Central Asia

Such a cloud of mystery has from time immemorial involved the regions comprised under the somewhat vague designation of Central Asia, and so many misconceptions exist regarding that portion of them which has come under Russian rule, that it appears to me to be most desirable that any one who has visited those parts and thus had an opportunity of judging, however superficially, for himself, should do his best to convey to the public his unbiassed impressions on the subjects which have come under his notice, and this all the more that the general vagueness of the information obtainable hitherto on these points and the various misconceptions arising therefrom have formed the great obstacles to a satisfactory mutual understanding between the two great European Powers which should be working together in unison for the amelioration of the conditions of the Asiatic populations which Providence and their own individual energy and enterprise have brought under their respective rules, instead of, as has been too unfortunately the case more often hitherto, watching one another's progress with jealousy and distrust, and making use of every available opportunity of criticizing unfavourably the results, and depreciating or misrepresenting the motives of one another's policy.

@article{biddulph1891art,
    author = "Biddulph, C. E.",
    title = "Art. XIV.—Russian Central Asia",
    year = "1891",
    journal = "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society",
    abstract = "Such a cloud of mystery has from time immemorial involved the regions comprised under the somewhat vague designation of Central Asia, and so many misconceptions exist regarding that portion of them which has come under Russian rule, that it appears to me to be most desirable that any one who has visited those parts and thus had an opportunity of judging, however superficially, for himself, should do his best to convey to the public his unbiassed impressions on the subjects which have come under his notice, and this all the more that the general vagueness of the information obtainable hitherto on these points and the various misconceptions arising therefrom have formed the great obstacles to a satisfactory mutual understanding between the two great European Powers which should be working together in unison for the amelioration of the conditions of the Asiatic populations which Providence and their own individual energy and enterprise have brought under their respective rules, instead of, as has been too unfortunately the case more often hitherto, watching one another's progress with jealousy and distrust, and making use of every available opportunity of criticizing unfavourably the results, and depreciating or misrepresenting the motives of one another's policy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0035869x0002133x",
    doi = "10.1017/s0035869x0002133x",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2313554066",
    pages = "563-597",
    volume = "23"
}

@article{b1906central,
    author = "B., W. and Crosby, Oscar Terry",
    title = "Central Asia",
    year = "1906",
    journal = "The Geographical Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1776383",
    doi = "10.2307/1776383",
    number = "5",
    pages = "493",
    volume = "27"
}

@article{christie1920russian,
    author = "Christie, Ella",
    title = "Russian Central Asia",
    year = "1920",
    journal = "Scottish Geographical Magazine",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00369222008734305",
    doi = "10.1080/00369222008734305",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2108676837",
    pages = "85-94",
    volume = "36"
}

@article{doi102307593389,
    author = "Halper, B. and Gibb, H. A. R.",
    title = "The Arab Conquests in Central Asia",
    year = "1923",
    journal = "Journal of the American Oriental Society",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/593389",
    doi = "10.2307/593389",
    openalex = "W1517413956"
}

@article{doi1023073001219,
    author = "Park, Ahreum and Sokol, Edward D.",
    title = "The Revolt of 1916 in Russian Central Asia.",
    year = "1955",
    journal = "American Slavic and East European Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3001219",
    doi = "10.2307/3001219",
    openalex = "W135483979"
}

@book{doi1015259780520317758,
    author = "Pierce, Richard A.",
    title = "Russian Central Asia 1867–1917",
    year = "1960",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520317758",
    doi = "10.1525/9780520317758",
    openalex = "W4251150635"
}

@book{doi1023073000927,
    author = "Kazemzadeh, Firuz and Pierce, Richard A.",
    title = "Russian Central Asia, 1867-1917.",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "American Slavic and East European Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3000927",
    doi = "10.2307/3000927",
    openalex = "W2800753596"
}

(1962). TRANSPORTATION AND REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION: THE EXAMPLE OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA. Annals of the Association of American Geographers: Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 80-98.

@article{doi101111j146783061962tb00397x,
    author = "Taaffe, Robert N.",
    title = "TRANSPORTATION AND REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION: THE EXAMPLE OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 1",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Annals of the Association of American Geographers",
    abstract = "(1962). TRANSPORTATION AND REGIONAL SPECIALIZATION: THE EXAMPLE OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA. Annals of the Association of American Geographers: Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 80-98.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1962.tb00397.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8306.1962.tb00397.x",
    openalex = "W1984388758"
}

@article{doi101111j146783061962tb00398x,
    author = "Lewis, Robert A.",
    title = "THE IRRIGATION POTENTIAL OF SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA 1",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Annals of the Association of American Geographers",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1962.tb00398.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8306.1962.tb00398.x",
    openalex = "W2075522873"
}

@article{doi102307213021,
    author = "Michel, Aloys A. and Taaffe, Robert N.",
    title = "Rail Transportation and the Economic Development of Soviet Central Asia",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Geographical Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/213021",
    doi = "10.2307/213021",
    openalex = "W2324379316"
}

@article{doi1023072146262,
    author = "Crowley, James B.",
    title = "The First Russian Revolution: Its Impact on Asia, by Ivor Spector",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Political Science Quarterly",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2146262",
    doi = "10.2307/2146262",
    openalex = "W1994998427"
}

@article{doi1023071863231,
    author = "Kazemzadeh, Firuz and Wheeler, Goeffrey",
    title = "The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "The American Historical Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1863231",
    doi = "10.2307/1863231",
    openalex = "W2136537177"
}

@article{doi1023072755209,
    author = "Strong, John W. and Wheeler, Geoffrey",
    title = "The Peoples of Soviet Central Asia.",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Pacific Affairs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2755209",
    doi = "10.2307/2755209",
    openalex = "W2044278978"
}

This book examines the Russian conquest of the ancient Central Asian khanates of Bukhara and Khiva in the 1860s and 1870s, and the relationship between Russia and the territories until their extinction as political entities in 1924. It shows how Russia's approach developed from one of non-intervention, with the primary aim of preventing British expansion from India into the region, to one of increasing intervention as trade and Russian settlement grew. It goes on to discuss the role of Bukhara and Khiva in the First World War and the Russian Revolution, and how the region was fundamentally changed following the Bolshevik conquest in 1919-20. The book is a re-issue of a highly regarded classic originally published in 1968 and out of print for some years. The new version includes a new introduction, some corrections of errors, and a survey of new work undertaken since first publication.

@article{doi102307126995,
    author = "Donnelly, Alton S. and Becker, Seymour",
    title = "Russia's Protectorates in Central Asia: Bukhara and Khiva, 1865-1924",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "The Russian Review",
    abstract = "This book examines the Russian conquest of the ancient Central Asian khanates of Bukhara and Khiva in the 1860s and 1870s, and the relationship between Russia and the territories until their extinction as political entities in 1924. It shows how Russia's approach developed from one of non-intervention, with the primary aim of preventing British expansion from India into the region, to one of increasing intervention as trade and Russian settlement grew. It goes on to discuss the role of Bukhara and Khiva in the First World War and the Russian Revolution, and how the region was fundamentally changed following the Bolshevik conquest in 1919-20. The book is a re-issue of a highly regarded classic originally published in 1968 and out of print for some years. The new version includes a new introduction, some corrections of errors, and a survey of new work undertaken since first publication.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/126995",
    doi = "10.2307/126995",
    openalex = "W2020763708"
}

@book{openalexw1971588071,
    author = "Krader, Lawrence",
    title = "Peoples of central Asia",
    year = "1971",
    openalex = "W1971588071"
}

Russian foreign policy at the turn of the twentieth century can perhaps best be understood in the context of what has been termed 'conservative nationalism'.1 Under Witte the Ministry of Finance had presided over an economic policy designed to give Russia the wherewithal to take her full place as a European great power — a developed industry, a modern army and an efficient communication system. The theories behind the internal policies of the end of the nineteenth century, associated with the influential figure of Konstantin Pobedonostsev, were simultaneously concerned with the development of Russia as a powerful and united state. The autocracy was to be strong and centralised, ruling a nation unified in faith, government and, as far as possible, language. To Pobedonostsev and many of the bureaucracy in the 1890s Witte's economic Westernisation did not promise political reform. On the contrary, it served as a method not of changing but of strengthening the autocracy and the state. Given unity and centralisation at home and a position as a great power in Europe, Russia would be in a position to fulfil her unique mission as a partially Asiatic power.KeywordsForeign PolicyForeign MinisterForward PolicyInternational LoanRevolutionary SituationThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

@incollection{doi10100797813490172565,
    author = "Williams, Beryl",
    title = "The Revolution of 1905 and Russian Foreign Policy",
    year = "1974",
    booktitle = "Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks",
    abstract = "Russian foreign policy at the turn of the twentieth century can perhaps best be understood in the context of what has been termed 'conservative nationalism'.1 Under Witte the Ministry of Finance had presided over an economic policy designed to give Russia the wherewithal to take her full place as a European great power — a developed industry, a modern army and an efficient communication system. The theories behind the internal policies of the end of the nineteenth century, associated with the influential figure of Konstantin Pobedonostsev, were simultaneously concerned with the development of Russia as a powerful and united state. The autocracy was to be strong and centralised, ruling a nation unified in faith, government and, as far as possible, language. To Pobedonostsev and many of the bureaucracy in the 1890s Witte's economic Westernisation did not promise political reform. On the contrary, it served as a method not of changing but of strengthening the autocracy and the state. Given unity and centralisation at home and a position as a great power in Europe, Russia would be in a position to fulfil her unique mission as a partially Asiatic power.KeywordsForeign PolicyForeign MinisterForward PolicyInternational LoanRevolutionary SituationThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-01725-6\_5",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-349-01725-6\_5",
    openalex = "W2495711083",
    references = "christie1920russian, doi101111j146802891954tb01520x, doi1015259780520317758, doi1015259780520350472, doi102307126217, doi1023071845194, doi1023072146262, doi10230740083904, doi102307596444, doi1050409780755607921, openalexw1976029779"
}

@misc{akhmedzhhanov1978precambrian1,
    author = "Akhmedzhhanov, M. A. and Baratov, R. B. and Bakirov, A. B. and Borisov, O. M. and Korolev, V. G. and Mirkhodzhayev, I. M. and et al",
    title = "Precambrian in Central Asia [in Russian]",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Leningrad (St. Petersburg, Nauka, 264 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Akhmedzhhanov, M. A., Baratov, R. B., Bakirov, A. B., Borisov, O. M., Korolev, V. G., Mirkhodzhayev, I. M., et al., 1978, Precambrian in Central Asia [in Russian]: Leningrad (St. Petersburg, Nauka, 264 p.}"
}

The most striking feature of the British Cabinet's decision for war on 2 August 1914 is the absence of any attempt by the Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, to convince his colleagues of the necessity for intervention on the grounds of British interests. According to the fullest contemporary source, the diary kept by L A. Pease, President of the Board of Education, Grey simply presented the Cabinet with the alternative of his resignation. In so doing, he made the decision a matter of politics rather than policy. At no stage did he place before his colleagues the considerations that had convinced him of the necessity for the step on which he insisted. Although Britain's treaty obligations were examined on 29 July, British interests, as such, were not spelled out. Even on the morning of 3 August, by which time the decision had effectively been taken, Grey was urged merely to ‘allude’ to unspecified British interests in his forthcoming meeting with the French ambassador.

@article{doi101017s0260210500116195,
    author = "Wilson, Keith",
    title = "Imperial interests in the British decision for war, 1914: the defence of India in Central Asia",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Review of International Studies",
    abstract = "The most striking feature of the British Cabinet's decision for war on 2 August 1914 is the absence of any attempt by the Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, to convince his colleagues of the necessity for intervention on the grounds of British interests. According to the fullest contemporary source, the diary kept by L A. Pease, President of the Board of Education, Grey simply presented the Cabinet with the alternative of his resignation. In so doing, he made the decision a matter of politics rather than policy. At no stage did he place before his colleagues the considerations that had convinced him of the necessity for the step on which he insisted. Although Britain's treaty obligations were examined on 29 July, British interests, as such, were not spelled out. Even on the morning of 3 August, by which time the decision had effectively been taken, Grey was urged merely to ‘allude’ to unspecified British interests in his forthcoming meeting with the French ambassador.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260210500116195",
    doi = "10.1017/s0260210500116195",
    openalex = "W2108141210",
    references = "doi10100797813490172565"
}

Numerical experiments on a thin viscous sheet model for deformation of continental lithosphere subjected to an indenting boundary condition yield distributions of crustal thickness, of stress and strain rate, and of latitudinal displacements that may be compared with observations in the India‐Asia collision zone. A simple indenting boundary condition applied to initially laterally homogeneous sheets obeying a power law rheology produces results that are in broad agreement with the observations, provided that the power law exponent is three or greater and the sheet can support vertically integrated stress differences of 2×10 13 (±5 × 10 12) N m −1 in regions in front of the indenter. Under these conditions, the calculated deformation shows accommodation of convergence primarily by crustal thickening, to produce a plateau in front of the indenter. Palaeomagnetic data from India and Tibet, and the observed distribution of topography, suggest that much of the post‐Eocene convergence of India with Asia has been taken up by deformation within Asia that involved crustal thickening. The principal difference between calculation and observation is the absence from the calculated strain rate fields of east‐west extension of the plateau in front of the indenting boundary. The calculations show that once such a plateau is formed, the buoyancy force associated with the crustal thickness contrast inhibits further thickening and the plateau strains at less than half the rate of its immediate surroundings. Seismically determined regional strain rates exhibit a similar distribution, with the Tibetan plateau straining at about one quarter the rate of the Tien Shan and Ningxia‐Gansu regions. Calculated principal compressive stress orientations and regional strain rates agree with the seismically determined quantities in the Mongolia‐Baikal, Tien Shan, Tibet, and Ningxia‐Gansu regions of Asia, to within the uncertainty of the latter. The vertically integrated stresses that are calculated for the viscous sheet are comparable with those that can be supported by a Theologically stratified continental lithosphere obeying laboratory‐determined flow laws. We suggest that the thin viscous sheet model, described in this paper and its companion, gives a simple and physically plausible description of the observed deformation in central Asia; in this description the predominant mechanism of accommodation of continental convergence is diffuse crustal thickening, with shear on vertical planes playing a subsidiary role once large crustal thickness contrasts have been established.

@article{doi101029jb091ib03p03664,
    author = "England, Philip and Houseman, G. A.",
    title = "Finite strain calculations of continental deformation: 2. Comparison with the India‐Asia Collision Zone",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Numerical experiments on a thin viscous sheet model for deformation of continental lithosphere subjected to an indenting boundary condition yield distributions of crustal thickness, of stress and strain rate, and of latitudinal displacements that may be compared with observations in the India‐Asia collision zone. A simple indenting boundary condition applied to initially laterally homogeneous sheets obeying a power law rheology produces results that are in broad agreement with the observations, provided that the power law exponent is three or greater and the sheet can support vertically integrated stress differences of 2×10 13 (±5 × 10 12) N m −1 in regions in front of the indenter. Under these conditions, the calculated deformation shows accommodation of convergence primarily by crustal thickening, to produce a plateau in front of the indenter. Palaeomagnetic data from India and Tibet, and the observed distribution of topography, suggest that much of the post‐Eocene convergence of India with Asia has been taken up by deformation within Asia that involved crustal thickening. The principal difference between calculation and observation is the absence from the calculated strain rate fields of east‐west extension of the plateau in front of the indenting boundary. The calculations show that once such a plateau is formed, the buoyancy force associated with the crustal thickness contrast inhibits further thickening and the plateau strains at less than half the rate of its immediate surroundings. Seismically determined regional strain rates exhibit a similar distribution, with the Tibetan plateau straining at about one quarter the rate of the Tien Shan and Ningxia‐Gansu regions. Calculated principal compressive stress orientations and regional strain rates agree with the seismically determined quantities in the Mongolia‐Baikal, Tien Shan, Tibet, and Ningxia‐Gansu regions of Asia, to within the uncertainty of the latter. The vertically integrated stresses that are calculated for the viscous sheet are comparable with those that can be supported by a Theologically stratified continental lithosphere obeying laboratory‐determined flow laws. We suggest that the thin viscous sheet model, described in this paper and its companion, gives a simple and physically plausible description of the observed deformation in central Asia; in this description the predominant mechanism of accommodation of continental convergence is diffuse crustal thickening, with shear on vertical planes playing a subsidiary role once large crustal thickness contrasts have been established.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb091ib03p03664",
    doi = "10.1029/jb091ib03p03664",
    openalex = "W2103796536",
    references = "doi101029jb082i020p02905, doi101029jb084ib07p03425, doi101029jb085ib11p06248, doi101038264319a0, doi101086627920, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi101111j1365246x1982tb04969x, doi101126science1894201419, doi10113000167606197182563gotbdf20co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, openalexw574151162, powell1973plate"
}

Summary Field studies of active faulting in S Tibet indicate that Quaternary extension has been taking place at a rate of ≃1 cm yr −1 in a direction of ≃ 100°. This implies that underthrusting in the Himalayas now absorbs less than half of the total convergence between rigid India and Asia, the rest being taken up primarily by strike-slip faulting N of the collision belt. En échelon right-lateral, strike-slip faults in S Tibet now allow this corresponding eastward displacement of the plateau with respect to India. The reproducible pattern of faulting obtained from plane-strain indentation experiments on unilaterally confined blocks of plasticine suggests that this extrusion process has occurred during most of the collision history. The Tertiary geological record in SE Asia corroborates a polyphase extrusion model, with displacements in excess of 1000–1500 km, in which India has successively pushed Sundaland, then Tibet and S China towards the ESE. Most of the Middle Tertiary movements may have occurred along the then left-lateral Red River-Ailao Shan Fault Zone, together with the opening of most of the eastern S China Sea. Regional geology, stratigraphy and deformation observed in Yunnan are consistent with this inference, as well as the timing, geometry and rates of sea-floor spreading in the S China Sea. Fast spreading (5 cm yr −1) in that sea implies that the Tibetan highlands formed mostly after 17 Ma BP. Sideways movements can also account for the existence of large, conjugate but asymmetric, Tertiary strike-slip faults within Sundaland and the formation of Middle Tertiary pull-apart and rift basins on the Sunda Shelf. Changing directions of opening are predicted in the Mergui and Andaman Basins and the lowlands of Burma, as well as large right-lateral displacements along the Shan Scarp. Most of Sundaland probably lay initially in a frontal position with respect to impinging India and the Shan Plateau may have been a Middle Tertiary analogue of the present Tibetan Plateau. In contrast with dominant overthrusting in the Himalayas, Tertiary strike-slip faulting, with more subordinate folding and thrusting, appears to have been important along and N of the Zangbo Suture. This difference must be accounted for in all models of formation of the Tibet Plateau. The surface of the indentation mark, left by the impaction of India onto the presumably simpler Early Tertiary margin of Asia (> 6 million km 2), implies that mountain building and strike-slip faulting have absorbed, perhaps alternately, roughly equal amounts of collisional shortening. Since analogous interplays of extrusion and thickening probably govern the evolution of most collision zones, the Tertiary tectonics of Asia may be the best guide to unravel the interactions between Palaeozoic and Precambrian plates, for which sea-floor spreading constraints are unattainable.

@article{doi101144gslsp19860190107,
    author = "Tapponnier, P. and Peltzer, G. and Armijo, Rolando",
    title = "On the mechanics of the collision between India and Asia",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Summary Field studies of active faulting in S Tibet indicate that Quaternary extension has been taking place at a rate of ≃1 cm yr −1 in a direction of ≃ 100°. This implies that underthrusting in the Himalayas now absorbs less than half of the total convergence between rigid India and Asia, the rest being taken up primarily by strike-slip faulting N of the collision belt. En échelon right-lateral, strike-slip faults in S Tibet now allow this corresponding eastward displacement of the plateau with respect to India. The reproducible pattern of faulting obtained from plane-strain indentation experiments on unilaterally confined blocks of plasticine suggests that this extrusion process has occurred during most of the collision history. The Tertiary geological record in SE Asia corroborates a polyphase extrusion model, with displacements in excess of 1000–1500 km, in which India has successively pushed Sundaland, then Tibet and S China towards the ESE. Most of the Middle Tertiary movements may have occurred along the then left-lateral Red River-Ailao Shan Fault Zone, together with the opening of most of the eastern S China Sea. Regional geology, stratigraphy and deformation observed in Yunnan are consistent with this inference, as well as the timing, geometry and rates of sea-floor spreading in the S China Sea. Fast spreading (5 cm yr −1) in that sea implies that the Tibetan highlands formed mostly after 17 Ma BP. Sideways movements can also account for the existence of large, conjugate but asymmetric, Tertiary strike-slip faults within Sundaland and the formation of Middle Tertiary pull-apart and rift basins on the Sunda Shelf. Changing directions of opening are predicted in the Mergui and Andaman Basins and the lowlands of Burma, as well as large right-lateral displacements along the Shan Scarp. Most of Sundaland probably lay initially in a frontal position with respect to impinging India and the Shan Plateau may have been a Middle Tertiary analogue of the present Tibetan Plateau. In contrast with dominant overthrusting in the Himalayas, Tertiary strike-slip faulting, with more subordinate folding and thrusting, appears to have been important along and N of the Zangbo Suture. This difference must be accounted for in all models of formation of the Tibet Plateau. The surface of the indentation mark, left by the impaction of India onto the presumably simpler Early Tertiary margin of Asia (> 6 million km 2), implies that mountain building and strike-slip faulting have absorbed, perhaps alternately, roughly equal amounts of collisional shortening. Since analogous interplays of extrusion and thickening probably govern the evolution of most collision zones, the Tertiary tectonics of Asia may be the best guide to unravel the interactions between Palaeozoic and Precambrian plates, for which sea-floor spreading constraints are unattainable.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1986.019.01.07",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.1986.019.01.07",
    openalex = "W2022909854",
    references = "doi1010160012821x81901898, doi101029gm023p0089, doi101029jb082i020p02905, doi101029jb083ib11p05361, doi101038264319a0, doi101038307017a0, doi101086627920, doi101111j1365246x1982tb04969x, doi101126science1894201419, doi1011300016760619799084aasrcm20co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, openalexw617865741"
}

During the last decades of the nineteenth century Russian colonial rule in Turkestan met little resistance from the native population. Only the small and fertile area of the Ferghana Valley remained a center of unrest. This region, situated northwest of the Pamirs and bounded north and south by the smaller Chotkal and Alai ranges, contained some of the best agricultural land in Central Asia and under Russian rule became an important center of cotton production. It was thus an area crucial to Russian interests; nonetheless the Russians failed to maintain order within it. For the first twenty-five years of their administration Ferghana suffered constant depredations by bands of insurgents often led by members of the Muslim mystical brotherhoods, the Sufi orders. Since most insurgents attacked only the native population, such uprisings caused the Russian colonial administration little concern. This attitude changed with the Andijan rebellion of 1898, during which about two thousand people under a Sufi leader attacked the Russian barracks at Andijan and killed a number of soldiers; simultaneous uprisings planned in other cities failed to materialize. The Andijan rebellion was a major shock to the colonial administration, which had considered the population relatively friendly to its rule. Most writers-tsarist, Soviet, and western-have attributed this and other local uprisings to two main causes. They have cited first the strong conservative religious feeling in the area and especially the power of the local Sufi orders, which could be expected to oppose infidel rule. Their second explanation is the disruption caused by the increase in cotton cultivation, which, with the involvement of outside firms in local agriculture, made the peasants vulnerable to fluctuations in the world market and dependent on credit, often at exorbitant rates. This, scholars explain, created a class of wealthy middlemen, but caused indebtedness and landlessness among the peasants of Ferghana. Russian land reforms and the beginnings of colonization also impoverished the old official class and the nomads of the eastern regions.1

@article{doi102307130563,
    author = "Manz, Beatrice Forbes",
    title = "Central Asian Uprisings in the Nineteenth Century: Ferghana under the Russians",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "The Russian Review",
    abstract = "During the last decades of the nineteenth century Russian colonial rule in Turkestan met little resistance from the native population. Only the small and fertile area of the Ferghana Valley remained a center of unrest. This region, situated northwest of the Pamirs and bounded north and south by the smaller Chotkal and Alai ranges, contained some of the best agricultural land in Central Asia and under Russian rule became an important center of cotton production. It was thus an area crucial to Russian interests; nonetheless the Russians failed to maintain order within it. For the first twenty-five years of their administration Ferghana suffered constant depredations by bands of insurgents often led by members of the Muslim mystical brotherhoods, the Sufi orders. Since most insurgents attacked only the native population, such uprisings caused the Russian colonial administration little concern. This attitude changed with the Andijan rebellion of 1898, during which about two thousand people under a Sufi leader attacked the Russian barracks at Andijan and killed a number of soldiers; simultaneous uprisings planned in other cities failed to materialize. The Andijan rebellion was a major shock to the colonial administration, which had considered the population relatively friendly to its rule. Most writers-tsarist, Soviet, and western-have attributed this and other local uprisings to two main causes. They have cited first the strong conservative religious feeling in the area and especially the power of the local Sufi orders, which could be expected to oppose infidel rule. Their second explanation is the disruption caused by the increase in cotton cultivation, which, with the involvement of outside firms in local agriculture, made the peasants vulnerable to fluctuations in the world market and dependent on credit, often at exorbitant rates. This, scholars explain, created a class of wealthy middlemen, but caused indebtedness and landlessness among the peasants of Ferghana. Russian land reforms and the beginnings of colonization also impoverished the old official class and the nomads of the eastern regions.1",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/130563",
    doi = "10.2307/130563",
    openalex = "W2314424566"
}

The topography of the central Andes can be considered the primary tectonic “signal” of late Cenozoic mountain building in an arid region where the effects of uplift and magmatism are little obscured by denudation. The spatial coverage of the topographic signal is more complete than that for sparsely sampled geological and geophysical data. A color‐coded image of digitized topography between 12°S and 37°S highlights the Altiplano‐Puna, one of the world's most remarkable plateaus, and reveals important physiographic clues about the formation of that major feature. The topographic data combined with information on structure, magmatism, seismicity, and paleomagnetism support a simple kinematical model for the late Cenozoic evolution of the central Andes. The model does not require collisional effects or enormous volumes of intrusive additions to the crust but instead calls upon plausible amounts of crustal shortening and lithospheric thinning. The model interrelates Andean uplift, a changing geometry of the subducted Nazca plate, and a changing outline (in map view) of the leading edge of the South American plate. Crustal shortening has accommodated convergence between the Chilean‐Peruvian forearc and the South American foreland. The Altiplano‐Puna plateau can be constructed by a combination of crustal shortening and thickening and lithospheric thinning above a shallow dipping (20°–30°) subducted plate. The seawardly concave bend of western South America, the “Bolivian orocline,” was enhanced but not completely produced by an along‐strike variation in the amount of late Cenozoic shortening. Maximum shortening in Bolivia both produced the widest part of the plateau and increased the seaward concavity of the Bolivian orocline. The along‐strike variations of shortening are hypothesized to result from corresponding along‐strike variations in the width of a weakened zone in the overriding plate. Weakening occurs above the wedge of asthenosphere located between the subducted and overriding plates; hence the width of the zone of weakening depends upon the dip of the subducted plate. Two types of shortening are recognized: (1) a widespread, basin‐and‐range, Laramide‐like shortening that characterizes modem activity in the Sierras Pampeanas and late Miocene deformation of the Altiplano‐Puna and (2) on the eastern side of the Cordilleras and plateau, an east verging foreland fold‐thrust belt in which the underthrust foreland compresses and thickens the ductile lower crust and produces a plateau uplift of the upper crust. The second type of shortening can be applied to Plio‐Quaternary deformations throughout the central Andes but with a substantial narrowing of the region of plateau uplift in Peru and south of 28°S. A proposed monoclinal flexure of the upper crust on the western side of the plateau uplift explains the remarkably simple and regular morphology of the main western slope of the central Andes. The monocline is located above the tip of the asthenospheric wedge between the converging plates; it is postulated to occur above the western limit of lower crustal thickening. In the regions of horizontal subduction the monocline can be associated with a late Miocene asthenospheric wedge tip.

@article{doi101029jb093ib04p03211,
    author = "Isacks, Bryan L.",
    title = "Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and bending of the Bolivian Orocline",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The topography of the central Andes can be considered the primary tectonic “signal” of late Cenozoic mountain building in an arid region where the effects of uplift and magmatism are little obscured by denudation. The spatial coverage of the topographic signal is more complete than that for sparsely sampled geological and geophysical data. A color‐coded image of digitized topography between 12°S and 37°S highlights the Altiplano‐Puna, one of the world's most remarkable plateaus, and reveals important physiographic clues about the formation of that major feature. The topographic data combined with information on structure, magmatism, seismicity, and paleomagnetism support a simple kinematical model for the late Cenozoic evolution of the central Andes. The model does not require collisional effects or enormous volumes of intrusive additions to the crust but instead calls upon plausible amounts of crustal shortening and lithospheric thinning. The model interrelates Andean uplift, a changing geometry of the subducted Nazca plate, and a changing outline (in map view) of the leading edge of the South American plate. Crustal shortening has accommodated convergence between the Chilean‐Peruvian forearc and the South American foreland. The Altiplano‐Puna plateau can be constructed by a combination of crustal shortening and thickening and lithospheric thinning above a shallow dipping (20°–30°) subducted plate. The seawardly concave bend of western South America, the “Bolivian orocline,” was enhanced but not completely produced by an along‐strike variation in the amount of late Cenozoic shortening. Maximum shortening in Bolivia both produced the widest part of the plateau and increased the seaward concavity of the Bolivian orocline. The along‐strike variations of shortening are hypothesized to result from corresponding along‐strike variations in the width of a weakened zone in the overriding plate. Weakening occurs above the wedge of asthenosphere located between the subducted and overriding plates; hence the width of the zone of weakening depends upon the dip of the subducted plate. Two types of shortening are recognized: (1) a widespread, basin‐and‐range, Laramide‐like shortening that characterizes modem activity in the Sierras Pampeanas and late Miocene deformation of the Altiplano‐Puna and (2) on the eastern side of the Cordilleras and plateau, an east verging foreland fold‐thrust belt in which the underthrust foreland compresses and thickens the ductile lower crust and produces a plateau uplift of the upper crust. The second type of shortening can be applied to Plio‐Quaternary deformations throughout the central Andes but with a substantial narrowing of the region of plateau uplift in Peru and south of 28°S. A proposed monoclinal flexure of the upper crust on the western side of the plateau uplift explains the remarkably simple and regular morphology of the main western slope of the central Andes. The monocline is located above the tip of the asthenospheric wedge between the converging plates; it is postulated to occur above the western limit of lower crustal thickening. In the regions of horizontal subduction the monocline can be associated with a late Miocene asthenospheric wedge tip.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb093ib04p03211",
    doi = "10.1029/jb093ib04p03211",
    openalex = "W2154603570",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi101130mem151p355"
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This volume introduces the geographical setting of Central Asia and follows its history from the palaeolithic era to the rise of the Mongol empire in the thirteenth century. From earliest times Central Asia linked and separated the great sedentary civilisations of Europe and Asia. In the pre-modern period 'Inner Asia' was definable more as a cultural than a geographical entity, its frontiers shifting according to the changing balances of power. Written by distinguished international scholars who have pioneered the exploration of Central Asia's poorly documented past, this volume discusses chronologically the varying historical achievements of the disparate population groups in the region.

@book{doi101017chol9780521243049,
    author = "Sinor, Denis and Sinor, Denis and Sinor, Denis and Taaffe, Robert N. and Окладников, А. П. and Melyukova, A. I. and Yü, Ying-shih and Narain, A. K. and Sinor, Denis and Szádeczky-Kardoss, Samuel and Golden, Peter B. and Golden, Peter B. and Sinor, Denis and Mackerras, Colin and Golden, Peter B. and Hoffman, Helmut and Franke, Herbert",
    title = "The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia",
    year = "1990",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "This volume introduces the geographical setting of Central Asia and follows its history from the palaeolithic era to the rise of the Mongol empire in the thirteenth century. From earliest times Central Asia linked and separated the great sedentary civilisations of Europe and Asia. In the pre-modern period 'Inner Asia' was definable more as a cultural than a geographical entity, its frontiers shifting according to the changing balances of power. Written by distinguished international scholars who have pioneered the exploration of Central Asia's poorly documented past, this volume discusses chronologically the varying historical achievements of the disparate population groups in the region.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521243049",
    doi = "10.1017/chol9780521243049",
    openalex = "W2050775714",
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@article{doi1011300091761319900180128paacro23co2,
    author = "Windley, Brian F. and Allen, Mark B. and Zhang, Chuan and Zhao, Z-Y and Wang, G-R",
    title = "Paleozoic accretion and Cenozoic redeformation of the Chinese Tien Shan Range, central Asia",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0128:paacro>2.3.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0128:paacro>2.3.co;2",
    openalex = "W1975821545"
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@article{doi1010160040195193902259,
    author = "Allen, Mark B. and Windley, Brian F. and Zhang, Chi",
    title = "Palaeozoic collisional tectonics and magmatism of the Chinese Tien Shan, central Asia",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(93)90225-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0040-1951(93)90225-9",
    openalex = "W1984911596",
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We present the interpretation of a new set of closely spaced marine magnetic profiles that complements previous data in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the South China Sea (Nan Hai). This interpretation shows that seafloor spreading was asymmetric and confirms that it included at least one ridge jump. Discontinuities in the seafloor fabric, characterized by large differences in basement depth and roughness, appear to be related to variations in spreading rate. Between anomalies 11 and 7 (32 to 27 Ma), spreading at an intermediate, average full rate of ≈50 mm/yr created relatively smooth basement, now thickly blanketed by sediments. The ridge then jumped to the south and created rough basement, now much shallower and covered with thinner sediments than in the north. This episode lasted from anomaly 6b to anomaly 5c (27 to ≈16 Ma) and the average spreading rate was slower, ≈35 mm/yr. After 27 Ma, spreading appears to have developed first in the eastern part of the basin and to have propagated towards the southwest in two major steps, at the time of anomalies 6b‐7, and at the time of anomaly 6. Each step correlates with a variation of the ridge orientation, from nearly E‐W to NE‐SW, and with a variation in the spreading rate. Spreading appears to have stopped synchronously along the ridge, at about 15.5 Ma. From computed fits of magnetic isochrons, we calculate 10 poles of finite rotation between the times of magnetic anomalies 11 and 5c. The poles permit reconstruction of the Oligo‐Miocene movements of Southeast Asian blocks north and south of the South China Sea. Using such reconstructions, we test quantitatively a simple scenario for the opening of the sea in which seafloor spreading results from the extrusion of Indochina relative to South China, in response to the penetration of India into Asia. This alone yields between 500 and 600 km of left‐lateral motion on the Red River‐Ailao Shan shear zone, with crustal shortening in the San Jiang region and crustal extension in Tonkin. The offset derived from the fit of magnetic isochrons on the South China Sea floor is compatible with the offset of geological markers north and south of the Red River Zone. The first phases of extension of the continental margins of the basin are probably related to motion on the Wang Chao and Three Pagodas Faults, in addition to the Red River Fault. That Indochina rotated at least 12° relative to South China implies that large‐scale “domino” models are inadequate to describe the Cenozoic tectonics of Southeast Asia. The cessation of spreading after 16 Ma appears to be roughly synchronous with the final increments of left‐lateral shear and normal uplift in the Ailao Shan (18 Ma), as well as with incipient collisions between the Australian and the Eurasian plates. Hence no other causes than the activation of new fault zones within the India‐Asia collision zone, north and east of the Red River Fault, and perhaps increased resistance to extrusion along the SE edge of Sundaland, appear to be required to terminate seafloor spreading in the largest marginal basin of the western Pacific and to change the sense of motion on the largest strike‐slip fault of SE Asia.

@article{doi10102992jb02280,
    author = "Briais, A. and Patriat, Philippe and Tapponnier, Paul",
    title = "Updated interpretation of magnetic anomalies and seafloor spreading stages in the south China Sea: Implications for the Tertiary tectonics of Southeast Asia",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We present the interpretation of a new set of closely spaced marine magnetic profiles that complements previous data in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the South China Sea (Nan Hai). This interpretation shows that seafloor spreading was asymmetric and confirms that it included at least one ridge jump. Discontinuities in the seafloor fabric, characterized by large differences in basement depth and roughness, appear to be related to variations in spreading rate. Between anomalies 11 and 7 (32 to 27 Ma), spreading at an intermediate, average full rate of ≈50 mm/yr created relatively smooth basement, now thickly blanketed by sediments. The ridge then jumped to the south and created rough basement, now much shallower and covered with thinner sediments than in the north. This episode lasted from anomaly 6b to anomaly 5c (27 to ≈16 Ma) and the average spreading rate was slower, ≈35 mm/yr. After 27 Ma, spreading appears to have developed first in the eastern part of the basin and to have propagated towards the southwest in two major steps, at the time of anomalies 6b‐7, and at the time of anomaly 6. Each step correlates with a variation of the ridge orientation, from nearly E‐W to NE‐SW, and with a variation in the spreading rate. Spreading appears to have stopped synchronously along the ridge, at about 15.5 Ma. From computed fits of magnetic isochrons, we calculate 10 poles of finite rotation between the times of magnetic anomalies 11 and 5c. The poles permit reconstruction of the Oligo‐Miocene movements of Southeast Asian blocks north and south of the South China Sea. Using such reconstructions, we test quantitatively a simple scenario for the opening of the sea in which seafloor spreading results from the extrusion of Indochina relative to South China, in response to the penetration of India into Asia. This alone yields between 500 and 600 km of left‐lateral motion on the Red River‐Ailao Shan shear zone, with crustal shortening in the San Jiang region and crustal extension in Tonkin. The offset derived from the fit of magnetic isochrons on the South China Sea floor is compatible with the offset of geological markers north and south of the Red River Zone. The first phases of extension of the continental margins of the basin are probably related to motion on the Wang Chao and Three Pagodas Faults, in addition to the Red River Fault. That Indochina rotated at least 12° relative to South China implies that large‐scale “domino” models are inadequate to describe the Cenozoic tectonics of Southeast Asia. The cessation of spreading after 16 Ma appears to be roughly synchronous with the final increments of left‐lateral shear and normal uplift in the Ailao Shan (18 Ma), as well as with incipient collisions between the Australian and the Eurasian plates. Hence no other causes than the activation of new fault zones within the India‐Asia collision zone, north and east of the Red River Fault, and perhaps increased resistance to extrusion along the SE edge of Sundaland, appear to be required to terminate seafloor spreading in the largest marginal basin of the western Pacific and to change the sense of motion on the largest strike‐slip fault of SE Asia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92jb02280",
    doi = "10.1029/92jb02280",
    openalex = "W2048996866",
    references = "doi10102992jb01963, doi101029gm027p0023, doi101029jb093ib12p15085, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101144gslsp19860190107, openalexw617865741"
}

@book{openalexw1529704046,
    author = "Dani, Ahmad Hasan",
    title = "New light on Central Asia",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    openalex = "W1529704046"
}

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size This article is part of the following collections: Critical Reader in Central Asian Studies: 40 Years of Central Asian Survey

@article{doi10108002634939408400858,
    author = "Haghayeghi, Mehrdad",
    title = "Islamic revival in the central Asian Republics",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Central Asian Survey",
    abstract = "Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size This article is part of the following collections: Critical Reader in Central Asian Studies: 40 Years of Central Asian Survey",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/02634939408400858",
    doi = "10.1080/02634939408400858",
    openalex = "W2055714076"
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@incollection{brown1995central,
    author = "Brown, Bess",
    title = "Central Asia",
    year = "1995",
    booktitle = "The Demise of the USSR",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-13139-6\_16",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-349-13139-6\_16",
    pages = "169-183"
}

@article{doi1010160040195195000909,
    author = "Delvaux, Damien and Moeys, Rikkert and Stapel, Gerco and Melnikov, A. I. and Ermikov, V. D.",
    title = "Palaeostress reconstructions and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia, Part I. Palaeozoic and Mesozoic pre-rift evolution",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(95)00090-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0040-1951(95)00090-9",
    openalex = "W2143571800",
    references = "doi1010160040195193902259, doi101017s0016756800059987, doi10102992jb00132, doi101029gd021, doi101038341291a0, doi101038364299a0, doi101111j1365246x1975tb00631x, doi101126science1894201419, doi102113gssgfbulls7xix61309, openalexw353142951"
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Introduction (Beatrice F. Manz.) Historical Background (B. F. Manz.) The Shaping Of Central Asian Identities And Politics The Legacy of the Mongols (Morris Rossabi.) The Symbiosis of Turk and Tajik (Maria Eva Subtelny.) Central Asia as a Part of the Modern Islamic World (John O. Voll.) Volga Tatars in Central Asia, 18th20th Centuries: From Diaspora to Hegemony (Edward J. Lazzerini.) Religion And Ethnic Relations In 20th-Century Central Asia Soviet Uzbekistan: State and Nation in Historical Perspective (Donald S. Carlisle.) Tajiks and the Persian World (Muriel Atkin.) Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia (A. M. Khazanov.) The Influence of Islam in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan (Reef Altoma.) Central Asia And Russia Commensals or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Others in Central Asia (Edward Allworth.) Post-Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence (Bakhtior A. Islamov.)

@article{doi1023072761281,
    author = "Zhou, Xijuan J. and Manz, Beatrice Forbes",
    title = "Central Asia in Historical Perspective.",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Pacific Affairs",
    abstract = "Introduction (Beatrice F. Manz.) Historical Background (B. F. Manz.) The Shaping Of Central Asian Identities And Politics The Legacy of the Mongols (Morris Rossabi.) The Symbiosis of Turk and Tajik (Maria Eva Subtelny.) Central Asia as a Part of the Modern Islamic World (John O. Voll.) Volga Tatars in Central Asia, 18th20th Centuries: From Diaspora to Hegemony (Edward J. Lazzerini.) Religion And Ethnic Relations In 20th-Century Central Asia Soviet Uzbekistan: State and Nation in Historical Perspective (Donald S. Carlisle.) Tajiks and the Persian World (Muriel Atkin.) Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia (A. M. Khazanov.) The Influence of Islam in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan (Reef Altoma.) Central Asia And Russia Commensals or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Others in Central Asia (Edward Allworth.) Post-Soviet Central Asia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: The Economic Background of Interdependence (Bakhtior A. Islamov.)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2761281",
    doi = "10.2307/2761281",
    openalex = "W1999028354"
}

(1996). Islam, the state and ethnicity in Central Asia in historical perspective. Religion, State and Society: Vol. 24, No. 2-3, pp. 91-132.

@article{doi10108009637499608431733,
    author = "Akiner, Shirin",
    title = "Islam, the state and ethnicity in Central Asia in historical perspective",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Religion State \& Society",
    abstract = "(1996). Islam, the state and ethnicity in Central Asia in historical perspective. Religion, State and Society: Vol. 24, No. 2-3, pp. 91-132.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/09637499608431733",
    doi = "10.1080/09637499608431733",
    openalex = "W2079579365",
    references = "christie1920russian, doi101017chol9780521243049, doi101093oso97801951205850010001, doi1015159781474477536, doi102307127724, doi102307130563, doi1023072624936, doi1023072761281, doi102307593389, doi102979124670, doi105860choice274092"
}

Introduction An Yin & Mark Harrison Part I. Geodynamic Models of the Cenozoic Deformation in Asia: 1. A lithospheric-thickening model for the Indo-Asia collision Gregory Houseman and Philip England 2. Neotectonics of Asia: Thin-shell finite-element models with faults X. Kong and P. Bird Part II. Seismotectonics: 3. Seismotectonics of Asia: Some recent progress Wang-Ping Chen and Honn Fao 4. Seismicity and active tectonics of the western Sunda Arc Marco Guzman-Speziale and James F. Ni 5. Tomography and seismic anisotropy of Asia and present and past tectonics Paul M. Davis Part III. Geological Evolution of the Himalaya-Karakoram Ranges: 6. The Himalayan evolution Patrick Le Fort 7. Cooling history, erosion, exhumation and kinematics of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet orogenic belt M. P. Searle 8. Assembly of the crystalline terranes of northwestern Himalaya and Karakoram, northwestern Pakistan C. Page Chamberlain and Peter Zietler 9. The Himalayan foreland basin Douglas W. Burbank, Richard Beck and Thomas Mulder Part IV. Tectonics of the Cenozoic Indo-Asia Collision: 10. Cenozoic tectonics and block rotations in the Tadjik depression, central Asia J. C. Thomas, P. R. Cobbold, A. Wright and D. Gapais 11. Diachronous initiation of transtension along the Ailao Shan-Red River Shear zone, Yunnan (China) and Vietnam T. M. Harrison, P. H. Leloup, F. J. Ryerson, Paul Tapponnier, R. Lacassin and Chen Wenji 12. Cenozoic deformation, rotation, and stress patterns in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan, China Lothar Ratschbacher, Wolfgang Frisch, Chen Chengsheng and Guitang Pan Part V. Mesozoic-Paleozoic Assembly of Asia: 13. Mesozoic deformation and plutonism in the Yunmang Shan: A Chinese metamorphic core complex north of Beijing, China Gregory Davis, Qian Xiangling, Zheng Yadong, Tong Heng Mao, Yu Hao, Wang Cong, George Gehrels, Muhammad Shafiquallah and Joan E. Fryxell 14. Songpan-Ganz complex of the west Qinling Shan as a Triassic remnant ocean basin fill trapped during the Mesozoic tectonic amalgamation of China Da Zhou and Stephan Graham 15. Metamorphism and tectonics of high-pressure and ultra-high-pressure belts in the Dabie-Sulu region, eastern China J. G. Liou, R. Y. Zhang, X. Wang, E. A. Eide, W. G. Ernst and S. Maruyama 16. The Qinling-Dabie ultra-high-pressure collisional orogen B. R. Hacker 17. Mesozoic assembly of Asia: constraints from fossil floras, tectonics, and paleomagnetism Alfred Ziegler, Peter Rees, David Rowley, Andrey Bekker, Li Qing and Michael Hulver 18. Mesozoic inversive wrench tectonics in the Far East: examples from Korea and Japan Shigeru Otoh and Shuichi Yanai 19. Paleo- and neo-tethyan events in northwestern Turkey: geologic and geochronologic constraints A. I. Okay, M. Satir, H. Maluski, M. Siyako, P. Monie, R. Metzger and S. Akyuz 20. A Phanerozoic palinspastic reconstruction of China An Yin and Shangyou Nie 21. Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis A. M. Sengor and Boris Natal'in.

@book{openalexw419070847,
    author = "Yin, An and Harrison, T. Mark",
    title = "The tectonic evolution of Asia",
    year = "1996",
    abstract = "Introduction An Yin \& Mark Harrison Part I. Geodynamic Models of the Cenozoic Deformation in Asia: 1. A lithospheric-thickening model for the Indo-Asia collision Gregory Houseman and Philip England 2. Neotectonics of Asia: Thin-shell finite-element models with faults X. Kong and P. Bird Part II. Seismotectonics: 3. Seismotectonics of Asia: Some recent progress Wang-Ping Chen and Honn Fao 4. Seismicity and active tectonics of the western Sunda Arc Marco Guzman-Speziale and James F. Ni 5. Tomography and seismic anisotropy of Asia and present and past tectonics Paul M. Davis Part III. Geological Evolution of the Himalaya-Karakoram Ranges: 6. The Himalayan evolution Patrick Le Fort 7. Cooling history, erosion, exhumation and kinematics of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet orogenic belt M. P. Searle 8. Assembly of the crystalline terranes of northwestern Himalaya and Karakoram, northwestern Pakistan C. Page Chamberlain and Peter Zietler 9. The Himalayan foreland basin Douglas W. Burbank, Richard Beck and Thomas Mulder Part IV. Tectonics of the Cenozoic Indo-Asia Collision: 10. Cenozoic tectonics and block rotations in the Tadjik depression, central Asia J. C. Thomas, P. R. Cobbold, A. Wright and D. Gapais 11. Diachronous initiation of transtension along the Ailao Shan-Red River Shear zone, Yunnan (China) and Vietnam T. M. Harrison, P. H. Leloup, F. J. Ryerson, Paul Tapponnier, R. Lacassin and Chen Wenji 12. Cenozoic deformation, rotation, and stress patterns in eastern Tibet and western Sichuan, China Lothar Ratschbacher, Wolfgang Frisch, Chen Chengsheng and Guitang Pan Part V. Mesozoic-Paleozoic Assembly of Asia: 13. Mesozoic deformation and plutonism in the Yunmang Shan: A Chinese metamorphic core complex north of Beijing, China Gregory Davis, Qian Xiangling, Zheng Yadong, Tong Heng Mao, Yu Hao, Wang Cong, George Gehrels, Muhammad Shafiquallah and Joan E. Fryxell 14. Songpan-Ganz complex of the west Qinling Shan as a Triassic remnant ocean basin fill trapped during the Mesozoic tectonic amalgamation of China Da Zhou and Stephan Graham 15. Metamorphism and tectonics of high-pressure and ultra-high-pressure belts in the Dabie-Sulu region, eastern China J. G. Liou, R. Y. Zhang, X. Wang, E. A. Eide, W. G. Ernst and S. Maruyama 16. The Qinling-Dabie ultra-high-pressure collisional orogen B. R. Hacker 17. Mesozoic assembly of Asia: constraints from fossil floras, tectonics, and paleomagnetism Alfred Ziegler, Peter Rees, David Rowley, Andrey Bekker, Li Qing and Michael Hulver 18. Mesozoic inversive wrench tectonics in the Far East: examples from Korea and Japan Shigeru Otoh and Shuichi Yanai 19. Paleo- and neo-tethyan events in northwestern Turkey: geologic and geochronologic constraints A. I. Okay, M. Satir, H. Maluski, M. Siyako, P. Monie, R. Metzger and S. Akyuz 20. A Phanerozoic palinspastic reconstruction of China An Yin and Shangyou Nie 21. Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis A. M. Sengor and Boris Natal'in.",
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@article{doi101016s0040195197002102,
    author = "Delvaux, Damien and Moeys, Rikkert and Stapel, Gerco and Petit, Carole and Levi, Kirill and Miroshnichenko, Andrei and Ружич, В. В. and San'kov, Volodia",
    title = "Paleostress reconstructions and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia, Part 2. Cenozoic rifting",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-1951(97)00210-2",
    doi = "10.1016/s0040-1951(97)00210-2",
    openalex = "W2045939711",
    references = "doi1010160040195195000909, doi101017s0016756800059987, doi10102992jb00132, doi101029jb084ib07p03425, doi101038311615a0, doi101126science1894201419, doi1011300091761319890170760apeotr23co2, doi1015159781400863150, doi102113gssgfbulls7xix61309, doi105860choice320317, openalexw3128460785"
}

The Cenozoic collision between India and Asia has deformed a large part of central Asia. To the north of Tibet around the margins of the western Tarim basin, major basin‐vergent thrusting has uplifted and exhumed thick Jurassic to Neogene sedimentary sections; this presumably reflects the propagation of collision‐induced deformation into the basin. Apatite fission track data from five sections involved in this thrusting record strong late Oligocene to middle Miocene exhumation and cooling. On the northwest margin of the basin on the piedmont of the Tian Shan, a section exhumed by thrusting yields an exhumation age of 13.6±2.2 Ma (±1σ). Four Miocene sandstones from a second section 40 km to the east yield detrital source area cooling ages which decrease upsection from 25.0±3.9 to 13.1±2.2 Ma. Landsat imagery suggests that probable sediment source areas were dominated by Neogene thrusting, so these ages likely record progressive unroofing in Tian Shan thrust systems. Deformed Miocene to Pleistocene strata indicate that thrusting has continued and propagated basinward up until the present. Previously published apatite data from the Junggar basin on the northern flank of the Tian Shan yield a similar age of 24.7±3.9 Ma. On the southwest margin of Tarim on the piedmont of the western Kunlun Shan, three sections yield cooling ages of 19.8±0.9 Ma, 20.0±3.1 Ma, and roughly 20 Ma. Farther south at Kudi, previous work has yielded apatite cooling ages of 17±2 Ma and a zircon cooling age of 22±2 Ma. These similar cooling ages over a ≈250 km long belt in the western Kunlun Shan are associated with the transpressional Kumtag fault and the Main Pamir Thrust (MPT). Geologic relations within the western Kunlun Shan suggest that the MPT‐Kumtag fault system offsets the originally linear trend of the Paleozoic‐early Mesozoic Kunlun arc system by 200–300 km, accommodating much of the Neogene northward indentation of the Pamir block. We propose that the ≈20 Ma ages slightly postdate the initiation of this indentation and consequent crustal thickening. Taken together, the Tian Shan and Kunlun Shan results indicate that crustal thickening, in part accommodated by strike‐slip faulting, became the dominant mode of deformation by ≈25–20 Ma in a large region extending from the Pamir and west Kunlun Shan north to the Tian Shan.

@article{doi10102996jb03267,
    author = "Sobel, Edward R. and Dumitru, Trevor A.",
    title = "Thrusting and exhumation around the margins of the western Tarim basin during the India‐Asia collision",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The Cenozoic collision between India and Asia has deformed a large part of central Asia. To the north of Tibet around the margins of the western Tarim basin, major basin‐vergent thrusting has uplifted and exhumed thick Jurassic to Neogene sedimentary sections; this presumably reflects the propagation of collision‐induced deformation into the basin. Apatite fission track data from five sections involved in this thrusting record strong late Oligocene to middle Miocene exhumation and cooling. On the northwest margin of the basin on the piedmont of the Tian Shan, a section exhumed by thrusting yields an exhumation age of 13.6±2.2 Ma (±1σ). Four Miocene sandstones from a second section 40 km to the east yield detrital source area cooling ages which decrease upsection from 25.0±3.9 to 13.1±2.2 Ma. Landsat imagery suggests that probable sediment source areas were dominated by Neogene thrusting, so these ages likely record progressive unroofing in Tian Shan thrust systems. Deformed Miocene to Pleistocene strata indicate that thrusting has continued and propagated basinward up until the present. Previously published apatite data from the Junggar basin on the northern flank of the Tian Shan yield a similar age of 24.7±3.9 Ma. On the southwest margin of Tarim on the piedmont of the western Kunlun Shan, three sections yield cooling ages of 19.8±0.9 Ma, 20.0±3.1 Ma, and roughly 20 Ma. Farther south at Kudi, previous work has yielded apatite cooling ages of 17±2 Ma and a zircon cooling age of 22±2 Ma. These similar cooling ages over a ≈250 km long belt in the western Kunlun Shan are associated with the transpressional Kumtag fault and the Main Pamir Thrust (MPT). Geologic relations within the western Kunlun Shan suggest that the MPT‐Kumtag fault system offsets the originally linear trend of the Paleozoic‐early Mesozoic Kunlun arc system by 200–300 km, accommodating much of the Neogene northward indentation of the Pamir block. We propose that the ≈20 Ma ages slightly postdate the initiation of this indentation and consequent crustal thickening. Taken together, the Tian Shan and Kunlun Shan results indicate that crustal thickening, in part accommodated by strike‐slip faulting, became the dominant mode of deformation by ≈25–20 Ma in a large region extending from the Pamir and west Kunlun Shan north to the Tian Shan.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/96jb03267",
    doi = "10.1029/96jb03267",
    openalex = "W1969077938",
    references = "doi1010160040195193902259, doi101130spe281p1"
}

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), also known as the Altaid Tectonic Collage, is characterised by a vast distribution of Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitic intrusions. The granitoids have a wide range of compositions and roughly show a temporal evolution from calcalkaline to alkaline to peralkaline series. The emplacement times for most granitic plutons fall between 500 Ma and 100 Ma, but only a small proportion of plutons have been precisely dated. The Nd-Sr isotopic compositions of these granitoids suggest their juvenile characteristics, hence implying a massive addition of new continental crust in the Phanerozoic. In this paper we document the available isotopic data to support this conclusion. Most Phanerozoic granitoids of Central Asia are characterised by low initial Sr isotopic ratios, positive ε Nd (T) values and young Sm—Nd model ages (T DM) of 300-1200 Ma. This is in strong contrast with the coeval granitoids emplaced in the European Caledonides and Hercynides. The isotope data indicate their ‘juvenile’ character and suggest their derivation from source rocks or magmas separated shortly before from the upper mantle. Granitoids with negative ε Nd (T) values also exist, but they occur in the environs of Precambrian microcontinental blocks and their isotope compositions may reflect contamination by the older crust in the magma generation processes. The evolution of the CAOB is probably related to accretion of young arc complexes and old terranes (microcontinents). However, the emplacement of large volumes of post-tectonic granites requires another mechanism, probably through a series of processes including underplating of massive basaltic magma, intercalation of basaltic magma with lower crustal granulites, partial melting of the mixed lithologic assemblages leading to generation of granitic liquids, followed by extensive fractional crystallisation. The proportions of the juvenile or mantle component for most granitoids of Central Asia are estimated to vary from 70% to 100%.

@article{doi101017s0263593300007367,
    author = "Jahn, Bor‐ming and Wu, Fu‐Yuan and Chen, Bin",
    title = "Granitoids of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt and continental growth in the Phanerozoic",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh",
    abstract = "The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), also known as the Altaid Tectonic Collage, is characterised by a vast distribution of Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitic intrusions. The granitoids have a wide range of compositions and roughly show a temporal evolution from calcalkaline to alkaline to peralkaline series. The emplacement times for most granitic plutons fall between 500 Ma and 100 Ma, but only a small proportion of plutons have been precisely dated. The Nd-Sr isotopic compositions of these granitoids suggest their juvenile characteristics, hence implying a massive addition of new continental crust in the Phanerozoic. In this paper we document the available isotopic data to support this conclusion. Most Phanerozoic granitoids of Central Asia are characterised by low initial Sr isotopic ratios, positive ε Nd (T) values and young Sm—Nd model ages (T DM) of 300-1200 Ma. This is in strong contrast with the coeval granitoids emplaced in the European Caledonides and Hercynides. The isotope data indicate their ‘juvenile’ character and suggest their derivation from source rocks or magmas separated shortly before from the upper mantle. Granitoids with negative ε Nd (T) values also exist, but they occur in the environs of Precambrian microcontinental blocks and their isotope compositions may reflect contamination by the older crust in the magma generation processes. The evolution of the CAOB is probably related to accretion of young arc complexes and old terranes (microcontinents). However, the emplacement of large volumes of post-tectonic granites requires another mechanism, probably through a series of processes including underplating of massive basaltic magma, intercalation of basaltic magma with lower crustal granulites, partial melting of the mixed lithologic assemblages leading to generation of granitic liquids, followed by extensive fractional crystallisation. The proportions of the juvenile or mantle component for most granitoids of Central Asia are estimated to vary from 70\% to 100\%.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0263593300007367",
    doi = "10.1017/s0263593300007367",
    openalex = "W2103463307",
    references = "doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101029gd021, doi101038364299a0"
}

Cenozoic rifts in Tibet were traditionally interpreted as a result of topographic collapse of the Tibetan Plateau, reaching the maximum elevation that can be supported by its mechanical strength. Recent studies have emphasized possible similarities between rifting in Tibet and extension in the Basin and Range of the western United States. However, when examined in detail, one finds that spacing of long (>100 km) rifts in Tibet (∼100–300 km) is significantly greater than that in the Basin and Range (∼20–40 km). From south to north, rift spacing decreases systematically: from 191±67 km in the Himalaya south of the Indus‐Yalu suture to 146±34 km in south Tibet between the Indus‐Yalu and Bangong‐Nujiang sutures and farther north to 101±31 km in central Tibet between the Bangong‐Nujiang and Jinsha sutures. Instability analysis suggests that the mantle lithosphere must have been involved in east‐west Tibetan extension. Specifically, the widely spaced rifts in The Himalaya and Tibet may have been related to the presence of a relatively light crust (density <∼2.90 g cm −3) and a strong mantle lithosphere (∼40 km thick and a factor of 5 stronger than the upper crust). The observed systematic decrease in rift spacing can be explained by the known decrease in the crustal thickness in Tibet, from ∼70–80 km in The Himalaya in the south to ∼50–55 km in central Tibet in the north. A regional comparison of rifts in east Asia suggests that both the involvement of the mantle lithosphere and the age of rift initiation are similar for Tibetan rifts, the Baikal rift, and the Shanxi graben. This implies that topographic collapse or a convective event in the mantle cannot be the sole cause for the development of the Tibetan rifts. A regional boundary condition applied throughout east Asia must be required.

@article{doi1010292000jb900168,
    author = "Yin, An",
    title = "Mode of Cenozoic east‐west extension in Tibet suggesting a common origin of rifts in Asia during the Indo‐Asian collision",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Cenozoic rifts in Tibet were traditionally interpreted as a result of topographic collapse of the Tibetan Plateau, reaching the maximum elevation that can be supported by its mechanical strength. Recent studies have emphasized possible similarities between rifting in Tibet and extension in the Basin and Range of the western United States. However, when examined in detail, one finds that spacing of long (>100 km) rifts in Tibet (∼100–300 km) is significantly greater than that in the Basin and Range (∼20–40 km). From south to north, rift spacing decreases systematically: from 191±67 km in the Himalaya south of the Indus‐Yalu suture to 146±34 km in south Tibet between the Indus‐Yalu and Bangong‐Nujiang sutures and farther north to 101±31 km in central Tibet between the Bangong‐Nujiang and Jinsha sutures. Instability analysis suggests that the mantle lithosphere must have been involved in east‐west Tibetan extension. Specifically, the widely spaced rifts in The Himalaya and Tibet may have been related to the presence of a relatively light crust (density <∼2.90 g cm −3) and a strong mantle lithosphere (∼40 km thick and a factor of 5 stronger than the upper crust). The observed systematic decrease in rift spacing can be explained by the known decrease in the crustal thickness in Tibet, from ∼70–80 km in The Himalaya in the south to ∼50–55 km in central Tibet in the north. A regional comparison of rifts in east Asia suggests that both the involvement of the mantle lithosphere and the age of rift initiation are similar for Tibetan rifts, the Baikal rift, and the Shanxi graben. This implies that topographic collapse or a convective event in the mantle cannot be the sole cause for the development of the Tibetan rifts. A regional boundary condition applied throughout east Asia must be required.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jb900168",
    doi = "10.1029/2000jb900168",
    openalex = "W2068691195",
    references = "doi101016s0040195197002102"
}

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), also known as the Altaid Tectonic Collage, is characterized by vast distribution of Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitic intrusions as well as basaltic to rhyolitic volcanics. The granitoids have a wide range of compositions and roughly show a temporal evolution from calc-alkaline, alkaline to peralkaline series. The emplacement times for most granitic plutons fall between 500 to 120 Ma, but only a small proportion of plutons have been precisely dated. In this paper we document the available Nd isotopic data to advocate that massive juvenile continental crust was generated during the Phanerozoic in Central Asia.

@article{doi1018814epiiugs2000v23i2001,
    author = "Jahn, Bor‐ming and Wu, Fu‐Yuan and Чэн, Бин",
    title = "Massive granitoid generation in Central Asia: Nd isotope evidence and implication for continental growth in the Phanerozoic",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Episodes",
    abstract = "The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), also known as the Altaid Tectonic Collage, is characterized by vast distribution of Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitic intrusions as well as basaltic to rhyolitic volcanics. The granitoids have a wide range of compositions and roughly show a temporal evolution from calc-alkaline, alkaline to peralkaline series. The emplacement times for most granitic plutons fall between 500 to 120 Ma, but only a small proportion of plutons have been precisely dated. In this paper we document the available Nd isotopic data to advocate that massive juvenile continental crust was generated during the Phanerozoic in Central Asia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2000/v23i2/001",
    doi = "10.18814/epiiugs/2000/v23i2/001",
    openalex = "W2897983685",
    references = "doi101007bf00374895, doi101007bf00402202, doi1010160031920186900932, doi101016s0016703799000277, doi101016s0040195197001868, doi10102995rg00262, doi101098rsta19810122, doi1011300091761319910190163atgrao23co2, doi1011300091761319920200641csotat23co2, openalexw1624806571"
}

@article{doi101177097492840105700306,
    author = "Badan, Phool",
    title = "Emerging Political System in Central Asia in The Post-Soviet Period",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "India Quarterly A Journal of International Affairs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/097492840105700306",
    doi = "10.1177/097492840105700306",
    openalex = "W338688628",
    references = "christie1920russian, doi101017cbo9780511559204010, doi101017cbo9780511559204011, doi10108002634939408400858, doi10108002634939608400931, doi1015259780520317758, doi1023072090913, doi1023072755209, doi105860choice274741, openalexw1529704046"
}

Intercontinental movements of invasive species continue to modify the world's ecosystems. The plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) has colonized and altered animal communities worldwide but has received much more attention as a human pathogen. We reviewed studies on the ecology of Y. pestis in ancient foci of central Asia and in western North America, where the bacterium apparently has become established much more recently. Although rodent populations on both continents are affected dramatically by epizootics of plague, the epidemiologically important species of Asia demonstrate resistance in portions of their populations, whereas those of North America are highly susceptible. Individual variation in resistance, which is widespread in Asian rodents and allows a microevolutionary response, has been documented in few North American species of rodents. Plague increases costs of sociality and coloniality in susceptible hosts, increases benefits of disease resistance in general, and increases benefits of adaptability to variable environments for species at higher trophic levels. Prairie dogs (Cynomys) epitomize taxa with high risk to plague because prairie dogs have uniformly low resistance to plague and are highly social. Relationships to plague are poorly understood for many North American rodents, but more than one-half of the species of conservation concern occur within the geographic range of plague.

@article{doi1016441545154220010820906ioipon20co2,
    author = "Biggins, Dean E. and Kosoy, Michael",
    title = "INFLUENCES OF INTRODUCED PLAGUE ON NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS: IMPLICATIONS FROM ECOLOGY OF PLAGUE IN ASIA",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Mammalogy",
    abstract = "Intercontinental movements of invasive species continue to modify the world's ecosystems. The plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) has colonized and altered animal communities worldwide but has received much more attention as a human pathogen. We reviewed studies on the ecology of Y. pestis in ancient foci of central Asia and in western North America, where the bacterium apparently has become established much more recently. Although rodent populations on both continents are affected dramatically by epizootics of plague, the epidemiologically important species of Asia demonstrate resistance in portions of their populations, whereas those of North America are highly susceptible. Individual variation in resistance, which is widespread in Asian rodents and allows a microevolutionary response, has been documented in few North American species of rodents. Plague increases costs of sociality and coloniality in susceptible hosts, increases benefits of disease resistance in general, and increases benefits of adaptability to variable environments for species at higher trophic levels. Prairie dogs (Cynomys) epitomize taxa with high risk to plague because prairie dogs have uniformly low resistance to plague and are highly social. Relationships to plague are poorly understood for many North American rodents, but more than one-half of the species of conservation concern occur within the geographic range of plague.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0906:ioipon>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0906:ioipon>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2172699566",
    references = "doi101017s0022172400008652"
}

@book{openalexw1510147166,
    author = "Skrine, Frances Henry",
    title = "The Heart of Asia: A History of Russian Turkestan and the Central Asian Khanates from the Earliest Times",
    year = "2001",
    openalex = "W1510147166"
}

@article{doi101016s1367912002000172,
    author = "Badarch, Gombosuren and Cunningham, W. Dickson and Windley, Brian F.",
    title = "A new terrane subdivision for Mongolia: implications for the Phanerozoic crustal growth of Central Asia",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Journal of Asian Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s1367-9120(02)00017-2",
    doi = "10.1016/s1367-9120(02)00017-2",
    openalex = "W2034223887",
    references = "doi101016s0040195100001827, doi101016s0040195199000426, doi101029tc009i002p00249, doi101038288329a0, doi101038364299a0, openalexw1998354960, openalexw2346629672, openalexw353142951, openalexw419070847"
}

We present new geodetic results of crustal velocities over a large part of northern Asia based on GPS measurements in the Baikal rift zone and Mongolia spanning the 1994–2002 period. We combine our results with the GPS velocity field for China of Wang et al. [2001] and derive a consistent velocity field for most of Asia. We find contrasted kinematic and strain regimes in Mongolia, with northward velocities and N‐S shortening in westernmost Mongolia but eastward to southeastward motion and left‐lateral shear for central and eastern Mongolia. This eastward to southeastward motion of central and eastern Mongolia is accommodated by left‐lateral slip on the E‐W trending Tunka, Bolnay, and Gobi Altay faults (2 ± 1.2 mm yr −1, 2.6 ± 1.0 mm yr −1, and 1.2 mm yr −1, respectively) and by about 4 mm yr −1 of extension across the Baikal rift zone. Consequently, ∼15% of the India‐Eurasia convergence is accommodated north of the Tien Shan, by N‐S shortening combined with dextral shear in the Mongolian Altay and by eastward displacements along major left‐lateral strike‐slip faults in central and eastern Mongolia. We find a counterclockwise rotation of north and south China as a quasi‐rigid block around a pole north of the Stanovoy belt, which rules out the existence of an Amurian plate as previously defined and implies <2 mm yr −1 of left‐lateral slip on the Qinling Shan fault zone.

@article{doi1010292002jb002373,
    author = "Calais, E. and Vergnolle, Mathilde and Sankov, V. A. and Лухнев, А. В. and Miroshnitchenko, Andrei and Amarjargal, Sharavyn and Déverchère, Jacques",
    title = "GPS measurements of crustal deformation in the Baikal‐Mongolia area (1994–2002): Implications for current kinematics of Asia",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We present new geodetic results of crustal velocities over a large part of northern Asia based on GPS measurements in the Baikal rift zone and Mongolia spanning the 1994–2002 period. We combine our results with the GPS velocity field for China of Wang et al. [2001] and derive a consistent velocity field for most of Asia. We find contrasted kinematic and strain regimes in Mongolia, with northward velocities and N‐S shortening in westernmost Mongolia but eastward to southeastward motion and left‐lateral shear for central and eastern Mongolia. This eastward to southeastward motion of central and eastern Mongolia is accommodated by left‐lateral slip on the E‐W trending Tunka, Bolnay, and Gobi Altay faults (2 ± 1.2 mm yr −1, 2.6 ± 1.0 mm yr −1, and 1.2 mm yr −1, respectively) and by about 4 mm yr −1 of extension across the Baikal rift zone. Consequently, ∼15\% of the India‐Eurasia convergence is accommodated north of the Tien Shan, by N‐S shortening combined with dextral shear in the Mongolian Altay and by eastward displacements along major left‐lateral strike‐slip faults in central and eastern Mongolia. We find a counterclockwise rotation of north and south China as a quasi‐rigid block around a pole north of the Stanovoy belt, which rules out the existence of an Amurian plate as previously defined and implies <2 mm yr −1 of left‐lateral slip on the Qinling Shan fault zone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2002jb002373",
    doi = "10.1029/2002jb002373",
    openalex = "W2142307609",
    references = "doi101016s0040195197002102"
}

A >500‐km‐long east‐west trending metamorphic belt in the Qiangtang terrane of central Tibet consists of tectonic melange that occurs in the footwalls of Late Triassic–Early Jurassic domal low‐angle normal faults. The melange is comprised of a strongly deformed matrix of metasedimentary and mafic schists that encloses lesser‐deformed blocks of metabasites, Carboniferous–Triassic metasedimentary rocks, and early Paleozoic gneiss. Both the blocks and melange matrix exhibit greenschist, epidote‐blueschist, and locally, epidote‐amphibolite facies mineral assemblages. Thermobarometry reveals that the metamorphic belt experienced pressures of >10 kbar. Maximum equilibration temperatures for mafic schists in the melange matrix decrease from east to west, from ∼660°C near Shuang Hu (33°N, 89°E), ∼500°C near Rongma (33°N, 87°E), to ∼425°C near Gangma Co (34°N, 84°E). Equilibration at consistently high pressures over a large range of temperatures is compatible with metamorphism of Qiangtang melange within a low‐angle subduction zone beneath a continental margin. Coupled structural, thermobarometric, and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar studies suggest that Qiangtang melange was exhumed in an intracontinental setting from depths of >35 km to upper crustal levels in <12 Myr by Late Triassic–Early Jurassic crustal‐scale normal faulting. Detrital zircons from metasandstones within the melange matrix yield U‐Pb ion‐microprobe ages that range from early Paleozoic to Early Archean, and could have been sourced from terranes to the north of the Jinsha suture. Our results support a model in which Qiangtang melange was underthrust ∼200 km beneath the Qiangtang terrane during early Mesozoic flat‐slab southward subduction of Paleo‐Tethyan oceanic lithosphere along the Jinsha suture. This model predicts that significant portions of the central Tibetan continental mantle lithosphere were removed during early Mesozoic low‐angle oceanic subduction and that the present‐day central Tibetan deeper crust includes large volumes of underthrust early Mesozoic melange.

@article{doi1010292002tc001383,
    author = "Kapp, Paul and Yin, An and Manning, C. E. and Harrison, T. Mark and Taylor, Michael H. and Ding, Lin",
    title = "Tectonic evolution of the early Mesozoic blueschist‐bearing Qiangtang metamorphic belt, central Tibet",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "A >500‐km‐long east‐west trending metamorphic belt in the Qiangtang terrane of central Tibet consists of tectonic melange that occurs in the footwalls of Late Triassic–Early Jurassic domal low‐angle normal faults. The melange is comprised of a strongly deformed matrix of metasedimentary and mafic schists that encloses lesser‐deformed blocks of metabasites, Carboniferous–Triassic metasedimentary rocks, and early Paleozoic gneiss. Both the blocks and melange matrix exhibit greenschist, epidote‐blueschist, and locally, epidote‐amphibolite facies mineral assemblages. Thermobarometry reveals that the metamorphic belt experienced pressures of >10 kbar. Maximum equilibration temperatures for mafic schists in the melange matrix decrease from east to west, from ∼660°C near Shuang Hu (33°N, 89°E), ∼500°C near Rongma (33°N, 87°E), to ∼425°C near Gangma Co (34°N, 84°E). Equilibration at consistently high pressures over a large range of temperatures is compatible with metamorphism of Qiangtang melange within a low‐angle subduction zone beneath a continental margin. Coupled structural, thermobarometric, and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar studies suggest that Qiangtang melange was exhumed in an intracontinental setting from depths of >35 km to upper crustal levels in <12 Myr by Late Triassic–Early Jurassic crustal‐scale normal faulting. Detrital zircons from metasandstones within the melange matrix yield U‐Pb ion‐microprobe ages that range from early Paleozoic to Early Archean, and could have been sourced from terranes to the north of the Jinsha suture. Our results support a model in which Qiangtang melange was underthrust ∼200 km beneath the Qiangtang terrane during early Mesozoic flat‐slab southward subduction of Paleo‐Tethyan oceanic lithosphere along the Jinsha suture. This model predicts that significant portions of the central Tibetan continental mantle lithosphere were removed during early Mesozoic low‐angle oceanic subduction and that the present‐day central Tibetan deeper crust includes large volumes of underthrust early Mesozoic melange.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2002tc001383",
    doi = "10.1029/2002tc001383",
    openalex = "W2104680596"
}

The Solonker suture records the termination of the central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). However, tectonic development of the Solonker suture is poorly understood. We report new field data for the Ondor Sum melange in the Ulan valley, and present a new evaluation of the orogenic belt extending from the southern Mongolia cratonic boundary to the north China craton within the context of a new geological framework and tectonic model, which incorporates relevant data from the literature. The southern accretionary zone between the north China craton and the Solonker suture is characterized by the Mid‐Ordovician‐Early Silurian Ulan island arc‐Ondor Sum subduction‐accretion complex and the Bainaimiao arc. This zone was consolidated by the Carboniferous‐Permian when it evolved into an Andean‐type magmatic margin above a south dipping subduction zone. The northern accretionary zone north of the Solonker suture extends southward from a Devonian to Carboniferous active continental margin, through the Hegenshan ophiolite‐arc accretionary complex to the Late Carboniferous Baolidao arc associated with some accreted Precambrian blocks. This northern zone had consolidated by the Permian when it developed into an Andean‐type magmatic margin above a north dipping subduction zone. Final subduction of the central Asian ocean caused the two opposing active continental margins to collide, leading to formation of the Solonker suture in the end‐Permian. Predominant northward subduction during final formation of the suture gave rise in the upper northern plate to a large‐scale, postcollisional, south directed thrust and fold belt in the Triassic‐Jurassic. In summary, the CAOB underwent three final stages of tectonic development: early Japanese‐type accretion, Andean‐type magmatism, and Himalayan‐type collision.

@article{doi1010292002tc001484,
    author = "Xiao, Wenjiao and Windley, Brian F. and Hao, Jie and Zhai, Mingguo",
    title = "Accretion leading to collision and the Permian Solonker suture, Inner Mongolia, China: Termination of the central Asian orogenic belt",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "The Solonker suture records the termination of the central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB). However, tectonic development of the Solonker suture is poorly understood. We report new field data for the Ondor Sum melange in the Ulan valley, and present a new evaluation of the orogenic belt extending from the southern Mongolia cratonic boundary to the north China craton within the context of a new geological framework and tectonic model, which incorporates relevant data from the literature. The southern accretionary zone between the north China craton and the Solonker suture is characterized by the Mid‐Ordovician‐Early Silurian Ulan island arc‐Ondor Sum subduction‐accretion complex and the Bainaimiao arc. This zone was consolidated by the Carboniferous‐Permian when it evolved into an Andean‐type magmatic margin above a south dipping subduction zone. The northern accretionary zone north of the Solonker suture extends southward from a Devonian to Carboniferous active continental margin, through the Hegenshan ophiolite‐arc accretionary complex to the Late Carboniferous Baolidao arc associated with some accreted Precambrian blocks. This northern zone had consolidated by the Permian when it developed into an Andean‐type magmatic margin above a north dipping subduction zone. Final subduction of the central Asian ocean caused the two opposing active continental margins to collide, leading to formation of the Solonker suture in the end‐Permian. Predominant northward subduction during final formation of the suture gave rise in the upper northern plate to a large‐scale, postcollisional, south directed thrust and fold belt in the Triassic‐Jurassic. In summary, the CAOB underwent three final stages of tectonic development: early Japanese‐type accretion, Andean‐type magmatism, and Himalayan‐type collision.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2002tc001484",
    doi = "10.1029/2002tc001484",
    openalex = "W2130869872",
    references = "doi1010160040195190900162, doi101016s0009254102000189, doi101016s0040195100001827, doi101016s1367912002000172, doi101017s0263593300007367, doi101029gd021, doi101038364299a0, doi10113000167606198495295aootpt20co2, openalexw2346629672"
}

@article{doi10108009637490308282,
    author = "Akiner, Shirin",
    title = "The Politicisation of Islam in Postsoviet Central Asia",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Religion State \& Society",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/09637490308282",
    doi = "10.1080/09637490308282",
    openalex = "W2029806572",
    references = "doi10108009637499608431733"
}

The Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region is China's largest administrative unit and is populated by predominantly non-Han Chinese peoples. Throughout the 1991-2001 period, Xinjiang has witnessed regular and sometimes violent incidents of Uighur opposition to Chinese control of the region. The re-emergence of ethnic nationalist sentiment in Xinjiang has serious implications not only for China's internal economic and political development but also for its foreign relations with the states of Central Asia. This paper will argue that this process does not follow an internal-external trajectory exclusively, in that both its foreign policy objectives and the international environment in which those objectives are pursued can also influence China's policies in Xinjiang. Conversely, reformulation of Chinese foreign policy objectives toward certain states can also have an impact upon the formulation and implementation of minority policy within Xinjiang. An example of these processes is China's relations with the post-Soviet Central Asian Republics. This paper argues that China's relations with these states over the 1991-2001 period have been influenced by both fragmenting and integrating dynamics, whereby renewed ethno-religious conflicts have developed in parallel with increasing economic and political integration across Central Asia and Xinjiang.

@article{doi10108014631360301653,
    author = "Clarke, Michael",
    title = "Xinjiang and China's Relations with Central Asia, 1991-2001: Across the 'Domestic-Foreign Frontier'?",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Asian Ethnicity",
    abstract = "The Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region is China's largest administrative unit and is populated by predominantly non-Han Chinese peoples. Throughout the 1991-2001 period, Xinjiang has witnessed regular and sometimes violent incidents of Uighur opposition to Chinese control of the region. The re-emergence of ethnic nationalist sentiment in Xinjiang has serious implications not only for China's internal economic and political development but also for its foreign relations with the states of Central Asia. This paper will argue that this process does not follow an internal-external trajectory exclusively, in that both its foreign policy objectives and the international environment in which those objectives are pursued can also influence China's policies in Xinjiang. Conversely, reformulation of Chinese foreign policy objectives toward certain states can also have an impact upon the formulation and implementation of minority policy within Xinjiang. An example of these processes is China's relations with the post-Soviet Central Asian Republics. This paper argues that China's relations with these states over the 1991-2001 period have been influenced by both fragmenting and integrating dynamics, whereby renewed ethno-religious conflicts have developed in parallel with increasing economic and political integration across Central Asia and Xinjiang.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/14631360301653",
    doi = "10.1080/14631360301653",
    openalex = "W2028763219",
    references = "doi1023072643643"
}

Abstract Asia is the world’s largest composite continent, comprising numerous old cratonic blocks and young mobile belts. During the Phanerozoic it was enlarged by successive accretion of dispersed Gondwana-derived terranes. The opening and closing of palaeo-oceans would have inevitably produced a certain amount of fresh mantle-derived juvenile crust. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), otherwise known as the Altaid tectonic collage, is now celebrated for its accretionary tectonics and massive juvenile crustal production in the Phanerozoic. It is composed of a variety of tectonic units, including Precambrian microcontinental blocks, ancient island arcs, ocean island, accretionary complexes, ophiolites and passive continental margins. Yet, the most outstanding feature is the vast expanse of granitic intrusions and their volcanic equivalents. Since granitoids are generated in lower-to-middle crustal conditions, they are used to probe the nature of their crustal sources, and to evaluate the relative contribution of juvenile v. recycled crust in the orogenic belts. Using the Nd-Sr isotope tracer technique, the majority of granitoids from the CAOB can be shown to contain high proportions (60 to 100%) of the mantle component in their generation. This implies an important crustal growth in continental scale during the period of 500–100 Ma. The evolution of the CAOB undoubtedly involved both lateral and vertical accretion of juvenile material. The lateral accretion implies stacking of arc complexes, accompanied by amalgamation of old microcontinental blocks. Parts of the accreted arc assemblages were later converted into granitoids via underplating of basaltic magmas. The emplacement of large volumes of post-accretionary alkaline and peralkaline granites was most likely achieved by vertical accretion through a series of processes, including underplating of basaltic magma, mixing of basaltic liquid with lower-crustal rocks, partial melting of the mixed lithologies leading to generation of granitic liquids, and followed by fractional crystallization. The recognition of vast juvenile terranes in the Canadian Cordillera, the western US, the Appalachians and the Central Asian Orogenic Belt has considerably changed our view on the growth rate of the continental crust in the Phanerozoic.

@article{doi101144gslsp20042260105,
    author = "Jahn, Bor‐ming",
    title = "The Central Asian Orogenic Belt and growth of the continental crust in the Phanerozoic",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Abstract Asia is the world’s largest composite continent, comprising numerous old cratonic blocks and young mobile belts. During the Phanerozoic it was enlarged by successive accretion of dispersed Gondwana-derived terranes. The opening and closing of palaeo-oceans would have inevitably produced a certain amount of fresh mantle-derived juvenile crust. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), otherwise known as the Altaid tectonic collage, is now celebrated for its accretionary tectonics and massive juvenile crustal production in the Phanerozoic. It is composed of a variety of tectonic units, including Precambrian microcontinental blocks, ancient island arcs, ocean island, accretionary complexes, ophiolites and passive continental margins. Yet, the most outstanding feature is the vast expanse of granitic intrusions and their volcanic equivalents. Since granitoids are generated in lower-to-middle crustal conditions, they are used to probe the nature of their crustal sources, and to evaluate the relative contribution of juvenile v. recycled crust in the orogenic belts. Using the Nd-Sr isotope tracer technique, the majority of granitoids from the CAOB can be shown to contain high proportions (60 to 100\%) of the mantle component in their generation. This implies an important crustal growth in continental scale during the period of 500–100 Ma. The evolution of the CAOB undoubtedly involved both lateral and vertical accretion of juvenile material. The lateral accretion implies stacking of arc complexes, accompanied by amalgamation of old microcontinental blocks. Parts of the accreted arc assemblages were later converted into granitoids via underplating of basaltic magmas. The emplacement of large volumes of post-accretionary alkaline and peralkaline granites was most likely achieved by vertical accretion through a series of processes, including underplating of basaltic magma, mixing of basaltic liquid with lower-crustal rocks, partial melting of the mixed lithologies leading to generation of granitic liquids, and followed by fractional crystallization. The recognition of vast juvenile terranes in the Canadian Cordillera, the western US, the Appalachians and the Central Asian Orogenic Belt has considerably changed our view on the growth rate of the continental crust in the Phanerozoic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.2004.226.01.05",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.2004.226.01.05",
    openalex = "W2169016685",
    references = "doi101016004019519090004r, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101016s1367912003001305, doi1018814epiiugs2000v23i2001"
}

The book relates to the Uzbegs and provides an account of their origin, antecedents, early exploits, conquests and finally the occupation of Central Asia in the sixteenth century. Since three kingdoms namely the Mughals of India, the Safavids of Persia and the Uzbegs of Turan had been established simultaneously, their mutual relations are a natural part of the study in this book. The tripartite relations among these powers indicate how the medieval diplomacy rehearsed what was to follow in the shape of a Big Game in the later centuries. Due to the lack of adequate material on the Uzbeg history and its culture, even their cultural heritage and contribution to the fine arts had been passed off as being a Perisan legacy. The present work, presents this warrior group with all their mundane aspirations and medieval imperialist achievements along with a depiction of their keen interest in the sphere of culture. The ruling dynasty of the Uzbegs produced men of talent who possessed command over the sword and the pen alike. Even well-known warriors from amongst them had excelled in mastering and patronizing various fine arts. The florescence of art, learning and culture as ensured by the Uzbegs in the best traditions of Central Asia has also been described in this work alongside their battles and annexations. It is the first work on the history and culture of the Uzbegs in English language published in this country. It is primarily based on original, contemporary and later sources though most of the available modern works in Persian, English, Russian, Uzbeg and French have also been drawn upon.

@article{doi10230720477194,
    author = "Mansour, Mohamed El",
    title = ": Central Asia in the Sixteenth Century",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Sixteenth Century Journal",
    abstract = "The book relates to the Uzbegs and provides an account of their origin, antecedents, early exploits, conquests and finally the occupation of Central Asia in the sixteenth century. Since three kingdoms namely the Mughals of India, the Safavids of Persia and the Uzbegs of Turan had been established simultaneously, their mutual relations are a natural part of the study in this book. The tripartite relations among these powers indicate how the medieval diplomacy rehearsed what was to follow in the shape of a Big Game in the later centuries. Due to the lack of adequate material on the Uzbeg history and its culture, even their cultural heritage and contribution to the fine arts had been passed off as being a Perisan legacy. The present work, presents this warrior group with all their mundane aspirations and medieval imperialist achievements along with a depiction of their keen interest in the sphere of culture. The ruling dynasty of the Uzbegs produced men of talent who possessed command over the sword and the pen alike. Even well-known warriors from amongst them had excelled in mastering and patronizing various fine arts. The florescence of art, learning and culture as ensured by the Uzbegs in the best traditions of Central Asia has also been described in this work alongside their battles and annexations. It is the first work on the history and culture of the Uzbegs in English language published in this country. It is primarily based on original, contemporary and later sources though most of the available modern works in Persian, English, Russian, Uzbeg and French have also been drawn upon.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/20477194",
    doi = "10.2307/20477194",
    openalex = "W37440439"
}

This paper deals with the various tectonic units in the Chinese Eastern Tianshan orogenic collage in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, and discusses the Paleozoic geological history of the several periods of accretion and collision of archipelago systems lying between the Tarim and southern Angaran continental margins. The Late Ordovician-Silurian to Early Devonian Eastern Tianshan archipelago was characterized by (a) the Harlik-Dananhu subduction system with a S-dipping polarity in the north; (b) a southerly N-dipping subduction system beneath the Central Tianshan arc in the middle; and (c) the South Tianshan ocean against Tarim in the south. During the Devonian to Early Carboniferous, N-dipping subduction led to the Harlik-Dananhu arc and the Kanggurtag forearc basin/accretionary complex. In the Early to Mid-Carboniferous, the magmatic front associated with the N-dipping subduction beneath the Dananhu-Harlik arc migrated southwards, forming the Yamansu arc constructed upon the Kanggurtag accretionary forearc. By the Late Carboniferous the Dananhu-Harlik arc was attached northwards to the Angaran margin, resulting in lateral enlargement of the Angaran continent. In the latest Carboniferous to Early Permian a multiple soft collision left wide suture zones in the south that include the ophiolite-strewn Aqikkuduk-Shaquanzi and Kumishi accretion-collision complexes, which were stitched by Early Permian post-collisional plutons. By re-defining and re-interpreting the various tectonic terranes, this paper presents a new, improved model for the Paleozoic evolution of this part of Central Asia.

@article{doi102475ajs3044370,
    author = "Xiao, Wenjiao",
    title = "Paleozoic accretionary and collisional tectonics of the eastern Tianshan (China): Implications for the continental growth of central Asia",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    abstract = "This paper deals with the various tectonic units in the Chinese Eastern Tianshan orogenic collage in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, and discusses the Paleozoic geological history of the several periods of accretion and collision of archipelago systems lying between the Tarim and southern Angaran continental margins. The Late Ordovician-Silurian to Early Devonian Eastern Tianshan archipelago was characterized by (a) the Harlik-Dananhu subduction system with a S-dipping polarity in the north; (b) a southerly N-dipping subduction system beneath the Central Tianshan arc in the middle; and (c) the South Tianshan ocean against Tarim in the south. During the Devonian to Early Carboniferous, N-dipping subduction led to the Harlik-Dananhu arc and the Kanggurtag forearc basin/accretionary complex. In the Early to Mid-Carboniferous, the magmatic front associated with the N-dipping subduction beneath the Dananhu-Harlik arc migrated southwards, forming the Yamansu arc constructed upon the Kanggurtag accretionary forearc. By the Late Carboniferous the Dananhu-Harlik arc was attached northwards to the Angaran margin, resulting in lateral enlargement of the Angaran continent. In the latest Carboniferous to Early Permian a multiple soft collision left wide suture zones in the south that include the ophiolite-strewn Aqikkuduk-Shaquanzi and Kumishi accretion-collision complexes, which were stitched by Early Permian post-collisional plutons. By re-defining and re-interpreting the various tectonic terranes, this paper presents a new, improved model for the Paleozoic evolution of this part of Central Asia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.304.4.370",
    doi = "10.2475/ajs.304.4.370",
    openalex = "W2162457106",
    references = "doi101016004019519090004r, doi1010160040195193902259, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi1010292002tc001484, doi1011440016764903165"
}

Uppermost Cretaceous to Eocene marine sedimentary sequences occur both to the south and north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture in south central Tibet. They consist of Indian‐margin strata of the northern Tethyan Himalaya and Asian‐margin strata of the Gangdese forearc. Both assemblages are characterized by major changes in depositional environment and sedimentary provenance at ∼65 Ma and an appearance of detrital chromium‐rich spinel of ophiolite affinity (TiO 2 generally <0.1 wt%) during the Paleocene. Ophiolitic melange exposed along the suture could have provided a source for detrital spinel. The melange occurs in the hanging wall of a north dipping, south directed mylonitic shear zone which includes a tectonic sliver of mafic schist. Amphibole from the schist yields 40 Ar/ 39 Ar ages of ∼63 Ma, which we attribute to cooling during slip along the shear zone and southward obduction of the melange. Melange obduction was coeval with the development of an angular unconformity within the Gangdese forearc basin to the north (between late Maastrichtian time and ∼62 Ma). Upper Paleocene to middle Eocene sandstones in the northern Tethyan Himalaya yield 200–120 Ma U‐Pb detrital zircon ages and 190–170 Ma 40 Ar/ 39 Ar detrital mica ages. These detrital grains were most likely sourced from regions north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture, suggesting that onset of India‐Asia collision in south central Tibet is middle Eocene or older in age. Collectively, our results support previous suggestions that oceanic rocks were obducted onto the northern margin of India during latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary time. Coeval changes in Gangdese forearc sedimentation raise the possibility that this obduction event marks onset of tectonic interaction between India and Asia at ∼65 Ma. Alternatively, in concert with the conventional view of Eocene collision initiation, the obducted oceanic rocks may be of intraoceanic origin, while coeval changes in Gangdese forearc sedimentation may be a consequence of an increase in the rate of ocean‐continent convergence following the demise of the intraoceanic subduction zone.

@article{doi1010292004tc001729,
    author = "Ding, Lin and Kapp, Paul and Wan, Xiaoqiao",
    title = "Paleocene–Eocene record of ophiolite obduction and initial India‐Asia collision, south central Tibet",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Uppermost Cretaceous to Eocene marine sedimentary sequences occur both to the south and north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture in south central Tibet. They consist of Indian‐margin strata of the northern Tethyan Himalaya and Asian‐margin strata of the Gangdese forearc. Both assemblages are characterized by major changes in depositional environment and sedimentary provenance at ∼65 Ma and an appearance of detrital chromium‐rich spinel of ophiolite affinity (TiO 2 generally <0.1 wt\%) during the Paleocene. Ophiolitic melange exposed along the suture could have provided a source for detrital spinel. The melange occurs in the hanging wall of a north dipping, south directed mylonitic shear zone which includes a tectonic sliver of mafic schist. Amphibole from the schist yields 40 Ar/ 39 Ar ages of ∼63 Ma, which we attribute to cooling during slip along the shear zone and southward obduction of the melange. Melange obduction was coeval with the development of an angular unconformity within the Gangdese forearc basin to the north (between late Maastrichtian time and ∼62 Ma). Upper Paleocene to middle Eocene sandstones in the northern Tethyan Himalaya yield 200–120 Ma U‐Pb detrital zircon ages and 190–170 Ma 40 Ar/ 39 Ar detrital mica ages. These detrital grains were most likely sourced from regions north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture, suggesting that onset of India‐Asia collision in south central Tibet is middle Eocene or older in age. Collectively, our results support previous suggestions that oceanic rocks were obducted onto the northern margin of India during latest Cretaceous–earliest Tertiary time. Coeval changes in Gangdese forearc sedimentation raise the possibility that this obduction event marks onset of tectonic interaction between India and Asia at ∼65 Ma. Alternatively, in concert with the conventional view of Eocene collision initiation, the obducted oceanic rocks may be of intraoceanic origin, while coeval changes in Gangdese forearc sedimentation may be a consequence of an increase in the rate of ocean‐continent convergence following the demise of the intraoceanic subduction zone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2004tc001729",
    doi = "10.1029/2004tc001729",
    openalex = "W1959048442",
    references = "doi101007bf00373711, doi101007bf02440107, doi101038373055a0, doi101130spe269"
}

The geologic map pattern of the Qiangtang terrane in central Tibet defines a >600-km-long and up to 270-km-wide east-plunging structural culmination. It is characterized by early Mesozoic blueschist-bearing mélange and upper Paleozoic strata in the core

@article{doi101130b255951,
    author = "Kapp, Paul and Yin, An and Harrison, T. Mark and Ding, Lin",
    title = "Cretaceous-Tertiary shortening, basin development, and volcanism in central Tibet",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "The geologic map pattern of the Qiangtang terrane in central Tibet defines a >600-km-long and up to 270-km-wide east-plunging structural culmination. It is characterized by early Mesozoic blueschist-bearing mélange and upper Paleozoic strata in the core",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b25595.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b25595.1",
    openalex = "W2068157565",
    references = "doi101130b253881, openalexw2912219260"
}

@article{doi101016jjseaes200603001,
    author = "Grave, Johan De and Buslov, M.M. and den haute, Peter Van",
    title = "Distant effects of India–Eurasia convergence and Mesozoic intracontinental deformation in Central Asia: Constraints from apatite fission-track thermochronology",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Asian Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.03.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.03.001",
    openalex = "W2110706788",
    references = "doi1010160040195195000909, doi1010160168962286900746, doi101016s0009254183800266, doi1010292001jb000596, doi10102993rg02030, doi101029jb084ib07p03425, doi10103835075035, doi101038364299a0, doi101126science105978, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science25550521663, doi101146annurevearth281211"
}

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (c. 1000–250 Ma) formed by accretion of island arcs, ophiolites, oceanic islands, seamounts, accretionary wedges, oceanic plateaux and microcontinents in a manner comparable with that of circum-Pacific Mesozoic–Cenozoic accretionary orogens. Palaeomagnetic and palaeofloral data indicate that early accretion (Vendian–Ordovician) took place when Baltica and Siberia were separated by a wide ocean. Island arcs and Precambrian microcontinents accreted to the active margins of the two continents or amalgamated in an oceanic setting (as in Kazakhstan) by roll-back and collision, forming a huge accretionary collage. The Palaeo-Asian Ocean closed in the Permian with formation of the Solonker suture. We evaluate contrasting tectonic models for the evolution of the orogenic belt. Current information provides little support for the main tenets of the one- or three-arc Kipchak model; current data suggest that an archipelago-type (Indonesian) model is more viable. Some diagnostic features of ridge–trench interaction are present in the Central Asian orogen (e.g. granites, adakites, boninites, near-trench magmatism, Alaskan-type mafic–ultramafic complexes, high-temperature metamorphic belts that prograde rapidly from low-grade belts, rhyolitic ash-fall tuffs). They offer a promising perspective for future investigations.

@article{doi101144001676492006022,
    author = "Windley, Brian F. and Alexeiev, D. V. and Xiao, Wenjiao and Kröner, Alfred and Badarch, Gombosuren",
    title = "Tectonic models for accretion of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (c. 1000–250 Ma) formed by accretion of island arcs, ophiolites, oceanic islands, seamounts, accretionary wedges, oceanic plateaux and microcontinents in a manner comparable with that of circum-Pacific Mesozoic–Cenozoic accretionary orogens. Palaeomagnetic and palaeofloral data indicate that early accretion (Vendian–Ordovician) took place when Baltica and Siberia were separated by a wide ocean. Island arcs and Precambrian microcontinents accreted to the active margins of the two continents or amalgamated in an oceanic setting (as in Kazakhstan) by roll-back and collision, forming a huge accretionary collage. The Palaeo-Asian Ocean closed in the Permian with formation of the Solonker suture. We evaluate contrasting tectonic models for the evolution of the orogenic belt. Current information provides little support for the main tenets of the one- or three-arc Kipchak model; current data suggest that an archipelago-type (Indonesian) model is more viable. Some diagnostic features of ridge–trench interaction are present in the Central Asian orogen (e.g. granites, adakites, boninites, near-trench magmatism, Alaskan-type mafic–ultramafic complexes, high-temperature metamorphic belts that prograde rapidly from low-grade belts, rhyolitic ash-fall tuffs). They offer a promising perspective for future investigations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-022",
    doi = "10.1144/0016-76492006-022",
    openalex = "W2003323528",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev200504001, doi101016s0012825200000210, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101016s0169136801000166, doi101016s0301926802002188, doi101016s1367912002000172, doi101016s1367912003001305, doi101017s0263593300007367, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101029gd021, doi101038364299a0, doi1011300091761319900180128paacro23co2, doi1011440016764903165, doi101144gslsp20042260105, doi102475ajs3044370, openalexw2346629672"
}

This article argues that Russia's Empire in Central Asia is best understood in comparison with the other Western Colonial Empires of the nineteenth century, specifically Britain's Indian Empire. It examines nineteenth-century Russian travellers' accounts of British India, and the 'Asianist' tradition which argued that Russians had a greater affinity with Asian peoples than other Europeans, and that the nature of their empire was consequently different. In the case of Turkestan it rejects this assumption on the basis of research in Russian and Uzbek archives, and of the differing views expressed in books and journals by Russian military officers and imperial administrators of the day.

@article{doi101353see20060007,
    author = "Morrison, Alexander",
    title = "Russian Rule in Turkestan and the Example of British India, c. 1860-1917",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "The Slavonic and East European Review",
    abstract = "This article argues that Russia's Empire in Central Asia is best understood in comparison with the other Western Colonial Empires of the nineteenth century, specifically Britain's Indian Empire. It examines nineteenth-century Russian travellers' accounts of British India, and the 'Asianist' tradition which argued that Russians had a greater affinity with Asian peoples than other Europeans, and that the nature of their empire was consequently different. In the case of Turkestan it rejects this assumption on the basis of research in Russian and Uzbek archives, and of the differing views expressed in books and journals by Russian military officers and imperial administrators of the day.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1353/see.2006.0007",
    doi = "10.1353/see.2006.0007",
    openalex = "W2519493030"
}

@article{doi101016jjseaes200710008,
    author = "Xiao, Wenjiao and Han, Chunming and Yuan, Chao and Sun, Min and Lin, Shoufa and Chen, Hanlin and Li, Zilong and Li, Jiliang and Sun, Shu",
    title = "Middle Cambrian to Permian subduction-related accretionary orogenesis of Northern Xinjiang, NW China: Implications for the tectonic evolution of central Asia",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Asian Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.10.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.10.008",
    openalex = "W2065065857",
    references = "doi101016004019519090004r, doi1010160040195193902259, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101016s1367912002000172, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101038288329a0, doi101111j175567242001tb00511x, doi10113000167606198495295aootpt20co2, doi1011440016764903165, doi101144001676492006022"
}

Timing of the collision between India and Asia is the key boundary condition in all models for the evolution of the Himalaya‐Tibetan orogenic system. Thus it profoundly affects the interpretation of the rates of a multitude of associated geological processes ranging from Tibetan Plateau uplift through continental extrusion across eastern Asia, as well as our understanding of global climate change during the Cenozoic. Although an abrupt slowdown in the rate of convergence between India and Asia around 55 Ma is widely regarded as indicating the beginning of the collision, most of the effects attributed to this major tectonic episode do not occur until more than 20 Ma later. Refined estimates of the relative positions of India and Asia indicate that they were not close enough to one another to have collided at 55 Ma. On the basis of new field evidence from Tibet and a reassessment of published data we suggest that continent‐continent collision began around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (∼34 Ma) and propose an alternative explanation for events at 55 Ma.

@article{doi1010292006jb004706,
    author = "Aitchison, Jonathan C. and Ali, Jason R. and Davis, Aileen M.",
    title = "When and where did India and Asia collide?",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Timing of the collision between India and Asia is the key boundary condition in all models for the evolution of the Himalaya‐Tibetan orogenic system. Thus it profoundly affects the interpretation of the rates of a multitude of associated geological processes ranging from Tibetan Plateau uplift through continental extrusion across eastern Asia, as well as our understanding of global climate change during the Cenozoic. Although an abrupt slowdown in the rate of convergence between India and Asia around 55 Ma is widely regarded as indicating the beginning of the collision, most of the effects attributed to this major tectonic episode do not occur until more than 20 Ma later. Refined estimates of the relative positions of India and Asia indicate that they were not close enough to one another to have collided at 55 Ma. On the basis of new field evidence from Tibet and a reassessment of published data we suggest that continent‐continent collision began around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (∼34 Ma) and propose an alternative explanation for events at 55 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jb004706",
    doi = "10.1029/2006jb004706",
    openalex = "W2161702350",
    references = "doi101016004019519090116p, doi101016s0012821x99001314, doi101016s1367912001000694, doi1010291999tc900042, doi101029tc008i004p00881, doi101038373055a0, doi101038414738a, doi101046j1365246x199900802x, doi10113000167606198798678tcotat20co2, doi101130001676062000112324tothas20co2, doi104095215638"
}

The Qiangtang metamorphic belt (QMB) in central Tibet is one of the largest and most recently documented high-pressure (HP) to near-ultrahigh-pressure (near-UHP) belts on Earth. Lu-Hf ages of eclogite- and blueschist-facies rocks within the QMB are 244–223 Ma, indistinguishable from the age of UHP metamorphism in the Qinling-Dabie orogen. Results of a U-Pb detrital zircon study suggest that protoliths of the QMB include upper Paleozoic Qiangtang continental margin strata and sandstones that were derived from a Paleozoic arc terrane that developed within the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to the north. We attribute QMB HP metamorphism to continental collision between the Qiangtang terrane and a Paleo-Tethys arc terrane. This collision, and the coeval South China–North China collision, may have slowed convergence between Laurasia and Gondwana-derived terranes and initiated Mediterranean-style rollback and backarc basin development within much of the remnant Paleo-Tethys Ocean realm.

@article{doi101130g24435a1,
    author = "Pullen, Alex and Kapp, Paul and Gehrels, George E. and Vervoort, Jeff D. and Ding, Lin",
    title = "Triassic continental subduction in central Tibet and Mediterranean-style closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Geology",
    abstract = "The Qiangtang metamorphic belt (QMB) in central Tibet is one of the largest and most recently documented high-pressure (HP) to near-ultrahigh-pressure (near-UHP) belts on Earth. Lu-Hf ages of eclogite- and blueschist-facies rocks within the QMB are 244–223 Ma, indistinguishable from the age of UHP metamorphism in the Qinling-Dabie orogen. Results of a U-Pb detrital zircon study suggest that protoliths of the QMB include upper Paleozoic Qiangtang continental margin strata and sandstones that were derived from a Paleozoic arc terrane that developed within the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to the north. We attribute QMB HP metamorphism to continental collision between the Qiangtang terrane and a Paleo-Tethys arc terrane. This collision, and the coeval South China–North China collision, may have slowed convergence between Laurasia and Gondwana-derived terranes and initiated Mediterranean-style rollback and backarc basin development within much of the remnant Paleo-Tethys Ocean realm.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/g24435a.1",
    doi = "10.1130/g24435a.1",
    openalex = "W1997816021"
}

@article{doi101007s005310080407z,
    author = "Xiao, Wang and Windley, B. F. and Huang, Baochun and Han, Chunming and Yuan, Chao and Chen, H. L. and Sun, Min and Sun, Saijun and Li, Jihao",
    title = "End-Permian to mid-Triassic termination of the accretionary processes of the southern Altaids: implications for the geodynamic evolution, Phanerozoic continental growth, and metallogeny of Central Asia",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "International Journal of Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-008-0407-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s00531-008-0407-z",
    openalex = "W2119991869",
    references = "doi101016004019519090004r, doi1010160040195193902259, doi101016jearscirev200402003, doi101016jearscirev200702001, doi101016jjseaes200511004, doi101016s0012825202000739, doi101016s0012825202001150, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101016s1367912003001305, doi101017cbo9780511524936, doi101111j175567242001tb00511x, doi10113000167606198798678tcotat20co2, doi1011440016764903165, doi101144001676492006022"
}

@article{doi101016jgr200912008,
    author = "Метелкин, Д. В. and Vernikovsky, V. A. and Kazansky, A. Yu. and Wingate, M.T.D.",
    title = "Late Mesozoic tectonics of Central Asia based on paleomagnetic evidence",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Gondwana Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2009.12.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gr.2009.12.008",
    openalex = "W2159592773",
    references = "doi101016003101829190145h, doi1010160040195195000909, doi101016c20130074257, doi101016jjseaes200603001, doi1010292000jb000050, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101029gd021, doi101098rspa19530064, doi101111j1365246x1980tb02601x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb05683x, doi1011300813723604333, doi1023072529189, openalexw2346629672, openalexw2974218786"
}

[1] The present-day topography of the Tian Shan range is considered to result from crustal shortening related to the ongoing India-Asia collision that started in the early Tertiary. In this study we report evidence for several episodes of localized tectonic activity which occurred prior to that major orogenic event. Apatite fission track analysis and (U-Th)/He dating on apatite and zircon indicate that inherited Paleozoic structures were reactivated in the late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic during a Cimmerian orogenic episode and also in the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene (around 65–60 Ma). These reactivations could have resulted from the accretion of the Kohistan-Dras arc or lithospheric extension in the Siberia-Mongolia zone. Activity resumed in the late Mesozoic prior to the major Tertiary orogenic phase. Finally, the ongoing deformation, which again reactivates inherited tectonic structures, tends to propagate inside the endoreic basins that were preserved in the range, leading to their progressive closure. This study demonstrates the importance of inherited structures in localizing the first increments of the deformation before it propagates into yet undeformed areas.

@article{doi1010292010tc002712,
    author = "Jolivet, Marc and Dominguez, Stéphane and Charreau, Julien and Chen, Yan and Li, Yongan and Wang, Qingchen",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic history of the central Chinese Tian Shan: Reactivated tectonic structures and active deformation",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "[1] The present-day topography of the Tian Shan range is considered to result from crustal shortening related to the ongoing India-Asia collision that started in the early Tertiary. In this study we report evidence for several episodes of localized tectonic activity which occurred prior to that major orogenic event. Apatite fission track analysis and (U-Th)/He dating on apatite and zircon indicate that inherited Paleozoic structures were reactivated in the late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic during a Cimmerian orogenic episode and also in the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene (around 65–60 Ma). These reactivations could have resulted from the accretion of the Kohistan-Dras arc or lithospheric extension in the Siberia-Mongolia zone. Activity resumed in the late Mesozoic prior to the major Tertiary orogenic phase. Finally, the ongoing deformation, which again reactivates inherited tectonic structures, tends to propagate inside the endoreic basins that were preserved in the range, leading to their progressive closure. This study demonstrates the importance of inherited structures in localizing the first increments of the deformation before it propagates into yet undeformed areas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2010tc002712",
    doi = "10.1029/2010tc002712",
    openalex = "W2167799696",
    references = "doi101016jgca200310021, doi101016jjseaes200603001"
}

We provide a detailed description of the structures along a 300 km long and 50 km wide transect across the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) in southwestern Mongolia, covering the Precambrian Dzabkhan continental domain with overthrust Neoproterozoic ophiolites in the north (Lake Zone), a Silurian-Devonian passive margin association (Gobi-Altai Zone) and oceanic domain (Trans-Altai Zone) in the center, and a continental area (South Gobi Zone) in the south. Structural analysis suggests late Cambrian collapse of the thickened Lake Zone continental crust, leading to stretching of the lithosphere and followed by Silurian-Devonian formation of oceanic crust in the Trans-Altai domain. Subsequent emplacement of Devonian-Carboniferous and late Carboniferous magmatic arcs occurred on the Gobi-Altai and South Gobi Zone crusts, respectively, during E-W shortening. Finally, the entire system was affected by N-S convergence from the Permian to Jurassic, leading to heterogeneous shortening of the orogenic domain. The model best fitting these observations is one of generalized westward drift of the Tuva-Mongol-Dzabkhan-Baydrag ribbon continents during the Silurian-Devonian, associated with westward-subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean and sequential growth of syn-convergent magmatic arcs. Back-arc basins opened during this period in the area of the western Paleoasian Ocean. The present-day shape of the CAOB in southern Mongolia was probably formed during Permian to Mesozoic anticlockwise rotation and folding of the Tuva-Mongol-Dzabkhan-Baydrag continental ribbons, combined with a strike-slip (transpressional) reactivation of ancient transform boundaries in the Paleoasian oceanic domain. All continental and oceanic crustal domains were reactivated and intensely deformed during this convergence in a style controlled by crustal rheology and a heterogeneous Permian magmatic-thermal input. The sequence of tectonic events is tested against published paleomagnetic data, paleogeographic reconstructions and tectonic models, leading to a revised model for the accretion of juvenile crust to a continental margin in the CAOB of southern Mongolia.

@article{doi10247507201002,
    author = "Lehmann, Jérémie and Schulmann, Karel and Lexa, Ondrej and Corsini, Michel and Kröner, Alfred and Stipska, P. and Tomurhuu, D. and Otgonbator, D.",
    title = "Structural constraints on the evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt in SW Mongolia",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    abstract = "We provide a detailed description of the structures along a 300 km long and 50 km wide transect across the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) in southwestern Mongolia, covering the Precambrian Dzabkhan continental domain with overthrust Neoproterozoic ophiolites in the north (Lake Zone), a Silurian-Devonian passive margin association (Gobi-Altai Zone) and oceanic domain (Trans-Altai Zone) in the center, and a continental area (South Gobi Zone) in the south. Structural analysis suggests late Cambrian collapse of the thickened Lake Zone continental crust, leading to stretching of the lithosphere and followed by Silurian-Devonian formation of oceanic crust in the Trans-Altai domain. Subsequent emplacement of Devonian-Carboniferous and late Carboniferous magmatic arcs occurred on the Gobi-Altai and South Gobi Zone crusts, respectively, during E-W shortening. Finally, the entire system was affected by N-S convergence from the Permian to Jurassic, leading to heterogeneous shortening of the orogenic domain. The model best fitting these observations is one of generalized westward drift of the Tuva-Mongol-Dzabkhan-Baydrag ribbon continents during the Silurian-Devonian, associated with westward-subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean and sequential growth of syn-convergent magmatic arcs. Back-arc basins opened during this period in the area of the western Paleoasian Ocean. The present-day shape of the CAOB in southern Mongolia was probably formed during Permian to Mesozoic anticlockwise rotation and folding of the Tuva-Mongol-Dzabkhan-Baydrag continental ribbons, combined with a strike-slip (transpressional) reactivation of ancient transform boundaries in the Paleoasian oceanic domain. All continental and oceanic crustal domains were reactivated and intensely deformed during this convergence in a style controlled by crustal rheology and a heterogeneous Permian magmatic-thermal input. The sequence of tectonic events is tested against published paleomagnetic data, paleogeographic reconstructions and tectonic models, leading to a revised model for the accretion of juvenile crust to a continental margin in the CAOB of southern Mongolia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/07.2010.02",
    doi = "10.2475/07.2010.02",
    openalex = "W2332345147",
    references = "doi1010160012821x77900607, doi1010160040195195000909, doi101016jgca2006061563, doi101016s1367912001000694, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101038364299a0, doi101098rsta19880135, doi101144001676492006022, openalexw1508508756, openalexw1928320224, openalexw2764433274"
}

@misc{crossref2011russian,
    title = "Russian Immorality in Central Asia",
    year = "2011",
    booktitle = "A Ride to Khiva",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139096881.043",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9781139096881.043",
    openalex = "W2413120976",
    pages = "396-396"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201109001,
    author = "Han, Bao‐Fu and He, Guoqi and Wang, Xuechao and Guo, Zhaojie",
    title = "Late Carboniferous collision between the Tarim and Kazakhstan–Yili terranes in the western segment of the South Tian Shan Orogen, Central Asia, and implications for the Northern Xinjiang, western China",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.09.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.09.001",
    openalex = "W1976304054",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9400237s, doi1010160040195193902259, doi101016jearscirev200405001, doi101016jearscirev200505004, doi101016jjseaes200603001, doi101016s0301926802002188, doi101016s1367912003001305, doi10102992jb01963, doi101029gd021, doi101038364299a0, doi101046j15251314200000266x, doi101111j175567242001tb00511x, doi1011270078042120120020, doi1011300091761319900180999dico23co2, doi101130ges001051, doi101144001676492006022, doi101146annurevearth281211, doi1018814epiiugs2000v23i2001, openalexw2912219260"
}

A long‐standing problem in the geological evolution of the India‐Asia collision zone is how and where convergence between India and Asia was accommodated since collision. Proposed collision ages vary from 65 to 35 Ma, although most data sets are consistent with collision being underway by 50 Ma. Plate reconstructions show that since 50 Ma ∼2400–3200 km (west to east) of India‐Asia convergence occurred, much more than the 450–900 km of documented Himalayan shortening. Current models therefore suggest that most post‐50 Ma convergence was accommodated north of the Indus‐Yarlung suture zone. We review kinematic data and construct an updated restoration of Cenozoic Asian deformation to test this assumption. We show that geologic studies have documented 600–750 km of N‐S Cenozoic shortening across, and north of, the Tibetan Plateau. The Pamir‐Hindu Kush region accommodated ∼1050 km of N‐S convergence. Geological evidence from Tibet is inconsistent with models that propose 750–1250 km of eastward extrusion of Indochina. Approximately 250 km of Indochinese extrusion from 30 to 20 Ma of Indochina suggested by SE Asia reconstructions can be reconciled by dextral transpression in eastern Tibet. We use our reconstruction to calculate the required size of Greater India as a function of collision age. Even with a 35 Ma collision age, the size of Greater India is 2–3 times larger than Himalayan shortening. For a 50 Ma collision, the size of Greater India from west to east is ∼1350–2600 km, consistent with robust paleomagnetic data from upper Cretaceous‐Paleocene Tethyan Himalayan strata. These estimates for the size of Greater India far exceed documented shortening in the Himalaya. We conclude that most of Greater India was consumed by subduction or underthrusting, without leaving a geological record that has been recognized at the surface.

@article{doi1010292011tc002908,
    author = "van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J. and Kapp, Paul and Dupont‐Nivet, Guillaume and Lippert, Peter C. and DeCelles, Peter G. and Torsvik, Trond H.",
    title = "Restoration of Cenozoic deformation in Asia and the size of Greater India",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "A long‐standing problem in the geological evolution of the India‐Asia collision zone is how and where convergence between India and Asia was accommodated since collision. Proposed collision ages vary from 65 to 35 Ma, although most data sets are consistent with collision being underway by 50 Ma. Plate reconstructions show that since 50 Ma ∼2400–3200 km (west to east) of India‐Asia convergence occurred, much more than the 450–900 km of documented Himalayan shortening. Current models therefore suggest that most post‐50 Ma convergence was accommodated north of the Indus‐Yarlung suture zone. We review kinematic data and construct an updated restoration of Cenozoic Asian deformation to test this assumption. We show that geologic studies have documented 600–750 km of N‐S Cenozoic shortening across, and north of, the Tibetan Plateau. The Pamir‐Hindu Kush region accommodated ∼1050 km of N‐S convergence. Geological evidence from Tibet is inconsistent with models that propose 750–1250 km of eastward extrusion of Indochina. Approximately 250 km of Indochinese extrusion from 30 to 20 Ma of Indochina suggested by SE Asia reconstructions can be reconciled by dextral transpression in eastern Tibet. We use our reconstruction to calculate the required size of Greater India as a function of collision age. Even with a 35 Ma collision age, the size of Greater India is 2–3 times larger than Himalayan shortening. For a 50 Ma collision, the size of Greater India from west to east is ∼1350–2600 km, consistent with robust paleomagnetic data from upper Cretaceous‐Paleocene Tethyan Himalayan strata. These estimates for the size of Greater India far exceed documented shortening in the Himalaya. We conclude that most of Greater India was consumed by subduction or underthrusting, without leaving a geological record that has been recognized at the surface.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2011tc002908",
    doi = "10.1029/2011tc002908",
    openalex = "W2112908975",
    references = "doi101016jgr200912008, doi101016jjseaes201003008"
}

A new geological map of the central-western part of the Karakoram belt (Northern Areas and North West Frontier Province, Pakistan) is presented with its explanatory notes. The map is printed at a 1:100,000 scale, summarizing original field surveys performed at a 1:25,000 scale, which result from the first systematic reconnaissance of the area. This work represents the synthesis of several years of exploration studies and is mainly based based on original stratigraphic and structural field analyses focused on one of the less known orogenic belts of Central Asia. Original field surveys have been integrated within a GIS using georeferenced Russian topographic maps and grey-tone panchromatic SPOT images.The study area is located along the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, extending from the top of the Chapursan Valley of the Hunza region to the Yarkhun Valley from the Karambar Pass to Gazin and to the upper part of the Rich Gol, which belong to Chitral.Three major tectonic units are exposed in the study area.From north to south they are: the East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, the Tirich Boundary Zone and the Karakoram Terrane. The first and the last units consist of Gondwana-related terranes showing a Precambrian to earliest Paleozoic basement covered by Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary successions which record their Late Paleozoic rifting from Gondwana, their drifting, and successive accretion to the Eurasian margin. They both show some similarities with the S-Parmir ranges, exposed to the north of the Afghan Wakhan. The Tirich Boundary Zone is a complex assemblage of high grade metabasites and gneiss with small remnants of sub-continental peridotites, which separate East Hindu Kush from the Karakoram. Its emplacement has been related to the possible opening of a basin between the two blocks at the end of the Paleozoic, followed by its deformation during the collision of Kara koram with East Hindu Kush, dating to the end of Triassic or beginning of the Jurassic.Detailed mapping has been carried out in the Karakoram belt, especially along its northern portion, which consists of a complex stack of tectono-stratigraphic units, showing peculiar stratigraphic and structural features. These units were progressively deformed and thrusted during the collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc and with India which occurred between the end of the Cretaceous and Paleogene. These collisions were also followed by continuous crustal thickening and by left-lateral shearing, which was especially active along the western margin of the mapped area.Our map also includes parts of the Karakoram Batholith, mainly Cretaceous in age, and of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt, which is exposed to the south of the main intrusive bodies and consists of Permo-Triassic metasediments.A new geological map of the central-western part of the Karakoram belt (Northern Areas and North West Frontier Province, Pakistan) is presented with its explanatory notes. The map is printed at a 1:100,000 scale, summarizing original field surveys performed at a 1:25,000 scale, which result from the first systematic reconnaissance of the area. This work represents the synthesis of several years of exploration studies and is mainly based based on original stratigraphic and structural field analyses focused on one of the less known orogenic belts of Central Asia. Original field surveys have been integrated within a GIS using georeferenced Russian topographic maps and grey-tone panchromatic SPOT images.The study area is located along the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, extending from the top of the Chapursan Valley of the Hunza region to the Yarkhun Valley from the Karambar Pass to Gazin and to the upper part of the Rich Gol, which belong to Chitral.Three major tectonic units are exposed in the study area.From north to south they are: the East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, the Tirich Boundary Zone and the Karakoram Terrane. The first and the last units consist of Gondwana-related terranes showing a Precambrian to earliest Paleozoic basement covered by Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary successions which record their Late Paleozoic rifting from Gondwana, their drifting, and successive accretion to the Eurasian margin. They both show some similarities with the S-Parmir ranges, exposed to the north of the Afghan Wakhan. The Tirich Boundary Zone is a complex assemblage of high grade metabasites and gneiss with small remnants of sub-continental peridotites, which separate East Hindu Kush from the Karakoram. Its emplacement has been related to the possible opening of a basin between the two blocks at the end of the Paleozoic, followed by its deformation during the collision of Kara koram with East Hindu Kush, dating to the end of Triassic or beginning of the Jurassic.Detailed mapping has been carried out in the Karakoram belt, especially along its northern portion, which consists of a complex stack of tectono-stratigraphic units, showing peculiar stratigraphic and structural features. These units were progressively deformed and thrusted during the collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc and with India which occurred between the end of the Cretaceous and Paleogene. These collisions were also followed by continuous crustal thickening and by left-lateral shearing, which was especially active along the western margin of the mapped area.Our map also includes parts of the Karakoram Batholith, mainly Cretaceous in age, and of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt, which is exposed to the south of the main intrusive bodies and consists of Permo-Triassic metasediments.

@article{doi103301ijg201109,
    author = "Zanchi, Andréa and Gaetani, Maurizio",
    title = "The geology of the Karakoram range, Pakistan: the new 1:100,000 geological map of Central-Western Karakoram",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Italian Journal of Geosciences",
    abstract = "A new geological map of the central-western part of the Karakoram belt (Northern Areas and North West Frontier Province, Pakistan) is presented with its explanatory notes. The map is printed at a 1:100,000 scale, summarizing original field surveys performed at a 1:25,000 scale, which result from the first systematic reconnaissance of the area. This work represents the synthesis of several years of exploration studies and is mainly based based on original stratigraphic and structural field analyses focused on one of the less known orogenic belts of Central Asia. Original field surveys have been integrated within a GIS using georeferenced Russian topographic maps and grey-tone panchromatic SPOT images.The study area is located along the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, extending from the top of the Chapursan Valley of the Hunza region to the Yarkhun Valley from the Karambar Pass to Gazin and to the upper part of the Rich Gol, which belong to Chitral.Three major tectonic units are exposed in the study area.From north to south they are: the East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, the Tirich Boundary Zone and the Karakoram Terrane. The first and the last units consist of Gondwana-related terranes showing a Precambrian to earliest Paleozoic basement covered by Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary successions which record their Late Paleozoic rifting from Gondwana, their drifting, and successive accretion to the Eurasian margin. They both show some similarities with the S-Parmir ranges, exposed to the north of the Afghan Wakhan. The Tirich Boundary Zone is a complex assemblage of high grade metabasites and gneiss with small remnants of sub-continental peridotites, which separate East Hindu Kush from the Karakoram. Its emplacement has been related to the possible opening of a basin between the two blocks at the end of the Paleozoic, followed by its deformation during the collision of Kara koram with East Hindu Kush, dating to the end of Triassic or beginning of the Jurassic.Detailed mapping has been carried out in the Karakoram belt, especially along its northern portion, which consists of a complex stack of tectono-stratigraphic units, showing peculiar stratigraphic and structural features. These units were progressively deformed and thrusted during the collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc and with India which occurred between the end of the Cretaceous and Paleogene. These collisions were also followed by continuous crustal thickening and by left-lateral shearing, which was especially active along the western margin of the mapped area.Our map also includes parts of the Karakoram Batholith, mainly Cretaceous in age, and of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt, which is exposed to the south of the main intrusive bodies and consists of Permo-Triassic metasediments.A new geological map of the central-western part of the Karakoram belt (Northern Areas and North West Frontier Province, Pakistan) is presented with its explanatory notes. The map is printed at a 1:100,000 scale, summarizing original field surveys performed at a 1:25,000 scale, which result from the first systematic reconnaissance of the area. This work represents the synthesis of several years of exploration studies and is mainly based based on original stratigraphic and structural field analyses focused on one of the less known orogenic belts of Central Asia. Original field surveys have been integrated within a GIS using georeferenced Russian topographic maps and grey-tone panchromatic SPOT images.The study area is located along the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan, extending from the top of the Chapursan Valley of the Hunza region to the Yarkhun Valley from the Karambar Pass to Gazin and to the upper part of the Rich Gol, which belong to Chitral.Three major tectonic units are exposed in the study area.From north to south they are: the East Hindu Kush-Wakhan, the Tirich Boundary Zone and the Karakoram Terrane. The first and the last units consist of Gondwana-related terranes showing a Precambrian to earliest Paleozoic basement covered by Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary successions which record their Late Paleozoic rifting from Gondwana, their drifting, and successive accretion to the Eurasian margin. They both show some similarities with the S-Parmir ranges, exposed to the north of the Afghan Wakhan. The Tirich Boundary Zone is a complex assemblage of high grade metabasites and gneiss with small remnants of sub-continental peridotites, which separate East Hindu Kush from the Karakoram. Its emplacement has been related to the possible opening of a basin between the two blocks at the end of the Paleozoic, followed by its deformation during the collision of Kara koram with East Hindu Kush, dating to the end of Triassic or beginning of the Jurassic.Detailed mapping has been carried out in the Karakoram belt, especially along its northern portion, which consists of a complex stack of tectono-stratigraphic units, showing peculiar stratigraphic and structural features. These units were progressively deformed and thrusted during the collision with the Kohistan Paleo-Arc and with India which occurred between the end of the Cretaceous and Paleogene. These collisions were also followed by continuous crustal thickening and by left-lateral shearing, which was especially active along the western margin of the mapped area.Our map also includes parts of the Karakoram Batholith, mainly Cretaceous in age, and of the Darkot-Gazin Metasedimentary Belt, which is exposed to the south of the main intrusive bodies and consists of Permo-Triassic metasediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3301/ijg.2011.09",
    doi = "10.3301/ijg.2011.09",
    openalex = "W1775131988",
    references = "doi101016jjseaes201003008, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101126science1161648, doi101126science1894201419, doi10113008137237015, doi1011302008244124, doi101130spe269, doi101130spe281p1, doi101144gslsp19860190107, doi10130674d720182b2111d78648000102c1865d"
}

@incollection{fullard2011russian,
    author = "Fullard, T. Fletcher",
    title = "RUSSIAN RAILWAYS IN CENTRAL ASIA.",
    year = "2011",
    booktitle = "ENGINEERING WONDERS OF THE WORLD VOLUME II.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1680/ewotwv2.50914.0028",
    doi = "10.1680/ewotwv2.50914.0028",
    openalex = "W2501084606",
    pages = "375-381"
}

Cenozoic convergence between the Indian and Asian plates produced the archetypical continental collision zone comprising the Himalaya mountain belt and the Tibetan Plateau. How and where India-Asia convergence was accommodated after collision at or before 52 Ma remains a long-standing controversy. Since 52 Ma, the two plates have converged up to 3,600 ± 35 km, yet the upper crustal shortening documented from the geological record of Asia and the Himalaya is up to approximately 2,350-km less. Here we show that the discrepancy between the convergence and the shortening can be explained by subduction of highly extended continental and oceanic Indian lithosphere within the Himalaya between approximately 50 and 25 Ma. Paleomagnetic data show that this extended continental and oceanic "Greater India" promontory resulted from 2,675 ± 700 km of North-South extension between 120 and 70 Ma, accommodated between the Tibetan Himalaya and cratonic India. We suggest that the approximately 50 Ma "India"-Asia collision was a collision of a Tibetan-Himalayan microcontinent with Asia, followed by subduction of the largely oceanic Greater India Basin along a subduction zone at the location of the Greater Himalaya. The "hard" India-Asia collision with thicker and contiguous Indian continental lithosphere occurred around 25-20 Ma. This hard collision is coincident with far-field deformation in central Asia and rapid exhumation of Greater Himalaya crystalline rocks, and may be linked to intensification of the Asian monsoon system. This two-stage collision between India and Asia is also reflected in the deep mantle remnants of subduction imaged with seismic tomography.

@article{doi101073pnas1117262109,
    author = "van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J. and Lippert, Peter C. and Dupont‐Nivet, Guillaume and McQuarrie, Nadine and Doubrovine, Pavel V. and Spakman, Wim and Torsvik, Trond H.",
    title = "Greater India Basin hypothesis and a two-stage Cenozoic collision between India and Asia",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {Cenozoic convergence between the Indian and Asian plates produced the archetypical continental collision zone comprising the Himalaya mountain belt and the Tibetan Plateau. How and where India-Asia convergence was accommodated after collision at or before 52 Ma remains a long-standing controversy. Since 52 Ma, the two plates have converged up to 3,600 ± 35 km, yet the upper crustal shortening documented from the geological record of Asia and the Himalaya is up to approximately 2,350-km less. Here we show that the discrepancy between the convergence and the shortening can be explained by subduction of highly extended continental and oceanic Indian lithosphere within the Himalaya between approximately 50 and 25 Ma. Paleomagnetic data show that this extended continental and oceanic "Greater India" promontory resulted from 2,675 ± 700 km of North-South extension between 120 and 70 Ma, accommodated between the Tibetan Himalaya and cratonic India. We suggest that the approximately 50 Ma "India"-Asia collision was a collision of a Tibetan-Himalayan microcontinent with Asia, followed by subduction of the largely oceanic Greater India Basin along a subduction zone at the location of the Greater Himalaya. The "hard" India-Asia collision with thicker and contiguous Indian continental lithosphere occurred around 25-20 Ma. This hard collision is coincident with far-field deformation in central Asia and rapid exhumation of Greater Himalaya crystalline rocks, and may be linked to intensification of the Asian monsoon system. This two-stage collision between India and Asia is also reflected in the deep mantle remnants of subduction imaged with seismic tomography.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117262109",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1117262109",
    openalex = "W2138644850",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev200505004, doi101016s0012821x0000159x, doi101016s0012821x99001314, doi1010292000jb000050, doi1010292008jb005644, doi1010292010jb007673, doi10102994jb03098, doi101038ngeo351, doi101098rspa19530064, doi101098rsta19880135, doi101111j1365246x1990tb01761x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb05683x, doi101126science105978, doi101126science1155371, doi101130001676062000112324tothas20co2, doi105860choice295708"
}

@book{doi107135upo9781843318262021,
    author = "Vambéry, Arminius",
    title = "Travels in Central Asia",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "Anthem Press eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7135/upo9781843318262.021",
    doi = "10.7135/upo9781843318262.021",
    openalex = "W2057132901"
}

Cenozoic gneiss domes comprise one third of the surface exposure of the Pamir and provide a window into the deep crustal processes of the India‐Asia collision. The largest of these are the doubly vergent, composite Shakhdara‐Alichur domes of the southwestern Pamir, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan; they are separated by a low‐strain horst. Top‐to‐SSE, noncoaxial pervasive flow over the up to 4 km thick South Pamir shear zone exhumed crust from 30–40 km depth in the ~250 × 80 km Shakhdara dome; the top‐to‐NNE Alichur shear zone exposed upper crustal rocks in the ~125 × 25 km Alichur dome. The Gunt shear zone bounds the Shakhdara dome in the north and records alternations of normal shear and dextral transpression; it contributed little to bulk exhumation. Footwall exhumation along two low‐angle, normal‐sense detachments resulted in up to 90 km syn‐orogenic ~N‐S extension. Extension in the southwestern Pamir opposes shortening in a fold‐thrust belt north of the domes and in particular in the Tajik depression, where an evaporitic décollement facilitated upper crustal shortening. Gravitational collapse of the Pamir‐plateau margin drove core‐complex formation in the southwestern Pamir and shortening of the weak foreland adjacent to the plateau. Overall, this geometry defines a “vertical extrusion” scenario, comprising frontal and basal underthrusting and thickening, and hanging gravitationally driven normal shear. In contrast to the Himalayan vertical extrusion scenario, erosion in the Pamir was minor, preserving most of the extruded deep crust, including the top of the South Pamir shear zone at peak elevations throughout the dome.

@article{doi101002tect20057,
    author = "Stübner, Konstanze and Ratschbacher, Lothar and Rutte, Daniel and Stanek, Klaus and Minaev, V. and Wiesinger, Maria and Gloaguen, Richard and members, Project TIPAGE",
    title = "The giant Shakhdara migmatitic gneiss dome, Pamir, India‐Asia collision zone: 1. Geometry and kinematics",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Cenozoic gneiss domes comprise one third of the surface exposure of the Pamir and provide a window into the deep crustal processes of the India‐Asia collision. The largest of these are the doubly vergent, composite Shakhdara‐Alichur domes of the southwestern Pamir, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan; they are separated by a low‐strain horst. Top‐to‐SSE, noncoaxial pervasive flow over the up to 4 km thick South Pamir shear zone exhumed crust from 30–40 km depth in the \textasciitilde 250 × 80 km Shakhdara dome; the top‐to‐NNE Alichur shear zone exposed upper crustal rocks in the \textasciitilde 125 × 25 km Alichur dome. The Gunt shear zone bounds the Shakhdara dome in the north and records alternations of normal shear and dextral transpression; it contributed little to bulk exhumation. Footwall exhumation along two low‐angle, normal‐sense detachments resulted in up to 90 km syn‐orogenic \textasciitilde N‐S extension. Extension in the southwestern Pamir opposes shortening in a fold‐thrust belt north of the domes and in particular in the Tajik depression, where an evaporitic décollement facilitated upper crustal shortening. Gravitational collapse of the Pamir‐plateau margin drove core‐complex formation in the southwestern Pamir and shortening of the weak foreland adjacent to the plateau. Overall, this geometry defines a “vertical extrusion” scenario, comprising frontal and basal underthrusting and thickening, and hanging gravitationally driven normal shear. In contrast to the Himalayan vertical extrusion scenario, erosion in the Pamir was minor, preserving most of the extruded deep crust, including the top of the South Pamir shear zone at peak elevations throughout the dome.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/tect.20057",
    doi = "10.1002/tect.20057",
    openalex = "W1650300432",
    references = "doi1010160191814189900369, doi101016019181419190078w, doi10102991jb01485, doi101038291645a0, doi101038414738a, doi101126science105978, doi101126science1155371, doi101139e70078, doi101146annurevearth281211, doi103301ijg201109, doi105860choice320317"
}

Cenozoic gneiss domes—exposing middle‐lower crustal rocks—cover ~30% of the surface exposure of the Pamir, western India‐Asia collision zone; they allow an unparalleled view into the deep crust of the Asian plate. We use titanite, monazite, and zircon U/Th‐Pb, mica Rb‐Sr and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, zircon and apatite fission track, and zircon (U‐Th)/He ages to constrain the exhumation history of the ~350 × 90 km Shakhdara‐Alichur dome, southwestern Pamir. Doming started at 21–20 Ma along the Gunt top‐to‐N normal‐shear zone of the northern Shakhdara dome. The bulk of the exhumation occurred by ~NNW‐ward extrusion of the footwall of the crustal‐scale South Pamir normal‐shear zone along the southern Shakhdara dome boundary. Footwall extrusion was active from ~18–15 Ma to ~2 Ma at ~10 mm/yr slip and with vertical exhumation rates of 1–3 mm/yr; it resulted in up to 90 km ~N‐S extension, coeval with ~N‐S convergence between India and Asia. Erosion rates were 0.3–0.5 mm/yr within the domes and 0.1–0.3 mm/yr in the horst separating the Shakhdara and Alichur domes and in the southeastern Pamir plateau; rates were highest along the dome axis in the southern part of the Shakhdara dome. Incision along the major drainages was up to 1.0 mm/yr. Thermal modeling suggests geothermal gradients as high as 60°C/km along the trace of the South Pamir shear zone and their strong N‐S variation across the dome; the gradients relaxed to ≤40–45°C/km since the end of doming.

@article{doi101002tect20059,
    author = "Stübner, Konstanze and Ratschbacher, Lothar and Weise, Carsten and Chow, J. S. and Hofmann, Jakob and Khan, Jahanzeb and Rutte, Daniel and Sperner, Blanka and Pfänder, Jörg A. and Hacker, Bradley R. and Dunkl, István and Tichomirowa, Marion and Stearns, Michael A. and members, Project TIPAGE",
    title = "The giant Shakhdara migmatitic gneiss dome, Pamir, India‐Asia collision zone: 2. Timing of dome formation",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Cenozoic gneiss domes—exposing middle‐lower crustal rocks—cover \textasciitilde 30\% of the surface exposure of the Pamir, western India‐Asia collision zone; they allow an unparalleled view into the deep crust of the Asian plate. We use titanite, monazite, and zircon U/Th‐Pb, mica Rb‐Sr and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, zircon and apatite fission track, and zircon (U‐Th)/He ages to constrain the exhumation history of the \textasciitilde 350 × 90 km Shakhdara‐Alichur dome, southwestern Pamir. Doming started at 21–20 Ma along the Gunt top‐to‐N normal‐shear zone of the northern Shakhdara dome. The bulk of the exhumation occurred by \textasciitilde NNW‐ward extrusion of the footwall of the crustal‐scale South Pamir normal‐shear zone along the southern Shakhdara dome boundary. Footwall extrusion was active from \textasciitilde 18–15 Ma to \textasciitilde 2 Ma at \textasciitilde 10 mm/yr slip and with vertical exhumation rates of 1–3 mm/yr; it resulted in up to 90 km \textasciitilde N‐S extension, coeval with \textasciitilde N‐S convergence between India and Asia. Erosion rates were 0.3–0.5 mm/yr within the domes and 0.1–0.3 mm/yr in the horst separating the Shakhdara and Alichur domes and in the southeastern Pamir plateau; rates were highest along the dome axis in the southern part of the Shakhdara dome. Incision along the major drainages was up to 1.0 mm/yr. Thermal modeling suggests geothermal gradients as high as 60°C/km along the trace of the South Pamir shear zone and their strong N‐S variation across the dome; the gradients relaxed to ≤40–45°C/km since the end of doming.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/tect.20059",
    doi = "10.1002/tect.20059",
    openalex = "W2145867599",
    references = "doi101002tect20057"
}

@misc{crossref2014central,
    title = "Central Asia",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "Sweet Treats around the World",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5040/9798216021803.0117",
    doi = "10.5040/9798216021803.0117",
    pages = "69-72"
}

Mesozoic basins in northwest China provide important records for investigating relationships between intraplate deformation in Central Asia and tectonic processes at Asian boundaries. The present study, using well, seismic, outcrop, and thermochronology data in the Junggar Basin and neighboring areas, describes the main features of Jurassic strata in the basin, analyzes the Jurassic evolution of the basin and neighboring mountain belts, and discusses possible mechanisms of Jurassic intraplate deformation in Central Asia. During the Early-Middle Jurassic, episodic uplift of surrounding mountain belts kept the Junggar Basin a contractional closed basin, and alluvial fan, fluvial, delta, and lacustrine depositional environments successively developed from surrounding ranges to the central basin. During the Late Jurassic, the western and central parts of the basin were folded and uplifted, and deposition migrated mainly to the eastern basin. During the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous, pre-Cretaceous strata in the eastern and northeastern Junggar Basin were folded and uplifted, and coarse-grained sediments were transported from surrounding uplifts to the central basin. We suggest that Jurassic episodic deformation events in the Junggar Basin and other areas of Central Asia are related to the Qiangtang collision during the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic, the closure of the western Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean at the Early/Middle Jurassic boundary, a collision of a microcontinent in the Pamir with the southern Asian margin during the late Middle Jurassic-early Late Jurassic, the collision of the Kolyma-Omolon Block with Siberia at the end of the Jurassic, and the subsequent closure of the eastern Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean during the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous.

@article{doi1010022014tc003640,
    author = "Yang, Yongtai and Chuan-chun, Song and He, Sheng",
    title = "Jurassic tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Junggar basin, NW China: A record of Mesozoic intraplate deformation in Central Asia",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Mesozoic basins in northwest China provide important records for investigating relationships between intraplate deformation in Central Asia and tectonic processes at Asian boundaries. The present study, using well, seismic, outcrop, and thermochronology data in the Junggar Basin and neighboring areas, describes the main features of Jurassic strata in the basin, analyzes the Jurassic evolution of the basin and neighboring mountain belts, and discusses possible mechanisms of Jurassic intraplate deformation in Central Asia. During the Early-Middle Jurassic, episodic uplift of surrounding mountain belts kept the Junggar Basin a contractional closed basin, and alluvial fan, fluvial, delta, and lacustrine depositional environments successively developed from surrounding ranges to the central basin. During the Late Jurassic, the western and central parts of the basin were folded and uplifted, and deposition migrated mainly to the eastern basin. During the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous, pre-Cretaceous strata in the eastern and northeastern Junggar Basin were folded and uplifted, and coarse-grained sediments were transported from surrounding uplifts to the central basin. We suggest that Jurassic episodic deformation events in the Junggar Basin and other areas of Central Asia are related to the Qiangtang collision during the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic, the closure of the western Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean at the Early/Middle Jurassic boundary, a collision of a microcontinent in the Pamir with the southern Asian margin during the late Middle Jurassic-early Late Jurassic, the collision of the Kolyma-Omolon Block with Siberia at the end of the Jurassic, and the subsequent closure of the eastern Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean during the latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2014tc003640",
    doi = "10.1002/2014tc003640",
    openalex = "W1937181373",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201011005, doi101016jgr201202002, doi101016jjseaes200710008, doi101016s0040195199000426, doi101029gd021, doi101098rsta19880135, doi101111ter12042, doi1011300091761319900180128paacro23co2, doi101130b255951, doi101130b260331, doi101146annurevearth281211, doi103301ijg201109"
}

We compiled 123 focal mechanisms from various sources for Tunisia and adjacent regions up to Sicily, to image the current stress field in the Maghrebides chain (from Tunisia to Sicily) and its foreland. Stress inversion of all the available data provides a first-order stress field with a N150°E horizontal compression (SHmax) and a transpressional tectonic regime, but the obtained stress tensor poorly fit to the data set. We separated them into regional subsets (boxes) in function of their geographical proximity, kinematic regime, homogeneity of kinematic orientations, and tectonic setting. Their respective inversion evidences second- and third-order spatial variations in tectonic regime and horizontal stress directions. The stress field gradually changes from compression in the Maghrebides thrust belt to transpression and strike slip in the Atlassic and Pelagian foreland, respectively, where preexisting NW-SE to E-W deep faults system are reactivated. This spatial variation of the sismotectonic stress field and tectonic regime is consistent with the neotectonic stress field determined by others from fault slip data. The major Slab Transfer Edge Propagator faults (i.e., North-South Axis-Hammamet relay and Malte Escarpment), which laterally delimit the subducting slabs, play an active role in second- and third-order lateral variations of the tectonic regime and stress field orientations over the Tunisian/Sicilian domain. The past and current tectonic deformations and kinematics of the central Mediterranean are subordinately guided by the plate convergence (i.e., Africa-Eurasia), controlled or influenced by lateral slab migration/segmentation and by deep dynamics such as lithosphere-mantle interaction.

@article{doi1010022015tc003895,
    author = "Soumaya, Abdelkader and Ayed, Noureddine Ben and Delvaux, Damien and Ghanmi, Mohamed",
    title = "Spatial variation of present-day stress field and tectonic regime in Tunisia and surroundings from formal inversion of focal mechanisms: Geodynamic implications for central Mediterranean",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "We compiled 123 focal mechanisms from various sources for Tunisia and adjacent regions up to Sicily, to image the current stress field in the Maghrebides chain (from Tunisia to Sicily) and its foreland. Stress inversion of all the available data provides a first-order stress field with a N150°E horizontal compression (SHmax) and a transpressional tectonic regime, but the obtained stress tensor poorly fit to the data set. We separated them into regional subsets (boxes) in function of their geographical proximity, kinematic regime, homogeneity of kinematic orientations, and tectonic setting. Their respective inversion evidences second- and third-order spatial variations in tectonic regime and horizontal stress directions. The stress field gradually changes from compression in the Maghrebides thrust belt to transpression and strike slip in the Atlassic and Pelagian foreland, respectively, where preexisting NW-SE to E-W deep faults system are reactivated. This spatial variation of the sismotectonic stress field and tectonic regime is consistent with the neotectonic stress field determined by others from fault slip data. The major Slab Transfer Edge Propagator faults (i.e., North-South Axis-Hammamet relay and Malte Escarpment), which laterally delimit the subducting slabs, play an active role in second- and third-order lateral variations of the tectonic regime and stress field orientations over the Tunisian/Sicilian domain. The past and current tectonic deformations and kinematics of the central Mediterranean are subordinately guided by the plate convergence (i.e., Africa-Eurasia), controlled or influenced by lateral slab migration/segmentation and by deep dynamics such as lithosphere-mantle interaction.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2015tc003895",
    doi = "10.1002/2015tc003895",
    openalex = "W1504652826",
    references = "doi101144gslsp20032120106"
}

@article{doi101007s1214001592284,
    author = "Shichor, Yitzhak",
    title = "Pawns in Central Asia’s Playground: Uyghurs Between Moscow and Beijing",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "East Asia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140-015-9228-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s12140-015-9228-4",
    openalex = "W1989569116",
    references = "doi1023072643643"
}

@article{doi101016jepsl201511046,
    author = "Kufner, Sofia‐Katerina and Schurr, Bernd and Sippl, Christian and Yuan, Xiaohui and Ratschbacher, Lothar and s of Mohammad Akbar, Arib and Ischuk, Anatoly and Murodkulov, Shohrukh and Schneider, Felix and Mechie, J. and Tilmann, Frederik",
    title = "Deep India meets deep Asia: Lithospheric indentation, delamination and break-off under Pamir and Hindu Kush (Central Asia)",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.046",
    doi = "10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.046",
    openalex = "W2206374407",
    references = "doi101002tect20057"
}

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt records the accretion and convergence of three collage systems that were finally rotated into two major oroclines. The Mongolia collage system was a long, N–S-oriented composite ribbon that was rotated to its current orientation when the Mongol-Okhotsk orocline was formed. The components of the Kazakhstan collage system were welded together into a long, single composite arc that was bent to form the Kazakhstan orocline. The cratons of Tarim and North China were united and sutured by the Beishan orogen, which terminated with formation of the Solonker suture in northern China. All components of the three collage systems were generated by the Neoproterozoic and were amalgamated in the Permo-Triassic. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt evolved by multiple convergence and accretion of many orogenic components during multiple phases of amalgamation, followed by two phases of orocline rotation.

@article{doi101146annurevearth060614105254,
    author = "Xiao, Wenjiao and Windley, Brian F. and Sun, Shu and Li, Jiliang and Huang, Baochun and Han, Chunming and Yuan, Chao and Sun, Min and Chen, Hanlin",
    title = "A Tale of Amalgamation of Three Permo-Triassic Collage Systems in Central Asia: Oroclines, Sutures, and Terminal Accretion",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "The Central Asian Orogenic Belt records the accretion and convergence of three collage systems that were finally rotated into two major oroclines. The Mongolia collage system was a long, N–S-oriented composite ribbon that was rotated to its current orientation when the Mongol-Okhotsk orocline was formed. The components of the Kazakhstan collage system were welded together into a long, single composite arc that was bent to form the Kazakhstan orocline. The cratons of Tarim and North China were united and sutured by the Beishan orogen, which terminated with formation of the Solonker suture in northern China. All components of the three collage systems were generated by the Neoproterozoic and were amalgamated in the Permo-Triassic. The Central Asian Orogenic Belt evolved by multiple convergence and accretion of many orogenic components during multiple phases of amalgamation, followed by two phases of orocline rotation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105254",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105254",
    openalex = "W2162334444",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev200702001, doi101016jearscirev201109001, doi101016jgr201001007, doi101016jgr201201012, doi101016jgr201306012, doi101016jgsf201401002, doi101016jjseaes200710008, doi101016s0040195100001761, doi101016s1342937x05710637, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101029gd021, doi101038364299a0, doi101098rsta19880135, doi101130b307651, doi1011440016764903165, doi101144001676492006022, doi101144gslsp19981430117, doi101146annurevearth281211, doi102475ajs3044370"
}

The northernmost exposures of sub-Himalayan Cenozoic strata in the Hazara–Kashmir syntaxial region of north Pakistan comprises the Paleocene–Eocene marine strata in the lower part and Oligocene–Miocene nonmarine strata in the upper part. This study provides the detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology of the Cenozoic strata in this area. The strong resemblance of U–Pb age spectra of Paleocene Hangu, Lockhart and Patala formations with those of Himalayan strata indicate an Indian plate provenance. The first appearance of <100 Ma detrital zircon U–Pb ages within the lower most part of the Early Eocene Margalla Hill Limestone indicates a shift from an Indian to Asian provenance. Geologic mapping shows the existence of a disconformity between the lower and upper most part of the Patala Formation, which is interpreted to have been formed by the migration of a flexural forebulge through this region. We consider the upper most part of the Patala Formation to have been deposited within the distal foredeep of the foreland basin. The Indian to Asian provenance shift and the presence of a possible foreland basin forebulge provide strong evidence that India–Asia collision was underway in northern Pakistan at ca. 56–55 Ma.

@article{doi101016jepsl201609003,
    author = "Ding, Lin and Qasim, Muhammad and Jadoon, Ishtiaq A. K. and Khan, Muhammad Asif and Xu, Qiang and Cai, Fulong and Wang, Houqi and Baral, Upendra and Yue, Yahui",
    title = "The India–Asia collision in north Pakistan: Insight from the U–Pb detrital zircon provenance of Cenozoic foreland basin",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    abstract = "The northernmost exposures of sub-Himalayan Cenozoic strata in the Hazara–Kashmir syntaxial region of north Pakistan comprises the Paleocene–Eocene marine strata in the lower part and Oligocene–Miocene nonmarine strata in the upper part. This study provides the detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology of the Cenozoic strata in this area. The strong resemblance of U–Pb age spectra of Paleocene Hangu, Lockhart and Patala formations with those of Himalayan strata indicate an Indian plate provenance. The first appearance of <100 Ma detrital zircon U–Pb ages within the lower most part of the Early Eocene Margalla Hill Limestone indicates a shift from an Indian to Asian provenance. Geologic mapping shows the existence of a disconformity between the lower and upper most part of the Patala Formation, which is interpreted to have been formed by the migration of a flexural forebulge through this region. We consider the upper most part of the Patala Formation to have been deposited within the distal foredeep of the foreland basin. The Indian to Asian provenance shift and the presence of a possible foreland basin forebulge provide strong evidence that India–Asia collision was underway in northern Pakistan at ca. 56–55 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.003",
    openalex = "W2527933011",
    references = "doi101016jepsl200502038, doi101016s0012821x96002014, doi1010292001tc001322, doi1010292004tc001729, doi1010292006jb004706, doi101038373055a0, doi101073pnas1117262109, doi101126science2885465497, doi103301ijg201109, openalexw1955902821, openalexw2797914455"
}

In order to better constrain the evolution of the Tethyan orogenic system, we conducted an integrated investigation involving U-Pb dating of igneous and detrital zircon, geochemical analysis of igneous rocks, compositional analysis of sedimentary strata, and a synthesis of existing work across the Qilian Shan, Qaidam Basin, and the Eastern Kunlun Range of central and northern Tibet. This effort reveals five stages of arc magmatism at 1005-910 Ma, 790-720 Ma, 580-500 Ma, 490-375 Ma, and 290-195 Ma, respectively. Arc activities were interrupted by repeated continent-continent collision followed by ocean opening along the older suture zones first created in the Neoproterozoic. This suggests that Wilson cycles have played a controlling role in constructing the southern Asian continent. The magmatic history and regional geologic constraints allow us to construct a coherent tectonic model that has the following key features. (1) The linked South Qilian suture in the west and North Qinling suture in the east formed the northern boundary of the coherent Kunlun-Qaidam-North Qinling Terrane in the early Paleozoic. (2) The Songpan-Ganzi Terrane has been the western part of the Yangtze craton since the Neoproterozoic.

@article{doi101130l4941,
    author = "Wu, Chen and Yin, An and Zuza, Andrew V. and Zhang, Jinyu and Liu, Wencan and Ding, Lin",
    title = "Pre-Cenozoic geologic history of the central and northern Tibetan Plateau and the role of Wilson cycles in constructing the Tethyan orogenic system",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Lithosphere",
    abstract = "In order to better constrain the evolution of the Tethyan orogenic system, we conducted an integrated investigation involving U-Pb dating of igneous and detrital zircon, geochemical analysis of igneous rocks, compositional analysis of sedimentary strata, and a synthesis of existing work across the Qilian Shan, Qaidam Basin, and the Eastern Kunlun Range of central and northern Tibet. This effort reveals five stages of arc magmatism at 1005-910 Ma, 790-720 Ma, 580-500 Ma, 490-375 Ma, and 290-195 Ma, respectively. Arc activities were interrupted by repeated continent-continent collision followed by ocean opening along the older suture zones first created in the Neoproterozoic. This suggests that Wilson cycles have played a controlling role in constructing the southern Asian continent. The magmatic history and regional geologic constraints allow us to construct a coherent tectonic model that has the following key features. (1) The linked South Qilian suture in the west and North Qinling suture in the east formed the northern boundary of the coherent Kunlun-Qaidam-North Qinling Terrane in the early Paleozoic. (2) The Songpan-Ganzi Terrane has been the western part of the Yangtze craton since the Neoproterozoic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/l494.1",
    doi = "10.1130/l494.1",
    openalex = "W2344253218",
    references = "doi101002tect20013, doi101007bf00402202, doi1010160012825294900299, doi101016b0080437516030164, doi101016b9780080959757003016, doi101016jjseaes201409012, doi101073pnas0805482105, doi101093petrology254956, doi1011300016760619891010635tdog23co2, doi101139e71055, doi101144gslsp19890420119, doi101146annurevearth281211, openalexw1491179359"
}

Asian deep crust exposed in the Pamir permits determination of the amount, sequence, and interaction of shortening, extension, and lateral extrusion over ~30 km of crustal section during the India-Asia collision. In the Central Pamir, gneiss domes and their hanging walls record Paleogene tripling of the 7–10 km thick Phanerozoic upper crustal strata; total crustal thickness may have amounted to 90 km. Two thrust sheets, comprising Cambro-Ordovician, respectively, Carboniferous to Paleogene strata, straddle the domes. Amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks within the domes—equivalent to lower grade rocks outside the domes—form fold nappes with dome-scale wavelengths. E-W stretching occurred contemporaneously with top-to- ~ N imbrication and folding. At ~22–12 Ma, bivergent (top-to-N and top-to-S), normal-sense shear zones exhumed the crystalline rocks; most of the extension occurred along the northern dome margins. Shortening resumed at ~12 Ma with opposite-sense thrusting and folding focused along the dome margins. Throughout the building of the Central and South Pamir, dominant ~N-S shortening interacted with ~E-W extension along mostly dextral shear/fault zones. In the Neogene, shear is concentrated along a dextral wrench corridor south of the domes. We interpret the Paleogene shortening to record thickening and northward growth of the Pamir-Tibetan Plateau and short-lived Miocene crustal extension as gravitational adjustment, i.e., collapse, of the thickened Asian crust to Indian slab breakoff. Synconvergent Paleogene lateral extrusion thickened the Afghan Hindu Kush crust west of the India-Asia collision, and the Miocene-Recent dextral shear and ~E-W extension have accommodated collapse of the Pamir Plateau into the Tajik depression.

@article{doi1010022016tc004293,
    author = "Rutte, Daniel and Ratschbacher, Lothar and Schneider, Susanne A. and Stübner, Konstanze and Stearns, Michael A. and Gulzar, Muhammad A. and Hacker, Bradley R.",
    title = "Building the Pamir-Tibetan Plateau-Crustal stacking, extensional collapse, and lateral extrusion in the Central Pamir: 1. Geometry and kinematics",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Asian deep crust exposed in the Pamir permits determination of the amount, sequence, and interaction of shortening, extension, and lateral extrusion over \textasciitilde 30 km of crustal section during the India-Asia collision. In the Central Pamir, gneiss domes and their hanging walls record Paleogene tripling of the 7–10 km thick Phanerozoic upper crustal strata; total crustal thickness may have amounted to 90 km. Two thrust sheets, comprising Cambro-Ordovician, respectively, Carboniferous to Paleogene strata, straddle the domes. Amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks within the domes—equivalent to lower grade rocks outside the domes—form fold nappes with dome-scale wavelengths. E-W stretching occurred contemporaneously with top-to- \textasciitilde\ N imbrication and folding. At \textasciitilde 22–12 Ma, bivergent (top-to-N and top-to-S), normal-sense shear zones exhumed the crystalline rocks; most of the extension occurred along the northern dome margins. Shortening resumed at \textasciitilde 12 Ma with opposite-sense thrusting and folding focused along the dome margins. Throughout the building of the Central and South Pamir, dominant \textasciitilde N-S shortening interacted with \textasciitilde E-W extension along mostly dextral shear/fault zones. In the Neogene, shear is concentrated along a dextral wrench corridor south of the domes. We interpret the Paleogene shortening to record thickening and northward growth of the Pamir-Tibetan Plateau and short-lived Miocene crustal extension as gravitational adjustment, i.e., collapse, of the thickened Asian crust to Indian slab breakoff. Synconvergent Paleogene lateral extrusion thickened the Afghan Hindu Kush crust west of the India-Asia collision, and the Miocene-Recent dextral shear and \textasciitilde E-W extension have accommodated collapse of the Pamir Plateau into the Tajik depression.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2016tc004293",
    doi = "10.1002/2016tc004293",
    openalex = "W2576208498",
    references = "doi1010022014tc003576, doi101002tect20057, doi101016jjseaes201409012"
}

Geothermochronologic data outline the temperature-deformation-time evolution of the Muskol and Shatput gneiss domes and their hanging walls in the Central Pamir. Prograde metamorphism started before ~35 Ma and peaked at ~23–20 Ma, reflecting top-to- ~N thrust-sheet and fold-nappe emplacement that tripled the thickness of the upper ~7–10 km of the Asian crust. Multimethod thermochronology traces cooling through ~700–100°C between ~22 and 12 Ma due to exhumation along dome-bounding normal-sense shear zones. Synkinematic minerals date normal sense shear-zone deformation at ~22–17 Ma. Age-versus-elevation relationships and paleoisotherm spacing imply exhumation at ≥3 km/Myr. South of the domes, Mesozoic granitoids record slow cooling and/or constant temperature throughout the Paleogene and enhanced cooling (7–31°C/Myr) starting between ~23 and 12 Ma and continuing today. Integrating the Central Pamir data with those of the East (Chinese) Pamir Kongur Shan and Muztaghata domes, and with the South Pamir Shakhdara dome, implies (i) regionally distributed, Paleogene crustal thickening; (ii) Pamir-wide gravitational collapse of thickened crust starting at ~23–21 Ma during ongoing India-Asia convergence; and (iii) termination of doming and resumption of shortening following northward propagating underthrusting of the Indian cratonic lithosphere at ≥12 Ma. Westward lateral extrusion of Pamir Plateau crust into the Hindu Kush and the Tajik depression accompanied all stages. Deep-seated processes, e.g., slab breakoff, crustal foundering, and underthrusting of buoyant lithosphere, governed transitional phases in the Pamir, and likely the Tibet crust.

@article{doi1010022016tc004294,
    author = "Rutte, Daniel and Ratschbacher, Lothar and Khan, Jahanzeb and Stübner, Konstanze and Hacker, Bradley R. and Stearns, Michael A. and Enkelmann, Eva and Jonckheere, Raymond and Pfänder, Jörg A. and Sperner, Blanka and Tichomirowa, Marion",
    title = "Building the Pamir-Tibetan Plateau-Crustal stacking, extensional collapse, and lateral extrusion in the Central Pamir: 2. Timing and rates",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "Geothermochronologic data outline the temperature-deformation-time evolution of the Muskol and Shatput gneiss domes and their hanging walls in the Central Pamir. Prograde metamorphism started before \textasciitilde 35 Ma and peaked at \textasciitilde 23–20 Ma, reflecting top-to- \textasciitilde N thrust-sheet and fold-nappe emplacement that tripled the thickness of the upper \textasciitilde 7–10 km of the Asian crust. Multimethod thermochronology traces cooling through \textasciitilde 700–100°C between \textasciitilde 22 and 12 Ma due to exhumation along dome-bounding normal-sense shear zones. Synkinematic minerals date normal sense shear-zone deformation at \textasciitilde 22–17 Ma. Age-versus-elevation relationships and paleoisotherm spacing imply exhumation at ≥3 km/Myr. South of the domes, Mesozoic granitoids record slow cooling and/or constant temperature throughout the Paleogene and enhanced cooling (7–31°C/Myr) starting between \textasciitilde 23 and 12 Ma and continuing today. Integrating the Central Pamir data with those of the East (Chinese) Pamir Kongur Shan and Muztaghata domes, and with the South Pamir Shakhdara dome, implies (i) regionally distributed, Paleogene crustal thickening; (ii) Pamir-wide gravitational collapse of thickened crust starting at \textasciitilde 23–21 Ma during ongoing India-Asia convergence; and (iii) termination of doming and resumption of shortening following northward propagating underthrusting of the Indian cratonic lithosphere at ≥12 Ma. Westward lateral extrusion of Pamir Plateau crust into the Hindu Kush and the Tajik depression accompanied all stages. Deep-seated processes, e.g., slab breakoff, crustal foundering, and underthrusting of buoyant lithosphere, governed transitional phases in the Pamir, and likely the Tibet crust.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2016tc004294",
    doi = "10.1002/2016tc004294",
    openalex = "W2786245621",
    references = "doi1010022014tc003576"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201701005,
    author = "Yang, Yongtai and Guo, Zhi-Xin and Luo, Yan-Jun",
    title = "Middle-Late Jurassic tectonostratigraphic evolution of Central Asia, implications for the collision of the Karakoram-Lhasa Block with Asia",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.01.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.01.005",
    openalex = "W2575153090",
    references = "doi1010022014tc003640, doi101016jjseaes201409012, doi101111ter12042"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201709020,
    author = "Xiao, Wenjiao and Windley, Brian F. and Han, Chunming and Liu, Wei and Wan, Bo and Zhang, Ji’en and Ao, Songjian and Zhang, Zhiyong and Song, Dongfang",
    title = "Late Paleozoic to early Triassic multiple roll-back and oroclinal bending of the Mongolia collage in Central Asia",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.020",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.09.020",
    openalex = "W2760523683",
    references = "doi1010160301926894000775, doi101016jearscirev201109001, doi101016jgr200912008, doi101016jgr201201012, doi101016jgr201212023, doi101016jgr201306012, doi101016jgsf201312003, doi101016jjseaes201707029, doi101016jrgg201309002, doi101016s0009254102000189, doi101016s1342937x05710637, doi101016s1367912001000694, doi1010292002tc001484, doi10102991rg00969, doi101038211676a0, doi101038364299a0, doi101130b307651, doi101130b315411, doi101144001676492006022, doi101144gsjgs15220327, doi101146annurevearth060614105254, doi101146annurevearth281211"
}

Asia is key to a richer understanding of many important lithospheric processes such as crustal growth, continental evolution and orogenesis. But to properly decipher the secrets Asia holds, a first-order tectonic context is needed. This presents a challenge, however, because a great variety of alternative and often contradictory tectonic models of Asia have flourished. This plethora of models has in part arisen from efforts to explain limited observations (in space, time or discipline) without regard for the broader assemblage of established constraints. The way forward, then, is to endeavor to construct paleogeographic models that fully incorporate the diverse constraints available, namely from quantitative paleomagnetic data, the plentiful record of geologic and paleobiologic observations, and the principles of plate tectonics. This paper presents a preliminary attempt at such a synthesis concerning the early Paleozoic tectonic history of Asia. A review of salient geologic observations and paleomagnetic data from the various continental blocks and terranes of Asia is followed by the presentation of a new, full-plate tectonic model of the region from middle Cambrian to end-Silurian time (500–420 Ma). Although this work may serve as a reference point, the model itself can only be considered provisional and ideally it will evolve with time. Accordingly, all the model details are released so that they may be used to test and improve the framework as new discoveries unfold.

@article{doi101016jgsf201711012,
    author = "Domeier, Mathew",
    title = "Early Paleozoic tectonics of Asia: Towards a full-plate model",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Geoscience Frontiers",
    abstract = "Asia is key to a richer understanding of many important lithospheric processes such as crustal growth, continental evolution and orogenesis. But to properly decipher the secrets Asia holds, a first-order tectonic context is needed. This presents a challenge, however, because a great variety of alternative and often contradictory tectonic models of Asia have flourished. This plethora of models has in part arisen from efforts to explain limited observations (in space, time or discipline) without regard for the broader assemblage of established constraints. The way forward, then, is to endeavor to construct paleogeographic models that fully incorporate the diverse constraints available, namely from quantitative paleomagnetic data, the plentiful record of geologic and paleobiologic observations, and the principles of plate tectonics. This paper presents a preliminary attempt at such a synthesis concerning the early Paleozoic tectonic history of Asia. A review of salient geologic observations and paleomagnetic data from the various continental blocks and terranes of Asia is followed by the presentation of a new, full-plate tectonic model of the region from middle Cambrian to end-Silurian time (500–420 Ma). Although this work may serve as a reference point, the model itself can only be considered provisional and ideally it will evolve with time. Accordingly, all the model details are released so that they may be used to test and improve the framework as new discoveries unfold.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.11.012",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gsf.2017.11.012",
    openalex = "W2772951609",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jearscirev201206007, doi101016jgr201202002, doi101016jjseaes201011014, doi101016jjseaes201212020, doi101016jmarpetgeo200503002, doi101016jprecamres201209017, doi101016jtecto201609012, doi101016s0012821x0100588x, doi1010292002tc001484, doi101038364299a0, doi101144001676492006022, doi103301ijg201109, doi103906yer100511"
}

The article deals with the topic of how Russian liberal parties of the early twentieth century - the Party of the Constitutional Democrats (the Kadets), the Octobrist Party (the Octobrists) and the Progressive Party (the Progressives) - interpreted the range of issues associated with the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, such as imperialism, militarism, colonial policy, nationalism and pacifism. The authors hypothesize that the above-mentioned Russian liberal parties, despite all the differences in their political, economic and social views, adhered to the same foreign-policy approach which could be referred to as liberal imperialism. In particular, all three parties called on the Russian government to prepare for the intensive economic competition for new markets and trade flows, as well as for a potentially possible imperialist war between great European powers. According to the Kadets’, Octobrists’ and Progressives’ concepts, Russia's foreign policy should be highly proactive and imperialistic, and should be based on a strong military presence both in Europe and in Asia.

@article{doi1010800954654520181479360,
    author = "Petrovich-Belkin, Oleg and Kurylev, Konstantin P. and Smolik, Nadezhda and Stanis, Daria",
    title = "Russian Liberals and the Conceptual Foundations of Russian Foreign Policy in the Early Twentieth Century",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Revolutionary Russia",
    abstract = "The article deals with the topic of how Russian liberal parties of the early twentieth century - the Party of the Constitutional Democrats (the Kadets), the Octobrist Party (the Octobrists) and the Progressive Party (the Progressives) - interpreted the range of issues associated with the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, such as imperialism, militarism, colonial policy, nationalism and pacifism. The authors hypothesize that the above-mentioned Russian liberal parties, despite all the differences in their political, economic and social views, adhered to the same foreign-policy approach which could be referred to as liberal imperialism. In particular, all three parties called on the Russian government to prepare for the intensive economic competition for new markets and trade flows, as well as for a potentially possible imperialist war between great European powers. According to the Kadets’, Octobrists’ and Progressives’ concepts, Russia's foreign policy should be highly proactive and imperialistic, and should be based on a strong military presence both in Europe and in Asia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/09546545.2018.1479360",
    doi = "10.1080/09546545.2018.1479360",
    openalex = "W2809279216",
    references = "doi10100797813490172565"
}

Abstract The proto‐Paratethys Sea covered a vast area extending from the Mediterranean Tethys to the Tarim Basin in western China during Cretaceous and early Paleogene. Climate modelling and proxy studies suggest that Asian aridification has been governed by westerly moisture modulated by fluctuations of the proto‐Paratethys Sea. Transgressive and regressive episodes of the proto‐Paratethys Sea have been previously recognized but their timing, extent and depositional environments remain poorly constrained. This hampers understanding of their driving mechanisms (tectonic and/or eustatic) and their contribution to Asian aridification. Here, we present a new chronostratigraphic framework based on biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy as well as a detailed palaeoenvironmental analysis for the Paleogene proto‐Paratethys Sea incursions in the Tajik and Tarim basins. This enables us to identify the major drivers of marine fluctuations and their potential consequences on Asian aridification. A major regional restriction event, marked by the exceptionally thick (≤ 400 m) shelf evaporites is assigned a Danian‐Selandian age (ca. 63–59 Ma) in the Aertashi Formation. This is followed by the largest recorded proto‐Paratethys Sea incursion with a transgression estimated as early Thanetian (ca. 59–57 Ma) and a regression within the Ypresian (ca. 53–52 Ma), both within the Qimugen Formation. The transgression of the next incursion in the Kalatar and Wulagen formations is now constrained as early Lutetian (ca. 47–46 Ma), whereas its regression in the Bashibulake Formation is constrained as late Lutetian (ca. 41 Ma) and is associated with a drastic increase in both tectonic subsidence and basin infilling. The age of the final and least pronounced sea incursion restricted to the westernmost margin of the Tarim Basin is assigned as Bartonian–Priabonian (ca. 39.7–36.7 Ma). We interpret the long‐term westward retreat of the proto‐Paratethys Sea starting at ca. 41 Ma to be associated with far‐field tectonic effects of the Indo‐Asia collision and Pamir/Tibetan plateau uplift. Short‐term eustatic sea level transgressions are superimposed on this long‐term regression and seem coeval with the transgression events in the other northern Peri‐Tethyan sedimentary provinces for the 1st and 2nd sea incursions. However, the 3rd sea incursion is interpreted as related to tectonism. The transgressive and regressive intervals of the proto‐Paratethys Sea correlate well with the reported humid and arid phases, respectively in the Qaidam and Xining basins, thus demonstrating the role of the proto‐Paratethys Sea as an important moisture source for the Asian interior and its regression as a contributor to Asian aridification.

@article{doi101111bre12330,
    author = "Kaya, Mustafa and Dupont‐Nivet, Guillaume and Proust, Jean‐Noël and Roperch, Pierrick and Bougeois, Laurie and Meijer, Niels and Frieling, Joost and Fioroni, Chiara and Özkan-Altıner, Sevinç and Vardar, Ezgi and Barbolini, Natasha and Stoica, Marius and Aminov, Jovid and Mamtimin, Mehmut and Zhaojie, Guo",
    title = "Paleogene evolution and demise of the proto‐Paratethys Sea in Central Asia (Tarim and Tajik basins): Role of intensified tectonic activity at ca. 41 Ma",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "Abstract The proto‐Paratethys Sea covered a vast area extending from the Mediterranean Tethys to the Tarim Basin in western China during Cretaceous and early Paleogene. Climate modelling and proxy studies suggest that Asian aridification has been governed by westerly moisture modulated by fluctuations of the proto‐Paratethys Sea. Transgressive and regressive episodes of the proto‐Paratethys Sea have been previously recognized but their timing, extent and depositional environments remain poorly constrained. This hampers understanding of their driving mechanisms (tectonic and/or eustatic) and their contribution to Asian aridification. Here, we present a new chronostratigraphic framework based on biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy as well as a detailed palaeoenvironmental analysis for the Paleogene proto‐Paratethys Sea incursions in the Tajik and Tarim basins. This enables us to identify the major drivers of marine fluctuations and their potential consequences on Asian aridification. A major regional restriction event, marked by the exceptionally thick (≤ 400 m) shelf evaporites is assigned a Danian‐Selandian age (ca. 63–59 Ma) in the Aertashi Formation. This is followed by the largest recorded proto‐Paratethys Sea incursion with a transgression estimated as early Thanetian (ca. 59–57 Ma) and a regression within the Ypresian (ca. 53–52 Ma), both within the Qimugen Formation. The transgression of the next incursion in the Kalatar and Wulagen formations is now constrained as early Lutetian (ca. 47–46 Ma), whereas its regression in the Bashibulake Formation is constrained as late Lutetian (ca. 41 Ma) and is associated with a drastic increase in both tectonic subsidence and basin infilling. The age of the final and least pronounced sea incursion restricted to the westernmost margin of the Tarim Basin is assigned as Bartonian–Priabonian (ca. 39.7–36.7 Ma). We interpret the long‐term westward retreat of the proto‐Paratethys Sea starting at ca. 41 Ma to be associated with far‐field tectonic effects of the Indo‐Asia collision and Pamir/Tibetan plateau uplift. Short‐term eustatic sea level transgressions are superimposed on this long‐term regression and seem coeval with the transgression events in the other northern Peri‐Tethyan sedimentary provinces for the 1st and 2nd sea incursions. However, the 3rd sea incursion is interpreted as related to tectonism. The transgressive and regressive intervals of the proto‐Paratethys Sea correlate well with the reported humid and arid phases, respectively in the Qaidam and Xining basins, thus demonstrating the role of the proto‐Paratethys Sea as an important moisture source for the Asian interior and its regression as a contributor to Asian aridification.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12330",
    doi = "10.1111/bre.12330",
    openalex = "W2903574275",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201710041"
}

Abstract Following the c. 50 Ma India–Kohistan arc–Asia collision, crustal thickening uplifted the Himalaya (Indian Plate), and the Karakoram, Pamir and Tibetan Plateau (Asian Plate). Whereas surface geology of Tibet shows limited Cenozoic metamorphism and deformation, and only localized crustal melting, the Karakoram–Pamir show regional sillimanite- and kyanite-grade metamorphism, and crustal melting resulting in major granitic intrusions (Baltoro granites). U/Th–Pb dating shows that metamorphism along the Hunza Karakoram peaked at c. 83–62 and 44 Ma with intrusion of the Hunza dykes at 52–50 Ma and 35 ± 1.0 Ma, and along the Baltoro Karakoram peaked at c. 28–22 Ma, but continued until 5.4–3.5 Ma (Dassu dome). Widespread crustal melting along the Baltoro Batholith spanned 26.4–13 Ma. A series of thrust sheets and gneiss domes (metamorphic core complexes) record crustal thickening and regional metamorphism in the central and south Pamir from 37 to 20 Ma. At 20 Ma, break-off of the Indian slab caused large-scale exhumation of amphibolite-facies crust from depths of 30–55 km, and caused crustal thickening to jump to the fold-and-thrust belt at the northern edge of the Pamir. Crustal thickening, high-grade metamorphism and melting are certainly continuing at depth today in the India–Asia collision zone.

@article{doi101144sp4836,
    author = "Searle, M. P. and Hacker, Bradley R.",
    title = "Structural and metamorphic evolution of the Karakoram and Pamir following India–Kohistan–Asia collision",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Abstract Following the c. 50 Ma India–Kohistan arc–Asia collision, crustal thickening uplifted the Himalaya (Indian Plate), and the Karakoram, Pamir and Tibetan Plateau (Asian Plate). Whereas surface geology of Tibet shows limited Cenozoic metamorphism and deformation, and only localized crustal melting, the Karakoram–Pamir show regional sillimanite- and kyanite-grade metamorphism, and crustal melting resulting in major granitic intrusions (Baltoro granites). U/Th–Pb dating shows that metamorphism along the Hunza Karakoram peaked at c. 83–62 and 44 Ma with intrusion of the Hunza dykes at 52–50 Ma and 35 ± 1.0 Ma, and along the Baltoro Karakoram peaked at c. 28–22 Ma, but continued until 5.4–3.5 Ma (Dassu dome). Widespread crustal melting along the Baltoro Batholith spanned 26.4–13 Ma. A series of thrust sheets and gneiss domes (metamorphic core complexes) record crustal thickening and regional metamorphism in the central and south Pamir from 37 to 20 Ma. At 20 Ma, break-off of the Indian slab caused large-scale exhumation of amphibolite-facies crust from depths of 30–55 km, and caused crustal thickening to jump to the fold-and-thrust belt at the northern edge of the Pamir. Crustal thickening, high-grade metamorphism and melting are certainly continuing at depth today in the India–Asia collision zone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/sp483.6",
    doi = "10.1144/sp483.6",
    openalex = "W2890219649",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201710041"
}

@misc{doi1014711spcolb330654,
    author = "Dobson, George Edward",
    title = "Russia's railway advance into Central Asia: notes of a journey from St. Petersburg to Samarkand",
    year = "2018",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14711/spcol/b330654",
    doi = "10.14711/spcol/b330654",
    openalex = "W1513469957"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201904014,
    author = "Lu, Huayu and Wang, Xianyan and Wang, Xiaoyong and Xi, Chang and Zhang, Hanzhi and Xu, Zhiwei and Zhang, Wenchao and Wei, Hai–Zhen and Zhang, Xiaojian and Yi, Shuangwen and Zhang, Wenfang and Feng, Han and Wang, Yichao and Wang, Yao and Han, Zhiyong",
    title = "Formation and evolution of Gobi Desert in central and eastern Asia",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.014",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.014",
    openalex = "W2939035173",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201609003"
}

@misc{crossref2020central,
    title = "Central Asia",
    year = "2020",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822396246",
    doi = "10.1515/9780822396246"
}

The India-Asia collision is an outstanding smoking gun in the study of continental collision dynamics. How and when the continental collision occurred remains a long-standing controversy. Here we present two new paleomagnetic data sets from rocks deposited on the distal part of the Indian passive margin, which indicate that the Tethyan Himalaya terrane was situated at a paleolatitude of ∼19.4°S at ∼75 Ma and moved rapidly northward to reach a paleolatitude of ∼13.7°N at ∼61 Ma. This implies that the Tethyan Himalaya terrane rifted from India after ∼75 Ma, generating the North India Sea. We document a new two-stage continental collision, first at ∼61 Ma between the Lhasa and Tethyan Himalaya terranes, and subsequently at ∼53-48 Ma between the Tethyan Himalaya terrane and India, diachronously closing the North India Sea from west to east. Our scenario matches the history of India-Asia convergence rates and reconciles multiple lines of geologic evidence for the collision.

@article{doi101093nsrnwaa173,
    author = "Yuan, Jie and Yang, Zhenyu and Deng, Chenglong and Krijgsman, Wout and Hu, Xiumian and Li, Shihu and Shen, Zhongshan and Qin, Huafeng and An, Wei and He, Huaiyu and Ding, Lin and Guo, Zhengtang and Zhu, Rixiang",
    title = "Rapid drift of the Tethyan Himalaya terrane before two-stage India-Asia collision",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "National Science Review",
    abstract = "The India-Asia collision is an outstanding smoking gun in the study of continental collision dynamics. How and when the continental collision occurred remains a long-standing controversy. Here we present two new paleomagnetic data sets from rocks deposited on the distal part of the Indian passive margin, which indicate that the Tethyan Himalaya terrane was situated at a paleolatitude of ∼19.4°S at ∼75 Ma and moved rapidly northward to reach a paleolatitude of ∼13.7°N at ∼61 Ma. This implies that the Tethyan Himalaya terrane rifted from India after ∼75 Ma, generating the North India Sea. We document a new two-stage continental collision, first at ∼61 Ma between the Lhasa and Tethyan Himalaya terranes, and subsequently at ∼53-48 Ma between the Tethyan Himalaya terrane and India, diachronously closing the North India Sea from west to east. Our scenario matches the history of India-Asia convergence rates and reconciles multiple lines of geologic evidence for the collision.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa173",
    doi = "10.1093/nsr/nwaa173",
    openalex = "W3045678495",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201609003"
}

Subduction and closure of the Proto-Tethys and Palaeo-Tethys oceans were important events in the assembly of Eurasia, and created the Central China Orogenic Belt (CCOB). This paper presents a new tectonic model for the CCOB in which we propose that elongate Precambrian basement blocks within the CCOB were originally part of a single ribbon continent, here named K-Qubed after the Kunlun-Qaidam-Qilian-Qinling regions. K-Qubed separated from the South China Block in the Neoproterozoic. Dextral-oblique subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean took place southwards (present co-ordinates) under K-Qubed in latest Precambrian - Cambrian times (ca. 550–500 Ma). Subduction-accretion complexes were generated alongside the basement, while arc magmatism overprinted both basement and accretionary crust. Initial collision of the northern side of the ribbon continent and the North China and Tarim blocks occurred at ca. 500 Ma. High-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism resulted by ca. 490 Ma, in the North Qilian, South Altun/North Qaidam and North Qinling regions. Collision triggered a flip in subduction polarity, and caused a subduction-accretion complex and magmatic arc to build out southwards from K-Qubed, as Palaeo-Tethys was consumed northwards in the Ordovician. Magmatic timings were similar between different tectonic units; twin peaks in magmatism at ca. 500–490 Ma and ca. 440–430 Ma occurred in several terranes. Oblique subduction caused strain partitioning, in turn causing slivering and across-strike repetition of basement and accretionary crust. Tectonic units in the Qilian Shan and Kunlun can be partly correlated with equivalents in the Qinling Orogen. We suggest a match between the North Qilian Orogenic Belt and the Erlangping Unit, between the Central Qilian Block and the North Qinling Belt, between the South Qilian Accretionary Belt and the Shangdan Suture Zone. Basement terranes of the Qaidam region and the East Kunlun Orogen have no obvious lateral equivalents in the Qinling, and are truncated at the eastern margins by the West Qinling Belt. There are similar ages for peak metamorphism at ca. 440–420 Ma in an eclogite belt in the North Qaidam Ultra High-pressure Metamorphic Belt (NQUB) and eclogite localities in the East Kunlun Orogen. We interpret this metamorphism to be result of slab break-off beneath the K-Qubed continent, with metamorphic rocks repeated across-strike by dextral shear. The component of Precambrian crust in the Kunlun diminishes westwards into the West Kunlun, where Early Palaeozoic accretion of crust was more continuous. A magmatic gap throughout the CCOB between ca. 370 and ca. 290 Ma was possibly related to extremely oblique and/or slow plate convergence, or represents a time through which subduction stopped. Renewed northwards subduction of the Palaeo-Tethyan Ocean took place under the south side of the Kunlun and Qinling in the Permian, completed by Triassic collisions of the Qiangtang and South China blocks with the southern side of the CCOB. This model for the CCOB is an alternative to collisional and accretionary end members for orogeny, whereby oblique subduction and collision of a ribbon continent produces interleaving of basement and more juvenile terranes. Closure of Proto-Tethys did not involve multiple, separate and synchronous subduction zones, or repetition of a subduction zone by oroclinal bending, as previously proposed.

@article{doi101016jearscirev2023104385,
    author = "Allen, Mark B. and Song, Shuguang and Wang, Chao and Zeng, Renyu and Wen, Tao",
    title = "An oblique subduction model for closure of the Proto-Tethys and Palaeo-Tethys oceans and creation of the Central China Orogenic Belt",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    abstract = "Subduction and closure of the Proto-Tethys and Palaeo-Tethys oceans were important events in the assembly of Eurasia, and created the Central China Orogenic Belt (CCOB). This paper presents a new tectonic model for the CCOB in which we propose that elongate Precambrian basement blocks within the CCOB were originally part of a single ribbon continent, here named K-Qubed after the Kunlun-Qaidam-Qilian-Qinling regions. K-Qubed separated from the South China Block in the Neoproterozoic. Dextral-oblique subduction of the Proto-Tethys Ocean took place southwards (present co-ordinates) under K-Qubed in latest Precambrian - Cambrian times (ca. 550–500 Ma). Subduction-accretion complexes were generated alongside the basement, while arc magmatism overprinted both basement and accretionary crust. Initial collision of the northern side of the ribbon continent and the North China and Tarim blocks occurred at ca. 500 Ma. High-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism resulted by ca. 490 Ma, in the North Qilian, South Altun/North Qaidam and North Qinling regions. Collision triggered a flip in subduction polarity, and caused a subduction-accretion complex and magmatic arc to build out southwards from K-Qubed, as Palaeo-Tethys was consumed northwards in the Ordovician. Magmatic timings were similar between different tectonic units; twin peaks in magmatism at ca. 500–490 Ma and ca. 440–430 Ma occurred in several terranes. Oblique subduction caused strain partitioning, in turn causing slivering and across-strike repetition of basement and accretionary crust. Tectonic units in the Qilian Shan and Kunlun can be partly correlated with equivalents in the Qinling Orogen. We suggest a match between the North Qilian Orogenic Belt and the Erlangping Unit, between the Central Qilian Block and the North Qinling Belt, between the South Qilian Accretionary Belt and the Shangdan Suture Zone. Basement terranes of the Qaidam region and the East Kunlun Orogen have no obvious lateral equivalents in the Qinling, and are truncated at the eastern margins by the West Qinling Belt. There are similar ages for peak metamorphism at ca. 440–420 Ma in an eclogite belt in the North Qaidam Ultra High-pressure Metamorphic Belt (NQUB) and eclogite localities in the East Kunlun Orogen. We interpret this metamorphism to be result of slab break-off beneath the K-Qubed continent, with metamorphic rocks repeated across-strike by dextral shear. The component of Precambrian crust in the Kunlun diminishes westwards into the West Kunlun, where Early Palaeozoic accretion of crust was more continuous. A magmatic gap throughout the CCOB between ca. 370 and ca. 290 Ma was possibly related to extremely oblique and/or slow plate convergence, or represents a time through which subduction stopped. Renewed northwards subduction of the Palaeo-Tethyan Ocean took place under the south side of the Kunlun and Qinling in the Permian, completed by Triassic collisions of the Qiangtang and South China blocks with the southern side of the CCOB. This model for the CCOB is an alternative to collisional and accretionary end members for orogeny, whereby oblique subduction and collision of a ribbon continent produces interleaving of basement and more juvenile terranes. Closure of Proto-Tethys did not involve multiple, separate and synchronous subduction zones, or repetition of a subduction zone by oroclinal bending, as previously proposed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104385",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104385",
    openalex = "W4327572140",
    references = "doi101016jlithos201805021, doi101016jtecto201711036"
}

The Central Asian states, which remained under the Soviet regime for a long time, started to arouse curiosity in world politics about global and regional policy preferences after they gained their independence, and this situation led to an increase in the importance of Central Asia in global power competition. In this study, which is theorized around the concept of Small State, it is aimed to reveal the degree of political affinity towards the three global powers, China, Russia, and the USA, by analyzing the United Nations (UN) General Assembly voting data of the Central Asian States, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan between 1992-2021. The reason why the study is limited to three states from the Central Asian States is that only these states are suitable for the definition of small states. According to the quantitative analysis results obtained based on the UN voting data; the three Central Asian States are closer to Russia and China than the USA from their establishment to the present in terms of political affinity; the political affinity with the USA has become increasingly different especially after the years 1995-96; and, it is understood that the political affinity with China has increased especially after the 2000s.

@article{doi1012995bilig10701,
    author = "Topuz, Zuhal Çalık",
    title = "An Analysis of Central Asian States’ Political Affinity to Global Powers: Case of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Bilig Journal of Social Sciences in Turkish World",
    abstract = "The Central Asian states, which remained under the Soviet regime for a long time, started to arouse curiosity in world politics about global and regional policy preferences after they gained their independence, and this situation led to an increase in the importance of Central Asia in global power competition. In this study, which is theorized around the concept of Small State, it is aimed to reveal the degree of political affinity towards the three global powers, China, Russia, and the USA, by analyzing the United Nations (UN) General Assembly voting data of the Central Asian States, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan between 1992-2021. The reason why the study is limited to three states from the Central Asian States is that only these states are suitable for the definition of small states. According to the quantitative analysis results obtained based on the UN voting data; the three Central Asian States are closer to Russia and China than the USA from their establishment to the present in terms of political affinity; the political affinity with the USA has become increasingly different especially after the years 1995-96; and, it is understood that the political affinity with China has increased especially after the 2000s.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.12995/bilig.10701",
    doi = "10.12995/bilig.10701",
    openalex = "W4388086093",
    references = "doi101177097492840105700306"
}

Augustus Le Messurier was one of the British officers sent to Turkestan for reconnaissance in the 19th century. In his 1887 account of his expedition, From London to Bokhara and Ride Through Persia, the British colonel revealed the effects of the Russian presence in Turkestan and provided information on many strategically important issues such as railway networks, communication, trade and water resources in the region. The fact that this trip took place at a time when Tsarist Russia was dominating the Turkestan khanates is important in terms of understanding the limits of Russian influence in Turkestan and the Emirate of Bukhara. Indeed, the British colonel’s observations show how transportation and communication conditions in Bukhara were transformed by Russian influence. The fact that Le Messurier was also an engineer and examined the Russian railway works in the region from a technical point of view led to a detailed evaluation and report. In the second half of the 19th century, this journey and Le Messurier’s work, which took place as a product of England’s exploration policy towards Turkestan, are also important in terms of showing the dimensions of Russian-British rivalry in the region. This study examines the effects of Russian influence on the Emirate of Bukhara in the late 19th century, based on Le Messurier’s narratives and British archival documents, with additional references to both domestic and foreign literature.

@article{doi1032449egetdid1747439,
    author = "Külünk, Furkan",
    title = "The Effects of Russian Influence in 19th Century Bukhara in Augustus Le Messurier’s Notes",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Ege Universitesi Turk Dunyasi Incelemeleri Dergisi",
    abstract = "Augustus Le Messurier was one of the British officers sent to Turkestan for reconnaissance in the 19th century. In his 1887 account of his expedition, From London to Bokhara and Ride Through Persia, the British colonel revealed the effects of the Russian presence in Turkestan and provided information on many strategically important issues such as railway networks, communication, trade and water resources in the region. The fact that this trip took place at a time when Tsarist Russia was dominating the Turkestan khanates is important in terms of understanding the limits of Russian influence in Turkestan and the Emirate of Bukhara. Indeed, the British colonel’s observations show how transportation and communication conditions in Bukhara were transformed by Russian influence. The fact that Le Messurier was also an engineer and examined the Russian railway works in the region from a technical point of view led to a detailed evaluation and report. In the second half of the 19th century, this journey and Le Messurier’s work, which took place as a product of England’s exploration policy towards Turkestan, are also important in terms of showing the dimensions of Russian-British rivalry in the region. This study examines the effects of Russian influence on the Emirate of Bukhara in the late 19th century, based on Le Messurier’s narratives and British archival documents, with additional references to both domestic and foreign literature.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.32449/egetdid.1747439",
    doi = "10.32449/egetdid.1747439",
    openalex = "W7117461017",
    references = "doi1033692avrasyad702897"
}

BACKGROUND: Depression and suicidality in older adults are major public health concerns worldwide. These phenomena are strongly influenced by social and quality of life factors. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to characterize depressive and suicidal symptoms in older people in the context of quality of life. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this study 76 people aged 60-74 years were examined using interviews and questionnaires, namely: the Mannheim inventory of living conditions in old age (Mannheimer Inventar der Lebensverhältnisse im Alter, MILVA), the geriatric depression scale (GDS-15), Beck hopelessness scale (BHS) and the suicide crisis inventory revised (SCI-2). Data analysis was performed using statistical methods: regression analysis, Student's T‑test, Pearson correlation. RESULTS: Older people with suicidal thoughts have a lower quality of life, namely by scales of communication and finances, with higher scores of depression and hopelessness. A negative relationship was found between social factors and indicators of a suicidal crisis. Regression analysis showed that activity and communication significantly influence the level of depression in older adults, while communication and financial stability influence the severity of suicidal crisis. CONCLUSION: Improving the quality of life of older people, social support, increasing activity and communication can help to maintain well-being as well as to prevent depression and suicidal behavior in old age.

@article{doi101007s0039102602587w,
    author = "Nizamudin, M A and Garber, A I and Sklyar, S V and Zhumadilova, V K and Moldabekova, A M",
    title = "Depressive and suicidal symptoms in the context of quality of life in older people in Central Asia, using Kazakhstan as an example.",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Zeitschrift fur Gerontologie und Geriatrie",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: Depression and suicidality in older adults are major public health concerns worldwide. These phenomena are strongly influenced by social and quality of life factors. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to characterize depressive and suicidal symptoms in older people in the context of quality of life. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this study 76 people aged 60-74 years were examined using interviews and questionnaires, namely: the Mannheim inventory of living conditions in old age (Mannheimer Inventar der Lebensverhältnisse im Alter, MILVA), the geriatric depression scale (GDS-15), Beck hopelessness scale (BHS) and the suicide crisis inventory revised (SCI-2). Data analysis was performed using statistical methods: regression analysis, Student's T‑test, Pearson correlation. RESULTS: Older people with suicidal thoughts have a lower quality of life, namely by scales of communication and finances, with higher scores of depression and hopelessness. A negative relationship was found between social factors and indicators of a suicidal crisis. Regression analysis showed that activity and communication significantly influence the level of depression in older adults, while communication and financial stability influence the severity of suicidal crisis. CONCLUSION: Improving the quality of life of older people, social support, increasing activity and communication can help to maintain well-being as well as to prevent depression and suicidal behavior in old age.",
    url = "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/3367273/",
    doi = "10.1007/s00391-026-02587-w",
    pmcid = "3367273",
    pmid = "42043541"
}