Cenozoic

@book{vanmorkhoven1962postpaleozoic7,
    author = "Van Morkhoven, F. P. C. M",
    title = "Post-Paleozoic Ostracoda",
    year = "1962",
    publisher = "Amsterdam, Elsevier, 204 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Van Morkhoven, F. P. C. M., 1962, Post-Paleozoic Ostracoda: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 204 p.}"
}

@misc{heaslip1968cenozoic4,
    author = "Heaslip, W. G",
    title = "Cenozoic evolution of the alticostate venericards in the Gulf and East Coastal North America",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "Palaeontographica Americana, v. 6, p. 55-135",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Heaslip, W. G., 1968, Cenozoic evolution of the alticostate venericards in the Gulf and East Coastal North America: Palaeontographica Americana, v. 6, p. 55-135.}"
}

A correlation of time with depth has been evaluated for the Camp Century, Greenland, 1390 meter deep ice core. Oxygen isotopes in approximately 1600 samples throughout the core have been analyzed. Long-term variations in the isotopic composition of the ice reflect the climatic changes during the past nearly 100,000 years. Climatic oscillations with periods of 120, 940, and 13,000 years are observed.

@article{doi101126science1663903377,
    author = "Dansgaard, W. and Johnsen, S. J. and Møller, Jakob J. and Langway, Chester C.",
    title = "One Thousand Centuries of Climatic Record from Camp Century on the Greenland Ice Sheet",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "A correlation of time with depth has been evaluated for the Camp Century, Greenland, 1390 meter deep ice core. Oxygen isotopes in approximately 1600 samples throughout the core have been analyzed. Long-term variations in the isotopic composition of the ice reflect the climatic changes during the past nearly 100,000 years. Climatic oscillations with periods of 120, 940, and 13,000 years are observed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.166.3903.377",
    doi = "10.1126/science.166.3903.377",
    openalex = "W2016254491",
    references = "doi1010160016703754900034, doi1010160079194661900040, doi101017s0022143000031208, doi101029jb073i008p02691, doi101038215015a0, doi101039jr9470000562, doi101086626295, doi101111j215334901964tb00181x, doi101126science13334671833, doi101130001676061953641315rcits20co2, doi103189s0022143000031208, doi103402tellusav16i48993"
}

Oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope analyses from the core hole through the Antarctic Ice Sheet at Byrd Station define temperature variations over more than 75,000 years. Synchronism between major climatic changes in Antarctica and the Northern Hemisphere is strongly indicated. The Wisconsin cold interval extended from 75,000 to 11,000 years ago. Three intra-Wisconsin warmer phases were all colder than pre- or post-Wisconsin times, which suggests that North American and Eurasian continental ice sheets did not disappear at any time during the Wisconsin.

@article{epstein1970antarctic,
    author = "Epstein, Samuel and Sharp, R. P. and Gow, A. J.",
    title = "Antarctic Ice Sheet: Stable Isotope Analyses of Byrd Station Cores and Interhemispheric Climatic Implications",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope analyses from the core hole through the Antarctic Ice Sheet at Byrd Station define temperature variations over more than 75,000 years. Synchronism between major climatic changes in Antarctica and the Northern Hemisphere is strongly indicated. The Wisconsin cold interval extended from 75,000 to 11,000 years ago. Three intra-Wisconsin warmer phases were all colder than pre- or post-Wisconsin times, which suggests that North American and Eurasian continental ice sheets did not disappear at any time during the Wisconsin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.168.3939.1570",
    doi = "10.1126/science.168.3939.1570",
    number = "3939",
    openalex = "W2044683518",
    pages = "1570-1572",
    volume = "168",
    references = "doi1010160016703753900519, doi101017s0022143000028367, doi101017s0022143000031208, doi101029jb073i008p02691, doi101086627150, doi101126science1253240182, doi101126science16138451011, doi1023071796130, doi103189s0022143000028367, doi103189s0022143000031208"
}

@book{dansgaard1971climatic1,
    author = "Dansgaard, W. and Johnsen, S. J. and Clausen, H. B. and Langway, C. C. J",
    title = "Climatic Record Revealed by the Camp Century Ice Core, in Turekian, K. K., ed., The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 37-56",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S. J., Clausen, H. B., and Langway, C. C. J., 1971, Climatic Record Revealed by the Camp Century Ice Core, in Turekian, K. K., ed., The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages: New Haven, Yale University Press, p. 37-56.}"
}

@article{doi1010160012825272900384,
    author = "Nairn, A.E.M.",
    title = "Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(72)90038-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(72)90038-4",
    openalex = "W2034132630"
}

@incollection{doi101007978364287411613,
    author = "Herman, Yvonne",
    title = "Arctic Ocean Sediments, Microfauna, and the Climatic Record in Late Cenozoic Time",
    year = "1974",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87411-6\_13",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-87411-6\_13",
    openalex = "W149765082",
    references = "doi101016001174716890051x, doi1010160012825272900384, doi101016001282527290102x, doi10106311747785, doi101086622910, doi101086626295, doi101126science1663903377, doi101130001676061953641315rcits20co2, doi1023071438154, openalexw638747108"
}

Palynological data emphasize the presence of two distinctive provinces during the Late Cretaceous, one including eastern North America and Europe and a second including the major part of Asia and western North America.The distinction between these two provinces became increasingly blurred during the Paleogene.During the Eocene, the rain forests of both Europe and western North America shared numerous genera, both extinct and extant.The great majority of the latter and most of the closest extant relatives of the former now occur in the Indomalayan region.It is thus clear that much of the present Indomalayan flora represents a relict of a once widespread Northern Hemisphere tropical (s.l.) flora, one that has largely (but not entirely) been eliminated from the New World.Among the possible New World survivors of this boreotropical flora are some of the dry Caribbean genera, which could have been derived from lineages of the dry tropical vegetation of the Gulf Coast Eocene; only a handful of present Neotropical lowland rain forest genera appear to be boreotropical relicts.Much has been postulated concerning the historical biogeography of the floras of the Northern Hemisphere during the Cretaceous and Tertiary (e.g.Chaney, 1940;Takhtajan, 1969), but many of the suggested migrations and many of the suggested relationships have either turned out to be based on serious misinterpretations of the ages of various fossil floras or on invalid determinations.

@article{doi1023072395198,
    author = "Wolfe, Jack A.",
    title = "Some Aspects of Plant Geography of the Northern Hemisphere During the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden",
    abstract = "Palynological data emphasize the presence of two distinctive provinces during the Late Cretaceous, one including eastern North America and Europe and a second including the major part of Asia and western North America.The distinction between these two provinces became increasingly blurred during the Paleogene.During the Eocene, the rain forests of both Europe and western North America shared numerous genera, both extinct and extant.The great majority of the latter and most of the closest extant relatives of the former now occur in the Indomalayan region.It is thus clear that much of the present Indomalayan flora represents a relict of a once widespread Northern Hemisphere tropical (s.l.) flora, one that has largely (but not entirely) been eliminated from the New World.Among the possible New World survivors of this boreotropical flora are some of the dry Caribbean genera, which could have been derived from lineages of the dry tropical vegetation of the Gulf Coast Eocene; only a handful of present Neotropical lowland rain forest genera appear to be boreotropical relicts.Much has been postulated concerning the historical biogeography of the floras of the Northern Hemisphere during the Cretaceous and Tertiary (e.g.Chaney, 1940;Takhtajan, 1969), but many of the suggested migrations and many of the suggested relationships have either turned out to be based on serious misinterpretations of the ages of various fossil floras or on invalid determinations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2395198",
    doi = "10.2307/2395198",
    openalex = "W2028886007",
    references = "doi1023071484763"
}

An oxygen and carbon isotopic history based on analyses of benthonic and planktonic foraminifera in three overlapping subantarctic sections is presented for the last 55 m.y. with a sampling interval ofless than 1 m.y. Surface temperature at Site 277, on the Campbell Plateau, was about 19C in the early Eocene, about 13C in the middle Eocene, about 11C in the late Eocene, and about 7C in the Oligocene. Declines in temperature appear to have been rather rapid and are separated by episodes of relative temperature stability. Bottom temperature at Site 277 was about 1C below surface temperature in the Paleocene and about 2C below surface temperature in the Oligocene.

@incollection{doi102973dsdpproc291171975,
    author = "Shackleton, Nicholas J and Kennett, J.P.",
    title = "Paleotemperature History of the Cenozoic and the Initiation of Antarctic Glaciation: Oxygen and Carbon Isotope Analyses in DSDP Sites 277, 279 and 281",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "U.S. Government Printing Office eBooks",
    abstract = "An oxygen and carbon isotopic history based on analyses of benthonic and planktonic foraminifera in three overlapping subantarctic sections is presented for the last 55 m.y. with a sampling interval ofless than 1 m.y. Surface temperature at Site 277, on the Campbell Plateau, was about 19C in the early Eocene, about 13C in the middle Eocene, about 11C in the late Eocene, and about 7C in the Oligocene. Declines in temperature appear to have been rather rapid and are separated by episodes of relative temperature stability. Bottom temperature at Site 277 was about 1C below surface temperature in the Paleocene and about 2C below surface temperature in the Oligocene.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2973/dsdp.proc.29.117.1975",
    doi = "10.2973/dsdp.proc.29.117.1975",
    openalex = "W2477629636",
    references = "doi1010160016703757900248, doi101029jz070i008p01809, doi10106311671982, doi101111j1365246x1974tb03629x, doi101111j1365246x1975tb04139x, doi101130001676061953641315rcits20co2, doi101130001676061973842327siamgo20co2, doi102475ajs2523149, doi103189s002214300001724x, openalexw3021425857"
}

V28-239 core from cruise 28 of R/V Vema preserves a detailed oxygen-isotope and paleomagnetic record for all of the Pleistocene Epoch. The entire 21-m-long core has been analyzed at 5-cm intervals. Glacial stage 22, above the Jaramillo magnetic event, may represent the first major Northern Hemisphere continental glaciation of middle Pleistocene character. Prior to this, higher frequency glacial events extend to near the level of the Olduvai magnetic event. Glacial events of less regular frequency extend to the bottom of the core, which represents late Pliocene time. Fluctuations in carbonate dissolution intensity occur throughout the core with a similar frequency...

@incollection{doi101130mem145p449,
    author = "Shackleton, Nicholas J and Opdyke, Neil D.",
    title = "Oxygen-Isotope and Paleomagnetic Stratigraphy of Pacific Core V28-239 Late Pliocene to Latest Pleistocene",
    year = "1976",
    booktitle = "Memoir - Geological Society of America",
    abstract = "V28-239 core from cruise 28 of R/V Vema preserves a detailed oxygen-isotope and paleomagnetic record for all of the Pleistocene Epoch. The entire 21-m-long core has been analyzed at 5-cm intervals. Glacial stage 22, above the Jaramillo magnetic event, may represent the first major Northern Hemisphere continental glaciation of middle Pleistocene character. Prior to this, higher frequency glacial events extend to near the level of the Olduvai magnetic event. Glacial events of less regular frequency extend to the bottom of the core, which represents late Pliocene time. Fluctuations in carbonate dissolution intensity occur throughout the core with a similar frequency...",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/mem145-p449",
    doi = "10.1130/mem145-p449",
    openalex = "W2292183274"
}

@misc{ninkovich1976explosive6,
    author = "Ninkovich, D. and Donn, W. L",
    title = "Explosive Cenozoic volcanism and climatic implications",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 194, p. 899-906",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ninkovich, D., and Donn, W. L., 1976, Explosive Cenozoic volcanism and climatic implications: Science, v. 194, p. 899-906.}"
}

Deep‐sea drilling in the Antarctic region (Deep‐Sea Drilling Project legs 28, 29, 35, and 36) has provided many new data about the development of circum‐Antarctic circulation and the closely related glacial evolution of Antarctica. The Antarctic continent has been in a high‐latitude position since the middle to late Mesozoic. Glaciation commenced much later, in the middle Tertiary, demonstrating that near‐polar position is not sufficient for glacial development. Instead, continental glaciation developed as the present‐day Southern Ocean circulation system became established when obstructing land masses moved aside. During the Paleocene (t = ∼65 to 55 m.y. ago), Australia and Antarctica were joined. In the early Eocene (t = ∼55 m.y. ago), Australia began to drift northward from Antarctica, forming an ocean, although circum‐Antarctic flow was blocked by the continental South Tasman Rise and Tasmania. During the Eocene (t = 55 to 38 m.y. ago) the Southern Ocean was relatively warm and the continent largely nonglaciated. Cool temperate vegetation existed in some regions. By the late Eocene (t = ∼39 m.y. ago) a shallow water connection had developed between the southern Indian and Pacific oceans over the South Tasman Rise. The first major climatic‐glacial threshold was crossed 38 m.y. ago near the Eocene‐Oligocene boundary, when substantial Antarctic sea ice began to form. This resulted in a rapid temperature drop in bottom waters of about 5°C and a major crisis in deep‐sea faunas. Thermohaline oceanic circulation was initiated at this time much like that of the present day. The resulting change in climatic regime increased bottom water activity over wide areas of the deep ocean basins, creating much sediment erosion, especially in western parts of oceans. A major (∼2000 m) and apparently rapid deepening also occurred in the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD). This climatic threshold was crossed as a result of the gradual isolation of Antarctica from Australia and perhaps the opening of the Drake Passage. During the Oligocene (t = 38 to 22 m.y. ago), widespread glaciation probably occurred throughout Antarctica, although no ice cap existed. By the middle to late Oligocene (t = ∼30 to 25 m.y. ago), deep‐seated circum‐Antarctic flow had developed south of the South Tasman Rise, as this had separated sufficiently from Victoria Land, Antarctica. Major reorganization resulted in southern hemisphere deep‐sea sediment distribution patterns. The next principal climatic threshold was crossed during the middle Miocene (t = 14 to 11 m.y. ago) when the Antarctic ice cap formed. This occurred at about the time of closure of the Australian‐Indonesian deep‐sea passage. During the early Miocene, calcareous biogenic sediments began to be displaced northward by siliceous biogenic sediments with higher rates of sedimentation reflecting the beginning of circulation related to the development of the Antarctic Convergence. Since the middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has remained a semipermanent feature exhibiting some changes in volume. The most important of these occurred during the latest Miocene (t = ∼5 m.y. ago) when ice volumes increased beyond those of the present day. This event was related to global climatic cooling, a rapid northward movement of about 300 km of the Antarctic Convergence, and a eustatic sea level drop that may have been partly responsible for the isolation of the Mediterranean basin. Northern hemisphere ice sheet development began about 2.5–3 m.y. ago, representing the next major global climatic threshold, and was followed by the well‐known major oscillations in northern ice sheets. In the Southern Ocean the Quaternary marks a peak in activity of oceanic circulation as reflected by widespread deep‐sea erosion, very high biogenic productivity at the Antarctic Convergence and resulting high rates of biogenic sedimentation, and maximum northward distribution of ice‐rafted debris.

@article{doi101029jc082i027p03843,
    author = "Kennett, James P.",
    title = "Cenozoic evolution of Antarctic glaciation, the circum-Antarctic Ocean, and their impact on global paleoceanography",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Deep‐sea drilling in the Antarctic region (Deep‐Sea Drilling Project legs 28, 29, 35, and 36) has provided many new data about the development of circum‐Antarctic circulation and the closely related glacial evolution of Antarctica. The Antarctic continent has been in a high‐latitude position since the middle to late Mesozoic. Glaciation commenced much later, in the middle Tertiary, demonstrating that near‐polar position is not sufficient for glacial development. Instead, continental glaciation developed as the present‐day Southern Ocean circulation system became established when obstructing land masses moved aside. During the Paleocene (t = ∼65 to 55 m.y. ago), Australia and Antarctica were joined. In the early Eocene (t = ∼55 m.y. ago), Australia began to drift northward from Antarctica, forming an ocean, although circum‐Antarctic flow was blocked by the continental South Tasman Rise and Tasmania. During the Eocene (t = 55 to 38 m.y. ago) the Southern Ocean was relatively warm and the continent largely nonglaciated. Cool temperate vegetation existed in some regions. By the late Eocene (t = ∼39 m.y. ago) a shallow water connection had developed between the southern Indian and Pacific oceans over the South Tasman Rise. The first major climatic‐glacial threshold was crossed 38 m.y. ago near the Eocene‐Oligocene boundary, when substantial Antarctic sea ice began to form. This resulted in a rapid temperature drop in bottom waters of about 5°C and a major crisis in deep‐sea faunas. Thermohaline oceanic circulation was initiated at this time much like that of the present day. The resulting change in climatic regime increased bottom water activity over wide areas of the deep ocean basins, creating much sediment erosion, especially in western parts of oceans. A major (∼2000 m) and apparently rapid deepening also occurred in the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD). This climatic threshold was crossed as a result of the gradual isolation of Antarctica from Australia and perhaps the opening of the Drake Passage. During the Oligocene (t = 38 to 22 m.y. ago), widespread glaciation probably occurred throughout Antarctica, although no ice cap existed. By the middle to late Oligocene (t = ∼30 to 25 m.y. ago), deep‐seated circum‐Antarctic flow had developed south of the South Tasman Rise, as this had separated sufficiently from Victoria Land, Antarctica. Major reorganization resulted in southern hemisphere deep‐sea sediment distribution patterns. The next principal climatic threshold was crossed during the middle Miocene (t = 14 to 11 m.y. ago) when the Antarctic ice cap formed. This occurred at about the time of closure of the Australian‐Indonesian deep‐sea passage. During the early Miocene, calcareous biogenic sediments began to be displaced northward by siliceous biogenic sediments with higher rates of sedimentation reflecting the beginning of circulation related to the development of the Antarctic Convergence. Since the middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has remained a semipermanent feature exhibiting some changes in volume. The most important of these occurred during the latest Miocene (t = ∼5 m.y. ago) when ice volumes increased beyond those of the present day. This event was related to global climatic cooling, a rapid northward movement of about 300 km of the Antarctic Convergence, and a eustatic sea level drop that may have been partly responsible for the isolation of the Mediterranean basin. Northern hemisphere ice sheet development began about 2.5–3 m.y. ago, representing the next major global climatic threshold, and was followed by the well‐known major oscillations in northern ice sheets. In the Southern Ocean the Quaternary marks a peak in activity of oceanic circulation as reflected by widespread deep‐sea erosion, very high biogenic productivity at the Antarctic Convergence and resulting high rates of biogenic sedimentation, and maximum northward distribution of ice‐rafted debris.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jc082i027p03843",
    doi = "10.1029/jc082i027p03843",
    openalex = "W2016564007",
    references = "doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160025322777900457, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589476900478, doi101017s0032247400063804, doi101038260513a0, doi101086626295, doi102475ajs2683193, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi102973dsdpproc291975"
}

The influence of the world oceans on climatic response is considered here with emphasis on the heat transferred to waters beneath the well‐mixed surface layer and to polar bottom water forming zones. An upwelling‐diffusing model is formulated to treat this problem whose effective transport properties are calibrated from the steady state vertical profiles of radiocarbon, potential temperature and other tracers measured by chemical oceanographers. The key issue with regard to the question of atmospheric temperature response to external climatic forcing is whether heat is exchanged between the surface mixed layer and deep sea at rates comparable to heat transfer rates between the planetary radiation field and the atmosphere‐mixed layer system. An important model parameter appearing in the analysis is the polar sea warming coefficient ∏ equal to the rate of change of polar sea temperature relative to changes in areally averaged mixed layer temperature. For ∏ values in the range of 0 to 2 the models predicts response times in the range of 8 to 20 years to attain 63% of the equilibrium temperature change for a step function climatic forcing, and 50 to 1000 years to get 90% of the equilibrium response. These may be compared with the roughly 4 year response time one gets with an oceanic mixed layer only model. To study the carbon dioxide climate problem, a more realistic time‐dependent forcing function is used based on the historical growth of fossil fuel CO 2 and a logarithmic scaling law for the temperature increment which would obtain at any instant if the system were in radiative‐convective equilibrium. Our results suggest the influence of deep sea thermal storage could delay the full value of temperature increment predicted by equilibrium models by 10 to 20 years in 1980 to 2000 A.D. time frame. Also considered is the model response to periodic forcing, the sensitivity of the results, and the implications of the model results with regard to climatic changes on a decadal to millenial timescale.

@article{doi101029jc085ic11p06667,
    author = "Hoffert, Martin I. and Callegari, Andrew J. and Hsieh, Ching‐Tzong",
    title = "The role of deep sea heat storage in the secular response to climatic forcing",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The influence of the world oceans on climatic response is considered here with emphasis on the heat transferred to waters beneath the well‐mixed surface layer and to polar bottom water forming zones. An upwelling‐diffusing model is formulated to treat this problem whose effective transport properties are calibrated from the steady state vertical profiles of radiocarbon, potential temperature and other tracers measured by chemical oceanographers. The key issue with regard to the question of atmospheric temperature response to external climatic forcing is whether heat is exchanged between the surface mixed layer and deep sea at rates comparable to heat transfer rates between the planetary radiation field and the atmosphere‐mixed layer system. An important model parameter appearing in the analysis is the polar sea warming coefficient ∏ equal to the rate of change of polar sea temperature relative to changes in areally averaged mixed layer temperature. For ∏ values in the range of 0 to 2 the models predicts response times in the range of 8 to 20 years to attain 63\% of the equilibrium temperature change for a step function climatic forcing, and 50 to 1000 years to get 90\% of the equilibrium response. These may be compared with the roughly 4 year response time one gets with an oceanic mixed layer only model. To study the carbon dioxide climate problem, a more realistic time‐dependent forcing function is used based on the historical growth of fossil fuel CO 2 and a logarithmic scaling law for the temperature increment which would obtain at any instant if the system were in radiative‐convective equilibrium. Our results suggest the influence of deep sea thermal storage could delay the full value of temperature increment predicted by equilibrium models by 10 to 20 years in 1980 to 2000 A.D. time frame. Also considered is the model response to periodic forcing, the sensitivity of the results, and the implications of the model results with regard to climatic changes on a decadal to millenial timescale.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jc085ic11p06667",
    doi = "10.1029/jc085ic11p06667",
    openalex = "W2012943011"
}

@article{gingerich1980evolutionary3,
    author = "Gingerich, P. D",
    title = "Evolutionary patterns in early Cenozoic mammals",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 8, p. 407-424",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gingerich, P. D., 1980, Evolutionary patterns in early Cenozoic mammals: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 8, p. 407-424.}"
}

@misc{herman1980arctic5,
    author = "Herman, Y. and Hopkins, D. M",
    title = "Arctic Ocean climate in late Cenozoic time",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 209, p. 557-562",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Herman, Y., and Hopkins, D. M., 1980, Arctic Ocean climate in late Cenozoic time: Science, v. 209, p. 557-562.}"
}

Alwyn H. Gentry, Neotropical Floristic Diversity: Phytogeographical Connections Between Central and South America, Pleistocene Climatic Fluctuations, or an Accident of the Andean Orogeny?, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 69, No. 3 (1982), pp. 557-593

@article{doi1023072399084,
    author = "Gentry, Alwyn H.",
    title = "Neotropical Floristic Diversity: Phytogeographical Connections Between Central and South America, Pleistocene Climatic Fluctuations, or an Accident of the Andean Orogeny?",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden",
    abstract = "Alwyn H. Gentry, Neotropical Floristic Diversity: Phytogeographical Connections Between Central and South America, Pleistocene Climatic Fluctuations, or an Accident of the Andean Orogeny?, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 69, No. 3 (1982), pp. 557-593",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2399084",
    doi = "10.2307/2399084",
    openalex = "W2074517922",
    references = "doi101007bf02860537, doi101093genetics9441011, doi101093sysbio244431, doi101126science21545381351"
}

@book{generalov1983late2,
    author = "Generalov, P. P",
    title = "Late Cenozoic appearance of compressive folding and displacement dislocation in West Siberia [in Russian], in Regional'naya neotektonika Sibiri",
    year = "1983",
    publisher = "Novosibirsk, Nauka, p. 15-25; English summary in Petroleum Geology, v.20, no.8, 1984, p.354-357",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Generalov, P. P., 1983, Late Cenozoic appearance of compressive folding and displacement dislocation in West Siberia [in Russian], in Regional'naya neotektonika Sibiri: Novosibirsk, Nauka, p. 15-25; English summary in Petroleum Geology, v.20, no.8, 1984, p.354-357.}"
}

A climatic feedback system previously described, consisting of three prognostic nonlinear equations governing the mass of ice sheets ζ, the mass of marine and continental marginal ice χ, and the mean ocean temperature θ is forced by a representation of the effects of external earth-orbital variations. With reasonable amplitudes for the eccentricity, obliquity, and precession forcing, the free oscillatory solutions of major period near 100 kyr can be modified in a way that substantially agrees with the δ18O-derived observations of ice mass evolution. In particular, a proper structure, variance spectrum, and "phase lock" of the major variations are obtained over the last 400 kyr. An analysis of the sensitivity of these results to variations in the model parameters and to random perturbations shows that the solution is robust for small changes in all but a few of the equation coefficients. Concomitant variability in the marine ice mass, ocean temperature and net radiation at the top of the atmosphere are predicted, the signatures of which must be sought in the geological records to check the validity of the model. An independent estimate of the variations of ocean temperature θ, derived with plausible assumptions from the difference between the solution for ζ and the δ18O record, is shown to be compatible with the solution obtained for θ.

@article{doi1011751520046919840413380tlqgat20co2,
    author = "Saltzman, Barry and Hansen, Anthony R. and Maasch, Kirk A.",
    title = "The Late Quaternary Glaciations as the Response of a Three-Component Feedback System to Earth-Orbital Forcing",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences",
    abstract = {A climatic feedback system previously described, consisting of three prognostic nonlinear equations governing the mass of ice sheets ζ, the mass of marine and continental marginal ice χ, and the mean ocean temperature θ is forced by a representation of the effects of external earth-orbital variations. With reasonable amplitudes for the eccentricity, obliquity, and precession forcing, the free oscillatory solutions of major period near 100 kyr can be modified in a way that substantially agrees with the δ18O-derived observations of ice mass evolution. In particular, a proper structure, variance spectrum, and "phase lock" of the major variations are obtained over the last 400 kyr. An analysis of the sensitivity of these results to variations in the model parameters and to random perturbations shows that the solution is robust for small changes in all but a few of the equation coefficients. Concomitant variability in the marine ice mass, ocean temperature and net radiation at the top of the atmosphere are predicted, the signatures of which must be sought in the geological records to check the validity of the model. An independent estimate of the variations of ocean temperature θ, derived with plausible assumptions from the difference between the solution for ζ and the δ18O record, is shown to be compatible with the solution obtained for θ.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<3380:tlqgat>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<3380:tlqgat>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2083492794"
}

Abstract The classic view regarding the cause of the extinction of at least 17 species of large mammals, birds, and reptiles in Madagascar during the late Holocene implicates human use of fire to modify the environment. However, analysis of the charcoal stratigraphy of three sediment cores from Madagascar shows that late Pleistocene and early- to mid-Holocene sediments deposited prior to human settlement often contain more charcoal than postsettlement and modern sediments. This observation, which is confirmed by independent measurements from direct assay and palynological counting techniques, suggests that widely held but previously untested beliefs concerning the importance of anthropogenic fires in late Holocene environmental changes and megafaunal extinctions of Madagascar may be based on an overly simplified version of actual prehistoric conditions. Moderate to low charcoal values characterized only the late Holocene millennia immediately prior to the presumed time of arrival of the first settlers. Human settlement is probably indicated in the stratigraphy by the sharp rise in charcoal content observed beginning ca. 1500 yr B.P. Fire appears to be a significant natural component of prehuman environments in Madagascar, but some factor, probably climate, has modulated the extent of natural burning.

@article{doi1010160033589487900652,
    author = "Burney, David A.",
    title = "Late Quaternary Stratigraphic Charcoal Records from Madagascar",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract The classic view regarding the cause of the extinction of at least 17 species of large mammals, birds, and reptiles in Madagascar during the late Holocene implicates human use of fire to modify the environment. However, analysis of the charcoal stratigraphy of three sediment cores from Madagascar shows that late Pleistocene and early- to mid-Holocene sediments deposited prior to human settlement often contain more charcoal than postsettlement and modern sediments. This observation, which is confirmed by independent measurements from direct assay and palynological counting techniques, suggests that widely held but previously untested beliefs concerning the importance of anthropogenic fires in late Holocene environmental changes and megafaunal extinctions of Madagascar may be based on an overly simplified version of actual prehistoric conditions. Moderate to low charcoal values characterized only the late Holocene millennia immediately prior to the presumed time of arrival of the first settlers. Human settlement is probably indicated in the stratigraphy by the sharp rise in charcoal content observed beginning ca. 1500 yr B.P. Fire appears to be a significant natural component of prehuman environments in Madagascar, but some factor, probably climate, has modulated the extent of natural burning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(87)90065-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(87)90065-2",
    openalex = "W1965731356",
    references = "doi1010160016703786903418, doi1010160033589473900045, doi101016003358948790038x, doi101139b76186, doi1023073622902, openalexw2015313236, openalexw2971592233, openalexw3092574939, openalexw605266112, openalexw637610943"
}

The degree of similarity of the ∂ 13 C records of the planktonic foraminiferal species N. pachyderma and of the benthic foraminiferal genus Cibicides in the high‐latitude basins of the world ocean is used as an indicator of the presence of deepwater sources during the last climatic cycle. Whereas continuous formation of deep water is recognized in the southern ocean, the Norwegian Sea stopped acting as a sink for surface water during isotope stage 4 and the remainder of the last glaciation. However, deep water formed in the north Atlantic south of the Norwegian Sea during the last climatic cycle as early as isotope substage 5d, and this area was also the only active northern source during stages 4–2. A detailed reconstruction of the geographic distribution of ∂ 13 C in benthic foraminifera in the Atlantic Ocean during the last glacial maximum shows that the most important deepwater mass originated from the southern ocean, whereas the Glacial North Atlantic Deep Water cannot be traced south of 40°N. At shallower depth an oxygenated 13 C rich Intermediate Water mass extended from 45°N to 15°S. In the Pacific Ocean a ventilation higher than the modern one was also found in open ocean in the depth range 700–2600 m and is best explained by stronger formation of Intermediate Water in high northern latitudes.

@article{doi101029pa003i003p00343,
    author = "Duplessy, J. C. and Shackleton, Nicholas J and Fairbanks, Richard G. and Labeyrie, L. and Oppo, Delia W and Kallel, Néjib",
    title = "Deepwater source variations during the last climatic cycle and their impact on the global deepwater circulation",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "The degree of similarity of the ∂ 13 C records of the planktonic foraminiferal species N. pachyderma and of the benthic foraminiferal genus Cibicides in the high‐latitude basins of the world ocean is used as an indicator of the presence of deepwater sources during the last climatic cycle. Whereas continuous formation of deep water is recognized in the southern ocean, the Norwegian Sea stopped acting as a sink for surface water during isotope stage 4 and the remainder of the last glaciation. However, deep water formed in the north Atlantic south of the Norwegian Sea during the last climatic cycle as early as isotope substage 5d, and this area was also the only active northern source during stages 4–2. A detailed reconstruction of the geographic distribution of ∂ 13 C in benthic foraminifera in the Atlantic Ocean during the last glacial maximum shows that the most important deepwater mass originated from the southern ocean, whereas the Glacial North Atlantic Deep Water cannot be traced south of 40°N. At shallower depth an oxygenated 13 C rich Intermediate Water mass extended from 45°N to 15°S. In the Pacific Ocean a ventilation higher than the modern one was also found in open ocean in the depth range 700–2600 m and is best explained by stronger formation of Intermediate Water in high northern latitudes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/pa003i003p00343",
    doi = "10.1029/pa003i003p00343",
    openalex = "W2090767277",
    references = "doi1010160011747166911090, doi101016001282527290102x, doi1010160079661182900076, doi101029tr041i004p00629"
}

Changes in solar radiation arising from changes in the orientation of the earth's axis had pronounced effects on tropical monsoons and mid-latitude climates as well as on ice-sheet configuration during the last 18,000 years. COHMAP (Cooperative Holocene Mapping Project) has assembled a global array of well-dated paleoclimatic data and used general-circulation models to identify and evaluate causes and mechanisms of climatic change. For the northern tropics, particularly in Africa and Asia, data and model results show that the orbitally induced increase in solar radiation in summer 12,000 to 6,000 years ago enhanced the thermal contrast between land and sea and thus produced strong summer monsoons, which raised lake levels in regions that are arid today. In middle to high latitudes the climatic response to both the insolation changes and to the retreating ice sheets led to readjustments in the vegetation in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Model results show that the large North American ice sheet split the westerly jet stream into northern and southern branches over North America. An increase in storms associated with the southern branch helps explain high lake levels and increased woodlands in the southwestern United States during full-glacial conditions. Comparisons of paleoclimatic data with the model simulations are important because models provide a theoretical framework for evaluating mechanisms of climatic change, and such comparisons help to evaluate the potential of general circulation models for predicting future climates.

@article{doi101126science24148691043,
    author = "Members, COHMAP",
    title = "Climatic Changes of the Last 18,000 Years: Observations and Model Simulations",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Changes in solar radiation arising from changes in the orientation of the earth's axis had pronounced effects on tropical monsoons and mid-latitude climates as well as on ice-sheet configuration during the last 18,000 years. COHMAP (Cooperative Holocene Mapping Project) has assembled a global array of well-dated paleoclimatic data and used general-circulation models to identify and evaluate causes and mechanisms of climatic change. For the northern tropics, particularly in Africa and Asia, data and model results show that the orbitally induced increase in solar radiation in summer 12,000 to 6,000 years ago enhanced the thermal contrast between land and sea and thus produced strong summer monsoons, which raised lake levels in regions that are arid today. In middle to high latitudes the climatic response to both the insolation changes and to the retreating ice sheets led to readjustments in the vegetation in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Model results show that the large North American ice sheet split the westerly jet stream into northern and southern branches over North America. An increase in storms associated with the southern branch helps explain high lake levels and increased woodlands in the southwestern United States during full-glacial conditions. Comparisons of paleoclimatic data with the model simulations are important because models provide a theoretical framework for evaluating mechanisms of climatic change, and such comparisons help to evaluate the potential of general circulation models for predicting future climates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.241.4869.1043",
    doi = "10.1126/science.241.4869.1043",
    openalex = "W1654234791",
    references = "doi1010160033589478900649, doi1010160033589479900929, doi101029jd090id01p02167, doi101029jd092id07p08411, doi101038329408a0, doi101126science19142321131, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2074434943, doi101126science214451659, doi101130dnaggnak3, doi1011751520046919860431726tiocop20co2, doi1023071551023, openalexw1934430962"
}

@article{doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2,
    author = "Raymo, Maureen E. and Ruddiman, William F and Froelich, Philip N.",
    title = "Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:iolcmb>2.3.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:iolcmb>2.3.co;2",
    openalex = "W1966360142"
}

Geologic evidence indicates that net vertical uplift occurred on a large (kilometer) scale and at accelerating rates during the middle and late Cenozoic in plateaus of southern Asia and the American west. Based on this evidence, General Circulation Model sensitivity tests were run to isolate the unique effects of plateau uplift on climate. The experiments simulated significant climatic changes in many places, some far from the uplifted regions. The basic direction of most of these simulated responses to progressive uplift is borne out by changes found in the geologic record: winter cooling of North America, northern Europe, northern Asia, and the Arctic Ocean; summer drying of the North American west coast, the Eurasian interior, and the Mediterranean; winter drying of the North American northern plains and the interior of Asia; and changes over the North Atlantic Ocean conducive to increased formation of deep water. The modeled changes result from increased orographic diversion of westerly winds, from cyclonic and anticyclonic surface flow induced by summer heating and winter cooling of the uplifted plateaus, and from the intensification of vertical circulation cells in the atmosphere caused by exchanges of mass between the summer‐heated (and winter‐cooled) plateaus and the mid‐latitude oceans. Disagreements between the geologic record and the model simulations in Alaska and the Southern Rockies and plains may be related mainly to the lack of narrow mountain barriers in the model orography. Taken together, the observed regional trends comprise much of the pattern of “late Cenozoic climatic deterioration” in the northern hemisphere that culminated in the Plio‐Pleistocene ice ages. The success of the uplift sensitivity experiment in simulating the correct pattern and sign of most of the observed regional climatic trends points to uplift as an important forcing function of late Cenozoic climatic change in the northern hemisphere at time scales longer than orbital variations; however, the modest amplitude of the uplift‐induced cooling simulated at high latitudes indicates a probable need for additional climatic forcing.

@article{doi101029jd094id15p18409,
    author = "Ruddiman, William F and Kutzbach, John E.",
    title = "Forcing of late Cenozoic northern hemisphere climate by plateau uplift in southern Asia and the American west",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Geologic evidence indicates that net vertical uplift occurred on a large (kilometer) scale and at accelerating rates during the middle and late Cenozoic in plateaus of southern Asia and the American west. Based on this evidence, General Circulation Model sensitivity tests were run to isolate the unique effects of plateau uplift on climate. The experiments simulated significant climatic changes in many places, some far from the uplifted regions. The basic direction of most of these simulated responses to progressive uplift is borne out by changes found in the geologic record: winter cooling of North America, northern Europe, northern Asia, and the Arctic Ocean; summer drying of the North American west coast, the Eurasian interior, and the Mediterranean; winter drying of the North American northern plains and the interior of Asia; and changes over the North Atlantic Ocean conducive to increased formation of deep water. The modeled changes result from increased orographic diversion of westerly winds, from cyclonic and anticyclonic surface flow induced by summer heating and winter cooling of the uplifted plateaus, and from the intensification of vertical circulation cells in the atmosphere caused by exchanges of mass between the summer‐heated (and winter‐cooled) plateaus and the mid‐latitude oceans. Disagreements between the geologic record and the model simulations in Alaska and the Southern Rockies and plains may be related mainly to the lack of narrow mountain barriers in the model orography. Taken together, the observed regional trends comprise much of the pattern of “late Cenozoic climatic deterioration” in the northern hemisphere that culminated in the Plio‐Pleistocene ice ages. The success of the uplift sensitivity experiment in simulating the correct pattern and sign of most of the observed regional climatic trends points to uplift as an important forcing function of late Cenozoic climatic change in the northern hemisphere at time scales longer than orbital variations; however, the modest amplitude of the uplift‐induced cooling simulated at high latitudes indicates a probable need for additional climatic forcing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jd094id15p18409",
    doi = "10.1029/jd094id15p18409",
    openalex = "W2052368906",
    references = "crossref194241, doi101007bf02861083, doi1010160012825272900384, doi101029jd089id01p01267, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101038300321a0, doi101038307429a0, doi101038334333a0, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2094456557, doi101130001676061951621111ghosw20co2, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi1011751520046919750321515tromit20co2, doi101357002224083788520207, doi102475ajs2837641, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi103402tellusav1i28500"
}

ABSTRACT The theory of the Quaternary climate will be incomplete unless it is embedded in a more general theory for the fuller Cenozoic that can accommodate the onset of the ice-age fluctuations. Here we construct a simple mathematical model for the late Cenozoic climatic changes based on the hypothesis that forced and free variations of the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases (notably CO 2) coupled with changes in the global ocean state and ice mass, under the additional influence or earth-orbital forcing, are primary determinants of the climatic state over this long period. Our goal is to illustrate how a single model governing both very long-term variations and higher frequency oscillatory variations in the Pleistocene can be formulated with relatively few adjustable parameters. Although the details of this model are speculative, and other factors neglected here are undoubtedly of importance, it is hoped that the formalism described can provide a basis for developing a comprehensive theory and systematically extending and improving it. According to our model the major near-100 ka period ice-age oscillations of the Pleistocene were caused by the downdraw of atmospheric CO 2 (possibly a result of weathering of rapidly uplifted topography) to low enough levels for the ‘slow climatic system’, including glacial ice and the deep ocean state, to become unstable.

@article{doi101017s0263593300020824,
    author = "Saltzman, Barry and Maasch, Kirk A.",
    title = "A first-order global model of late Cenozoic climatic change",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Earth Sciences",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The theory of the Quaternary climate will be incomplete unless it is embedded in a more general theory for the fuller Cenozoic that can accommodate the onset of the ice-age fluctuations. Here we construct a simple mathematical model for the late Cenozoic climatic changes based on the hypothesis that forced and free variations of the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases (notably CO 2) coupled with changes in the global ocean state and ice mass, under the additional influence or earth-orbital forcing, are primary determinants of the climatic state over this long period. Our goal is to illustrate how a single model governing both very long-term variations and higher frequency oscillatory variations in the Pleistocene can be formulated with relatively few adjustable parameters. Although the details of this model are speculative, and other factors neglected here are undoubtedly of importance, it is hoped that the formalism described can provide a basis for developing a comprehensive theory and systematically extending and improving it. According to our model the major near-100 ka period ice-age oscillations of the Pleistocene were caused by the downdraw of atmospheric CO 2 (possibly a result of weathering of rapidly uplifted topography) to low enough levels for the ‘slow climatic system’, including glacial ice and the deep ocean state, to become unstable.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0263593300020824",
    doi = "10.1017/s0263593300020824",
    openalex = "W2102722082",
    references = "doi101002qj49706427503, doi1010079789401748414, doi101029pa004i004p00353, doi101038307620a0, doi101038329408a0, doi101126science2074434943, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi102475ajs2837641, openalexw1904021077"
}

A previously formulated dynamical model of the late Pleistocene ice ages (based on the hypothesis that the global CO 2 system can provide the instability to drive a natural oscillation involving feedbacks between the cryosphere, atmosphere, and ocean) is extended to include (1) additive earth orbital forcing (summer insolation changes at 65°N) and (2) tectonic forcing in the form of a postulated variation in the multiplicative parameters (rate constants) of the model system. The structural (e.g., bifurcation) properties of the model are examined in detail to reveal the regions of parameter space wherein the geologically inferred features of the full Pleistocene can be simulated, including the observed chronology, the phase relationships between ice, CO 2, and North Atlantic Deep Water formation, and the mid‐Pleistocene transition.

@article{doi101029jd095id02p01955,
    author = "Maasch, Kirk A. and Saltzman, Barry",
    title = "A low‐order dynamical model of global climatic variability over the full Pleistocene",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A previously formulated dynamical model of the late Pleistocene ice ages (based on the hypothesis that the global CO 2 system can provide the instability to drive a natural oscillation involving feedbacks between the cryosphere, atmosphere, and ocean) is extended to include (1) additive earth orbital forcing (summer insolation changes at 65°N) and (2) tectonic forcing in the form of a postulated variation in the multiplicative parameters (rate constants) of the model system. The structural (e.g., bifurcation) properties of the model are examined in detail to reveal the regions of parameter space wherein the geologically inferred features of the full Pleistocene can be simulated, including the observed chronology, the phase relationships between ice, CO 2, and North Atlantic Deep Water formation, and the mid‐Pleistocene transition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jd095id02p01955",
    doi = "10.1029/jd095id02p01955",
    openalex = "W1990305574",
    references = "doi1010073540082549, doi10100797894009244687, doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160012821x81901977, doi1010160012821x86900245, doi101029jd089id01p01280, doi101038329408a0, doi101126science19442701121, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi1011751520046919840413380tlqgat20co2"
}

@article{doi101038346029a0,
    author = "Molnár, Péter and England, Philip",
    title = "Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/346029a0",
    doi = "10.1038/346029a0",
    openalex = "W2045775785",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511701559, doi101029jd094id15p18409, doi101038329403a0, doi10113000167606196071843peotca20co2, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi101146annurevea05050177001535, openalexw623436458"
}

Analyses of plant community structure, vegetational and leaf physiognomy, and growth rings and vascular systems in wood provide qualitative and quantitative data that can be combined to define non-marine palaeoclimatic parameters with better resolution than is available from other, principally sedimentological, methods. Application of these techniques to Cenomanian through Paleocene floras from high palaeolatitudes (75°-85°N) indicates a polar light regime similar to that of the present. Plant data suggests Cenomanian sea level mean annual air temperatures (MATs) of 10 °C, and MATs of 13 °C, 5°C and 6-7 °C in the Coniacian, Maastrichtian, and Paleocene respectively. Evapotranspirational stresses at sea level were low and precipitation was in most part uniform throughout the growing season in the Cenomanian, with possible seasonal drying occurring by the Maastrichtian. Maastrichtian winter freezing was likely, but periglacial conditions did not exist at sea level. Permanent ice was likely above 1700 m at 75°N in the Cenomanian, and above 1000 m at 85°N in the Maastrichtian. These near-polar data provide critical constraints on global models of Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary climates.

@article{doi101144gsjgs14720329,
    author = "Spicer, Robert A. and Parrish, Judith Totman",
    title = "Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary palaeoclimates of northern high latitudes: a quantitative view",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "Analyses of plant community structure, vegetational and leaf physiognomy, and growth rings and vascular systems in wood provide qualitative and quantitative data that can be combined to define non-marine palaeoclimatic parameters with better resolution than is available from other, principally sedimentological, methods. Application of these techniques to Cenomanian through Paleocene floras from high palaeolatitudes (75°-85°N) indicates a polar light regime similar to that of the present. Plant data suggests Cenomanian sea level mean annual air temperatures (MATs) of 10 °C, and MATs of 13 °C, 5°C and 6-7 °C in the Coniacian, Maastrichtian, and Paleocene respectively. Evapotranspirational stresses at sea level were low and precipitation was in most part uniform throughout the growing season in the Cenomanian, with possible seasonal drying occurring by the Maastrichtian. Maastrichtian winter freezing was likely, but periglacial conditions did not exist at sea level. Permanent ice was likely above 1700 m at 75°N in the Cenomanian, and above 1000 m at 85°N in the Maastrichtian. These near-polar data provide critical constraints on global models of Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary climates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.147.2.0329",
    doi = "10.1144/gsjgs.147.2.0329",
    openalex = "W2064606774",
    references = "doi101038300321a0"
}

@article{doi101007bf00142213,
    author = "Heaney, Lawrence R.",
    title = "A synopsis of climatic and vegetational change in Southeast Asia",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Climatic Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00142213",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00142213",
    openalex = "W2044526339",
    references = "doi1023072844758"
}

@article{doi101007bf00210005,
    author = "Saltzman, Barry and Maasch, Kirk A.",
    title = "A first-order global model of late Cenozoic climatic change II. Further analysis based on a simplification of CO2 dynamics",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Climate Dynamics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00210005",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00210005",
    openalex = "W2060883695",
    references = "doi1010160079661182900076, doi101017s0263593300020824, doi101029gm032p0099, doi101029jd089id03p04629, doi101029jd095id02p01955, doi101038329408a0, doi101038341516a0, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi101130mem145p449, doi102475ajs2837641"
}

A new high resolution global model of late Pleistocene deglaciation is inferred on the basis of geophysical predictions of postglacial relative sea level variations in which the ice‐ocean‐solid Earth interaction is treated in a gravitationally self‐consistent fashion. For the purpose of these analyses the radial viscoelastic structure of the planet is assumed known on the basis of previously published sensitivity tests on solutions of the forward problem. Only radiocarbon controlled relative sea level histories from sites that were actually ice covered (with one or two additions) are employed to constrain the model, leaving relative sea level (RSL) data from sites that were not ice covered to be employed to confirm its consistency. Results for these confirmatory analyses are reported elsewhere. Here the new deglaciation model, referred to as ICE‐3G, is compared to previous models derived by several independent means and tested against a number of additional observations other than sea level histories, including geologically controlled retreat isochrones, oxygen‐isotope data from deep‐sea sedimentary cores, and coral terrace elevations. The latter two observations strongly constrain the net sea level rise that has occurred since the onset of deglaciation and therefore the mass of ice that melted during the last glacial‐interglacial transition.

@article{doi10102990jb01583,
    author = "Tushingham, A. M. and Peltier, W. R.",
    title = "Ice‐3G: A new global model of Late Pleistocene deglaciation based upon geophysical predictions of post‐glacial relative sea level change",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A new high resolution global model of late Pleistocene deglaciation is inferred on the basis of geophysical predictions of postglacial relative sea level variations in which the ice‐ocean‐solid Earth interaction is treated in a gravitationally self‐consistent fashion. For the purpose of these analyses the radial viscoelastic structure of the planet is assumed known on the basis of previously published sensitivity tests on solutions of the forward problem. Only radiocarbon controlled relative sea level histories from sites that were actually ice covered (with one or two additions) are employed to constrain the model, leaving relative sea level (RSL) data from sites that were not ice covered to be employed to confirm its consistency. Results for these confirmatory analyses are reported elsewhere. Here the new deglaciation model, referred to as ICE‐3G, is compared to previous models derived by several independent means and tested against a number of additional observations other than sea level histories, including geologically controlled retreat isochrones, oxygen‐isotope data from deep‐sea sedimentary cores, and coral terrace elevations. The latter two observations strongly constrain the net sea level rise that has occurred since the onset of deglaciation and therefore the mass of ice that melted during the last glacial‐interglacial transition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/90jb01583",
    doi = "10.1029/90jb01583",
    openalex = "W2018139159",
    references = "doi1010160012825272900384, doi1010160031920181900467, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589478900339, doi101029jb073i022p07089, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101038324137a0, doi101038342637a0, doi101038345405a0, doi101039jr9470000562, doi101086626295, doi101098rsta19750025, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01251x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01253x, doi101126science1673919862, doi101126science19442701121, doi101130mem145p449"
}

We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.

@article{doi10102992jb01202,
    author = "Cande, S. C. and Kent, Dennis V.",
    title = "A new geomagnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92jb01202",
    doi = "10.1029/92jb01202",
    openalex = "W2096557357",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190206w, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101038199947a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi10113000167606197788367ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788374ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788383ucmsag20co2, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi101130dnaggnam351, doi101144gslmem19850100115, doi1015159781400862924, doi102110pec88010071, openalexw2989049194, openalexw638747108"
}

@article{doi101038359117a0,
    author = "Raymo, Maureen E. and Ruddiman, William F",
    title = "Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/359117a0",
    doi = "10.1038/359117a0",
    openalex = "W1999924690",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511701559, doi101029jd094id15p18409, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101038329408a0, doi101126science25550521663, doi10113000917613198210516vosstp20co2, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi102475ajs2837641, openalexw1552913007"
}

The transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene epochs was the most significant event in earth history since the extinction of dinosaurs. As the first Antarctic ice sheets appeared, major extinctions and faunal turnovers took place on the land and in the sea, eliminating forms adapted to a tropical world and replacing them with the ancestors of most of our modern animal and plant life. Through a detailed study of climatic conditions and of organisms buried in Eocene-Oligocene sediments, this volume shows that the separation of Antarctica from Australia was a critical factor in changing oceanic circulation and ultimately world climate. In this book forty-eight leading scientists examine the full range of Eocene and Oligocene phenomena. Their articles cover nearly every major group of organisms in the ocean and on land and include evidence from paleontology, stable isotopes, sedimentology, seismology, and computer climatic modeling. The volume concludes with an update of the geochronologic framework of the late Paleogene. Originally published in 1992. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.

@book{doi1015159781400862924,
    author = "Berggren, William A. and Prothero, Donald R.",
    title = "Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution",
    year = "1992",
    booktitle = "Princeton University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "The transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene epochs was the most significant event in earth history since the extinction of dinosaurs. As the first Antarctic ice sheets appeared, major extinctions and faunal turnovers took place on the land and in the sea, eliminating forms adapted to a tropical world and replacing them with the ancestors of most of our modern animal and plant life. Through a detailed study of climatic conditions and of organisms buried in Eocene-Oligocene sediments, this volume shows that the separation of Antarctica from Australia was a critical factor in changing oceanic circulation and ultimately world climate. In this book forty-eight leading scientists examine the full range of Eocene and Oligocene phenomena. Their articles cover nearly every major group of organisms in the ocean and on land and include evidence from paleontology, stable isotopes, sedimentology, seismology, and computer climatic modeling. The volume concludes with an update of the geochronologic framework of the late Paleogene. Originally published in 1992. The Princeton Legacy Library uses the latest print-on-demand technology to again make available previously out-of-print books from the distinguished backlist of Princeton University Press. These editions preserve the original texts of these important books while presenting them in durable paperback and hardcover editions. The goal of the Princeton Legacy Library is to vastly increase access to the rich scholarly heritage found in the thousands of books published by Princeton University Press since its founding in 1905.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400862924",
    doi = "10.1515/9781400862924",
    openalex = "W113995450",
    references = "crossref1977mesozoic, crossref1987the, crossref1989evaporite, crossref1990the, doi101007978146133485919, doi101007978364268836217, doi101007bf02861083, doi1010160011747173900594, doi1010160012825277901362, doi1010160031018291900753, doi101017s0022336000061321, doi101017s0094837300005248, doi101017s0094837300008022, doi101029eo067i035p00649, doi101029jc082i027p03843, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101029pa002i003p00287, doi10108011035898209455245, doi101086628336, doi101126science21545391501, doi101126science23547931156, doi10113000167606196778353forbim20co2, doi101130gsab521, doi101144gslmem19850100115, doi1011639789004616455018, doi102110pec77250019, doi1023071218194, doi1023072258550, doi1023072421322, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi105860choice260307, doi105860choice265651, kier1974evolutionary, openalexw1552913007, openalexw188502723, openalexw2989049194, openalexw2989964553, openalexw597633443, steinmetz1979calcareous, tappan1970geobiologic"
}

Conceptual models for changing landscapes Impacts of pleistocene-holocene climatic changes on desert streams Lithologic controls of geomorphic responses to climatic changes on desert hillslopes Climatic geomorphology of a lofty, semiarid to subhumid mountain range Changing climate, geomorphic processes, and landscapes in a humid fluvial system Comparisons of geomorphic responses to climatic changes in fluvial systems of extremely arid to humid regions References Glossary Index.

@article{doi105860choice300305,
    title = "Geomorphic responses to climatic change",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "Conceptual models for changing landscapes Impacts of pleistocene-holocene climatic changes on desert streams Lithologic controls of geomorphic responses to climatic changes on desert hillslopes Climatic geomorphology of a lofty, semiarid to subhumid mountain range Changing climate, geomorphic processes, and landscapes in a humid fluvial system Comparisons of geomorphic responses to climatic changes in fluvial systems of extremely arid to humid regions References Glossary Index.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.30-0305",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.30-0305",
    openalex = "W2085896233"
}

@article{doi101007bf00208010,
    author = "Saltzman, Barry and Verbitsky, Mikhail",
    title = "Multiple instabilities and modes of glacial rhythmicity in the plio-Pleistocene: a general theory of late Cenozoic climatic change",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Climate Dynamics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00208010",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00208010",
    openalex = "W2059678854",
    references = "doi10100797894009473825, doi1010079789401748414, doi101007bf00210005, doi1010160016703782901107, doi101029jd089id03p04629, doi101038329408a0, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi1011300091761319920200733rotcrh23co2, doi1011751520046919780352362ltvodi20co2, doi102475ajs2837641"
}

@article{doi1010160034666793900608,
    author = "Morley, Robert J. and Richards, Keith",
    title = "Gramineae cuticle: a key indicator of Late Cenozoic climatic change in the Niger Delta",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(93)90060-8",
    doi = "10.1016/0034-6667(93)90060-8",
    openalex = "W2067746439",
    references = "doi101007bf02860537, doi1010160033589487900652, doi101126science19442701121, doi101306c1ea47ed16c911d78645000102c1865d, doi1023072257015, doi1023072259009, doi1023072844758, openalexw2334406281, openalexw2971592233, openalexw62718268"
}

Recently reported radioisotopic dates and magnetic anomaly spacings have made it evident that modification is required for the age calibrations for the geomagnetic polarity timescale of Cande and Kent (1992) at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary and in the Pliocene. An adjusted geomagnetic reversal chronology for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic is presented that is consistent with astrochronology in the Pleistocene and Pliocene and with a new timescale for the Mesozoic.

@article{doi10102994jb03098,
    author = "Cande, S. C. and Kent, Dennis V.",
    title = "Revised calibration of the geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Recently reported radioisotopic dates and magnetic anomaly spacings have made it evident that modification is required for the age calibrations for the geomagnetic polarity timescale of Cande and Kent (1992) at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary and in the Pliocene. An adjusted geomagnetic reversal chronology for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic is presented that is consistent with astrochronology in the Pleistocene and Pliocene and with a new timescale for the Mesozoic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/94jb03098",
    doi = "10.1029/94jb03098",
    openalex = "W2108316127",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190082s, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi10102992jb01202, doi10102993gl00733, doi10102994jb01889, doi101038364788a0, doi101086629744, doi101126science2575072954, doi1011300091761319940220783ioaart23co2, doi101139e93174"
}

We present an integrated geochronology for late Neogene time (Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene Epochs) based on an analysis of data from stable isotopes, magnetostratigraphy, radiochronology, and calcareous plankton biostratigraphy. Discrepancies between recently formulated astronomical chronologies and magnetochronologies for the past 6 m.y. have been resolved on the basis of new, high-precision Ar/Ar ages in the younger part of this interval, the so-called Brunhes, Matuyama, and Gauss Epochs (= Chrons C1n-C2An; 0-3.58 Ma), and revised analysis of sea floor anomalies in the Pacific Ocean in the older part, the so-called Gilbert Epoch (= Chron C2Ar-C3r; 3.58-5.89 Ma). The magneto- and astrochronologies are now concordant back to the Chron C3r/C3An boundary at 5.89 Ma. The Neogene (Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene) and Paleogene are treated here as period/system subdivisions of the Cenozoic Era/Erathem, replacements for the antiquated terms Tertiary and Quaternary. The boundary between the Miocene and Pliocene Series (Messinian/Zanclean Stages), whose global stratotype section and point (GSSP) is currently proposed to be in Sicily, is located within the reversed interval just below the Thvera (C3n.4n) Magnetic Polarity Subchronozone with an estimated age of 5.32 Ma. The Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary, whose GSSP is located at Vrica (Calabria, Italy), is located near the top of the Olduvai (C2n) Magnetic Polarity Subchronozone with an estimated age of 1.81 Ma. The 13 calcareous nannoplankton and 48 planktonic foraminiferal datum events for the Pliocene, and 12 calcareous nannoplankton and 10 planktonic foraminiferal datum events for the Pleistocene, are calibrated to the newly revised late Neogene astronomical/geomagnetic polarity time scale.

@article{doi1011300016760619951071272lncnpi23co2,
    author = "Berggren, William A. and Hilgen, F.J. and Langereis, Cor G. and Kent, Dennis V. and Obradovich, John D. and Raffi, Isabella and Raymo, Maureen E. and Shackleton, N. J.",
    title = "Late Neogene chronology: New perspectives in high-resolution stratigraphy",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "We present an integrated geochronology for late Neogene time (Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene Epochs) based on an analysis of data from stable isotopes, magnetostratigraphy, radiochronology, and calcareous plankton biostratigraphy. Discrepancies between recently formulated astronomical chronologies and magnetochronologies for the past 6 m.y. have been resolved on the basis of new, high-precision Ar/Ar ages in the younger part of this interval, the so-called Brunhes, Matuyama, and Gauss Epochs (= Chrons C1n-C2An; 0-3.58 Ma), and revised analysis of sea floor anomalies in the Pacific Ocean in the older part, the so-called Gilbert Epoch (= Chron C2Ar-C3r; 3.58-5.89 Ma). The magneto- and astrochronologies are now concordant back to the Chron C3r/C3An boundary at 5.89 Ma. The Neogene (Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene) and Paleogene are treated here as period/system subdivisions of the Cenozoic Era/Erathem, replacements for the antiquated terms Tertiary and Quaternary. The boundary between the Miocene and Pliocene Series (Messinian/Zanclean Stages), whose global stratotype section and point (GSSP) is currently proposed to be in Sicily, is located within the reversed interval just below the Thvera (C3n.4n) Magnetic Polarity Subchronozone with an estimated age of 5.32 Ma. The Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary, whose GSSP is located at Vrica (Calabria, Italy), is located near the top of the Olduvai (C2n) Magnetic Polarity Subchronozone with an estimated age of 1.81 Ma. The 13 calcareous nannoplankton and 48 planktonic foraminiferal datum events for the Pliocene, and 12 calcareous nannoplankton and 10 planktonic foraminiferal datum events for the Pleistocene, are calibrated to the newly revised late Neogene astronomical/geomagnetic polarity time scale.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<1272:lncnpi>2.3.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107<1272:lncnpi>2.3.co;2",
    openalex = "W2098137426",
    references = "doi1010160033589482900552, doi101029jz072i010p02603, openalexw638747108"
}

Since the publication of our previous time scale (Berggren and others, 1985c = BKFV85) a large amount of new magneto- and biostratigraphic data and radioisotopic ages have become available. An evaluation of some of the key magnetobiostratigraphic calibration points used in BKFV85, as suggested by high precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating (e.g., Montanari and others, 1988; Swisher and Prothero, 1990; Prothero and Swisher, 1992; Prothero, 1994), has served as a catalyst for us in developing a revised Cenozoic time scale. For the Neogene Period, astrochron- ologic data (Shackleton and others, 1990; Hilgen, 1991) required re-evaluation of the calibration of the Pliocene and Pleistocene Epochs. The significantly older ages for the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs predicted by astronomical calibrations were soon corroborated by high precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating (e.g., Baksi and others, 1992; McDougall and others, 1992; Tauxe and others, 1992; Walter and others, 1991; Renne and others, 1993). At the same time, a new and improved definition of the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic polarity sequence was achieved based on a comprehensive evaluation of global sea-floor magnetic anomaly profiles (Cande and Kent, 1992). This, in turn, led to a revised Cenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS) based on standardization to a model of South Atlantic spreading history (Cande and Kent, 1992/1995 = CK92/95). This paper presents a revised (integrated magnetobiochronologic) Cenozoic time scale (IMBTS) based on an assessment and integration of data from several sources. Biostratigraphic events are correlated to the recently revised global polarity time scale (CK95). The construction of the new GPTS is outlined with emphasis on methodology and newly developed polarity history nomenclature. The radioisotopic calibration points (as well as other relevant data) used to constrain the GPTS are reviewed in their (bio)stratigraphic context. An updated magnetobiostratigraphic (re)assessment of about 150 pre-Pliocene planktonic foraminiferal datum events (including recently avail- able high southern (austral) latitude data) and a new/modified zonal biostratigraphy provides an essentially global biostratigraphic correlation framework. This is complemented by a (re)assessment of nearly 100 calcareous nannofossil datum events. Unrecognized unconformities in the stratigraphic record (and to a lesser extent differences in taxonomic concepts), rather than latitudinal diachrony, is shown to account for discrep- ancies in magnetobiostratigraphic correlations in many instances, particularly in the Paleogene Period. Claims of diachrony of low amplitude (<2 my) are poorly substantiated, at least in the Paleocene and Eocene Epochs. Finally, we (re)assess the current status of Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and present estimates of the chronology of lower (stage) and higher (system) level units. Although the numerical values of chronostratigraphic units (and their boundaries) have changed in the decade since the previous version of the Cenozoic time scale, the relative duration of these units has remained essentially the same. This is particularly true of the Paleogene Period, where the Paleocene/Eocene and Eocene/Oligocene boundaries have been shifted ~2 my younger and the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary ~1 my younger. Changes in the Neogene time scale are relatively minor and reflect primarily improved magnetobiostratigraphic calibrations, better understanding of chronostratigraphic and magnetobiostratigraphic relationships, and the introduction of a congruent astronom- ical/paleomagnetic chronology for the past 6 my (and concomitant adjustments to magnetochron age estimates).

@incollection{doi102110pec95040129,
    author = "Berggren, William A. and Kent, Dennis V. and Swisher, Carl C. and Aubry, Marie‐Pierre",
    title = "A Revised Cenozoic Geochronology and Chronostratigraphy",
    year = "1995",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "Since the publication of our previous time scale (Berggren and others, 1985c = BKFV85) a large amount of new magneto- and biostratigraphic data and radioisotopic ages have become available. An evaluation of some of the key magnetobiostratigraphic calibration points used in BKFV85, as suggested by high precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating (e.g., Montanari and others, 1988; Swisher and Prothero, 1990; Prothero and Swisher, 1992; Prothero, 1994), has served as a catalyst for us in developing a revised Cenozoic time scale. For the Neogene Period, astrochron- ologic data (Shackleton and others, 1990; Hilgen, 1991) required re-evaluation of the calibration of the Pliocene and Pleistocene Epochs. The significantly older ages for the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs predicted by astronomical calibrations were soon corroborated by high precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dating (e.g., Baksi and others, 1992; McDougall and others, 1992; Tauxe and others, 1992; Walter and others, 1991; Renne and others, 1993). At the same time, a new and improved definition of the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic polarity sequence was achieved based on a comprehensive evaluation of global sea-floor magnetic anomaly profiles (Cande and Kent, 1992). This, in turn, led to a revised Cenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS) based on standardization to a model of South Atlantic spreading history (Cande and Kent, 1992/1995 = CK92/95). This paper presents a revised (integrated magnetobiochronologic) Cenozoic time scale (IMBTS) based on an assessment and integration of data from several sources. Biostratigraphic events are correlated to the recently revised global polarity time scale (CK95). The construction of the new GPTS is outlined with emphasis on methodology and newly developed polarity history nomenclature. The radioisotopic calibration points (as well as other relevant data) used to constrain the GPTS are reviewed in their (bio)stratigraphic context. An updated magnetobiostratigraphic (re)assessment of about 150 pre-Pliocene planktonic foraminiferal datum events (including recently avail- able high southern (austral) latitude data) and a new/modified zonal biostratigraphy provides an essentially global biostratigraphic correlation framework. This is complemented by a (re)assessment of nearly 100 calcareous nannofossil datum events. Unrecognized unconformities in the stratigraphic record (and to a lesser extent differences in taxonomic concepts), rather than latitudinal diachrony, is shown to account for discrep- ancies in magnetobiostratigraphic correlations in many instances, particularly in the Paleogene Period. Claims of diachrony of low amplitude (<2 my) are poorly substantiated, at least in the Paleocene and Eocene Epochs. Finally, we (re)assess the current status of Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and present estimates of the chronology of lower (stage) and higher (system) level units. Although the numerical values of chronostratigraphic units (and their boundaries) have changed in the decade since the previous version of the Cenozoic time scale, the relative duration of these units has remained essentially the same. This is particularly true of the Paleogene Period, where the Paleocene/Eocene and Eocene/Oligocene boundaries have been shifted \textasciitilde 2 my younger and the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary \textasciitilde 1 my younger. Changes in the Neogene time scale are relatively minor and reflect primarily improved magnetobiostratigraphic calibrations, better understanding of chronostratigraphic and magnetobiostratigraphic relationships, and the introduction of a congruent astronom- ical/paleomagnetic chronology for the past 6 my (and concomitant adjustments to magnetochron age estimates).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.95.04.0129",
    doi = "10.2110/pec.95.04.0129",
    openalex = "W2130950244",
    references = "doi102110pec9504"
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Sediments recovered during Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 138 in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean were analyzed for variations in eolian accumulation rate and mean grain-size. Latitudinal and temporal patterns of these parameters showed important changes in the intensity of atmospheric circulation and eolian flux associated with the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and suggested that eolian input parameters could be used to define its paleoposition through time. Modern atmospheric circulation in the equatorial region is weakest in the intertropical convergence zone and increases as the trade winds are approached to the north and south. Thus, the expected spatial pattern of eolian grain size would have the finest material deposited beneath the ITCZ and a coarsening of material in both directions away from this zone. Sediments from ODP Leg 138 show this pattern for much of the Pleistocene and Pliocene but, prior to about 4 Ma, begin to lose the northern coarse component suggesting that the ITCZ was located north of its present position during the late Miocene. Eolian flux records also show a latitudinal pattern of deposition associated with the position of the ITCZ that, similar to eolian grain-size variability, suggests a more northerly position of the ITCZ during the late Miocene. Overall, the regional input of eolian material to the equatorial Pacific has decreased throughout the late Neogene. This reduction in eolian input reflects climatic changes to relatively wetter conditions in the continental eolian source regions beginning during the late Pliocene.

@incollection{doi102973odpprocsr1381321995,
    author = "Hovan, Steven A.",
    title = "Late Cenozoic Atmospheric Circulation Intensity and Climatic History Recorded by Eolian Deposition in the Eastern Equatorial Pacific Ocean, Leg 138",
    year = "1995",
    abstract = "Sediments recovered during Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 138 in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean were analyzed for variations in eolian accumulation rate and mean grain-size. Latitudinal and temporal patterns of these parameters showed important changes in the intensity of atmospheric circulation and eolian flux associated with the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and suggested that eolian input parameters could be used to define its paleoposition through time. Modern atmospheric circulation in the equatorial region is weakest in the intertropical convergence zone and increases as the trade winds are approached to the north and south. Thus, the expected spatial pattern of eolian grain size would have the finest material deposited beneath the ITCZ and a coarsening of material in both directions away from this zone. Sediments from ODP Leg 138 show this pattern for much of the Pleistocene and Pliocene but, prior to about 4 Ma, begin to lose the northern coarse component suggesting that the ITCZ was located north of its present position during the late Miocene. Eolian flux records also show a latitudinal pattern of deposition associated with the position of the ITCZ that, similar to eolian grain-size variability, suggests a more northerly position of the ITCZ during the late Miocene. Overall, the regional input of eolian material to the equatorial Pacific has decreased throughout the late Neogene. This reduction in eolian input reflects climatic changes to relatively wetter conditions in the continental eolian source regions beginning during the late Pliocene.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2973/odp.proc.sr.138.132.1995",
    doi = "10.2973/odp.proc.sr.138.132.1995",
    openalex = "W2184437053",
    references = "doi1010160012821x81901977, doi1010160012821x9390012x, doi1010160025322780901073, doi101016c20130050074, doi101029jc079i027p04068, doi101029pa005i002p00109, doi101038320735a0, doi101130spe186p87, doi1011751520048519840140242mwacsd20co2"
}

@article{doi101007bf00142586,
    author = "Mann, Michael and Lees, Jonathan M.",
    title = "Robust estimation of background noise and signal detection in climatic time series",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Climatic Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00142586",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00142586",
    openalex = "W1983657072",
    references = "doi101017s0263593300020824"
}

@misc{bowman1998cenozoic,
    author = "Bowman, M. B. J.",
    title = "Cenozoic",
    year = "1998",
    booktitle = "Petroleum Geology of the North Sea",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444313413.ch10",
    doi = "10.1002/9781444313413.ch10",
    pages = "350-375"
}

@article{doi101016s003101829800056x,
    author = "Dingle, R.V. and Lavelle, Mark",
    title = "Late Cretaceous–Cenozoic climatic variations of the northern Antarctic Peninsula: new geochemical evidence and review",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(98)00056-x",
    doi = "10.1016/s0031-0182(98)00056-x",
    openalex = "W2166938522",
    references = "doi101007bf00375292, doi1010160016703784904083, doi10102994jb03098, doi101029ar048, doi101038299715a0, doi101086629071, doi101086648216, doi1011300016760619951071164mlccot23co2, doi1015159781400862924, openalexw2989049194"
}

The concept of ‘Gondwana’, an ancient Southern Hemisphere supercontinent, is firmly established in geological and biogeographical models of Earth history. The term Gondwana (Gondwanaland of some authors) derives from the recognition by workers at the Indian Geological Survey in the mid- to late 19th century of a distinctive sedimentary sequence preserved in east central India. This succession, now known to range in age from Permian to Cretaceous, is lithologically and palaeontologically similar to coeval non-marine sedimentary successions developed in most of the Southern Hemisphere continents suggesting former continuity of these landmasses. Palaeomagnetic data and tectonic reconstructions suggest that the main assembly of Gondwana took place around the beginning of the Palaeozoic in near-equatorial latitudes and that the supercontinent as a whole shifted into high southern latitudes, allowing widespread glaciation by the end of the Carboniferous. From Carboniferous to Cretaceous times the southern continents had broadly similar floras but some species-level provincialism is apparent at all times. The break-up of Gondwana initiated during the Jurassic (at about 180 million years ago) and this process is continuing. The earliest rifting (crustal attenuation) within the supercontinent initiated in the west (between South America and Africa) and in general terms the rifting pattern propagated eastward with major phases of continental fragmentation in the Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. Gondwanan floras show radical turnovers near the end of the Carboniferous, end of the Permian and the end of the Triassic that appear to be unrelated to isolation or fragmentation of the supercontinent. Throughout the late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic the high-latitude southern floras maintained a distinctly different composition to the palaeoequatorial and boreal regions even though they remained in physical connection with Laurasia for much of this time. Gondwanan floras of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (times immediately preceding and during break-up) were dominated by araucarian and podocarp conifers and a range of enigmatic seed-fern groups. Angiosperms became established in the region as early as the Aptian (before the final break-up events) and steadily diversified during the Cretaceous, apparently at the expense of many seed-fern groups. Hypotheses invoking vicariance or long distance dispersal to account for the biogeographic patterns evident in the floras of Southern Hemisphere continents all rely on a firm understanding of the timing and sequence of Gondwanan continental breakup. This paper aims to summarise the current understanding of the geochronological framework of Gondwanan breakup against which these biogeographic models may be tested. Most phytogeographic studies deal with the extant, angiosperm-dominated floras of these landmasses. This paper also presents an overview of pre-Cenozoic, gymnosperm-dominated, floristic provincialism in Gondwana. It documents the broad succession of pre-angiosperm floras, highlights the distinctive elements of the Early Cretaceous Gondwanan floras immediately preceding the appearance of angiosperms and suggests that latitudinal controls strongly influenced the composition of Gondwanan floras through time even in the absence of marine barriers between Gondwana and the northern continents.

@article{doi101071bt00023,
    author = "McLoughlin, Stephen",
    title = "The breakup history of Gondwana and its impact on pre-Cenozoic floristic provincialism",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Botany",
    abstract = "The concept of ‘Gondwana’, an ancient Southern Hemisphere supercontinent, is firmly established in geological and biogeographical models of Earth history. The term Gondwana (Gondwanaland of some authors) derives from the recognition by workers at the Indian Geological Survey in the mid- to late 19th century of a distinctive sedimentary sequence preserved in east central India. This succession, now known to range in age from Permian to Cretaceous, is lithologically and palaeontologically similar to coeval non-marine sedimentary successions developed in most of the Southern Hemisphere continents suggesting former continuity of these landmasses. Palaeomagnetic data and tectonic reconstructions suggest that the main assembly of Gondwana took place around the beginning of the Palaeozoic in near-equatorial latitudes and that the supercontinent as a whole shifted into high southern latitudes, allowing widespread glaciation by the end of the Carboniferous. From Carboniferous to Cretaceous times the southern continents had broadly similar floras but some species-level provincialism is apparent at all times. The break-up of Gondwana initiated during the Jurassic (at about 180 million years ago) and this process is continuing. The earliest rifting (crustal attenuation) within the supercontinent initiated in the west (between South America and Africa) and in general terms the rifting pattern propagated eastward with major phases of continental fragmentation in the Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. Gondwanan floras show radical turnovers near the end of the Carboniferous, end of the Permian and the end of the Triassic that appear to be unrelated to isolation or fragmentation of the supercontinent. Throughout the late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic the high-latitude southern floras maintained a distinctly different composition to the palaeoequatorial and boreal regions even though they remained in physical connection with Laurasia for much of this time. Gondwanan floras of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (times immediately preceding and during break-up) were dominated by araucarian and podocarp conifers and a range of enigmatic seed-fern groups. Angiosperms became established in the region as early as the Aptian (before the final break-up events) and steadily diversified during the Cretaceous, apparently at the expense of many seed-fern groups. Hypotheses invoking vicariance or long distance dispersal to account for the biogeographic patterns evident in the floras of Southern Hemisphere continents all rely on a firm understanding of the timing and sequence of Gondwanan continental breakup. This paper aims to summarise the current understanding of the geochronological framework of Gondwanan breakup against which these biogeographic models may be tested. Most phytogeographic studies deal with the extant, angiosperm-dominated floras of these landmasses. This paper also presents an overview of pre-Cenozoic, gymnosperm-dominated, floristic provincialism in Gondwana. It documents the broad succession of pre-angiosperm floras, highlights the distinctive elements of the Early Cretaceous Gondwanan floras immediately preceding the appearance of angiosperms and suggests that latitudinal controls strongly influenced the composition of Gondwanan floras through time even in the absence of marine barriers between Gondwana and the northern continents.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/bt00023",
    doi = "10.1071/bt00023",
    openalex = "W1860957168",
    references = "crossref1974the, doi101007bf02860537, doi1010160012821x89900186, doi1010160031018284900373, doi1010160034666776900531, doi1010160034666782900410, doi101017s0016756800008268, doi10102993pa03266, doi101029gm032, doi101038230042a0, doi101038333547a0, doi10108003115517708527763, doi101080037362451938105591187, doi101111j150239311987tb02026x, doi10113000167606198798475lpgeig20co2, doi1011300091761319950230407scirpo23co2, doi101130spe195p1, doi101144gslmem19900120101, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi105962bhltitle118957, openalexw1549706842, openalexw2135985426"
}

Mountains, ocean currents, forests, and swamps have played an important role in regulating global climate for hundreds of millions of years, but the truly novel event of the Cenozoic was the evolution and expansion of grasslands, with their uniquely coevolved grasses and grazers. Neogene expansion of the climatic and geographic range of grasslands at the expense of woodlands is now revealed by recent studies of paleosols, fossils, and their stable isotopic compositions. Grasslands and their soils can be considered sinks for atmospheric CO2, CH4, and water vapor, and their Cenozoic evolution a contribution to long‐term global climatic cooling. Grassland soils are richer in organic matter than are woodland and desert soils of comparable climates, and when eroded, their crumb clods form sediment unusually rich in organic matter. Grasslands also promote export of bicarbonate and nutrient cations to lakes and to the oceans where they stimulate productivity and C burial; this increased productivity and C burial occur because grasslands preferentially exploit fertile young soils in the first flush of weathering and their soils have a crumb structure with much higher internal surface area for weathering than soils of woodlands and deserts. Grasslands also promote regional climatic drying by virtue of their higher albedo and lower transpiration than woodlands of comparable climatic regions. Labile pools of C in grassland soils and their accelerated weathering rates early in soil development may also account for increased climatic instability over the past 40 m.yr. Unidirectional, stepwise, long‐term climatic cooling, drying, and climatic instability may have been driven not by tectonic forcing but by the coevolution of grasses and grazers.

@article{doi101086320791,
    author = "Retallack, Gregory J.",
    title = "Cenozoic Expansion of Grasslands and Climatic Cooling",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "Mountains, ocean currents, forests, and swamps have played an important role in regulating global climate for hundreds of millions of years, but the truly novel event of the Cenozoic was the evolution and expansion of grasslands, with their uniquely coevolved grasses and grazers. Neogene expansion of the climatic and geographic range of grasslands at the expense of woodlands is now revealed by recent studies of paleosols, fossils, and their stable isotopic compositions. Grasslands and their soils can be considered sinks for atmospheric CO2, CH4, and water vapor, and their Cenozoic evolution a contribution to long‐term global climatic cooling. Grassland soils are richer in organic matter than are woodland and desert soils of comparable climates, and when eroded, their crumb clods form sediment unusually rich in organic matter. Grasslands also promote export of bicarbonate and nutrient cations to lakes and to the oceans where they stimulate productivity and C burial; this increased productivity and C burial occur because grasslands preferentially exploit fertile young soils in the first flush of weathering and their soils have a crumb structure with much higher internal surface area for weathering than soils of woodlands and deserts. Grasslands also promote regional climatic drying by virtue of their higher albedo and lower transpiration than woodlands of comparable climatic regions. Labile pools of C in grassland soils and their accelerated weathering rates early in soil development may also account for increased climatic instability over the past 40 m.yr. Unidirectional, stepwise, long‐term climatic cooling, drying, and climatic instability may have been driven not by tectonic forcing but by the coevolution of grasses and grazers.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/320791",
    doi = "10.1086/320791",
    openalex = "W2027192750",
    references = "doi1010160034666793900608"
}

@article{doi101007s0053100202631,
    author = "Hay, William W. and Soeding, Emanuel and DeConto, Robert M. and Wold, Christopher N.",
    title = "The Late Cenozoic uplift - climate change paradox",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "International Journal of Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-002-0263-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s00531-002-0263-1",
    openalex = "W2065259958",
    references = "doi101038300321a0"
}

Abstract Deciphering the evolution of mountain belts requires information on the temporal history of both topographic growth and erosion. The exhumation rate of a mountain range undergoing shortening is related to the erodability of the uplifting range as well as the efficiency of erosion, which partly depends on the available precipitation. Young, rapidly deposited sediments have low thermal conductivity and are readily eroded, in contrast to underlying resistant basement rocks that have a higher thermal conductivity. Apatite fission‐track thermochronology can quantify cooling; thermal models constrain the relationship between this cooling and exhumation. By utilizing geological relations for a datum, we can examine the evolution of rock uplift, surface uplift and exhumation. In the northern Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina, a young sedimentary basin that overlay resistant crystalline basement prior to rapid exhumation provides an ideal setting to examine the effect of contrasting thermal and erosional regimes. There, tectonically active reverse‐fault‐bounded blocks partly preserve a basement peneplain at elevations in excess of 4500 m. Prior to exhumation, the two study areas were covered by 1000 and 1600 m of recently deposited sediments; this sequence begins with shallow marine deposits immediately overlying the regional erosion surface. Apatite fission‐track data were obtained from vertical transects in the Calchaquíes and Aconquija ranges. At Cumbres Calchaquíes, erosion leading to the development of the peneplain commenced in the Cretaceous, probably as a result of rift‐shoulder uplift. In contrast, Sierra Aconquija cooled rapidly between 5.5 and 4.5 Myr. At the onset of this rapid exhumation, the sediment was quickly removed, causing fast cooling, but relatively slow rates of surface uplift. Syntectonic conglomerates were produced when faulting exposed resistant bedrock; this change in rock erodability led to enhanced surface uplift rates, but decreased exhumation rates. The creation of an orographic barrier after the range had attained sufficient elevation further decreased exhumation rates and increased surface uplift rates. Differences in the magnitude of exhumation at the two transects are related to both differences in the thickness of the sedimentary basin prior to exhumation and differences in the effective precipitation due to an orographic barrier in the foreland and hence differences in the magnitude of headward erosion.

@article{doi101046j13652117200300214x,
    author = "Sobel, Edward R. and Strecker, Manfred R.",
    title = "Uplift, exhumation and precipitation: tectonic and climatic control of Late Cenozoic landscape evolution in the northern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Deciphering the evolution of mountain belts requires information on the temporal history of both topographic growth and erosion. The exhumation rate of a mountain range undergoing shortening is related to the erodability of the uplifting range as well as the efficiency of erosion, which partly depends on the available precipitation. Young, rapidly deposited sediments have low thermal conductivity and are readily eroded, in contrast to underlying resistant basement rocks that have a higher thermal conductivity. Apatite fission‐track thermochronology can quantify cooling; thermal models constrain the relationship between this cooling and exhumation. By utilizing geological relations for a datum, we can examine the evolution of rock uplift, surface uplift and exhumation. In the northern Sierras Pampeanas of Argentina, a young sedimentary basin that overlay resistant crystalline basement prior to rapid exhumation provides an ideal setting to examine the effect of contrasting thermal and erosional regimes. There, tectonically active reverse‐fault‐bounded blocks partly preserve a basement peneplain at elevations in excess of 4500 m. Prior to exhumation, the two study areas were covered by 1000 and 1600 m of recently deposited sediments; this sequence begins with shallow marine deposits immediately overlying the regional erosion surface. Apatite fission‐track data were obtained from vertical transects in the Calchaquíes and Aconquija ranges. At Cumbres Calchaquíes, erosion leading to the development of the peneplain commenced in the Cretaceous, probably as a result of rift‐shoulder uplift. In contrast, Sierra Aconquija cooled rapidly between 5.5 and 4.5 Myr. At the onset of this rapid exhumation, the sediment was quickly removed, causing fast cooling, but relatively slow rates of surface uplift. Syntectonic conglomerates were produced when faulting exposed resistant bedrock; this change in rock erodability led to enhanced surface uplift rates, but decreased exhumation rates. The creation of an orographic barrier after the range had attained sufficient elevation further decreased exhumation rates and increased surface uplift rates. Differences in the magnitude of exhumation at the two transects are related to both differences in the thickness of the sedimentary basin prior to exhumation and differences in the effective precipitation due to an orographic barrier in the foreland and hence differences in the magnitude of headward erosion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00214.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00214.x",
    openalex = "W2034919473",
    references = "doi101007bf01034498, doi1010160168962289900183, doi1010160895981189900308, doi101016s0009254183800266, doi1010291999jb900120, doi1010291999jb900248, doi10103835073504, doi101126science23547931156, doi1011300091761319900181173suuora23co2, doi102138am19990901, doi102138am19990903"
}

Because of a dearth of Cenozoic grass fossils, the timing of the taxonomic diversification of modern subclades within the grass family (Poaceae) and the rise to ecological dominance of open-habitat grasses remain obscure. Here, I present data from 99 Eocene to Miocene phytolith assemblages from the North American continental interior (Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana/Idaho), constituting the only high-resolution mid-Cenozoic record of grasses. Analyses of these assemblages show that open-habitat grasses had undergone considerable taxonomic diversification by the earliest Oligocene (34 million years ago) but that they did not become ecologically dominant in North America until 7-11 million years later (Late Oligocene or Early Miocene). This pattern of decoupling suggests that environmental changes (e.g., climate changes), rather than taxonomic radiations within Poaceae, provided the key opportunity for open-habitat grasses to expand in North America.

@article{doi101073pnas0505700102,
    author = "Strömberg, Caroline A. E.",
    title = "Decoupled taxonomic radiation and ecological expansion of open-habitat grasses in the Cenozoic of North America",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Because of a dearth of Cenozoic grass fossils, the timing of the taxonomic diversification of modern subclades within the grass family (Poaceae) and the rise to ecological dominance of open-habitat grasses remain obscure. Here, I present data from 99 Eocene to Miocene phytolith assemblages from the North American continental interior (Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana/Idaho), constituting the only high-resolution mid-Cenozoic record of grasses. Analyses of these assemblages show that open-habitat grasses had undergone considerable taxonomic diversification by the earliest Oligocene (34 million years ago) but that they did not become ecologically dominant in North America until 7-11 million years later (Late Oligocene or Early Miocene). This pattern of decoupling suggests that environmental changes (e.g., climate changes), rather than taxonomic radiations within Poaceae, provided the key opportunity for open-habitat grasses to expand in North America.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0505700102",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0505700102",
    openalex = "W2117814497",
    references = "doi1010160034666793900608, doi101038363342a0"
}

The history of the Arctic Ocean during the Cenozoic era (0-65 million years ago) is largely unknown from direct evidence. Here we present a Cenozoic palaeoceanographic record constructed from >400 m of sediment core from a recent drilling expedition to the Lomonosov ridge in the Arctic Ocean. Our record shows a palaeoenvironmental transition from a warm 'greenhouse' world, during the late Palaeocene and early Eocene epochs, to a colder 'icehouse' world influenced by sea ice and icebergs from the middle Eocene epoch to the present. For the most recent approximately 14 Myr, we find sedimentation rates of 1-2 cm per thousand years, in stark contrast to the substantially lower rates proposed in earlier studies; this record of the Neogene reveals cooling of the Arctic that was synchronous with the expansion of Greenland ice (approximately 3.2 Myr ago) and East Antarctic ice (approximately 14 Myr ago). We find evidence for the first occurrence of ice-rafted debris in the middle Eocene epoch (approximately 45 Myr ago), some 35 Myr earlier than previously thought; fresh surface waters were present at approximately 49 Myr ago, before the onset of ice-rafted debris. Also, the temperatures of surface waters during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum (approximately 55 Myr ago) appear to have been substantially warmer than previously estimated. The revised timing of the earliest Arctic cooling events coincides with those from Antarctica, supporting arguments for bipolar symmetry in climate change.

@article{doi101038nature04800,
    author = "Moran, Kathryn and Backman, Jan and Brinkhuis, Henk and Clemens, Steven C and Cronin, Thomas and Dickens, Gerald R and Eynaud, Frédérique and Gattacceca, Jérôme and Jakobsson, Martin and Jordan, Richard W and Kaminski, Michael and King, John and Koc, Nalan and Krylov, Alexey and Martinez, Nahysa and Matthiessen, Jens and McInroy, David and Moore, Theodore C and Onodera, Jonaotaro and O'Regan, Matthew and Pälike, Heiko and Rea, Brice and Rio, Domenico and Sakamoto, Tatsuhiko and Smith, David C and Stein, Ruediger and St John, Kristen and Suto, Itsuki and Suzuki, Noritoshi and Takahashi, Kozo and Watanabe, Mahito and Yamamoto, Masanobu and Farrell, John and Frank, Martin and Kubik, Peter and Jokat, Wilfried and Kristoffersen, Yngve",
    title = "The Cenozoic palaeoenvironment of the Arctic Ocean.",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = "The history of the Arctic Ocean during the Cenozoic era (0-65 million years ago) is largely unknown from direct evidence. Here we present a Cenozoic palaeoceanographic record constructed from >400 m of sediment core from a recent drilling expedition to the Lomonosov ridge in the Arctic Ocean. Our record shows a palaeoenvironmental transition from a warm 'greenhouse' world, during the late Palaeocene and early Eocene epochs, to a colder 'icehouse' world influenced by sea ice and icebergs from the middle Eocene epoch to the present. For the most recent approximately 14 Myr, we find sedimentation rates of 1-2 cm per thousand years, in stark contrast to the substantially lower rates proposed in earlier studies; this record of the Neogene reveals cooling of the Arctic that was synchronous with the expansion of Greenland ice (approximately 3.2 Myr ago) and East Antarctic ice (approximately 14 Myr ago). We find evidence for the first occurrence of ice-rafted debris in the middle Eocene epoch (approximately 45 Myr ago), some 35 Myr earlier than previously thought; fresh surface waters were present at approximately 49 Myr ago, before the onset of ice-rafted debris. Also, the temperatures of surface waters during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum (approximately 55 Myr ago) appear to have been substantially warmer than previously estimated. The revised timing of the earliest Arctic cooling events coincides with those from Antarctica, supporting arguments for bipolar symmetry in climate change.",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16738653/",
    doi = "10.1038/nature04800",
    openalex = "W2123445693",
    pmid = "16738653",
    references = "doi101016003101829290096n, doi101016jquascirev200312005, doi101029jb084ib03p01071, doi101038307620a0, doi101038nature03135, doi101038nature03874, doi101038nature04668, doi101038nature05043, doi101126science27853431582, doi101126science2875451269, doi1011300813723604333, doi102110pec9504, doi102110pec9554, doi10230720033020, openalexw378346767"
}

@article{doi101016jtecto200811017,
    author = "Gibbard, Philip L. and Lewin, John",
    title = "River incision and terrace formation in the Late Cenozoic of Europe",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2008.11.017",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tecto.2008.11.017",
    openalex = "W1969367528",
    references = "doi101144gslsp20052470102, doi1018814epiiugs2008v31i2004"
}

Cenozoic biostratigraphic, cosmogenic isotope, magnetostratigraphic, and cyclostratigraphic data derived from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 302, the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX), are merged into a coherent age model. This age model has low resolution because of poor core recovery, limited availability of biostratigraphic information, and the complex nature of the magnetostratigraphic record. One 2.2 Ma long hiatus occurs in the late Miocene; another spans 26 Ma (18.2–44.4 Ma). The average sedimentation rate in the recovered Cenozoic sediments is about 15 m/Ma. Core‐seismic correlation links the ACEX sediments to the reflection seismic stratigraphy of line AWI‐91090, on which the ACEX sites were drilled. This seismostratigraphy can be correlated over wide geographic areas in the central Arctic Ocean, implying that the ACEX age model can be extended well beyond the drill sites.

@article{doi1010292007pa001476,
    author = "Backman, Jan and Jakobsson, Martin and Frank, Martin and Sangiorgi, Francesca and Brinkhuis, Henk and Stickley, Catherine and O’Regan, Matt and Løvlie, Reidar and Pälike, Heiko and Spofforth, David and Gattacecca, Jérôme and Moran, Kate and King, John W. and Heil, Chip",
    title = "Age model and core‐seismic integration for the Cenozoic Arctic Coring Expedition sediments from the Lomonosov Ridge",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "Cenozoic biostratigraphic, cosmogenic isotope, magnetostratigraphic, and cyclostratigraphic data derived from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 302, the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX), are merged into a coherent age model. This age model has low resolution because of poor core recovery, limited availability of biostratigraphic information, and the complex nature of the magnetostratigraphic record. One 2.2 Ma long hiatus occurs in the late Miocene; another spans 26 Ma (18.2–44.4 Ma). The average sedimentation rate in the recovered Cenozoic sediments is about 15 m/Ma. Core‐seismic correlation links the ACEX sediments to the reflection seismic stratigraphy of line AWI‐91090, on which the ACEX sites were drilled. This seismostratigraphy can be correlated over wide geographic areas in the central Arctic Ocean, implying that the ACEX age model can be extended well beyond the drill sites.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2007pa001476",
    doi = "10.1029/2007pa001476",
    openalex = "W2132360578",
    references = "doi101007978364287411613, doi101016b9780444594259000299, doi101016jquascirev200312005, doi101016s0012821x68800184, doi1010292006gl026776, doi10102994jb03098, doi101038nature04668, doi101038nature04692, doi101038nature04800, doi101038nature05043, doi1010510004636120041335, doi101126science1133822, doi1011751520046919940510210solfoa20co2, doi1011751520047719980790061apgtwa20co2"
}

The Cenozoic ice‐rafted debris (IRD) history of the central Arctic is reconstructed utilizing the terrigenous coarse sand fraction in IODP 302 cores from 0 to 273 meters composite depth. This Holocene−middle Eocene quantitative record of terrigenous sand accumulation on the Lomonosov Ridge, along with qualitative information on grain texture and composition, confirms the interpretation that ice initiation (sea ice and glacial ice) occurred ∼46 Ma in the Arctic, and provides a long‐term pattern of Arctic ice expansion and decay since the middle Eocene. IRD mass accumulation rates range from 0 to 0.13 g/cm 2 /ka in the middle Eocene and from 0 to 0.36 g/cm 2 /ka in the Neogene. IRD mass accumulation rate (MAR) maxima in the Miocene and Pliocene cooccur with either glacial initiation or intensification in the sub‐Arctic. The 46.25 Ma IRD onset in the central Arctic slightly precedes the earliest evidence of ice in the Antarctic, and compares in timing with a >1000 ppm decrease in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2. The decline of pCO 2 in the middle Eocene may have driven both poles across the temperature threshold that enabled the nucleation of glaciers on land and partial freezing of the surface Arctic Ocean, especially during times of low insolation.

@article{doi1010292007pa001483,
    author = "John, Kristen St.",
    title = "Cenozoic ice‐rafting history of the central Arctic Ocean: Terrigenous sands on the Lomonosov Ridge",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "The Cenozoic ice‐rafted debris (IRD) history of the central Arctic is reconstructed utilizing the terrigenous coarse sand fraction in IODP 302 cores from 0 to 273 meters composite depth. This Holocene−middle Eocene quantitative record of terrigenous sand accumulation on the Lomonosov Ridge, along with qualitative information on grain texture and composition, confirms the interpretation that ice initiation (sea ice and glacial ice) occurred ∼46 Ma in the Arctic, and provides a long‐term pattern of Arctic ice expansion and decay since the middle Eocene. IRD mass accumulation rates range from 0 to 0.13 g/cm 2 /ka in the middle Eocene and from 0 to 0.36 g/cm 2 /ka in the Neogene. IRD mass accumulation rate (MAR) maxima in the Miocene and Pliocene cooccur with either glacial initiation or intensification in the sub‐Arctic. The 46.25 Ma IRD onset in the central Arctic slightly precedes the earliest evidence of ice in the Antarctic, and compares in timing with a >1000 ppm decrease in atmospheric concentrations of CO 2. The decline of pCO 2 in the middle Eocene may have driven both poles across the temperature threshold that enabled the nucleation of glaciers on land and partial freezing of the surface Arctic Ocean, especially during times of low insolation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2007pa001483",
    doi = "10.1029/2007pa001483",
    openalex = "W1553859745",
    references = "doi1010292007pa001476"
}

New apatite fission-track data, paleoelevation estimates from paleobotany, and recently acquired geological data from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia document the onset of increased exhumation rates in the northeastern Andes at ca. 3 Ma. The Eastern Cordillera forms an efficient orographic barrier that intercepts moisture-laden winds sourced in the Amazon lowlands, leading to high rainfall and erosion gradients across the eastern flank of the range. In contrast, the drier leeward western flank is characterized by lower rates of deformation and exhumation. In light of the geological evolution of the Eastern Cordillera, the combination of these data sets suggests that the orographic barrier reached a critical elevation between ca. 6 and ca. 3 Ma, which ultimately led to protracted, yet more focused erosion along the eastern flank. Sequentially restored structural cross sections across the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera indicate that shortening rates also have increased during the past 3 Ma. From fission-track and structural cross-section balancing, we infer that accelerated exhumation led to increasing tectonic rates on the eastern flank, creating a pronounced topographic and structural asymmetry in the Eastern Cordillera. The tectonic and climatic evolution of this orogen thus makes it a prime example of the importance of climatic forcing on tectonic processes.

@article{doi101130b261861,
    author = "Mora, Andrés and Parra, Maurício and Strecker, Manfred R. and Sobel, Edward R. and Hooghiemstra, H. and Torres, Vladimir and Jaramillo, J. V.",
    title = "Climatic forcing of asymmetric orogenic evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "New apatite fission-track data, paleoelevation estimates from paleobotany, and recently acquired geological data from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia document the onset of increased exhumation rates in the northeastern Andes at ca. 3 Ma. The Eastern Cordillera forms an efficient orographic barrier that intercepts moisture-laden winds sourced in the Amazon lowlands, leading to high rainfall and erosion gradients across the eastern flank of the range. In contrast, the drier leeward western flank is characterized by lower rates of deformation and exhumation. In light of the geological evolution of the Eastern Cordillera, the combination of these data sets suggests that the orographic barrier reached a critical elevation between ca. 6 and ca. 3 Ma, which ultimately led to protracted, yet more focused erosion along the eastern flank. Sequentially restored structural cross sections across the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera indicate that shortening rates also have increased during the past 3 Ma. From fission-track and structural cross-section balancing, we infer that accelerated exhumation led to increasing tectonic rates on the eastern flank, creating a pronounced topographic and structural asymmetry in the Eastern Cordillera. The tectonic and climatic evolution of this orogen thus makes it a prime example of the importance of climatic forcing on tectonic processes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b26186.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b26186.1",
    openalex = "W2053359852",
    references = "doi101046j13652117200300214x"
}

@article{doi101016jgloplacha200902009,
    author = "Westaway, Rob and Bridgland, David R. and Sinha, Rajiv and Demi̇r, Tuncer",
    title = "Fluvial sequences as evidence for landscape and climatic evolution in the Late Cenozoic: A synthesis of data from IGCP 518",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Global and Planetary Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.02.009",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.02.009",
    openalex = "W2062797763",
    references = "doi1010291999jb900120, doi1010292002tc001402, doi10102993rg02030, doi10102995rg00262, doi101038nature02599, doi101126science2765313788, doi1011300091761319900181173suuora23co2, doi10113000917613200028703tobtem20co2, doi1023072423416, doi105860choice300305"
}

Abstract. Here we present a high-resolution cyclostratigraphy based on X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning data from a new record retrieved from the tropical western Atlantic (Demerara Rise, ODP Leg 207, Site 1258). The Eocene sediments from ODP Site 1258 cover magnetochrons C20 to C24 and show well developed cycles. This record includes the missing interval for reevaluating the early Eocene part of the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale (GPTS), also providing key aspects for reconstructing high-resolution climate variability during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). Detailed spectral analysis demonstrates that early Eocene sedimentary cycles are characterized by precession frequencies modulated by short (100 kyr) and long (405 kyr) eccentricity with a generally minor obliquity component. Counting of both the precession and eccentricity cycles results in revised estimates for the duration of magnetochrons C21r through C24n. Our cyclostratigraphic framework also corroborates that the geochronology of the Eocene Green River Formation (Wyoming, USA) is still questionable mainly due to the uncertain correlation of the "Sixth tuff" to the GPTS. Right at the onset of the long-term Cenozoic cooling trend the dominant eccentricity-modulated precession cycles of ODP Site 1258 are interrupted by strong obliquity cycles for a period of ~800 kyr in the middle of magnetochron C22r. These distinct obliquity cycles at this low latitude site point to (1) a high-latitude driving mechanism on global climate variability from 50.1 to 49.4 Ma, and (2) seem to coincide with a significant drop in atmospheric CO2 concentration below a critical threshold between 2- and 3-times the pre-industrial level (PAL). The here newly identified orbital configuration of low eccentricity in combination with high obliquity amplitudes during this ~800-kyr period and the crossing of a critical pCO2 threshold may have led to the formation of the first ephemeral ice sheet on Antarctica as early as ~50 Ma ago.

@article{doi105194cp53092009,
    author = "Westerhold, Thomas and Röhl, Ursula",
    title = "High resolution cyclostratigraphy of the early Eocene – new insights into the origin of the Cenozoic cooling trend",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Climate of the past",
    abstract = {Abstract. Here we present a high-resolution cyclostratigraphy based on X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning data from a new record retrieved from the tropical western Atlantic (Demerara Rise, ODP Leg 207, Site 1258). The Eocene sediments from ODP Site 1258 cover magnetochrons C20 to C24 and show well developed cycles. This record includes the missing interval for reevaluating the early Eocene part of the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale (GPTS), also providing key aspects for reconstructing high-resolution climate variability during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). Detailed spectral analysis demonstrates that early Eocene sedimentary cycles are characterized by precession frequencies modulated by short (100 kyr) and long (405 kyr) eccentricity with a generally minor obliquity component. Counting of both the precession and eccentricity cycles results in revised estimates for the duration of magnetochrons C21r through C24n. Our cyclostratigraphic framework also corroborates that the geochronology of the Eocene Green River Formation (Wyoming, USA) is still questionable mainly due to the uncertain correlation of the "Sixth tuff" to the GPTS. Right at the onset of the long-term Cenozoic cooling trend the dominant eccentricity-modulated precession cycles of ODP Site 1258 are interrupted by strong obliquity cycles for a period of \textasciitilde 800 kyr in the middle of magnetochron C22r. These distinct obliquity cycles at this low latitude site point to (1) a high-latitude driving mechanism on global climate variability from 50.1 to 49.4 Ma, and (2) seem to coincide with a significant drop in atmospheric CO2 concentration below a critical threshold between 2- and 3-times the pre-industrial level (PAL). The here newly identified orbital configuration of low eccentricity in combination with high obliquity amplitudes during this \textasciitilde 800-kyr period and the crossing of a critical pCO2 threshold may have led to the formation of the first ephemeral ice sheet on Antarctica as early as \textasciitilde 50 Ma ago.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-5-309-2009",
    doi = "10.5194/cp-5-309-2009",
    openalex = "W2166158246",
    references = "doi1010292006gl026776, doi1010292007pa001476"
}

AIM: Our aims were to assess the phylogeographic patterns of genetic diversity in eastern Mediterranean water frogs and to estimate divergence times using different geological scenarios. We related divergence times to past geological events and discuss the relevance of our data for the systematics of eastern Mediterranean water frogs. LOCATION: The eastern Mediterranean region. METHODS: Genetic diversity and divergence were calculated using sequences of two protein-coding mitochondrial (mt) genes: ND2 (1038 bp, 119 sequences) and ND3 (340 bp, 612 sequences). Divergence times were estimated in a Bayesian framework under four geological scenarios representing alternative possible geological histories for the eastern Mediterranean. We then compared the different scenarios using Bayes factors and additional geological data. RESULTS: Extensive genetic diversity in mtDNA divides eastern Mediterranean water frogs into six main haplogroups (MHG). Three MHGs were identified on the Anatolian mainland; the most widespread MHG with the highest diversity is distributed from western Anatolia to the northern shore of the Caspian Sea, including the type locality of Pelophylax ridibundus. The other two Anatolian MHGs are restricted to south-eastern Turkey, occupying localities west and east of the Amanos mountain range. One of the remaining three MHGs is restricted to Cyprus; a second to the Levant; the third was found in the distribution area of European lake frogs (P. ridibundus group), including the Balkans. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Based on geological evidence and estimates of genetic divergence we hypothesize that the water frogs of Cyprus have been isolated from the Anatolian mainland populations since the end of the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC), i.e. since c. 5.5-5.3 Ma, while our divergence time estimates indicate that the isolation of Crete from the mainland populations (Peloponnese, Anatolia) most likely pre-dates the MSC. The observed rates of divergence imply a time window of c. 1.6-1.1 million years for diversification of the largest Anatolian MHG; divergence between the two other Anatolian MHGs may have begun about 3.0 Ma, apparently as a result of uplift of the Amanos Mountains. Our mtDNA data suggest that the Anatolian water frogs and frogs from Cyprus represent several undescribed species.

@article{doi101111j13652699201002368x,
    author = "Akın, Çiğdem and Bilgin, C. Can and Beerli, Peter and Westaway, Rob and Ohst, Torsten and Litvinchuk, Spartak N. and Uzzell, Thomas and Bilgin, Metin and Hotz, Hansjürg and Guex, Gaston‐Denis and Plötner, Jörg",
    title = "Phylogeographic patterns of genetic diversity in eastern Mediterranean water frogs were determined by geological processes and climate change in the Late Cenozoic",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "AIM: Our aims were to assess the phylogeographic patterns of genetic diversity in eastern Mediterranean water frogs and to estimate divergence times using different geological scenarios. We related divergence times to past geological events and discuss the relevance of our data for the systematics of eastern Mediterranean water frogs. LOCATION: The eastern Mediterranean region. METHODS: Genetic diversity and divergence were calculated using sequences of two protein-coding mitochondrial (mt) genes: ND2 (1038 bp, 119 sequences) and ND3 (340 bp, 612 sequences). Divergence times were estimated in a Bayesian framework under four geological scenarios representing alternative possible geological histories for the eastern Mediterranean. We then compared the different scenarios using Bayes factors and additional geological data. RESULTS: Extensive genetic diversity in mtDNA divides eastern Mediterranean water frogs into six main haplogroups (MHG). Three MHGs were identified on the Anatolian mainland; the most widespread MHG with the highest diversity is distributed from western Anatolia to the northern shore of the Caspian Sea, including the type locality of Pelophylax ridibundus. The other two Anatolian MHGs are restricted to south-eastern Turkey, occupying localities west and east of the Amanos mountain range. One of the remaining three MHGs is restricted to Cyprus; a second to the Levant; the third was found in the distribution area of European lake frogs (P. ridibundus group), including the Balkans. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Based on geological evidence and estimates of genetic divergence we hypothesize that the water frogs of Cyprus have been isolated from the Anatolian mainland populations since the end of the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC), i.e. since c. 5.5-5.3 Ma, while our divergence time estimates indicate that the isolation of Crete from the mainland populations (Peloponnese, Anatolia) most likely pre-dates the MSC. The observed rates of divergence imply a time window of c. 1.6-1.1 million years for diversification of the largest Anatolian MHG; divergence between the two other Anatolian MHGs may have begun about 3.0 Ma, apparently as a result of uplift of the Amanos Mountains. Our mtDNA data suggest that the Anatolian water frogs and frogs from Cyprus represent several undescribed species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02368.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02368.x",
    openalex = "W2107443159",
    references = "doi101016jgloplacha200902009"
}

@article{doi101016jgeomorph201203022,
    author = "Stokes, Martin and Cunha, Pedro P. and Martins, António",
    title = "Techniques for analysing Late Cenozoic river terrace sequences",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Geomorphology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.03.022",
    doi = "10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.03.022",
    openalex = "W2007273878",
    references = "doi101016jgloplacha200902009"
}

Abstract Defining the structural style of fold–thrust belts and understanding the controlling factors are necessary steps towards prediction of their long-term and short-term dynamics, including seismic hazard, and to assess their potential in terms of hydrocarbon exploration. While the thin-skinned structural style has long been a fashionable view for outer parts of orogens worldwide, a wealth of new geological and geophysical studies has pointed out that a description in terms of thick-skinned deformation is, in many cases, more appropriate. This paper aims at providing a review of what we know about basement-involved shortening in foreland fold–thrust belts on the basis of the examination of selected Cenozoic orogens. After describing how structural interpretations of fold–thrust belts have evolved through time, this paper addresses how and the extent to which basement tectonics influence their geometry and their kinematics, and emphasizes the key control exerted by lithosphere rheology, including structural and thermal inheritance, and local/regional boundary conditions on the occurrence of thick-skinned tectonics in the outer parts of orogens.

@article{doi101017s0016756816000078,
    author = "Lacombe, Olivier and Bellahsen, Nicolas",
    title = "Thick-skinned tectonics and basement-involved fold–thrust belts: insights from selected Cenozoic orogens",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Geological Magazine",
    abstract = "Abstract Defining the structural style of fold–thrust belts and understanding the controlling factors are necessary steps towards prediction of their long-term and short-term dynamics, including seismic hazard, and to assess their potential in terms of hydrocarbon exploration. While the thin-skinned structural style has long been a fashionable view for outer parts of orogens worldwide, a wealth of new geological and geophysical studies has pointed out that a description in terms of thick-skinned deformation is, in many cases, more appropriate. This paper aims at providing a review of what we know about basement-involved shortening in foreland fold–thrust belts on the basis of the examination of selected Cenozoic orogens. After describing how structural interpretations of fold–thrust belts have evolved through time, this paper addresses how and the extent to which basement tectonics influence their geometry and their kinematics, and emphasizes the key control exerted by lithosphere rheology, including structural and thermal inheritance, and local/regional boundary conditions on the occurrence of thick-skinned tectonics in the outer parts of orogens.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0016756816000078",
    doi = "10.1017/s0016756816000078",
    openalex = "W2342007132",
    references = "doi101007s0053100303752, doi101046j13652117200300214x, doi101139e76129, doi101306st33533"
}

Abstract As the largest Cenozoic terrestrial intermountain basin on the Tibetan Plateau, the Qaidam Basin is an ideal setting to understand the coupled controls of tectonics and climate on hydrological evolution. In this study, we used 47,846 data of carbonate and chloride contents from 146 boreholes to reconstruct the Neogene-Quaternary basin-wide hydrological evolution of the Qaidam Basin. Our results show that during the early Miocene (22–15 Ma), the palaeolake in the Qaidam Basin was mainly situated in the southwestern part of the basin, and its water was mostly brackish. From then on, this palaeolake progressively migrated southeastward, and its salinity increased from late Miocene saline water to Quaternary brines. This generally increasing trend of the water palaeosalinity during the late Cenozoic corresponded with regional and global climate changes at that time, suggesting the dominance of climatic control. However, the paces of the salinity increase from sediments in front of the three basin-bounding ranges were not the same, indicating that extra tectonic controls occurred. Sediments in front of the Eastern Kunlun Shan to the southwest and the Altyn Shan to the northwest showed an abrupt, dramatic increase in salinity at ~15 Ma and ~8 Ma, respectively; sediments in front of the Qilian Shan to the northeast showed steady increase without prominent, abrupt changes, indicating the occurrence of asynchronous tectonic controls from the basin-bounding ranges. The late Miocene depocentre migration was synchronous with the hydrological changes in front of the Altyn Shan, while the more significant migration during the Quaternary was consistent with the pulsing, intense extrabasinal and intrabasinal tectonic movements along the Tibetan Plateau.

@article{doi101016jgloplacha201803012,
    author = "Guo, Pei and Liu, Chiyang and Huang, Lei and Yu, Mengli and Wang, Peng and Zhang, Guoqing",
    title = "Palaeohydrological evolution of the late Cenozoic saline lake in the Qaidam Basin, NE Tibetan Plateau: Tectonic vs. climatic control",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Global and Planetary Change",
    abstract = "Abstract As the largest Cenozoic terrestrial intermountain basin on the Tibetan Plateau, the Qaidam Basin is an ideal setting to understand the coupled controls of tectonics and climate on hydrological evolution. In this study, we used 47,846 data of carbonate and chloride contents from 146 boreholes to reconstruct the Neogene-Quaternary basin-wide hydrological evolution of the Qaidam Basin. Our results show that during the early Miocene (22–15 Ma), the palaeolake in the Qaidam Basin was mainly situated in the southwestern part of the basin, and its water was mostly brackish. From then on, this palaeolake progressively migrated southeastward, and its salinity increased from late Miocene saline water to Quaternary brines. This generally increasing trend of the water palaeosalinity during the late Cenozoic corresponded with regional and global climate changes at that time, suggesting the dominance of climatic control. However, the paces of the salinity increase from sediments in front of the three basin-bounding ranges were not the same, indicating that extra tectonic controls occurred. Sediments in front of the Eastern Kunlun Shan to the southwest and the Altyn Shan to the northwest showed an abrupt, dramatic increase in salinity at \textasciitilde 15 Ma and \textasciitilde 8 Ma, respectively; sediments in front of the Qilian Shan to the northeast showed steady increase without prominent, abrupt changes, indicating the occurrence of asynchronous tectonic controls from the basin-bounding ranges. The late Miocene depocentre migration was synchronous with the hydrological changes in front of the Altyn Shan, while the more significant migration during the Quaternary was consistent with the pulsing, intense extrabasinal and intrabasinal tectonic movements along the Tibetan Plateau.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9fbc4f0e347fab0f1a14687c51ed80adda2dd3bf",
    doi = "10.1016/J.GLOPLACHA.2018.03.012",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "44-61",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "52",
    semanticscholar_id = "9fbc4f0e347fab0f1a14687c51ed80adda2dd3bf",
    volume = "165"
}

@article{doi101016jgloplacha2020103260,
    author = "Bridgland, David R. and Westaway, Rob and Hu, Zhenbo",
    title = "Basin inversion: A worldwide Late Cenozoic phenomenon",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Global and Planetary Change",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103260",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103260",
    openalex = "W3037524286",
    references = "doi101016jgloplacha200902009"
}

Abstract Fast late Miocene global cooling since ∼7 Ma accompanied by less changeable atmospheric CO 2 levels revealed by existing proxy reconstructions has suggested an intriguing tectonic‐climate link that remains controversial. Here, we present late Cenozoic clay mineral records of the silicate weathering intensity from the Chinese Loess Plateau and northeastern Tibetan Plateau to demonstrate a remarkable increase in silicate weathering intensity at ∼9–7 Ma induced by enhanced monsoon. This change caused CO 2 consumption ranging from 0.18 to 1.8 × 10 11 mol C yr −1 over the East Asian monsoon region, accounting for 0.2%–2% of the modern continental silicate weathering flux, thus providing an additional atmospheric CO 2 sink. Moreover, we propose that this additional sink may have contributed to the large atmospheric CO 2 consumption and fast global cooling in the late Miocene, which ultimately caused the onset of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation at ∼7 Ma.

@article{doi1010292020pa004008,
    author = "Yang, Yibo and Ye, Chengcheng and Galy, Αlbert and Fang, Xiaomin and Xue, Yong and Liu, Yudong and Yang, Rongsheng and Zhang, Ran and Han, Wenxia and Zhang, Weilin and Ruan, Xiaobai",
    title = "Monsoon‐Enhanced Silicate Weathering as a New Atmospheric CO 2 Consumption Mechanism Contributing to Fast Late Miocene Global Cooling",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology",
    abstract = "Abstract Fast late Miocene global cooling since ∼7 Ma accompanied by less changeable atmospheric CO 2 levels revealed by existing proxy reconstructions has suggested an intriguing tectonic‐climate link that remains controversial. Here, we present late Cenozoic clay mineral records of the silicate weathering intensity from the Chinese Loess Plateau and northeastern Tibetan Plateau to demonstrate a remarkable increase in silicate weathering intensity at ∼9–7 Ma induced by enhanced monsoon. This change caused CO 2 consumption ranging from 0.18 to 1.8 × 10 11 mol C yr −1 over the East Asian monsoon region, accounting for 0.2\%–2\% of the modern continental silicate weathering flux, thus providing an additional atmospheric CO 2 sink. Moreover, we propose that this additional sink may have contributed to the large atmospheric CO 2 consumption and fast global cooling in the late Miocene, which ultimately caused the onset of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation at ∼7 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2020pa004008",
    doi = "10.1029/2020pa004008",
    openalex = "W3111397166",
    references = "doi101038s4156102005852"
}

@article{doi101038s4156102005852,
    author = "Lenard, S.J.P. and Lavé, Jérôme and France‐Lanord, Christian and Aumaître, Georges and Bourlès, Didier and Keddadouche, Karim",
    title = "Steady erosion rates in the Himalayas through late Cenozoic climatic changes",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Nature Geoscience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-0585-2",
    doi = "10.1038/s41561-020-0585-2",
    openalex = "W3032085902",
    references = "doi1010160012821x84900074, doi1010160012821x9190220c, doi101016jnimb200909012, doi101016jnimb200909020, doi101016s0037073800000415, doi1010292000jb900181, doi101029jb094ib12p17907, doi101038346029a0, doi10103835073504, doi10113719780898717921"
}

The Chinese Tian Shan is one of the most actively growing orogenic ranges in Central Asia. The Late Miocene‐Quaternary landscape evolution of northern Tian Shan has been significantly driven by the interaction between tectonic deformations and climate change, further modulated by the erosion of the upstream bedrocks and deposition into the downstream basins. In this study, only the accessible Kuitun River drainage basin in northern Tian Shan was considered, and detrital zircon geochronology and heavy minerals were analyzed to investigate the signature of the driving forces for Miocene sedimentation in northern Tian Shan. This study first confirmed a previously recognized tectonic uplift at ca. 7.0 Ma and further revealed that the basin sediments were mainly derived from the present glacier‐covered ridge‐crest regions during 3.3–2.5 Ma. It is suggested Late‐Pliocene to Early Pleistocene sedimentation was likely a response to the onset of the northern hemispheric glaciation. Although complicated, this study highlights that the tectonic‐climatic interaction during the Late Cenozoic orogenesis can be discriminated in the northern Chinese Tian Shan.

@article{doi101111bre12466,
    author = "Zhao, Xudong and Zhang, Huiping and Lv, Honghua and Lü, Yuanyuan and Li, Xuemei and Liu, Kang and Zhang, Jiawei and Xiong, Jianguo",
    title = "Signatures of tectonic‐climatic interaction during the Late Cenozoic orogenesis along the northern Chinese Tian Shan",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "The Chinese Tian Shan is one of the most actively growing orogenic ranges in Central Asia. The Late Miocene‐Quaternary landscape evolution of northern Tian Shan has been significantly driven by the interaction between tectonic deformations and climate change, further modulated by the erosion of the upstream bedrocks and deposition into the downstream basins. In this study, only the accessible Kuitun River drainage basin in northern Tian Shan was considered, and detrital zircon geochronology and heavy minerals were analyzed to investigate the signature of the driving forces for Miocene sedimentation in northern Tian Shan. This study first confirmed a previously recognized tectonic uplift at ca. 7.0 Ma and further revealed that the basin sediments were mainly derived from the present glacier‐covered ridge‐crest regions during 3.3–2.5 Ma. It is suggested Late‐Pliocene to Early Pleistocene sedimentation was likely a response to the onset of the northern hemispheric glaciation. Although complicated, this study highlights that the tectonic‐climatic interaction during the Late Cenozoic orogenesis can be discriminated in the northern Chinese Tian Shan.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/313ff247bf9891667029891e7d17be9551561bc6",
    doi = "10.1111/bre.12466",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "291-311",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "20",
    semanticscholar_id = "313ff247bf9891667029891e7d17be9551561bc6",
    volume = "33"
}

Using Pacific benthic foraminiferal δ 18 O and Mg/Ca records, we derive a Cenozoic (66 Ma) global mean sea level (GMSL) estimate that records evolution from an ice-free Early Eocene to Quaternary bipolar ice sheets. These GMSL estimates are statistically similar to "backstripped" estimates from continental margins accounting for compaction, loading, and thermal subsidence. Peak warmth, elevated GMSL, high CO 2, and ice-free "Hothouse" conditions (56 to 48 Ma) were followed by "Cool Greenhouse" (48 to 34 Ma) ice sheets (10 to 30 m changes). Continental-scale ice sheets ("Icehouse") began ~34 Ma (>50 m changes), permanent East Antarctic ice sheets at 12.8 Ma, and bipolar glaciation at 2.5 Ma. The largest GMSL fall (27 to 20 ka; ~130 m) was followed by a >40 mm/yr rise (19 to 10 ka), a slowing (10 to 2 ka), and a stillstand until ~1900 CE, when rates began to rise. High long-term CO 2 caused warm climates and high sea levels, with sea-level variability dominated by periodic Milankovitch cycles.

@article{doi101126sciadvaaz1346,
    author = "Miller, Kenneth G. and Browning, James V. and Schmelz, William J. and Kopp, Robert E. and Mountain, Gregory S. and Wright, James D.",
    title = "Cenozoic sea-level and cryospheric evolution from deep-sea geochemical and continental margin records",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = {Using Pacific benthic foraminiferal δ 18 O and Mg/Ca records, we derive a Cenozoic (66 Ma) global mean sea level (GMSL) estimate that records evolution from an ice-free Early Eocene to Quaternary bipolar ice sheets. These GMSL estimates are statistically similar to "backstripped" estimates from continental margins accounting for compaction, loading, and thermal subsidence. Peak warmth, elevated GMSL, high CO 2, and ice-free "Hothouse" conditions (56 to 48 Ma) were followed by "Cool Greenhouse" (48 to 34 Ma) ice sheets (10 to 30 m changes). Continental-scale ice sheets ("Icehouse") began \textasciitilde 34 Ma (>50 m changes), permanent East Antarctic ice sheets at 12.8 Ma, and bipolar glaciation at 2.5 Ma. The largest GMSL fall (27 to 20 ka; \textasciitilde 130 m) was followed by a >40 mm/yr rise (19 to 10 ka), a slowing (10 to 2 ka), and a stillstand until \textasciitilde 1900 CE, when rates began to rise. High long-term CO 2 caused warm climates and high sea levels, with sea-level variability dominated by periodic Milankovitch cycles.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz1346",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.aaz1346",
    openalex = "W3025424653",
    references = "doi101016jgloplacha201312007, doi101016jgloplacha201804004, doi101016jmargeo200502007, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi1010292004pa001071, doi1010292011jc007255, doi10102990jb02015, doi10102996pa00571, doi101029jc082i027p03843, doi101038342637a0, doi101038nature03135, doi101038ncomms14845, doi1010510004636120041335, doi10105100046361201116836, doi10106311671982, doi101126science1059412, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science1133822, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science23547931156, doi101126science2875451269, doi101126scienceaaa4019, doi1011270078042120120020, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi10113008137233291, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi105194tc73752013, openalexw3160761443"
}

Analyses of marine and terrestrial palynomorphs of Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 645 in Baffin Bay led us to define a new biostratigraphical scheme covering the late Miocene to Pleistocene based on dinocyst and acritarch assemblages. Four biozones were defined. The first one, from 438.6 m below sea floor (mbsf) to 388 mbsf, can be assigned a late Miocene to early Pliocene age (>4.5 Ma), based on the common occurrence of Cristadinium diminutivum and Selenopemphix brevispinosa. Biozone 2, spanning from an erosional unconformity to a recovery hiatus, is marked by the highest occurrences (HOs) of Veriplicidium franklinii and Cristadinium diminutivum, which suggest an early Pliocene age >3.6 Ma (∼4.5 to ∼3.6 Ma). Biozone 3, above the recovery hiatus and up to 220.94 mbsf, corresponds to a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age based on occurrences of Bitectatodinium readwaldii, Cymatiosphaera? icenorum, and Lavradosphaera canalis. Finally, between 266.4 and 120.56 mbsf, Biozone 4, marked by the HO of Filisphaera filifera, Filisphaera microornata, and Habibacysta tectata, has an early Pleistocene age (>1.4 Ma). Our biostratigraphy implies that horizon b1 of the Baffin Bay seismic stratigraphy corresponds to the recovery hiatus at ODP Site 645, which suggests a very thick Pliocene sequence along the Baffin Island slope. Dinocyst assemblages and terrestrial palynomorphs in our records indicate that the late Miocene and (or) early Pliocene were characterized by relatively warm coastal surface waters and boreal forest or forested tundra vegetation over adjacent lands. In contrast, the early Pleistocene dinocyst assemblages above the recovery hiatus indicate cold surface waters, while pollen data suggest reduced vegetation cover on adjacent lands.

@article{doi101139cjes20190227,
    author = "Aubry, Aurélie and de Vernal, Anne and Knutz, Paul Cornils",
    title = "Baffin Bay late Neogene palynostratigraphy at Ocean Drilling Program Site 645",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences",
    abstract = "Analyses of marine and terrestrial palynomorphs of Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 645 in Baffin Bay led us to define a new biostratigraphical scheme covering the late Miocene to Pleistocene based on dinocyst and acritarch assemblages. Four biozones were defined. The first one, from 438.6 m below sea floor (mbsf) to 388 mbsf, can be assigned a late Miocene to early Pliocene age (>4.5 Ma), based on the common occurrence of Cristadinium diminutivum and Selenopemphix brevispinosa. Biozone 2, spanning from an erosional unconformity to a recovery hiatus, is marked by the highest occurrences (HOs) of Veriplicidium franklinii and Cristadinium diminutivum, which suggest an early Pliocene age >3.6 Ma (∼4.5 to ∼3.6 Ma). Biozone 3, above the recovery hiatus and up to 220.94 mbsf, corresponds to a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age based on occurrences of Bitectatodinium readwaldii, Cymatiosphaera? icenorum, and Lavradosphaera canalis. Finally, between 266.4 and 120.56 mbsf, Biozone 4, marked by the HO of Filisphaera filifera, Filisphaera microornata, and Habibacysta tectata, has an early Pleistocene age (>1.4 Ma). Our biostratigraphy implies that horizon b1 of the Baffin Bay seismic stratigraphy corresponds to the recovery hiatus at ODP Site 645, which suggests a very thick Pliocene sequence along the Baffin Island slope. Dinocyst assemblages and terrestrial palynomorphs in our records indicate that the late Miocene and (or) early Pliocene were characterized by relatively warm coastal surface waters and boreal forest or forested tundra vegetation over adjacent lands. In contrast, the early Pleistocene dinocyst assemblages above the recovery hiatus indicate cold surface waters, while pollen data suggest reduced vegetation cover on adjacent lands.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2019-0227",
    doi = "10.1139/cjes-2019-0227",
    openalex = "W3035371951",
    references = "doi101016jquascirev201712020, doi102973odpprocsr1051471989"
}

Abstract. We have analyzed marine palynomorphs (mainly dinocysts and acritarchs) from the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1307 in the Labrador Sea in order to establish a detailed biostratigraphy for the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene. We have defined three magnetostratigraphically calibrated dinocyst and acritarch biozones in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene. Zone LS1 is defined based on the highest occurrence of Barssidinium graminosum and covers the later Pliocene from 3.21 to 2.75 Ma. Zone LS2 is marked by the acme of Pyxidinopsis braboi which occurs between 2.75 and 2.57 Ma, thus encompassing the Plio–Pleistocene transition. Finally, zone LS3 extends from 2.57 to 2.23 Ma in the Early Pleistocene. The palynostratigraphic record of IODP Site U1307 is difficult to correlate to other North Atlantic and Nordic Seas sites mainly because of a different temporal resolution and a lack of well-defined biostratigraphic marker species at the basin scale. The low abundance, discontinuous occurrence and asynchronous events of warm-water Pliocene taxa such as Invertocysta lacrymosa, Impagidinium solidum, Ataxiodinium confusum, Melitasphaeridium choanophorum and Operculodinium? eirikianum suggest cooler conditions in the Labrador Sea than elsewhere in the North Atlantic, reflecting a strong regionalism. Nevertheless, as recorded at other locations in the North Atlantic, the disappearance of many dinocyst and acritarch taxa around 2.75 Ma at Site U1307 reflects a strong ecological response accompanying the intensification of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation.

@article{doi105194jm39412020,
    author = "Aubry, Aurélie and Schepper, Stijn De and de Vernal, Anne",
    title = "Dinocyst and acritarch biostratigraphy of the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene at Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1307 in the Labrador Sea",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Micropalaeontology",
    abstract = "Abstract. We have analyzed marine palynomorphs (mainly dinocysts and acritarchs) from the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site U1307 in the Labrador Sea in order to establish a detailed biostratigraphy for the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene. We have defined three magnetostratigraphically calibrated dinocyst and acritarch biozones in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene. Zone LS1 is defined based on the highest occurrence of Barssidinium graminosum and covers the later Pliocene from 3.21 to 2.75 Ma. Zone LS2 is marked by the acme of Pyxidinopsis braboi which occurs between 2.75 and 2.57 Ma, thus encompassing the Plio–Pleistocene transition. Finally, zone LS3 extends from 2.57 to 2.23 Ma in the Early Pleistocene. The palynostratigraphic record of IODP Site U1307 is difficult to correlate to other North Atlantic and Nordic Seas sites mainly because of a different temporal resolution and a lack of well-defined biostratigraphic marker species at the basin scale. The low abundance, discontinuous occurrence and asynchronous events of warm-water Pliocene taxa such as Invertocysta lacrymosa, Impagidinium solidum, Ataxiodinium confusum, Melitasphaeridium choanophorum and Operculodinium? eirikianum suggest cooler conditions in the Labrador Sea than elsewhere in the North Atlantic, reflecting a strong regionalism. Nevertheless, as recorded at other locations in the North Atlantic, the disappearance of many dinocyst and acritarch taxa around 2.75 Ma at Site U1307 reflects a strong ecological response accompanying the intensification of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/jm-39-41-2020",
    doi = "10.5194/jm-39-41-2020",
    openalex = "W3011458624",
    references = "doi101016jquascirev201712020, doi102973odpprocsr1051471989"
}

@incollection{coxon2022cenozoic,
    author = "Coxon, P. and McCarron, S. G.",
    title = "Cenozoic:",
    year = "2022",
    booktitle = "The Geology of Ireland",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.12638997.18",
    doi = "10.2307/jj.12638997.18",
    pages = "355-396"
}

@article{doi101038s4156102201025x,
    author = "Duncan, B. and McKay, R. and Levy, R. and Naish, T. and Prebble, J. and Sangiorgi, F. and Krishnan, S. and Hoem, F. and Clowes, C. and Jones, T. Dunkley and Gasson, E. and Kraus, C. and Kulhanek, D. and Meyers, S. and Moossen, H. and Warren, C. and Willmott, V. and Ventura, G. and Bendle, J.",
    title = "Climatic and tectonic drivers of late Oligocene Antarctic ice volume",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Nature Geoscience",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ac64bcf2bcbede172ea0e0ca44afdceb9476d952",
    doi = "10.1038/s41561-022-01025-x",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "10",
    pages = "819-825",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "25",
    semanticscholar_id = "ac64bcf2bcbede172ea0e0ca44afdceb9476d952",
    volume = "15"
}

Background and Aims Ongoing global warming is a challenge for humankind. A series of drastic climatic changes have been proven to have occurred throughout the Cenozoic based on a variety of geological evidence, which helps to better understand our planet’s future climate. Notably, extant biomes have recorded drastic environmental shifts. The climate in southern Asia, which hosts high biodiversity, is deeply impacted by the Asian monsoon. The origins and evolutionary dynamics of biomes occurring between the tropics and sub-tropics in southern Asia have probably been deeply impacted by climatic changes; however, these aspects remain poorly studied. We tested whether the evolutionary dynamics of the above biomes have recorded the drastic, late Cenozoic environmental shifts, by focusing on Magnolia section Michelia of the family Magnoliaceae. Methods We established a fine time-calibrated phylogeny of M. section Michelia based on complete plastid genomes and inferred its ancestral ranges. Finally, we estimated the evolutionary dynamics of this section through time, determining its diversification rate and the dispersal events that occurred between tropical and sub-tropical areas. Key Results The tropical origin of M. section Michelia was dated to the late Oligocene; however, the diversification of its core group (i.e. M. section Michelia subsection Michelia) has occurred mainly from the late Miocene onward. Two key evolutionary shifts (dated approx. 8 and approx. 3 million years ago, respectively) were identified, each of them probably in response to drastic climatic changes. Conclusion Here, we inferred the underlying evolutionary dynamics of biomes in southern Asia, which probably reflect late Cenozoic climatic changes. The occurrence of modern Asian monsoons was probably fundamental for the origin of M. section Michelia; moreover, the occurrence of asymmetric dispersal events between the tropics and sub-tropics hint at an adaptation strategy of M. section Michelia to global cooling, in agreement with the tropical conservatism hypothesis.

@article{doi101093aobmcac057,
    author = "Zhao, N. and Park, Suhyeon and Zhang, Yu-Qu and Nie, Z. and Ge, X. and Kim, Sangtae and Yan, Haifei",
    title = "Fingerprints of climatic changes through the late Cenozoic in southern Asian flora: Magnolia section Michelia (Magnoliaceae).",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Annals of botany",
    abstract = "Background and Aims Ongoing global warming is a challenge for humankind. A series of drastic climatic changes have been proven to have occurred throughout the Cenozoic based on a variety of geological evidence, which helps to better understand our planet’s future climate. Notably, extant biomes have recorded drastic environmental shifts. The climate in southern Asia, which hosts high biodiversity, is deeply impacted by the Asian monsoon. The origins and evolutionary dynamics of biomes occurring between the tropics and sub-tropics in southern Asia have probably been deeply impacted by climatic changes; however, these aspects remain poorly studied. We tested whether the evolutionary dynamics of the above biomes have recorded the drastic, late Cenozoic environmental shifts, by focusing on Magnolia section Michelia of the family Magnoliaceae. Methods We established a fine time-calibrated phylogeny of M. section Michelia based on complete plastid genomes and inferred its ancestral ranges. Finally, we estimated the evolutionary dynamics of this section through time, determining its diversification rate and the dispersal events that occurred between tropical and sub-tropical areas. Key Results The tropical origin of M. section Michelia was dated to the late Oligocene; however, the diversification of its core group (i.e. M. section Michelia subsection Michelia) has occurred mainly from the late Miocene onward. Two key evolutionary shifts (dated approx. 8 and approx. 3 million years ago, respectively) were identified, each of them probably in response to drastic climatic changes. Conclusion Here, we inferred the underlying evolutionary dynamics of biomes in southern Asia, which probably reflect late Cenozoic climatic changes. The occurrence of modern Asian monsoons was probably fundamental for the origin of M. section Michelia; moreover, the occurrence of asymmetric dispersal events between the tropics and sub-tropics hint at an adaptation strategy of M. section Michelia to global cooling, in agreement with the tropical conservatism hypothesis.",
    url = "https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-pdf/130/1/41/45026538/mcac057.pdf",
    doi = "10.1093/aob/mcac057",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    pages = "41-52",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "9437ab01e4257f96c5bce67fe944513905522f77",
    volume = "130"
}

@article{doi101007s1143002210968,
    author = "Zhang, Chuang",
    title = "Episodic sandstone-type uranium mineralization in Asia during the Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Science China Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f5f37127e269f5d059fa84aaa672239c1ddae997",
    doi = "10.1007/s11430-022-1096-8",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "9",
    pages = "2034-2044",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "5",
    semanticscholar_id = "f5f37127e269f5d059fa84aaa672239c1ddae997",
    volume = "66"
}

@article{doi101016jgloplacha2023104253,
    author = "Jiang, Yutong and Lu, Honghua and Jiao, Ruohong and Pang, Lichen and Yang, Rong and Wu, Menghan and Zheng, Xiangmin and Li, Youli",
    title = "Climatic aridification restrained late Cenozoic denudation of the Tian Shan in the inland of Asia",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Global and Planetary Change",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/87bb488e91c5e2d4213e45b23b9041a8c9b86344",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104253",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "104253",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "7",
    semanticscholar_id = "87bb488e91c5e2d4213e45b23b9041a8c9b86344",
    volume = "230"
}

Palustrine‐lacustrine carbonates of the well‐dated Xichagou section (ca. 43 to ca. 13 Ma) next to the active Altyn Tagh Fault (ATF) are investigated in terms of abundance, lithofacies, strontium, carbon and oxygen isotopes, to differentiate tectonic and climatic controls on the evolution of intermontane lakes in the Tibetan Plateau. Volumetrically dominant siliciclastic strata document five depositional stages: mid‐Eocene alluvial fan (onshore), late Eocene fan delta (nearshore), Oligocene semi‐deep lake (offshore), early Miocene braided fluvial delta (nearshore) and mid‐Miocene fluvial plain (onshore). Carbonates are most abundant in the middle three lacustrine stages and contain various lithofacies, including calcretes, microbialites, grainstones and marlstones. Oxygen isotopes show two positive excursions (−1.17‰ and −2.59‰) at the first nearshore and late offshore stages, indicating two relatively saline stages linked to the Eocene and late Oligocene global warming climates. Carbon isotopes show a positive excursion (from −4.0‰ to +2.9‰) at the middle semi‐deep lake stage and meanwhile strontium isotopes of carbonates show a large negative excursion (from 0.7120‰ to 0.7113‰), both in response to the early Oligocene global humid and cooling climate and resultant lake expansion at the Qaidam Basin. Except for this lake expansion event, the first‐order lake transgressing, shallowing and regressing evolution at the Xichagou section were not consistent with Cenozoic global climatic change trends. Instead, the two‐stage strike‐slip faulting of the ATF probably induced the northeastward and eastward migration of basin depocenter and resulted in the lake transgression‐regression at the Xichagou section. The widespread presence and relatively minor variation in oxygen isotopes (from −7.5‰ to −7.0‰) of early Miocene microbialites in the northern Tibetan Plateau suggest a warm climate and a low relief before ca. 15 Ma.

@article{doi101111bre12772,
    author = "Guo, Pei and Wen, Huaguo and Li, Changzhi and Wei, Yan",
    title = "Tectonic and climatic controls on carbonate sedimentation in active orogen proximal lakes, Cenozoic Qaidam Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "Palustrine‐lacustrine carbonates of the well‐dated Xichagou section (ca. 43 to ca. 13 Ma) next to the active Altyn Tagh Fault (ATF) are investigated in terms of abundance, lithofacies, strontium, carbon and oxygen isotopes, to differentiate tectonic and climatic controls on the evolution of intermontane lakes in the Tibetan Plateau. Volumetrically dominant siliciclastic strata document five depositional stages: mid‐Eocene alluvial fan (onshore), late Eocene fan delta (nearshore), Oligocene semi‐deep lake (offshore), early Miocene braided fluvial delta (nearshore) and mid‐Miocene fluvial plain (onshore). Carbonates are most abundant in the middle three lacustrine stages and contain various lithofacies, including calcretes, microbialites, grainstones and marlstones. Oxygen isotopes show two positive excursions (−1.17‰ and −2.59‰) at the first nearshore and late offshore stages, indicating two relatively saline stages linked to the Eocene and late Oligocene global warming climates. Carbon isotopes show a positive excursion (from −4.0‰ to +2.9‰) at the middle semi‐deep lake stage and meanwhile strontium isotopes of carbonates show a large negative excursion (from 0.7120‰ to 0.7113‰), both in response to the early Oligocene global humid and cooling climate and resultant lake expansion at the Qaidam Basin. Except for this lake expansion event, the first‐order lake transgressing, shallowing and regressing evolution at the Xichagou section were not consistent with Cenozoic global climatic change trends. Instead, the two‐stage strike‐slip faulting of the ATF probably induced the northeastward and eastward migration of basin depocenter and resulted in the lake transgression‐regression at the Xichagou section. The widespread presence and relatively minor variation in oxygen isotopes (from −7.5‰ to −7.0‰) of early Miocene microbialites in the northern Tibetan Plateau suggest a warm climate and a low relief before ca. 15 Ma.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2b9c318feaa3fb2596875e4cce375dd1a28cc89f",
    doi = "10.1111/bre.12772",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "5",
    pages = "1744-1771",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "5",
    semanticscholar_id = "2b9c318feaa3fb2596875e4cce375dd1a28cc89f",
    volume = "35"
}

Many post-orogenic settings exhibit a rugged topography, but the underlying mechanisms driving topographic rejuvenation are poorly understood. For example, the U.S. southern Colorado Front Range, a widely recognized and studied post-orogenic setting, contains deep canyons and steep channels even though the crustal deformation that built the range during the Laramide Orogeny ended at ca. 40 Ma. Two prevailing hypotheses are typically used to explain these topographically youthful features in the Colorado Front Range: (1) mantle dynamics and active tectonics during the late Cenozoic; and (2) enhanced erosional efficiency associated with Quaternary climatic changes. Here, we evaluate these end-member hypotheses through a tectonic geomorphological study of the upper Arkansas River Basin in southern Colorado. We perform river profile analysis on bedrock channels in the eastern Rockies and map and analyze fluvial terraces in the western High Plains. In the eastern Rockies, river knickpoints record a one- to two-stage increase in base-level fall rate downstream of the Colorado Front Range mountain front and an eastward increase in the magnitude of incision. In the western High Plains, Quaternary fluvial terraces also show an eastward increase in the total magnitude of incision. Supported by flexural and supplemental geomorphic analyses, these results suggest a previously undetected regional-scale, west-directed back-tilting associated with differential rock uplift. Based on the average timing of deformation, locations of major faults, and seismic activity, seismic tomographic data, and existing geodynamic models, we infer that this newly recorded westward tilting in the upper Arkansas Basin is the result of unsteady and potentially migrating dynamic topography that developed ca. 4 Ma.

@article{doi101130b364401,
    author = "Marder, Eyal and Gallen, S. and Pazzaglia, F.",
    title = "Late Cenozoic deformation in the U.S. southern Colorado Front Range revealed by river profile analysis and fluvial terraces",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "Many post-orogenic settings exhibit a rugged topography, but the underlying mechanisms driving topographic rejuvenation are poorly understood. For example, the U.S. southern Colorado Front Range, a widely recognized and studied post-orogenic setting, contains deep canyons and steep channels even though the crustal deformation that built the range during the Laramide Orogeny ended at ca. 40 Ma. Two prevailing hypotheses are typically used to explain these topographically youthful features in the Colorado Front Range: (1) mantle dynamics and active tectonics during the late Cenozoic; and (2) enhanced erosional efficiency associated with Quaternary climatic changes. Here, we evaluate these end-member hypotheses through a tectonic geomorphological study of the upper Arkansas River Basin in southern Colorado. We perform river profile analysis on bedrock channels in the eastern Rockies and map and analyze fluvial terraces in the western High Plains. In the eastern Rockies, river knickpoints record a one- to two-stage increase in base-level fall rate downstream of the Colorado Front Range mountain front and an eastward increase in the magnitude of incision. In the western High Plains, Quaternary fluvial terraces also show an eastward increase in the total magnitude of incision. Supported by flexural and supplemental geomorphic analyses, these results suggest a previously undetected regional-scale, west-directed back-tilting associated with differential rock uplift. Based on the average timing of deformation, locations of major faults, and seismic activity, seismic tomographic data, and existing geodynamic models, we infer that this newly recorded westward tilting in the upper Arkansas Basin is the result of unsteady and potentially migrating dynamic topography that developed ca. 4 Ma.",
    url = "https://gsapubs.figshare.com/ndownloader/files/40421582",
    doi = "10.1130/b36440.1",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "8",
    semanticscholar_id = "287abcebd9ef181f17e72f005676e840bd74a95a"
}

This study presents an overview of the Late Cenozoic evolution of the West African Monsoon (WAM), and the associated changes in atmospheric dynamics and oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation (δ18Op). This evolution is established by using the high‐resolution isotope‐enabled GCM ECHAM5‐wiso to simulate the climatic responses to paleoenvironmental changes during the Mid‐Holocene (MH), Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and Mid‐Pliocene (MP). The simulated responses are compared to a set of GCM outputs from Paleoclimate Model Intercomparison Project Phase 4 (PMIP4) to assess the added value of a high resolution and model consistency across different time periods. Results show WAM magnitudes and pattern changes that are consistent with PMIP4 models and proxy reconstructions. ECHAM5‐wiso estimates the highest WAM intensification in the MH, with a precipitation increase of up to 150 mm/month reaching 25°N during the monsoon season. The WAM intensification in the MP estimated by ECHAM5‐wiso (up to 80 mm/month) aligns with the mid‐range of the PMIP4 estimates, while the LGM dryness magnitude matches most of the models. Despite an enhanced hydrological cycle in MP, MH simulations indicate a ∼50% precipitation increase and a greater northward extent of WAM than the MP simulations. Strengthened conditions of the WAM in the MH and MP result from a pronounced meridional temperature gradient driving low‐level westerly, Sahel‐Sahara vegetation expansion, and a northward shift of the Africa Easterly Jet. The simulated δ18Op values patterns and their relationship with temperature and precipitation are non‐stationarity over time, emphasizing the implications of assuming stationarity in proxy reconstruction transfer functions.

@article{doi1010292024jd040748,
    author = "Boateng, Daniel and Aryee, J. and Baidu, Michael and Arthur, Frank and Mutz, S.",
    title = "West African Monsoon Dynamics and Its Control on the Stable Oxygen Isotopic Composition of Precipitation in the Late Cenozoic",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres",
    abstract = "This study presents an overview of the Late Cenozoic evolution of the West African Monsoon (WAM), and the associated changes in atmospheric dynamics and oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation (δ18Op). This evolution is established by using the high‐resolution isotope‐enabled GCM ECHAM5‐wiso to simulate the climatic responses to paleoenvironmental changes during the Mid‐Holocene (MH), Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), and Mid‐Pliocene (MP). The simulated responses are compared to a set of GCM outputs from Paleoclimate Model Intercomparison Project Phase 4 (PMIP4) to assess the added value of a high resolution and model consistency across different time periods. Results show WAM magnitudes and pattern changes that are consistent with PMIP4 models and proxy reconstructions. ECHAM5‐wiso estimates the highest WAM intensification in the MH, with a precipitation increase of up to 150 mm/month reaching 25°N during the monsoon season. The WAM intensification in the MP estimated by ECHAM5‐wiso (up to 80 mm/month) aligns with the mid‐range of the PMIP4 estimates, while the LGM dryness magnitude matches most of the models. Despite an enhanced hydrological cycle in MP, MH simulations indicate a ∼50\% precipitation increase and a greater northward extent of WAM than the MP simulations. Strengthened conditions of the WAM in the MH and MP result from a pronounced meridional temperature gradient driving low‐level westerly, Sahel‐Sahara vegetation expansion, and a northward shift of the Africa Easterly Jet. The simulated δ18Op values patterns and their relationship with temperature and precipitation are non‐stationarity over time, emphasizing the implications of assuming stationarity in proxy reconstruction transfer functions.",
    url = "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1029/2024JD040748",
    doi = "10.1029/2024JD040748",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "10",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "6",
    semanticscholar_id = "2f657a1a95b6ee57b7581510b0f63a0534d8a1ae",
    volume = "129"
}

@article{doi101038s41598026444838,
    author = "Margiono, Relly and Heinson, Graham",
    title = "Mantle melting and lithospheric structure beneath eastern Australia's Cenozoic volcanoes from 3D magnetotellurics.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Scientific reports",
    url = "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41857135/",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-026-44483-8",
    pmid = "41857135"
}

The southeastern Tibetan Plateau, an intracontinental deformation archetype recording oblique Indian-Eurasian convergence, has long been used to test geodynamic models of plateau growth. Driven by India's northward indentation, it has undergone multiphase deformation with kinematic and structural transitions. To explore its evolutionary dynamics, we developed 3D visco-elasto-plastic thermomechanical models reconstructing three tectonic stages: (i) crustal shortening; (ii) block lateral extrusion; and (iii) kinematic reversal in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Simulations show that strain localization along large-scale shear zones is initially controlled by lithospheric heterogeneities enabling rigid block extrusion. Since the mid-late Miocene, vertically stratified crustal rheology has promoted decoupling, in which potential energy-driven ductile lower crustal flow affects upper crustal deformation and triggers kinematic reversal. This transition reconciles block extrusion and lower crustal flow, which operate sequentially rather than exclusively and are modulated by temporal variations in crustal rheology and boundary conditions, resolving the long-lasting debate of geodynamics during continental collision.

@article{doi101093nsrnwag118,
    author = "Wang, Yuyang and Wang, Yang and Yang, Jianfeng and Liu, Lijun and Zhang, Jinjiang and Zhang, Peizhen",
    title = "Decoding the southeastern Tibetan Plateau growth: a 3D numerical simulation of Cenozoic crustal deformation.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "National science review",
    abstract = "The southeastern Tibetan Plateau, an intracontinental deformation archetype recording oblique Indian-Eurasian convergence, has long been used to test geodynamic models of plateau growth. Driven by India's northward indentation, it has undergone multiphase deformation with kinematic and structural transitions. To explore its evolutionary dynamics, we developed 3D visco-elasto-plastic thermomechanical models reconstructing three tectonic stages: (i) crustal shortening; (ii) block lateral extrusion; and (iii) kinematic reversal in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Simulations show that strain localization along large-scale shear zones is initially controlled by lithospheric heterogeneities enabling rigid block extrusion. Since the mid-late Miocene, vertically stratified crustal rheology has promoted decoupling, in which potential energy-driven ductile lower crustal flow affects upper crustal deformation and triggers kinematic reversal. This transition reconciles block extrusion and lower crustal flow, which operate sequentially rather than exclusively and are modulated by temporal variations in crustal rheology and boundary conditions, resolving the long-lasting debate of geodynamics during continental collision.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13037706/",
    doi = "10.1093/nsr/nwag118",
    pmcid = "PMC13037706",
    pmid = "41924637"
}