‐margin facies. The divergence or expansion in thickness, is consistently toward the channel axis. Small and shallow channels filled with thin‐bedded deposits, interpreted here as crevasses cut into channel edges or levees during period of severe overbanking are also characteristic.

@article{doi101111j136530911977tb00122x,
    author = "Mutti, Emiliano",
    title = "Distinctive thin‐bedded turbidite facies and related depositional environments in the Eocene Hecho Group (South‐central Pyrenees, Spain)",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The vertical and lateral stratigraphic relations of facies and facies associations, palaeocurrent directions, and geometry and internal organization of associated thick‐bedded and coarse‐grained bodies of sandstone provide the framework for distinguishing five thin‐bedded turbidite facies in the Eocene Hecho Group, south‐central Pyrenees, Spain. Each facies is characterized by a number of primary features which are palaeoenvironmental indicators by themselves. These features and their palaeoenvironmental significance are summarized below. The impressive regularity and lateral persistence of bedding and depositional structures, combined with the association of thin hemipelagic intercalations are typical characteristics of the basin plain thin‐bedded turbidites. Lateral variations in bed thickness, internal structures, grain size, sand: shale ratio, and amounts of hemipelagic intercalations are present in these sediments, but take place so gradually that they cannot generally be recognized at the scale of even very large exposures. The basin plain facies has a remarkable character of uniformity over great distances and considerable stratigraphic thicknesses. Thickening‐upward and/or symmetric cycles with individual thicknesses ranging from a few metres to a few tens of metres are typical of lobe‐fringe thin‐bedded turbidites. The sediments that comprise the cycles contain small but recognizable variations in bed thickness and sand: shale ratio. The diagnostic cyclic pattern can be detected in relatively small exposures. It should be noted that in absence of coarse‐grained and thick‐bedded sandstone of the depositional lobes the above cyclic pattern is diagnostic of fan‐fringe areas. An extremely irregular bedding pattern with lensing, wedding, and amalgamation of individual beds over very short distances, sharp rippled tops of many beds, and internal depositional structures indicative of mainly tractional processes without substantial fallout, are typical and exclusive characteristics of channelmouth thin‐bedded turbidites. Bundles of interbedded thin‐bedded sandstone and mudstone as thick as a few metres that are separated in vertical sequences by mudstone units of roughly similar or greater thickness are typical of interchannel thin‐bedded turbidites. The most diagnostic feature of this depositional environment is the presence of beds of sandstone filling broad shallow channels as probable crevasse‐splays. Thin, thoroughly rippled sandstone beds with marked divergence of the bedding attitude characterize the channel‐margin facies. The divergence or expansion in thickness, is consistently toward the channel axis. Small and shallow channels filled with thin‐bedded deposits, interpreted here as crevasses cut into channel edges or levees during period of severe overbanking are also characteristic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1977.tb00122.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.1977.tb00122.x",
    openalex = "W2162397024",
    references = "doi1010079783642962912, doi1010160025322770900447, doi1010160025322772900734, doi101111j136530911975tb01638x, doi101111j136530911976tb00038x, doi101306212f6cb72b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi1013065d25b6a516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi10130674d716452b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi102110pec65080034"
}

Stratigraphic studies of Middle and Upper Devonian rocks in West Virginia suggest that thick zones of interbedded siltstone and shale present between the Devonian Shale gas fields in southwestern West Virginia, and the gas fields in Upper Devonian sandstones and siltstones in central and eastern West Virginia may contain important reserves of natural gas. Wells drilled into these zones of interbedded siltstone and shale should be completed in the same way as wells drilled into the black shales; i.e., the entire zone should be fractured, not selected siltstones.

@inproceedings{schwietering1980natural,
    author = "Schwietering, Joseph F.",
    title = "Natural Gas from Tight Siltstones in the Catskill Clastic Wedge in West Virginia",
    year = "1980",
    booktitle = "SPE Unconventional Gas Recovery Symposium",
    abstract = "Stratigraphic studies of Middle and Upper Devonian rocks in West Virginia suggest that thick zones of interbedded siltstone and shale present between the Devonian Shale gas fields in southwestern West Virginia, and the gas fields in Upper Devonian sandstones and siltstones in central and eastern West Virginia may contain important reserves of natural gas. Wells drilled into these zones of interbedded siltstone and shale should be completed in the same way as wells drilled into the black shales; i.e., the entire zone should be fractured, not selected siltstones.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2118/8953-ms",
    doi = "10.2118/8953-ms"
}

Sandstone Depositional Environments has proven to be one of AAPG's all-time best sellers, with multiple reprints and extensive use as a university textbook. The volume is specifically designed for the non-sedimentologist, the petroleum geologist, or the field geologist who needs to use sandstone depositional environments in facies reconstruction and environmental interpretations. Prediction of subsurface sandstone trends, diagenetic style, and continuity of reservoir porosity is strongly dependent on an understanding of original depositional environments. The volume consists of twelve chapters, each covering a major environmental setting for sandstone deposition from terrestrial to deep marine (glacial, eolian, alluvial fan, lacustrine, fluvial, deltaic, estuarine, tidal flat, barrier island, continental shelf, continental slope, and submarine fan). For each environment the modern depositional processes are described and compared to subsurface examples, with abundant illustrations and photographs. Different scales and perspectives are reviewed, using aerial photos, maps, seismic, cross sections, outcrops, cores, and thin sections. Each chapter is organized in a manner that it can be used effectively and independently for teaching purposes or as an analog reference for field study and subsurface interpretation.

@book{doi101306m31424,
    author = "Scholle, Peter A. and Spearing, Darwin",
    title = "Sandstone Depositional Environments",
    year = "1982",
    booktitle = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists eBooks",
    abstract = "Sandstone Depositional Environments has proven to be one of AAPG's all-time best sellers, with multiple reprints and extensive use as a university textbook. The volume is specifically designed for the non-sedimentologist, the petroleum geologist, or the field geologist who needs to use sandstone depositional environments in facies reconstruction and environmental interpretations. Prediction of subsurface sandstone trends, diagenetic style, and continuity of reservoir porosity is strongly dependent on an understanding of original depositional environments. The volume consists of twelve chapters, each covering a major environmental setting for sandstone deposition from terrestrial to deep marine (glacial, eolian, alluvial fan, lacustrine, fluvial, deltaic, estuarine, tidal flat, barrier island, continental shelf, continental slope, and submarine fan). For each environment the modern depositional processes are described and compared to subsurface examples, with abundant illustrations and photographs. Different scales and perspectives are reviewed, using aerial photos, maps, seismic, cross sections, outcrops, cores, and thin sections. Each chapter is organized in a manner that it can be used effectively and independently for teaching purposes or as an analog reference for field study and subsurface interpretation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/m31424",
    doi = "10.1306/m31424",
    openalex = "W1866543612"
}

In the last 25 years, many paleobotanists and palynologists have focused on the paleoflora of the Catskill clastic wedge, to take advantage of the sequence of abundant floral remains. In this interim a considerable body of paleobotanical information has accrued. It is clear now that these fossil plants are not a localized paleoflora. At the generic level many of them are to be found in Europe, Siberia, China, Australia and, less commonly, in Africa. Most of these genera are of the plant lineages that give rise to the dominant floras of the Carboniferous. Unlike most animal megafossils, it is the form and position of the reproductive organs of the plant that have been primarily used in placing the plant in its rightful position in major evolutionary groupings. Yet plant megafossils are mostly found as fragments of the vegetative plant, as leaves, stems and occasionally cellular anatomy. Because of this, it has been only recently that a tentative scheme of sequential megafossil assemblages in the Siluro-Devonian has appeared to augment earlier palynological schemes. Several prolific localities are discussed and one example of exceptional preservation is illustrated. These details show the kind and extent of information obtainable from the Catskill delta deposits, which then give clues to depositional environments and climatic conditions at the time of deposition.

@incollection{banks1985the,
    author = "Banks, Harlan P. and Grierson, James D. and Bonamo, Patricia M.",
    title = "The flora of the Catskill clastic wedge",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "The Catskill Delta",
    abstract = "In the last 25 years, many paleobotanists and palynologists have focused on the paleoflora of the Catskill clastic wedge, to take advantage of the sequence of abundant floral remains. In this interim a considerable body of paleobotanical information has accrued. It is clear now that these fossil plants are not a localized paleoflora. At the generic level many of them are to be found in Europe, Siberia, China, Australia and, less commonly, in Africa. Most of these genera are of the plant lineages that give rise to the dominant floras of the Carboniferous. Unlike most animal megafossils, it is the form and position of the reproductive organs of the plant that have been primarily used in placing the plant in its rightful position in major evolutionary groupings. Yet plant megafossils are mostly found as fragments of the vegetative plant, as leaves, stems and occasionally cellular anatomy. Because of this, it has been only recently that a tentative scheme of sequential megafossil assemblages in the Siluro-Devonian has appeared to augment earlier palynological schemes. Several prolific localities are discussed and one example of exceptional preservation is illustrated. These details show the kind and extent of information obtainable from the Catskill delta deposits, which then give clues to depositional environments and climatic conditions at the time of deposition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe201-p125",
    doi = "10.1130/spe201-p125",
    openalex = "W2402184219",
    pages = "125-142"
}

Upper Devonian marginal-marine deposits exposed at Ashcraft Quarry, northern-most Pennsylvania, are unusual in that they contain limestone in addition to the sandstone and shale which is prevalent in the Catskill clastic wedge. A 3 m. thick lower unitis a lateral-accretion deposit, composed mainly of planar and cross-stratified sandstones with subordinate wavy-flaser bedding. Erosion surfaces beneath sandstones are overlain by intraformational breccias containing transported crinoid, brachiopod, bivalve and plant remains. Paleocurrents are unidirectional westward, but current ripples rarely indicate bidirectional paleoflow. The 3.5–5.5 m. limestone unit,comprising skeletal grainstone interbedded with calcareous sandstone, fines up or coarsens up from an extensive erosional base, and shows lateral-accretion bedding. The lime-grainstone contains abraded fragments of crinoids, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, and fish bones; also ankerite concretions, shale chips and plant remains. The whole unit is mainly large-scale cross-stratified, with bidirectional paleocurrents; and its top surface is marked by sandwaves, interfering wave and current ripples, and abundant burrows. The upper unitcomprises interbedded sandstones, siltstones and shales. Sheet-like and channel-filling sandstones have basal skeletal lags, large- and small-scale cross-stratification, planar stratification, and hummocky cross-stratification. Finer-grained strata have wavy-lenticular bedding (with wave and current ripple marks), concretions, and abundant burrows. Throughout the exposure fauna) diversity is low relative to coeval marine-shelf facies, and trace fossils belong mainly to the Skolithosichnofacies. The depositional environment of the lower unit, the limestone unit, and immediately adjacent beds, is laterally migrating sand bars adjacent to curved tidal channels with strong tidal-current asymmetry, probably in an estuary with marginal intertidal flats. Overlying deposits were introduced by periodic unidirectional currents and reworked by waves, possibly in a brackish coastal bay.

@incollection{bridge1985unusual,
    author = "Bridge, John S. and Droser, Mary L.",
    title = "Unusual marginal-marine lithofacies from the Upper Devonian Catskill clastic wedge",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "The Catskill Delta",
    abstract = "Upper Devonian marginal-marine deposits exposed at Ashcraft Quarry, northern-most Pennsylvania, are unusual in that they contain limestone in addition to the sandstone and shale which is prevalent in the Catskill clastic wedge. A 3 m. thick lower unitis a lateral-accretion deposit, composed mainly of planar and cross-stratified sandstones with subordinate wavy-flaser bedding. Erosion surfaces beneath sandstones are overlain by intraformational breccias containing transported crinoid, brachiopod, bivalve and plant remains. Paleocurrents are unidirectional westward, but current ripples rarely indicate bidirectional paleoflow. The 3.5–5.5 m. limestone unit,comprising skeletal grainstone interbedded with calcareous sandstone, fines up or coarsens up from an extensive erosional base, and shows lateral-accretion bedding. The lime-grainstone contains abraded fragments of crinoids, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, and fish bones; also ankerite concretions, shale chips and plant remains. The whole unit is mainly large-scale cross-stratified, with bidirectional paleocurrents; and its top surface is marked by sandwaves, interfering wave and current ripples, and abundant burrows. The upper unitcomprises interbedded sandstones, siltstones and shales. Sheet-like and channel-filling sandstones have basal skeletal lags, large- and small-scale cross-stratification, planar stratification, and hummocky cross-stratification. Finer-grained strata have wavy-lenticular bedding (with wave and current ripple marks), concretions, and abundant burrows. Throughout the exposure fauna) diversity is low relative to coeval marine-shelf facies, and trace fossils belong mainly to the Skolithosichnofacies. The depositional environment of the lower unit, the limestone unit, and immediately adjacent beds, is laterally migrating sand bars adjacent to curved tidal channels with strong tidal-current asymmetry, probably in an estuary with marginal intertidal flats. Overlying deposits were introduced by periodic unidirectional currents and reworked by waves, possibly in a brackish coastal bay.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe201-p143",
    doi = "10.1130/spe201-p143",
    pages = "143-162"
}

The Catskill Delta complex is interpreted to be the aggregate of delta-alluvial wedges and associated facies that developed in the central Appalachians and on adjacent parts of the stable craton from the Early-Middle Devonian transition to the Middle Mississippian during the Acadian orogeny. Recent interpretations of the Acadian orogeny suggest that it probably was related to oblique convergence and transcurrent movement along a major strike-slip fault zone separating the eastern margin of the North American landmass from a linear continental fragment called the Avalon terrane. Distribution of clastic wedges and basinal deposits resulting from this orogeny support a general southwestward progression of orogeny and indicate that the major clastic wedges emanated from areas near promontories on the continental margin during successive phases of Acadian deformation. Three and possibly four such tectophases have been noted. Each tectophase appears to represent increased convergence or possible collision between a specific continental promontory and the Avalon terrane, but some delta development occurred continually along many parts of the orogen in response to each tectophase. The four tectophases are: (1) Collision near the St. Lawrence promontory during the Early-Middle Devonian transition with initiation of the Catskill Delta complex represented by the Needmore and Esopus shales and associated clastics near promontories. (2) Southward migration of deformation and collision near the New York promontory during the Middle Devonian with the development of a large peripheral basin having an east-dipping, western paleoslope. This basin was filled with cyclic delta clastics and carbonates of the Hamilton Group and Tully Limestone. (3) Southward migration of deformation and collision near the Virginia promontory during the Late Devonian to earliest Mississippian accompanied by intense clastic influx of the Genesee-through-Canadaway groups. As a result, the basin was progressively filled from the east so that basinal environments migrated westward out of the peripheral basin and onto adjacent parts of the stable craton. Eventually the basin was filled and a regional west-dipping paleoslope was established. (4) Migration of deformation southward from the Virginia promontory during the Early to Middle Mississippian as basinal environments in cratonic seas were destroyed and Pocono and equivalent clastic wedges essentially filled the epicontinental sea. Middle Mississippian carbonates mark the end of the Acadian orogeny and Catskill Delta complex.

@incollection{doi101130spe201p39,
    author = "Ettensohn, Frank R.",
    title = "The Catskill Delta complex and the Acadian Orogeny: A model",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America eBooks",
    abstract = "The Catskill Delta complex is interpreted to be the aggregate of delta-alluvial wedges and associated facies that developed in the central Appalachians and on adjacent parts of the stable craton from the Early-Middle Devonian transition to the Middle Mississippian during the Acadian orogeny. Recent interpretations of the Acadian orogeny suggest that it probably was related to oblique convergence and transcurrent movement along a major strike-slip fault zone separating the eastern margin of the North American landmass from a linear continental fragment called the Avalon terrane. Distribution of clastic wedges and basinal deposits resulting from this orogeny support a general southwestward progression of orogeny and indicate that the major clastic wedges emanated from areas near promontories on the continental margin during successive phases of Acadian deformation. Three and possibly four such tectophases have been noted. Each tectophase appears to represent increased convergence or possible collision between a specific continental promontory and the Avalon terrane, but some delta development occurred continually along many parts of the orogen in response to each tectophase. The four tectophases are: (1) Collision near the St. Lawrence promontory during the Early-Middle Devonian transition with initiation of the Catskill Delta complex represented by the Needmore and Esopus shales and associated clastics near promontories. (2) Southward migration of deformation and collision near the New York promontory during the Middle Devonian with the development of a large peripheral basin having an east-dipping, western paleoslope. This basin was filled with cyclic delta clastics and carbonates of the Hamilton Group and Tully Limestone. (3) Southward migration of deformation and collision near the Virginia promontory during the Late Devonian to earliest Mississippian accompanied by intense clastic influx of the Genesee-through-Canadaway groups. As a result, the basin was progressively filled from the east so that basinal environments migrated westward out of the peripheral basin and onto adjacent parts of the stable craton. Eventually the basin was filled and a regional west-dipping paleoslope was established. (4) Migration of deformation southward from the Virginia promontory during the Early to Middle Mississippian as basinal environments in cratonic seas were destroyed and Pocono and equivalent clastic wedges essentially filled the epicontinental sea. Middle Mississippian carbonates mark the end of the Acadian orogeny and Catskill Delta complex.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe201-p39",
    doi = "10.1130/spe201-p39",
    openalex = "W2337372061"
}

The Late Devonian Catskill Delta is made up of marine and non-marine facies built up on the flank of the tectonic Appalachian Peninsula during assembly of the Old Red (Laurasian) Continent. Much of the continent was under the influence of tropical climates showing a wide range of rainfall. Over the delta, the climate was either tropical wet and dry or desert, due in part, to a rainshadow effect caused by the mountains to the east. Streams showed great variations in discharge and an extended period of drought was an annual event over the region. Alluvial processes were dominant on land. Braided streams deposited the coarsest sediments on alluvial fans and sinuous, channelized streams deposited sand and mud on the alluvial plains. Interfluves on the alluvial plains were sufficiently long-lived to permit the formation of carbonate soils. Plants were most common near stream courses. Fine sand and mud were carried across the shoreline in distributaries to the floor of the adjacent Catskill Sea. Deltaic processes, wave-related processes, and tides shaped the shore. Wave-related processes and bioturbation modified and reworked the shallow marine sediments while turbidity currents and slow deposition from suspension were most effective over the rest of the basin.

@incollection{doi101130spe201p51,
    author = "Woodrow, Donald L.",
    title = "Paleogeography, paleoclimate, and sedimentary processes of the Late Devonian Catskill Delta",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America eBooks",
    abstract = "The Late Devonian Catskill Delta is made up of marine and non-marine facies built up on the flank of the tectonic Appalachian Peninsula during assembly of the Old Red (Laurasian) Continent. Much of the continent was under the influence of tropical climates showing a wide range of rainfall. Over the delta, the climate was either tropical wet and dry or desert, due in part, to a rainshadow effect caused by the mountains to the east. Streams showed great variations in discharge and an extended period of drought was an annual event over the region. Alluvial processes were dominant on land. Braided streams deposited the coarsest sediments on alluvial fans and sinuous, channelized streams deposited sand and mud on the alluvial plains. Interfluves on the alluvial plains were sufficiently long-lived to permit the formation of carbonate soils. Plants were most common near stream courses. Fine sand and mud were carried across the shoreline in distributaries to the floor of the adjacent Catskill Sea. Deltaic processes, wave-related processes, and tides shaped the shore. Wave-related processes and bioturbation modified and reworked the shallow marine sediments while turbidity currents and slow deposition from suspension were most effective over the rest of the basin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/spe201-p51",
    doi = "10.1130/spe201-p51",
    openalex = "W2463989544"
}

Exposures of the Catskill elastic wedge are located in Pendleton County, West Virginia, and include parts of the Brandywine and Fort Seybert 7½-minute quadrangles (Fig. 1). The left hand topographic map in Figure 1 shows all six stops along U.S. 33; it is an enlarged portion of the 2 degree Charlottesville quadrangle. The right hand map is a part of the 7½-minute Brandywine quadrangle showing location of Stop 5.

@incollection{fichter1986the,
    author = "Fichter, Lynn S.",
    title = "The Catskill elastic wedge (Acadian Orogeny) in eastern West Virginia",
    year = "1986",
    booktitle = "Southeastern Section of the Geological Society of America",
    abstract = "Exposures of the Catskill elastic wedge are located in Pendleton County, West Virginia, and include parts of the Brandywine and Fort Seybert 7½-minute quadrangles (Fig. 1). The left hand topographic map in Figure 1 shows all six stops along U.S. 33; it is an enlarged portion of the 2 degree Charlottesville quadrangle. The right hand map is a part of the 7½-minute Brandywine quadrangle showing location of Stop 5.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0-8137-5406-2.91",
    doi = "10.1130/0-8137-5406-2.91",
    pages = "91-96"
}

Trace fossils are used in deposystem analysis of Late Devonian–Early Mississippian nearshore facies in the north-central Appalachian Basin. These nearshore facies resulted from separate transgressions during latest Devonian (Cleveland Shale) and earliest Mississippian (Sunbury Shale) time. Emphasis is placed on a well-exposed section at Rowlesburg, West Virginia, where the Oswayo, Cussewago Sandstone, and Riddlesburg Shale Members of the Price Formation are exposed. The Oswayo Member at Rowlesburg preserves an offshore-to-lower shoreface transition in a complex of euryhaline, protected-bay, lagoon, and possible estuarine facies. Cruziana is common and occurs along with Arthrophycus, Bifungites, Chondrites, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Rhizocorallium, Rosselia, Rusophycus, and Skolithos in intensely bioturbated mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone. These lithologies were deposited below fair-weather wave base and grade upsection to upper shoreface facies comprised of thick, horizontally-laminated sandstones with thinner, burrowed mudstone interbeds. Upper shoreface traces consist of Arenicolites, Cruziana, Diplocraterion, Dimorphichnus, Planolites, Thalassinoides, and Skolithos. Skolithos “pipe rock” sandstones occur at the toe of upper shoreface facies. Eastward the Oswayo Member grades into a restricted-bay facies and finally into beach and tidal flat facies near its stratigraphic wedge-out in eastern West Virginia and western Maryland. The Cussewago Sandstone Member at Rowlesburg overlies the Oswayo and is bounded at the top by a disconformity. The Cussewago contains Arenicolites, Isopodichnus, Phycodes, Planolites, and Skolithos in upper shoreface sandstones possibly related to deposition in deltaic or tidal channel systems. Regionally, the Riddlesburg Shale records a range of euryhaline environments in shallow-shelf, open-bay, and probable estuarine facies. The Riddlesburg Shale Member at Rowlesburg is comprised of dark-grey silty shales, siltstones, and hummocky cross-stratified sandstones. Trace fossils include Bergaueria, Bifungites, Fustiglyphus?, Helminthopsis, Planolites, and Skolithos. Lithofacies of the Riddlesburg Shale in West Virginia were markedly influenced by a syndepositionally active basement feature, the West Virginia Dome. Riddlesburg-age shoreface sandstones deposited on the crest of the Dome contain apparent omission surfaces with common Rhizocorallium and Arenicolites, Cruziana?, Planolites, and Skolithos.

@article{doi101017s0022336000029279,
    author = "Bjerstedt, Thomas W.",
    title = "Latest Devonian–Earliest Mississippian nearshore trace-fossil assemblages from West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Maryland",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Journal of Paleontology",
    abstract = "Trace fossils are used in deposystem analysis of Late Devonian–Early Mississippian nearshore facies in the north-central Appalachian Basin. These nearshore facies resulted from separate transgressions during latest Devonian (Cleveland Shale) and earliest Mississippian (Sunbury Shale) time. Emphasis is placed on a well-exposed section at Rowlesburg, West Virginia, where the Oswayo, Cussewago Sandstone, and Riddlesburg Shale Members of the Price Formation are exposed. The Oswayo Member at Rowlesburg preserves an offshore-to-lower shoreface transition in a complex of euryhaline, protected-bay, lagoon, and possible estuarine facies. Cruziana is common and occurs along with Arthrophycus, Bifungites, Chondrites, Planolites, Palaeophycus, Rhizocorallium, Rosselia, Rusophycus, and Skolithos in intensely bioturbated mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone. These lithologies were deposited below fair-weather wave base and grade upsection to upper shoreface facies comprised of thick, horizontally-laminated sandstones with thinner, burrowed mudstone interbeds. Upper shoreface traces consist of Arenicolites, Cruziana, Diplocraterion, Dimorphichnus, Planolites, Thalassinoides, and Skolithos. Skolithos “pipe rock” sandstones occur at the toe of upper shoreface facies. Eastward the Oswayo Member grades into a restricted-bay facies and finally into beach and tidal flat facies near its stratigraphic wedge-out in eastern West Virginia and western Maryland. The Cussewago Sandstone Member at Rowlesburg overlies the Oswayo and is bounded at the top by a disconformity. The Cussewago contains Arenicolites, Isopodichnus, Phycodes, Planolites, and Skolithos in upper shoreface sandstones possibly related to deposition in deltaic or tidal channel systems. Regionally, the Riddlesburg Shale records a range of euryhaline environments in shallow-shelf, open-bay, and probable estuarine facies. The Riddlesburg Shale Member at Rowlesburg is comprised of dark-grey silty shales, siltstones, and hummocky cross-stratified sandstones. Trace fossils include Bergaueria, Bifungites, Fustiglyphus?, Helminthopsis, Planolites, and Skolithos. Lithofacies of the Riddlesburg Shale in West Virginia were markedly influenced by a syndepositionally active basement feature, the West Virginia Dome. Riddlesburg-age shoreface sandstones deposited on the crest of the Dome contain apparent omission surfaces with common Rhizocorallium and Arenicolites, Cruziana?, Planolites, and Skolithos.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022336000029279",
    doi = "10.1017/s0022336000029279",
    openalex = "W2498620408",
    references = "bridge1985unusual, doi101016s0031018285800067, doi101017s0016756800026534, doi101111j150239311980tb00632x, doi101139e84022, doi101306m31424, doi102110scn8209, doi102110scn8415, doi105962bhltitle154066, openalexw2344228935, openalexw560220492"
}

Carbonate deposition dominated the Franklinian miogeocline from Late Cambrian until earliest Middle Devonian. Following a transgression in early Eifelian (within the costatus-costatus conodont Zone), quartzose clastics replaced carbonates as the dominant sediment type and, from that time until Early Carboniferous, clastic sedimentation was widespread across the Franklinian miogeocline. During this interval an enormous clastic wedge prograded southwestward, heralding the advance of Ellesmerian deformation. Middle-Upper Devonian clastic sediments are widely preserved and are most widespread in the western Arctic, where they occur over much of Bathurst, Melville, Prince Patrick and Banks islands (Fig. 10.1). In the eastern Arctic the deposits occur mainly in a broad synclinorium which stretches from central Ellesmere Island to eastern Grinnell Peninsula. Isolated occurrences are present on northern Ellesmere Island in the Yelverton Pass region and in Tertiary grabens on Cornwallis Island (Fig. 10.1, Fig. 4 [in pocket]). Forty-two wells have penetrated the strata and numerous surface sections are described in the literature (Fig. 10.1, Fig. 1 [in pocket]). The maximum preserved thickness of the clastic wedge is about 4000 m, although thermal maturation levels of strata within and directly below the wedge suggest that original thicknesses may have been nearly twice this figure in some areas. Regional mapping studies carried out by the Geological Survey of Canada in the 1950s and 1960s established a general stratigraphic framework for these clastic sediments (McLaren, 1963; Thorsteinsson and Tozer, 1962; Tozer and Thorsteinsson, 1964; Kerr, 1974). Embry and Klovan (1976) reviewed all previous work up to 1975 and presented

@incollection{embry1991middleupper,
    author = "Embry, Ashton F.",
    title = "Middle-Upper Devonian Clastic Wedge of the Arctic Islands",
    year = "1991",
    booktitle = "Geology of the Innuitian Orogen and Arctic Platform of Canada and Greenland",
    abstract = "Carbonate deposition dominated the Franklinian miogeocline from Late Cambrian until earliest Middle Devonian. Following a transgression in early Eifelian (within the costatus-costatus conodont Zone), quartzose clastics replaced carbonates as the dominant sediment type and, from that time until Early Carboniferous, clastic sedimentation was widespread across the Franklinian miogeocline. During this interval an enormous clastic wedge prograded southwestward, heralding the advance of Ellesmerian deformation. Middle-Upper Devonian clastic sediments are widely preserved and are most widespread in the western Arctic, where they occur over much of Bathurst, Melville, Prince Patrick and Banks islands (Fig. 10.1). In the eastern Arctic the deposits occur mainly in a broad synclinorium which stretches from central Ellesmere Island to eastern Grinnell Peninsula. Isolated occurrences are present on northern Ellesmere Island in the Yelverton Pass region and in Tertiary grabens on Cornwallis Island (Fig. 10.1, Fig. 4 [in pocket]). Forty-two wells have penetrated the strata and numerous surface sections are described in the literature (Fig. 10.1, Fig. 1 [in pocket]). The maximum preserved thickness of the clastic wedge is about 4000 m, although thermal maturation levels of strata within and directly below the wedge suggest that original thicknesses may have been nearly twice this figure in some areas. Regional mapping studies carried out by the Geological Survey of Canada in the 1950s and 1960s established a general stratigraphic framework for these clastic sediments (McLaren, 1963; Thorsteinsson and Tozer, 1962; Tozer and Thorsteinsson, 1964; Kerr, 1974). Embry and Klovan (1976) reviewed all previous work up to 1975 and presented",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/dnag-gna-e.261",
    doi = "10.1130/dnag-gna-e.261",
    openalex = "W2477785500",
    pages = "261-279"
}

ABSTRACT The morphology and geochemistry of pedogenic carbonate found in vertic claystone palaeosols in the Devonian Catskill Formation in central Pennsylvania preserve a record of the physical and chemical environment of carbonate precipitation. The carbonate is characterized by three distinct petrographic generations. Pedogenic rhizoliths and nodules are the earliest precipitated generation, and typically consist of dull red‐brown luminescent micrite. Clear, equant calcite spar cement fills voids in the centres of rhizoliths, as well as circumgranular cracks and septarian voids in nodules. Early spar cements are non‐luminescent to dull luminescent, whereas later spar cements exhibit bright yellow‐orange luminescence. Late stage pedogenic fractures are always occluded with very bright yellow‐orange luminescent spar cements. The incorporation of progressively higher concentrations of Mn (up to 34000 ppm) into successively younger calcite spar cements, without concomitant increases in Fe, suggests carbonate precipitation from an evolving meteoric water in which Mn 2+ became increasingly mobile over time. The increased mobility is possibly due to decreasing Eh, resulting from oxidation of organic matter after rapid soil burial on the floodplain. The amount of Fe 2+ available for incorporation into calcite was limited because most iron was immobile, having been earlier oxidized and bound to the palaeosol clay matrix as a poorly crystallized ferric oxide or oxyhydroxide mineral. Carbon isotope compositions of pedogenic carbonate correlate with the inferred depth of carbonate precipitation. Rhizoliths preserved below the lowest stratigraphic occurrences of pedogenic slickensides are consistently depleted in 13 C relative to nodules, which formed stratigraphically higher, within the zone of active soil shrink and swell processes. Nodular carbonate, precipitated in proximity to deep cracks in the soil, is enriched due to increased gas exchange with isotopically heavy atmospheric CO 2. Accordingly, rhizolith compositions will most accurately estimate palaeoatmospheric levels of CO 2; the use of nodule compositions may result in overestimation of P CO 2 by as much as 30%.

@article{doi101111j136530911993tb01761x,
    author = "Driese, Steven G. and Mora, Claudia I.",
    title = "Physico‐chemical environment of pedogenic carbonate formation in Devonian vertic palaeosols, central Appalachians, USA",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The morphology and geochemistry of pedogenic carbonate found in vertic claystone palaeosols in the Devonian Catskill Formation in central Pennsylvania preserve a record of the physical and chemical environment of carbonate precipitation. The carbonate is characterized by three distinct petrographic generations. Pedogenic rhizoliths and nodules are the earliest precipitated generation, and typically consist of dull red‐brown luminescent micrite. Clear, equant calcite spar cement fills voids in the centres of rhizoliths, as well as circumgranular cracks and septarian voids in nodules. Early spar cements are non‐luminescent to dull luminescent, whereas later spar cements exhibit bright yellow‐orange luminescence. Late stage pedogenic fractures are always occluded with very bright yellow‐orange luminescent spar cements. The incorporation of progressively higher concentrations of Mn (up to 34000 ppm) into successively younger calcite spar cements, without concomitant increases in Fe, suggests carbonate precipitation from an evolving meteoric water in which Mn 2+ became increasingly mobile over time. The increased mobility is possibly due to decreasing Eh, resulting from oxidation of organic matter after rapid soil burial on the floodplain. The amount of Fe 2+ available for incorporation into calcite was limited because most iron was immobile, having been earlier oxidized and bound to the palaeosol clay matrix as a poorly crystallized ferric oxide or oxyhydroxide mineral. Carbon isotope compositions of pedogenic carbonate correlate with the inferred depth of carbonate precipitation. Rhizoliths preserved below the lowest stratigraphic occurrences of pedogenic slickensides are consistently depleted in 13 C relative to nodules, which formed stratigraphically higher, within the zone of active soil shrink and swell processes. Nodular carbonate, precipitated in proximity to deep cracks in the soil, is enriched due to increased gas exchange with isotopically heavy atmospheric CO 2. Accordingly, rhizolith compositions will most accurately estimate palaeoatmospheric levels of CO 2; the use of nodule compositions may result in overestimation of P CO 2 by as much as 30\%.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1993.tb01761.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.1993.tb01761.x",
    openalex = "W2137028658",
    references = "banks1985the, doi1010029780470698716, doi1010160012821x8490089x, doi101016b9780444408266500078, doi101038205587a0, doi10106311747785, doi101111j136530911980tb01651x, doi101130spe203p1, doi10130674d714f62b2111d78648000102c1865d, openalexw1488282249"
}

@article{bridge1994marine,
    author = "BRIDGE, J. S. and WILLIS, B. J.",
    title = "Marine transgressions and regressions recorded in Middle Devonian shore-zone deposits of the Catskill clastic wedge",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<1440:mtarri>2.3.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<1440:mtarri>2.3.co;2",
    number = "11",
    openalex = "W2028783012",
    pages = "1440-1458",
    volume = "106"
}

Fossil fish remains belonging to the WlIttagoonaspis assemblage are described from the Devonian rocks of the Georgina Basin, central Australia.

@article{doi1018195issn0313122x652003001085,
    author = "Young, Gavin C. and Goujet, Daniel",
    title = "Devonian fish remains from the Dulcie Sandstone and Cravens Peak Beds, Georgina Basin, central Australia",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement",
    abstract = "Fossil fish remains belonging to the WlIttagoonaspis assemblage are described from the Devonian rocks of the Georgina Basin, central Australia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18195/issn.0313-122x.65.2003.001-085",
    doi = "10.18195/issn.0313-122x.65.2003.001-085",
    openalex = "W2228749384",
    references = "doi101017s0022336000029279"
}

@incollection{dennis2007cat,
    author = "Dennis, Allen J.",
    title = "Cat Square basin, Catskill clastic wedge: Silurian-Devonian orogenic events in the central Appalachians and the crystalline southern Appalachians",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Special Paper 433: Whence the Mountains? Inquiries into the Evolution of Orogenic Systems: A Volume in Honor of Raymond A. Price",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/2007.2433(15)",
    doi = "10.1130/2007.2433(15)",
    openalex = "W2185797015",
    pages = "313-329",
    references = "doi101016s0012821x0100588x, doi101016s0040195197000358, doi101029tc008i001p00099, doi101130spe233p1, doi1011440016764901118, doi101144gsjgs14960871, doi101144gslsp19981430117, doi102110pec85370227, doi102475ajs277101233, openalexw2912219260"
}

The Upper Devonian Bradford Group of west-central Pennsylvania is a commonly targeted natural gas reservoir. The Greater Punxsutawney area covers parts of Jefferson, Indiana, and Clearfield counties, and within this area the Bradford Group is composed of nine separate drillers' sandstones. These sandstones are interpreted in outcrop to have been deposited in a range of depositional environments from sandy turbidites of the prodelta to muddy shoreface and sand-ridge complexes of the delta front. This study referenced gamma ray and bulk density e-logs from 269 wells to generate a data base from which maps and cross sections were generated for these beds in the subsurface, and allow for the application of sequence stratigraphic principles.;In this study, the Bradford Group is interpreted to be composed of two fourth order sequences. These sequences are subdivided into individual systems tracts based upon both the sequence stratigraphic surfaces observed in cross section and trends seen in map view. Porosity maps within the study area show that reservoir quality is generally influenced by the proximity of the sandstones to shoreline and dependent on the volume of lithic fragments which controls both the volume of primary porosity that was preserved during compaction as well as the volume of secondary porosity that might have been created by the dissolution of these lithic grains.

@phdthesis{doi1033915etd4386,
    author = "Johnson, Anthony G.",
    title = "Subsurface stratigraphy of the Upper Devonian Bradford Group in the Greater Punxsutawney area, Pennsylvania",
    year = "2008",
    abstract = "The Upper Devonian Bradford Group of west-central Pennsylvania is a commonly targeted natural gas reservoir. The Greater Punxsutawney area covers parts of Jefferson, Indiana, and Clearfield counties, and within this area the Bradford Group is composed of nine separate drillers' sandstones. These sandstones are interpreted in outcrop to have been deposited in a range of depositional environments from sandy turbidites of the prodelta to muddy shoreface and sand-ridge complexes of the delta front. This study referenced gamma ray and bulk density e-logs from 269 wells to generate a data base from which maps and cross sections were generated for these beds in the subsurface, and allow for the application of sequence stratigraphic principles.;In this study, the Bradford Group is interpreted to be composed of two fourth order sequences. These sequences are subdivided into individual systems tracts based upon both the sequence stratigraphic surfaces observed in cross section and trends seen in map view. Porosity maps within the study area show that reservoir quality is generally influenced by the proximity of the sandstones to shoreline and dependent on the volume of lithic fragments which controls both the volume of primary porosity that was preserved during compaction as well as the volume of secondary porosity that might have been created by the dissolution of these lithic grains.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.33915/etd.4386",
    doi = "10.33915/etd.4386",
    openalex = "W56616971",
    references = "doi101016003707389390022w, doi101016s0037073897840493, doi10113000167606198596567defie20co2, doi101130spe201p39, doi1013062f91945e16ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bdff8aa6171811d78645000102c1865d, doi101306d4267a692b2611d78648000102c1865d, doi105860choice444462, openalexw2297192698, openalexw3086846549"
}

The Foreknobs Formation (Upper Devonian; Upper Frasnian to basal Famennian) comprises the uppermost marine strata of the progradational “Catskill clastic wedge” of the south-central Appalachian Mountains (Virginia-West Virginia; USA). The Foreknobs Formation consists of 14 lithofacies arranged in four facies associations which record the following depositional settings: 1) storm-dominated distal to proximal offshore to shoreface (facies association A); 2) sharp-based conglomeratic shoreface (facies association B); 3) fluvial redbed (facies association C); and 4) incised-valley fill (IVF; facies association D). Vertical juxtaposition and stacking patterns of lithofacies and facies associations permit recognition of a hierarchy of three scales of cyclicity. Up to 70 short-term 5th-order cycles, each averaging ~ 65 kyr, consist of coarsening-upward parasequences of storm-dominated offshore marine facies in the distal setting which correspond to high frequency (unconformity bound) sequences (HFS) of fluvial redbed strata overlain by offshore marine strata in the proximal setting. These facies relationships are a consequence of 10–15 m of sea-level fluctuations. Up to 12 intermediate-term 4th-order cycles, each averaging ~ 375 kyr, consist of stacked 5th-order cycles. The 4th-order cycles are bounded by regressive surfaces of marine erosion (RSME) at the base of sharp-based conglomeratic shoreface sandstones in the distal setting that correspond with paleosols in the proximal setting. In some cases, the 5th-order cycles within each 4th-order cycle exhibit stacking patterns indicative of increasing or decreasing accommodation space. These facies relationships are a consequence of 25–35 m of sea-level fluctuations. Three complete and portions of two additional 3rd-order cycles, each averaging ~ 1.12 Myr, consist of stacked 4th-order cycles. The 3rd-order sea-level trends reflected in the Foreknobs Formation are nearly identical to published eustatic sea-level curves. Incised-valley fills are present at one of the 3rd-order cycle boundaries and are a consequence of a 35–45 m sea-level fluctuation. The amplitudes of the inferred sea-level fluctuations are comparable to the expansion and contraction of ice volumes within the current Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets which suggests glacioeustasy was the primary control on sea-level fluctuations and cyclicity within the Foreknobs Formation. Such an interpretation is consistent with knowledge of Devonian climate, transitioning from Middle Devonian greenhouse to Late Devonian icehouse, as indicated by evidence of glaciation during parts of the Late Devonian in South America and the Appalachians.

@article{doi101016jpalaeo201307020,
    author = "McClung, Wilson S. and Eriksson, Kenneth A. and Terry, Dennis O. and Cuffey, Clifford A.",
    title = "Sequence stratigraphic hierarchy of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin, USA: Evidence for transitional greenhouse to icehouse conditions",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    abstract = "The Foreknobs Formation (Upper Devonian; Upper Frasnian to basal Famennian) comprises the uppermost marine strata of the progradational “Catskill clastic wedge” of the south-central Appalachian Mountains (Virginia-West Virginia; USA). The Foreknobs Formation consists of 14 lithofacies arranged in four facies associations which record the following depositional settings: 1) storm-dominated distal to proximal offshore to shoreface (facies association A); 2) sharp-based conglomeratic shoreface (facies association B); 3) fluvial redbed (facies association C); and 4) incised-valley fill (IVF; facies association D). Vertical juxtaposition and stacking patterns of lithofacies and facies associations permit recognition of a hierarchy of three scales of cyclicity. Up to 70 short-term 5th-order cycles, each averaging \textasciitilde\ 65 kyr, consist of coarsening-upward parasequences of storm-dominated offshore marine facies in the distal setting which correspond to high frequency (unconformity bound) sequences (HFS) of fluvial redbed strata overlain by offshore marine strata in the proximal setting. These facies relationships are a consequence of 10–15 m of sea-level fluctuations. Up to 12 intermediate-term 4th-order cycles, each averaging \textasciitilde\ 375 kyr, consist of stacked 5th-order cycles. The 4th-order cycles are bounded by regressive surfaces of marine erosion (RSME) at the base of sharp-based conglomeratic shoreface sandstones in the distal setting that correspond with paleosols in the proximal setting. In some cases, the 5th-order cycles within each 4th-order cycle exhibit stacking patterns indicative of increasing or decreasing accommodation space. These facies relationships are a consequence of 25–35 m of sea-level fluctuations. Three complete and portions of two additional 3rd-order cycles, each averaging \textasciitilde\ 1.12 Myr, consist of stacked 4th-order cycles. The 3rd-order sea-level trends reflected in the Foreknobs Formation are nearly identical to published eustatic sea-level curves. Incised-valley fills are present at one of the 3rd-order cycle boundaries and are a consequence of a 35–45 m sea-level fluctuation. The amplitudes of the inferred sea-level fluctuations are comparable to the expansion and contraction of ice volumes within the current Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets which suggests glacioeustasy was the primary control on sea-level fluctuations and cyclicity within the Foreknobs Formation. Such an interpretation is consistent with knowledge of Devonian climate, transitioning from Middle Devonian greenhouse to Late Devonian icehouse, as indicated by evidence of glaciation during parts of the Late Devonian in South America and the Appalachians.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.020",
    doi = "10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.020",
    openalex = "W1980375582",
    references = "doi1010160012825277900551, doi101017cbo9780511628948, doi1010970001069419650700000024, doi101126science1161648, doi101130001676061971821305ndeitc20co2, doi10113000167606198596567defie20co2, doi10113000917613198614535scaia20co2, doi105860choice295709, openalexw1558464430, openalexw2070611029, openalexw2890624634, walker1971nondeltaic"
}

Premise of research. Two previous studies examined the extent of insect herbivory in Early Permian habitats of north-central Texas, with varying results indicating minimal to modest levels of interaction diversity. In a comparison to two previous floras, we tested whether herbivory patterns in a third, slightly younger, assemblage, the Colwell Creek Pond (CCP) flora, most closely reflect plant host taxonomic affiliation, plant conspicuousness, habitat, geologic time, or other variable.Methodology. We assessed the diversity and frequency of insect herbivory on 2140 specimens at CCP. We examined the percent of leaf area removed by herbivory as a third, independent, measure of the effect of insect herbivore removal of host plant photosynthetic tissue.Pivotal results. In a moderately diverse flora of 12 taxa, we found evidence for hole feeding, margin feeding, surface feeding, piercing and sucking, oviposition, galling, seed predation, and wood boring. Some damage was fungally modified. Three herbivory measures consistently indicate that the two overwhelmingly herbivorized taxa were Auritifolia waggoneri, a peltasperm, and Taeniopteris spp., a form genus of unknown affinity. An approximate order of magnitude less herbivory was present for Evolsonia texana, a gigantopterid; indeterminate broad-leaved seed plants, possibly including a mixoneuroid odontopteroid and Rhachiphyllum; and Walchia piniformis, a conifer. A notable association occurred between W. piniformis and an aldegid hemipteran scale insect or precursor lineage. The remaining eight taxa displayed little or no herbivory. About 5% of seeds showed evidence for predation.Conclusions. Herbivory dominance on A. waggoneri and Taeniopteris spp. at CCP supports a hypothesis that the early expansion of herbivory in clastic depositional settings tracked broad-leaved seed plants, a pattern likely modified by other factors, such as conspicuousness. Insects targeted particular host plants and were specialists on certain foliar tissue types, such as galling on A. waggoneri and oviposition on Taeniopteris spp.

@article{doi101086677679,
    author = "Schachat, Sandra R. and Labandeira, Conrad C. and Gordon, Jessie and Chaney, Dan S. and Levi, Stephanie and Halthore, Maya N. and Alvarez, Jorge",
    title = "Plant-Insect Interactions from Early Permian (Kungurian) Colwell Creek Pond, North-Central Texas: The Early Spread of Herbivory in Riparian Environments",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "International Journal of Plant Sciences",
    abstract = "Premise of research. Two previous studies examined the extent of insect herbivory in Early Permian habitats of north-central Texas, with varying results indicating minimal to modest levels of interaction diversity. In a comparison to two previous floras, we tested whether herbivory patterns in a third, slightly younger, assemblage, the Colwell Creek Pond (CCP) flora, most closely reflect plant host taxonomic affiliation, plant conspicuousness, habitat, geologic time, or other variable.Methodology. We assessed the diversity and frequency of insect herbivory on 2140 specimens at CCP. We examined the percent of leaf area removed by herbivory as a third, independent, measure of the effect of insect herbivore removal of host plant photosynthetic tissue.Pivotal results. In a moderately diverse flora of 12 taxa, we found evidence for hole feeding, margin feeding, surface feeding, piercing and sucking, oviposition, galling, seed predation, and wood boring. Some damage was fungally modified. Three herbivory measures consistently indicate that the two overwhelmingly herbivorized taxa were Auritifolia waggoneri, a peltasperm, and Taeniopteris spp., a form genus of unknown affinity. An approximate order of magnitude less herbivory was present for Evolsonia texana, a gigantopterid; indeterminate broad-leaved seed plants, possibly including a mixoneuroid odontopteroid and Rhachiphyllum; and Walchia piniformis, a conifer. A notable association occurred between W. piniformis and an aldegid hemipteran scale insect or precursor lineage. The remaining eight taxa displayed little or no herbivory. About 5\% of seeds showed evidence for predation.Conclusions. Herbivory dominance on A. waggoneri and Taeniopteris spp. at CCP supports a hypothesis that the early expansion of herbivory in clastic depositional settings tracked broad-leaved seed plants, a pattern likely modified by other factors, such as conspicuousness. Insects targeted particular host plants and were specialists on certain foliar tissue types, such as galling on A. waggoneri and oviposition on Taeniopteris spp.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/677679",
    doi = "10.1086/677679",
    openalex = "W2056732902",
    references = "doi101111nph12643"
}

Abstract Detailed facies characterization of the Middle Devonian Geneseo Formation in the Northern Appalachian Basin (NAB) shows a rich assembly of sedimentary features and textures that suggest shelfal mud deposition in a storm-dominated, shallow epeiric sea. At the time of deposition, Acadian uplift supplied fine-grained detritus from the east and stimulated delta growth. As sediment was shed from the hinterland, distribution of mudstone facies was controlled by a combination of autogenic processes and a general rise in sea level. The vertical and lateral distribution of nine mudstone facies observed in this succession indicates an overall shallowing-upwards trend (westward progradation of Catskill delta) with multiple modes of sediment transport and deposition. The water column became more oxygenated upsection as indicated by an increase in benthic fauna diversity (e.g., Leiorhynchus and Orbiculoidea), increasing bioturbation diversity (e.g., Chondrites, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Teichichnus, Thalassinoides, and Zoophycos), and a decline of organic-carbon content (via oxidation and consumption). Physical and biological attributes of this mudstone-dominated succession are used to reconstruct sedimentary processes and depositional conditions. Although a stratified-basin model has previously been proposed for the Geneseo Formation, observations made in this study do not support that interpretation. Collectively, our observations indicate shelfal mud deposition above storm-wave base, in a relatively energetic environment with persistent lateral transport and advection by oscillatory flow, wave-induced currents, river-flood, and storm-wave generated offshore-directed underflows, as well as storm setup-relaxation flows.

@article{doi102110jsr201588,
    author = "Wilson, Ryan and Schieber, Jüergen",
    title = "Sedimentary Facies and Depositional Environment of the Middle Devonian Geneseo Formation of New York, U.S.A.",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Detailed facies characterization of the Middle Devonian Geneseo Formation in the Northern Appalachian Basin (NAB) shows a rich assembly of sedimentary features and textures that suggest shelfal mud deposition in a storm-dominated, shallow epeiric sea. At the time of deposition, Acadian uplift supplied fine-grained detritus from the east and stimulated delta growth. As sediment was shed from the hinterland, distribution of mudstone facies was controlled by a combination of autogenic processes and a general rise in sea level. The vertical and lateral distribution of nine mudstone facies observed in this succession indicates an overall shallowing-upwards trend (westward progradation of Catskill delta) with multiple modes of sediment transport and deposition. The water column became more oxygenated upsection as indicated by an increase in benthic fauna diversity (e.g., Leiorhynchus and Orbiculoidea), increasing bioturbation diversity (e.g., Chondrites, Palaeophycus, Planolites, Teichichnus, Thalassinoides, and Zoophycos), and a decline of organic-carbon content (via oxidation and consumption). Physical and biological attributes of this mudstone-dominated succession are used to reconstruct sedimentary processes and depositional conditions. Although a stratified-basin model has previously been proposed for the Geneseo Formation, observations made in this study do not support that interpretation. Collectively, our observations indicate shelfal mud deposition above storm-wave base, in a relatively energetic environment with persistent lateral transport and advection by oscillatory flow, wave-induced currents, river-flood, and storm-wave generated offshore-directed underflows, as well as storm setup-relaxation flows.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2015.88",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.2015.88",
    openalex = "W2288815570",
    references = "bridge1994marine, doi10113000167606198394459ftaspi20co2"
}

The supposition that the Late Devonian Gondwanan glaciation should be recorded in more temperate regions by black shales, incised valleys, and lowstand wedges is tested with reference to the Foreknobs Formation (late Frasnian to early Famennian) of the central Appalachian Basin (USA). The upper (early Famennian) portion of the Foreknobs Formation in a proximal strike belt in eastern West Virginia contains an erosionally based, coarse, conglomeratic, incised valley fill (IVF) that is underlain and overlain by strata deposited in a relatively deep-marine, ramp setting. A signal of sea-level drawdown is in the form of conglomeratic, hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) storm event beds underlying the IVF, suggesting the proximity of a gravely fluvial point source up-paleoslope. Within a more distal outcrop 66 km (41 miles) to the west, and at about the same stratigraphic horizon, the Foreknobs Formation exhibits a relatively thin succession of black shale that was deposited as sea-level fell, resulting in the concentration of nutrients that caused anoxic conditions. Overlying the black shale are several erosionally based lowstand wedge deposits comprised of cyclic conglomeratic, braided-stream facies which fine-upward to dark gray shales deposited within estuarine environments. The genetically related proximal IVF and the lowermost distal lowstand wedge formed during a major 3rd-order eustatic sea-level fall (35–45 m) consistent with published 3rd-order sea-level curves. Lowering of sea-level (base-level) resulted in steeper stream gradients which caused incision and transportation of gravel from the wedge-top depozone of the foreland basin down to the basinward-migrated shoreline. Inferred depositional environments of the distal lowstand wedge are consistent with interpretations from regional subsurface mapping west of the most distal outcrop belt. From inferred magnitudes of sea-level falls and the physics of ice-sheets, calculations of areal extents of ice over Gondwana suggest that an early Famennian inferred sea-level fall of 35–45 m translates to an area of ice which is only half of the reported area of late Famennian ice. The data are consistent with step-wise increases in magnitude of sea-level fluctuations during deposition of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation within a period of time transitional between Middle Devonian greenhouse conditions and the later icehouse conditions of the Late Paleozoic.

@article{doi101016jpalaeo201601014,
    author = "McClung, Wilson S. and Cuffey, Clifford A. and Eriksson, Kenneth A. and Terry, Dennis O.",
    title = "An incised valley fill and lowstand wedges in the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation, central Appalachian Basin: Implications for Famennian glacioeustasy",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    abstract = "The supposition that the Late Devonian Gondwanan glaciation should be recorded in more temperate regions by black shales, incised valleys, and lowstand wedges is tested with reference to the Foreknobs Formation (late Frasnian to early Famennian) of the central Appalachian Basin (USA). The upper (early Famennian) portion of the Foreknobs Formation in a proximal strike belt in eastern West Virginia contains an erosionally based, coarse, conglomeratic, incised valley fill (IVF) that is underlain and overlain by strata deposited in a relatively deep-marine, ramp setting. A signal of sea-level drawdown is in the form of conglomeratic, hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) storm event beds underlying the IVF, suggesting the proximity of a gravely fluvial point source up-paleoslope. Within a more distal outcrop 66 km (41 miles) to the west, and at about the same stratigraphic horizon, the Foreknobs Formation exhibits a relatively thin succession of black shale that was deposited as sea-level fell, resulting in the concentration of nutrients that caused anoxic conditions. Overlying the black shale are several erosionally based lowstand wedge deposits comprised of cyclic conglomeratic, braided-stream facies which fine-upward to dark gray shales deposited within estuarine environments. The genetically related proximal IVF and the lowermost distal lowstand wedge formed during a major 3rd-order eustatic sea-level fall (35–45 m) consistent with published 3rd-order sea-level curves. Lowering of sea-level (base-level) resulted in steeper stream gradients which caused incision and transportation of gravel from the wedge-top depozone of the foreland basin down to the basinward-migrated shoreline. Inferred depositional environments of the distal lowstand wedge are consistent with interpretations from regional subsurface mapping west of the most distal outcrop belt. From inferred magnitudes of sea-level falls and the physics of ice-sheets, calculations of areal extents of ice over Gondwana suggest that an early Famennian inferred sea-level fall of 35–45 m translates to an area of ice which is only half of the reported area of late Famennian ice. The data are consistent with step-wise increases in magnitude of sea-level fluctuations during deposition of the Upper Devonian Foreknobs Formation within a period of time transitional between Middle Devonian greenhouse conditions and the later icehouse conditions of the Late Paleozoic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.01.014",
    doi = "10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.01.014",
    openalex = "W2285701070",
    references = "doi101016jpalaeo200910010, doi101016jpalaeo201307020"
}

@inproceedings{andkochanov2018depositional,
    author = "Kochanov, William E.",
    title = "DEPOSITIONAL CYCLES WITHIN THE UPPER DEVONIAN CATSKILL FORMATION OF NORTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/abs/2018ne-311059",
    doi = "10.1130/abs/2018ne-311059"
}

@inproceedings{andterry2018paleosols,
    author = "Terry, Dennis O.",
    title = "PALEOSOLS OF THE CATSKILL CLASTIC WEDGE: IDENTIFICATION, INTERPRETATION, AND APPLICATION",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/abs/2018ne-311231",
    doi = "10.1130/abs/2018ne-311231"
}

@incollection{crossref2023the,
    title = "The Catskill Hudson",
    year = "2023",
    booktitle = "River of Mountains",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.8500743.18",
    doi = "10.2307/jj.8500743.18",
    pages = "247-261"
}

Abstract The Paleozoic Appalachian orogen extends >3000 km across eastern Laurentia and is largely composed of a mosaic of terranes representing multiple collisional orogenic phases that culminated in Pangea supercontinent assembly. We present new detrital zircon and monazite geo-thermochronology to investigate orogen–foreland basin sediment routing during the Devonian–Mississippian Acadian orogenic phase, which was a key interval for accretion of Gondwanan assemblages and orogenic plateau growth that accompanied a decrease in global temperature, marine mass extinctions, alpine glaciation, and deposition of the ~3.5-km-thick Catskill-Pocono siliciclastic wedge centered in Pennsylvania, USA. Previous work proposed the depositional system headwaters to the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge were either in the northern or southern Appalachian orogenic highlands. Here, we test the northern versus southern source scenarios through the sedimentary provenance record of the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge in central Pennsylvania using new double-dated detrital zircon (U-Th)/(He-Pb) and detrital monazite Th-Pb data. Detrital zircon U-Pb data are dominated by Taconic (490–420 Ma) and Grenville province (1350–900 Ma) ages and include minor Pan-African–Brasiliano–Iapetan rift (760–500 Ma), Proterozoic (1800–1350 Ma), and Archean (2700 Ma) age groups. In contrast, detrital monazite Th-Pb ages are mainly Acadian (425–375 Ma). When compared with previously published detrital zircon and monazite age signatures of potential sediment sources, detrital zircons are unable to pinpoint specific sources due to multiple generations of sediment recycling that cannot distinguish primary versus recycled sources. However, when detrital zircon data are paired with detrital monazite data, a northern Appalachian hinterland source is preferred for the Catskill-Pocono strata. The (U-Th)/He dates from Grenville- and Taconic-aged detrital zircons range from 440 Ma to 249 Ma and are interpreted as representing rapid source-rock cooling and exhumation during the Acadian orogeny. A Devonian–Mississippian paleo–sediment routing reconstruction is presented based on the along-strike evolution in Acadian foreland basin provenance exemplified by changes in the proportional abundance of Appalachian and Grenville zircon ages. Together, the detrital zircon and monazite data support a northern Appalachian source to the Devonian–Mississippian Acadian Catskill-Pocono siliciclastic wedge.

@article{doi101130ges028691,
    author = "Mueller, Megan and Kortyna, Cullen and Bernier, Brigid and Jackson, William T. and Fosdick, Julie C.",
    title = "Testing a northern Appalachian source for the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge: Reconstructing Devonian–Mississippian sediment routing using detrital zircon and monazite geo-thermochronology",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Geosphere",
    abstract = "Abstract The Paleozoic Appalachian orogen extends \>3000 km across eastern Laurentia and is largely composed of a mosaic of terranes representing multiple collisional orogenic phases that culminated in Pangea supercontinent assembly. We present new detrital zircon and monazite geo-thermochronology to investigate orogen–foreland basin sediment routing during the Devonian–Mississippian Acadian orogenic phase, which was a key interval for accretion of Gondwanan assemblages and orogenic plateau growth that accompanied a decrease in global temperature, marine mass extinctions, alpine glaciation, and deposition of the \textasciitilde 3.5-km-thick Catskill-Pocono siliciclastic wedge centered in Pennsylvania, USA. Previous work proposed the depositional system headwaters to the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge were either in the northern or southern Appalachian orogenic highlands. Here, we test the northern versus southern source scenarios through the sedimentary provenance record of the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge in central Pennsylvania using new double-dated detrital zircon (U-Th)/(He-Pb) and detrital monazite Th-Pb data. Detrital zircon U-Pb data are dominated by Taconic (490–420 Ma) and Grenville province (1350–900 Ma) ages and include minor Pan-African–Brasiliano–Iapetan rift (760–500 Ma), Proterozoic (1800–1350 Ma), and Archean (2700 Ma) age groups. In contrast, detrital monazite Th-Pb ages are mainly Acadian (425–375 Ma). When compared with previously published detrital zircon and monazite age signatures of potential sediment sources, detrital zircons are unable to pinpoint specific sources due to multiple generations of sediment recycling that cannot distinguish primary versus recycled sources. However, when detrital zircon data are paired with detrital monazite data, a northern Appalachian hinterland source is preferred for the Catskill-Pocono strata. The (U-Th)/He dates from Grenville- and Taconic-aged detrital zircons range from 440 Ma to 249 Ma and are interpreted as representing rapid source-rock cooling and exhumation during the Acadian orogeny. A Devonian–Mississippian paleo–sediment routing reconstruction is presented based on the along-strike evolution in Acadian foreland basin provenance exemplified by changes in the proportional abundance of Appalachian and Grenville zircon ages. Together, the detrital zircon and monazite data support a northern Appalachian source to the Devonian–Mississippian Acadian Catskill-Pocono siliciclastic wedge.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/ges02869.1",
    doi = "10.1130/ges02869.1",
    openalex = "W4417437279",
    references = "doi101016jchemgeo200401003, doi101016jepsl200909013, doi101016jgca200310021, doi101016jgca200901015, doi101016jgsf201804001, doi1010292007gc001805, doi101103physrevc41889, doi101111j1751908x201600379x, doi1011300016760619637493sitcio20co2"
}

@misc{fosdick2025supporting,
    author = "Fosdick, Julie C and Bernier, Brigid and Mueller, Megan and Kortyna, Cullen and Jackson, Will",
    title = "Supporting Material for: Testing a northern Appalachian source for the Catskill-Pocono clastic wedge",
    year = "2025",
    publisher = "OSF",
    url = "https://osf.io/rjzdt/",
    doi = "10.17605/osf.io/rjzdt"
}

@incollection{crossrefNonecatskill,
    title = "Catskill diamond",
    year = "None",
    booktitle = "Dictionary of Gems and Gemology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0\_3757",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-540-72816-0\_3757",
    pages = "143-143"
}