Deluge

@article{crossref1861geological,
    title = "Geological Evidences of the Deluge of Noah",
    year = "1861",
    journal = "The Geologist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1359465600004263",
    doi = "10.1017/s1359465600004263",
    number = "8",
    openalex = "W4205703151",
    pages = "355-356",
    volume = "4"
}

@techreport{allen1942the1,
    author = "Allen, B. F",
    title = "The geologic age of the Mississippi River",
    year = "1942",
    howpublished = "Bulletin of the Deluge Society and Related Sciences, v. 2, no. 2, p. 37-62",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Allen, B. F., 1942, The geologic age of the Mississippi River: Bulletin of the Deluge Society and Related Sciences, v. 2, no. 2, p. 37-62.}"
}

Repeat geodetic surveys show uplift of the Monroe and Wiggins anticlines in Louisiana and Mississippi. There are deformed Quaternary terraces, which indicate long-term deformation in the valleys of the alluvial rivers that cross these structures, and there are floodplain and channel convexities that provide evidence of modern deformation. In addition, the channels show significant variations of morphology (sinuosity, gradient, and depth) and behavior appropriate to reaches of increased and decreased valley slope. These alluvial rivers are adjusting to modern deformation and their adjustment confirms two geodetic leveling anomalies.

@article{doi101126science222461949,
    author = "Burnett, Adam and Schumm, Stanley A.",
    title = "Alluvial-River Response to Neotectonic Deformation in Louisiana and Mississippi",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Repeat geodetic surveys show uplift of the Monroe and Wiggins anticlines in Louisiana and Mississippi. There are deformed Quaternary terraces, which indicate long-term deformation in the valleys of the alluvial rivers that cross these structures, and there are floodplain and channel convexities that provide evidence of modern deformation. In addition, the channels show significant variations of morphology (sinuosity, gradient, and depth) and behavior appropriate to reaches of increased and decreased valley slope. These alluvial rivers are adjusting to modern deformation and their adjustment confirms two geodetic leveling anomalies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.222.4619.49",
    doi = "10.1126/science.222.4619.49",
    openalex = "W2082448911"
}

@misc{mcqueen1988days2,
    author = "McQueen, D. R",
    title = "Days Of Noah",
    year = "1988",
    howpublished = "Days of Praise, v. June-July-August, no. 24 July",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {McQueen, D. R., 1988, Days Of Noah: Days of Praise, v. June-July-August, no. 24 July.}"
}

@article{hatheway1996geomorphology,
    author = "HATHEWAY, A. W.",
    title = "Geomorphology and Quaternary Geologic History of the Lower Mississippi River Valley",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Environmental \& Engineering Geoscience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/gseegeosci.ii.2.271",
    doi = "10.2113/gseegeosci.ii.2.271",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2317369176",
    pages = "271-272",
    volume = "II"
}

Over the last century, the river-dominated Mississippi delta has received increasing attention from geoscientists, biologists, engineers, and environmental planners because of the importance of the river and its deltaic environments to the economic well-being of the state of Louisiana and the nation. Population growth, subsurface resource extraction, and increased land-water use have placed demands on the delta's natural geologic, biologic, and chemical systems, therefore modifying the time and spatial scales of natural processes within the delta and its lower alluvial valley. As a result, the combined effects of natural and human-induced processes, such as subsidence, eustatic sea level rise, salt water intrusion, and wetland loss, have produced a dynamically changing landscape and socioeconomic framework for this complex delta. Under natural conditions, the fundamental changes that result in land-building and land loss in the Holocene Mississippi River delta plain are rooted in the systematic diversion of water and sediment associated with major shifts in the river's course-the process of delta switching. Research over the last half century has shown that major relocations of the Mississippi's course have resulted in five Holocene delta complexes and a sixth one in an early stage of development as a product of the latest Atchafalaya River diversion. Collectively, these Holocene deltas have produced a delta plain that covers an area of ~30,000 km and accounts for 41% of the coastal wetlands in the United States. After a river diversion takes place, the resulting delta evolves through a systematic and semipredictable set of stages generally characterized by: (a) rapid progradation with increasing-to-stable discharge, (b) relative stability during initial stages of waning discharge, (c) abandonment by the river in favor of a higher gradient course to the receiving basin, and (d) marine reworking of a sediment-starved delta as it undergoes progressive submergence by the combined processes of subsidence. Delta switching has taken place every 1000 to 2000 years during Holocene times, and resulting deltas have an average thickness of approximately 35 m. Within a single delta there are subdeltas, bayfills, and crevasse-splays that have higher frequency delta cycles ranging from several hundred years to a few decades. These depositional features are usually less than 10 m thick, and some have produced marshland areas of over 300 km. The net result of these delta-building events is a low-lying landscape with components that are changing (building and deteriorating) at different rates. Geologically, these depositional cycles produce a thick accumulation of coarsening, upward deltaic deposits that have various thicknesses in response to development on a variety of temporal and spatial scales. In this river-dominated delta system, distributaries can prograde seaward at rates of over 100 m/year. The cumulative effect of the Holocene depository has been to depress the underlying Pleistocene surface. In a local setting, e.g., the modern Balize Lobe, differential loading causes the vertical displacement of underlying clay-rich facies (shale diapirs-mudlumps). The delta front of this lobe, which has prograded into deep water of the outer continental shelf, is characterized by rapid deposition of silt- and clay-rich sediments and slope instability, which results in seaward displacement of sediments by a variety of mass-movement processes. Superimposed on the natural processes and forms of the Mississippi deltaic plain and its associated estuarine environments, are human impacts, most of which have been imposed in this century. The most significant impacts have resulted from a decrease in sediment input to the river from its tributaries and the alteration of the river's natural sediment dispersal processes through the construction of levees. Measures are now being taken to reinstate some of the delta's natural processes, thereby mitigating landloss so that decline in animal and plant productivity can be mitigated. 2 2

@article{openalexw1846023905,
    author = "Coleman, James M. and Roberts, Harry H. and Stone, Gregory W.",
    title = "Mississippi River Delta: an Overview",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Civil War Book Review",
    abstract = "Over the last century, the river-dominated Mississippi delta has received increasing attention from geoscientists, biologists, engineers, and environmental planners because of the importance of the river and its deltaic environments to the economic well-being of the state of Louisiana and the nation. Population growth, subsurface resource extraction, and increased land-water use have placed demands on the delta's natural geologic, biologic, and chemical systems, therefore modifying the time and spatial scales of natural processes within the delta and its lower alluvial valley. As a result, the combined effects of natural and human-induced processes, such as subsidence, eustatic sea level rise, salt water intrusion, and wetland loss, have produced a dynamically changing landscape and socioeconomic framework for this complex delta. Under natural conditions, the fundamental changes that result in land-building and land loss in the Holocene Mississippi River delta plain are rooted in the systematic diversion of water and sediment associated with major shifts in the river's course-the process of delta switching. Research over the last half century has shown that major relocations of the Mississippi's course have resulted in five Holocene delta complexes and a sixth one in an early stage of development as a product of the latest Atchafalaya River diversion. Collectively, these Holocene deltas have produced a delta plain that covers an area of \textasciitilde 30,000 km and accounts for 41\% of the coastal wetlands in the United States. After a river diversion takes place, the resulting delta evolves through a systematic and semipredictable set of stages generally characterized by: (a) rapid progradation with increasing-to-stable discharge, (b) relative stability during initial stages of waning discharge, (c) abandonment by the river in favor of a higher gradient course to the receiving basin, and (d) marine reworking of a sediment-starved delta as it undergoes progressive submergence by the combined processes of subsidence. Delta switching has taken place every 1000 to 2000 years during Holocene times, and resulting deltas have an average thickness of approximately 35 m. Within a single delta there are subdeltas, bayfills, and crevasse-splays that have higher frequency delta cycles ranging from several hundred years to a few decades. These depositional features are usually less than 10 m thick, and some have produced marshland areas of over 300 km. The net result of these delta-building events is a low-lying landscape with components that are changing (building and deteriorating) at different rates. Geologically, these depositional cycles produce a thick accumulation of coarsening, upward deltaic deposits that have various thicknesses in response to development on a variety of temporal and spatial scales. In this river-dominated delta system, distributaries can prograde seaward at rates of over 100 m/year. The cumulative effect of the Holocene depository has been to depress the underlying Pleistocene surface. In a local setting, e.g., the modern Balize Lobe, differential loading causes the vertical displacement of underlying clay-rich facies (shale diapirs-mudlumps). The delta front of this lobe, which has prograded into deep water of the outer continental shelf, is characterized by rapid deposition of silt- and clay-rich sediments and slope instability, which results in seaward displacement of sediments by a variety of mass-movement processes. Superimposed on the natural processes and forms of the Mississippi deltaic plain and its associated estuarine environments, are human impacts, most of which have been imposed in this century. The most significant impacts have resulted from a decrease in sediment input to the river from its tributaries and the alteration of the river's natural sediment dispersal processes through the construction of levees. Measures are now being taken to reinstate some of the delta's natural processes, thereby mitigating landloss so that decline in animal and plant productivity can be mitigated. 2 2",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W1846023905",
    openalex = "W1846023905",
    references = "doi101016s0967065397885973, doi101086625561, doi101126science27352821693, doi1011300016760619881000999dcapit23co2, doi101306212f8ec22b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi101306ad461b9216f711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306sv21353, doi102307211375, doi105724gcs91120034, openalexw1592594904, openalexw2971039300"
}

Channel migration and meander-bend morphology are examined for the lower Mississippi River between 1877 and 1924, prior to channel cutoffs, revetments, and change in sediment regime. The spatial pattern of meander-bend migration coincides with differences in flood-plain deposits. Migration of meander bends averaged 45.2 m/yr in the upper alluvial valley, where there are numerous clay plugs, but increased to 59.1 m/yr in the lower alluvial valley, where there are fewer clay plugs in contact with the channel. The highest migration rates occurred with meander bends having a curvature, r m / W m (ratio between meander-bend radius to channel width) between 1.0 and 2.0, which is a departure from previous models. Results from this study suggest that rivers with complex flood-plain deposits exhibit patterns and relationships that deviate from models derived in homogeneous flood-plain deposits.

@article{doi10113000917613200028531cmamci20co2,
    author = "Hudson, Paul F. and Kesel, Richard H.",
    title = "Channel migration and meander-bend curvature in the lower Mississippi River prior to major human modification",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Geology",
    abstract = "Channel migration and meander-bend morphology are examined for the lower Mississippi River between 1877 and 1924, prior to channel cutoffs, revetments, and change in sediment regime. The spatial pattern of meander-bend migration coincides with differences in flood-plain deposits. Migration of meander bends averaged 45.2 m/yr in the upper alluvial valley, where there are numerous clay plugs, but increased to 59.1 m/yr in the lower alluvial valley, where there are fewer clay plugs in contact with the channel. The highest migration rates occurred with meander bends having a curvature, r m / W m (ratio between meander-bend radius to channel width) between 1.0 and 2.0, which is a departure from previous models. Results from this study suggest that rivers with complex flood-plain deposits exhibit patterns and relationships that deviate from models derived in homogeneous flood-plain deposits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<531:cmamci>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<531:cmamci>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2044946456"
}

The Mississippi River Alluvial Valley includes the floodplain of the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, USA, to the Gulf of Mexico. Originally this region supported about 10 million ha of bottomland hardwood forests, but only about 2.8 million ha remain today. Furthermore, most of the remaining bottomland forest is highly fragmented with altered hydrologic processes. During the 1990s landscape-scale conservation planning efforts were initiated for migratory birds and the threatened Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus). These plans call for large-scale reforestation and restoration efforts in the region, particularly on private lands. In 1990 the Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act authorized the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP). The WRP is a voluntary program administered by the United States Department of Agriculture that provides eligible landowners with financial incentives to restore wetlands and retire marginal farmlands from agricultural production. As of 30 September 2005, over 275,700 ha have been enrolled in the program in the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley, with the greatest concentration in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi, USA. Hydrologic restoration is common on most sites, with open-water wetlands, such as moist-soil units and sloughs, constituting up to 30% of a given tract. Over 33,200 ha of open-water wetlands have been created, potentially providing over 115,000,000 duck-use days. Twenty-three of 87 forest-bird conservation areas have met or exceed core habitat goals for migratory songbirds and another 24 have met minimum area requirements. The WRP played an integral role in the fulfillment of these goals. Although some landscape goals have been attained, the young age of the program and forest stands, and the lack of monitoring, has limited evaluations of the program's impact on wildlife populations.

@article{doi10219300917648200634914trotwr20co2,
    author = "King, Sammy L. and Twedt, Daniel J. and Wilson, R. Randy",
    title = "The Role of the Wetland Reserve Program in Conservation Efforts in the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Wildlife Society Bulletin",
    abstract = "The Mississippi River Alluvial Valley includes the floodplain of the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, USA, to the Gulf of Mexico. Originally this region supported about 10 million ha of bottomland hardwood forests, but only about 2.8 million ha remain today. Furthermore, most of the remaining bottomland forest is highly fragmented with altered hydrologic processes. During the 1990s landscape-scale conservation planning efforts were initiated for migratory birds and the threatened Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus). These plans call for large-scale reforestation and restoration efforts in the region, particularly on private lands. In 1990 the Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act authorized the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP). The WRP is a voluntary program administered by the United States Department of Agriculture that provides eligible landowners with financial incentives to restore wetlands and retire marginal farmlands from agricultural production. As of 30 September 2005, over 275,700 ha have been enrolled in the program in the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley, with the greatest concentration in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi, USA. Hydrologic restoration is common on most sites, with open-water wetlands, such as moist-soil units and sloughs, constituting up to 30\% of a given tract. Over 33,200 ha of open-water wetlands have been created, potentially providing over 115,000,000 duck-use days. Twenty-three of 87 forest-bird conservation areas have met or exceed core habitat goals for migratory songbirds and another 24 have met minimum area requirements. The WRP played an integral role in the fulfillment of these goals. Although some landscape goals have been attained, the young age of the program and forest stands, and the lack of monitoring, has limited evaluations of the program's impact on wildlife populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[914:trotwr]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[914:trotwr]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2081576356",
    references = "doi101046j1526100x200201045x"
}

@misc{crossref2007mississippi,
    title = "Mississippi River",
    year = "2007",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Environment and Society",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412953924.n706",
    doi = "10.4135/9781412953924.n706",
    openalex = "W4229942775"
}

Abstract Before 1900, the Missouri–Mississippi River system transported an estimated 400 million metric tons per year of sediment from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana. During the last two decades (1987–2006), this transport has averaged 145 million metric tons per year. The cause for this substantial decrease in sediment has been attributed to the trapping characteristics of dams constructed on the muddy part of the Missouri River during the 1950s. However, reexamination of more than 60 years of water‐ and sediment‐discharge data indicates that the dams alone are not the sole cause. These dams trap about 100–150 million metric tons per year, which represent about half the decrease in sediment discharge near the mouth of the Mississippi. Changes in relations between water discharge and suspended‐sediment concentration suggest that the Missouri–Mississippi has been transformed from a transport‐limited to a supply‐limited system. Thus, other engineering activities such as meander cutoffs, river‐training structures, and bank revetments as well as soil erosion controls have trapped sediment, eliminated sediment sources, or protected sediment that was once available for transport episodically throughout the year. Removing major engineering structures such as dams probably would not restore sediment discharges to pre‐1900 state, mainly because of the numerous smaller engineering structures and other soil‐retention works throughout the Missouri–Mississippi system. Published in 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

@article{doi101002hyp7477,
    author = "Meade, Robert H. and Moody, John A.",
    title = "Causes for the decline of suspended‐sediment discharge in the Mississippi River system, 1940–2007",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Hydrological Processes",
    abstract = "Abstract Before 1900, the Missouri–Mississippi River system transported an estimated 400 million metric tons per year of sediment from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana. During the last two decades (1987–2006), this transport has averaged 145 million metric tons per year. The cause for this substantial decrease in sediment has been attributed to the trapping characteristics of dams constructed on the muddy part of the Missouri River during the 1950s. However, reexamination of more than 60 years of water‐ and sediment‐discharge data indicates that the dams alone are not the sole cause. These dams trap about 100–150 million metric tons per year, which represent about half the decrease in sediment discharge near the mouth of the Mississippi. Changes in relations between water discharge and suspended‐sediment concentration suggest that the Missouri–Mississippi has been transformed from a transport‐limited to a supply‐limited system. Thus, other engineering activities such as meander cutoffs, river‐training structures, and bank revetments as well as soil erosion controls have trapped sediment, eliminated sediment sources, or protected sediment that was once available for transport episodically throughout the year. Removing major engineering structures such as dams probably would not restore sediment discharges to pre‐1900 state, mainly because of the numerous smaller engineering structures and other soil‐retention works throughout the Missouri–Mississippi system. Published in 2009 by John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7477",
    doi = "10.1002/hyp.7477",
    openalex = "W2146201073",
    references = "doi101038ngeo553"
}

Measurements of sand flux and water flow in the Mississippi River are presented for a portion of the system 35-50 km upstream from the head of its subaerial delta. These data are used to provide insight into how nonuniform flow conditions, present in the lower reaches of large alluvial rivers, affect the timing and magnitude of sand transport near the river outlet. Field surveys during both low and high water discharge include (1) sequential digital bathymetric maps defining mobile river bottom topography which were used to estimate bed material flux, (2) multiple water velocity profiles, and (3) multiple suspended sediment profiles collected using a point-integrated sampler. These data show that total sand transport increases by two orders of magnitude over the measured range in water discharge (11,300 to 38,400 m 3 s -1). During low water discharge no sand is measured in suspension, and sand discharge via bed form migration is minimal. During high water discharge 54% of the sand discharge is measured in suspension while 46% of the sand discharge is part of bed form migration. The component of boundary shear stress associated with moving this sediment is estimated using a set of established sediment transport algorithms, and values for the total boundary shear stress are predicted by fitting logarithmic velocity functions to the measured profiles. The estimates of boundary shear stress, using measurements of suspended sand transport, bed form transport, and downstream oriented velocity profiles are internally consistent; moreover, the analyses show that boundary shear stress increases by nearly 10-fold over the measured water discharge range. We show how this increase in shear stress is consistent with backwater flow arising where the river approaches its outlet. The hydrodynamic properties of backwater flow affect the timing and magnitude of sand flux and produce punctuated sand transport through the lowermost Mississippi River. Our field data are used to evaluate the influence of this sand transport style on development of the mixed bedrock alluvial channel for the lowermost Mississippi River.

@article{doi1010292011jf002026,
    author = "Nittrouer, Jeffrey A. and Mohrig, David and Allison, Mead A.",
    title = "Punctuated sand transport in the lowermost Mississippi River",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Measurements of sand flux and water flow in the Mississippi River are presented for a portion of the system 35-50 km upstream from the head of its subaerial delta. These data are used to provide insight into how nonuniform flow conditions, present in the lower reaches of large alluvial rivers, affect the timing and magnitude of sand transport near the river outlet. Field surveys during both low and high water discharge include (1) sequential digital bathymetric maps defining mobile river bottom topography which were used to estimate bed material flux, (2) multiple water velocity profiles, and (3) multiple suspended sediment profiles collected using a point-integrated sampler. These data show that total sand transport increases by two orders of magnitude over the measured range in water discharge (11,300 to 38,400 m 3 s -1). During low water discharge no sand is measured in suspension, and sand discharge via bed form migration is minimal. During high water discharge 54\% of the sand discharge is measured in suspension while 46\% of the sand discharge is part of bed form migration. The component of boundary shear stress associated with moving this sediment is estimated using a set of established sediment transport algorithms, and values for the total boundary shear stress are predicted by fitting logarithmic velocity functions to the measured profiles. The estimates of boundary shear stress, using measurements of suspended sand transport, bed form transport, and downstream oriented velocity profiles are internally consistent; moreover, the analyses show that boundary shear stress increases by nearly 10-fold over the measured water discharge range. We show how this increase in shear stress is consistent with backwater flow arising where the river approaches its outlet. The hydrodynamic properties of backwater flow affect the timing and magnitude of sand flux and produce punctuated sand transport through the lowermost Mississippi River. Our field data are used to evaluate the influence of this sand transport style on development of the mixed bedrock alluvial channel for the lowermost Mississippi River.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jf002026",
    doi = "10.1029/2011jf002026",
    openalex = "W1979355964",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph200601045"
}

Abstract In this study, the distribution of channel‐bed sediment facies in the lowermost Mississippi River is analysed using multibeam data, complemented by sidescan sonar and compressed high‐intensity radar pulse seismic data, as well as grab and core samples of bed material. The channel bed is composed of a discontinuous layer of alluvial sediment and a relict substratum that is exposed on the channel bed and sidewalls. The consolidated substratum is made up of latest Pleistocene and Early Holocene fluvio‐deltaic deposits and is preferentially exposed in the deepest thalweg segments and on channel sidewalls in river bends. The exposed substratum commonly displays a suite of erosional features, including flutes that are quantitatively similar in form to those produced under known laboratory conditions. A total of five bed facies are mapped, three of which include modern alluvial deposits and two facies that are associated with the relict substratum. A radius of curvature analysis applied to the Mississippi River centreline demonstrates that the reach‐scale distribution of channel‐bed facies is related to river planform. From a broader perspective, the distribution of channel‐bed facies is related to channel sinuosity — higher sinuosity promotes greater substratum exposure at the expense of alluvial sediment. For example, the ratio of alluvial cover to substratum is ca 1·5:1 for a 45 km segment of the river that has a sinuosity of 1·76 and this ratio increases to ca 3:1 for a 120 km segment of the river that has a sinuosity of 1·21. The exposed substratum is interpreted as bedrock and, given the relative coverage of alluvial sediment in the channel, the lowermost Mississippi River can be classified as a mixed bedrock‐alluvial channel. The analyses demonstrate that a mixed bedrock‐alluvial channel boundary can be associated with low‐gradient and sand‐bed rivers near their marine outlet.

@article{doi101111j13653091201101245x,
    author = "Nittrouer, Jeffrey A. and Mohrig, David and Allison, Mead A. and Peyret, Aymeric-Pierre Bernard",
    title = "The lowermost Mississippi River: a mixed bedrock‐alluvial channel",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "Abstract In this study, the distribution of channel‐bed sediment facies in the lowermost Mississippi River is analysed using multibeam data, complemented by sidescan sonar and compressed high‐intensity radar pulse seismic data, as well as grab and core samples of bed material. The channel bed is composed of a discontinuous layer of alluvial sediment and a relict substratum that is exposed on the channel bed and sidewalls. The consolidated substratum is made up of latest Pleistocene and Early Holocene fluvio‐deltaic deposits and is preferentially exposed in the deepest thalweg segments and on channel sidewalls in river bends. The exposed substratum commonly displays a suite of erosional features, including flutes that are quantitatively similar in form to those produced under known laboratory conditions. A total of five bed facies are mapped, three of which include modern alluvial deposits and two facies that are associated with the relict substratum. A radius of curvature analysis applied to the Mississippi River centreline demonstrates that the reach‐scale distribution of channel‐bed facies is related to river planform. From a broader perspective, the distribution of channel‐bed facies is related to channel sinuosity — higher sinuosity promotes greater substratum exposure at the expense of alluvial sediment. For example, the ratio of alluvial cover to substratum is ca 1·5:1 for a 45 km segment of the river that has a sinuosity of 1·76 and this ratio increases to ca 3:1 for a 120 km segment of the river that has a sinuosity of 1·21. The exposed substratum is interpreted as bedrock and, given the relative coverage of alluvial sediment in the channel, the lowermost Mississippi River can be classified as a mixed bedrock‐alluvial channel. The analyses demonstrate that a mixed bedrock‐alluvial channel boundary can be associated with low‐gradient and sand‐bed rivers near their marine outlet.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01245.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01245.x",
    openalex = "W1487865095",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph200601045, openalexw1499140216"
}

Where rivers near the coastline, the receiving basin begins to influence flow, and gradually varied, nonuniform flow conditions arise. The section of the river affected by nonuniform flow is typically referred to as the backwater segment, and for large lowland rivers, this portion of the river can extend many hundreds of kilometers above the outlet. River morphology and kinematics vary in the backwater segment; however, these channel properties have not been explicitly related to properties of the flow and sediment-transport fields. This study examines the influence of spatially and temporally varying flow velocity and sediment transport on channel properties for the lower 800 km of the Mississippi River, a section of the river that includes the backwater segment. Survey transects (n = 2650) were used to constrain the cross-sectional area of water flow every ∼312 m along the Mississippi River channel for eight successive intervals of water discharge. Assuming conservation of water discharge, the local flow velocity was calculated at each transect by dividing water discharge by the local measurement of cross-sectional flow area. Calculated flow velocity was converted to total bed stress using a dimensionless friction coefficient that was determined by optimizing the match between a predicted and a measured water-surface profile. Estimates for the skin-friction component of the total bed stress were produced from the values for total shear stress using a form-drag correction. These skin-friction bed-stress values were then used to model bed-material transport. Results demonstrate that in the lower Mississippi River, cross-sectional flow area increases downstream during low- and moderate-water discharge. This generates a decrease in calculated water-flow velocity and bed-material transport. During high-water discharge, the trend is reversed: Cross-sectional flow area decreases downstream, producing an increase in calculated water-flow velocity and bed-material transport. An important contribution of this work is the identification of a downstream reversal in the trend for channel cross-sectional area due to variable water discharge. By accounting for the spatial divergences in sediment transport predicted over an average annual hydrograph, we demonstrate the tendency for channel-bed aggradation in much of the backwater reach of the Mississippi River (150–600 km above the outlet); however, a region of channel-bed erosion is calculated for the final 150 km. These results help to explain the spatial variability of channel morphology and kinematics for the lower Mississippi River, and they can be extended to other lowland river systems near the coastline.

@article{doi101130b304971,
    author = "Nittrouer, Jeffrey A. and Shaw, John and Lamb, Michael P. and Mohrig, David",
    title = "Spatial and temporal trends for water-flow velocity and bed-material sediment transport in the lower Mississippi River",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "Where rivers near the coastline, the receiving basin begins to influence flow, and gradually varied, nonuniform flow conditions arise. The section of the river affected by nonuniform flow is typically referred to as the backwater segment, and for large lowland rivers, this portion of the river can extend many hundreds of kilometers above the outlet. River morphology and kinematics vary in the backwater segment; however, these channel properties have not been explicitly related to properties of the flow and sediment-transport fields. This study examines the influence of spatially and temporally varying flow velocity and sediment transport on channel properties for the lower 800 km of the Mississippi River, a section of the river that includes the backwater segment. Survey transects (n = 2650) were used to constrain the cross-sectional area of water flow every ∼312 m along the Mississippi River channel for eight successive intervals of water discharge. Assuming conservation of water discharge, the local flow velocity was calculated at each transect by dividing water discharge by the local measurement of cross-sectional flow area. Calculated flow velocity was converted to total bed stress using a dimensionless friction coefficient that was determined by optimizing the match between a predicted and a measured water-surface profile. Estimates for the skin-friction component of the total bed stress were produced from the values for total shear stress using a form-drag correction. These skin-friction bed-stress values were then used to model bed-material transport. Results demonstrate that in the lower Mississippi River, cross-sectional flow area increases downstream during low- and moderate-water discharge. This generates a decrease in calculated water-flow velocity and bed-material transport. During high-water discharge, the trend is reversed: Cross-sectional flow area decreases downstream, producing an increase in calculated water-flow velocity and bed-material transport. An important contribution of this work is the identification of a downstream reversal in the trend for channel cross-sectional area due to variable water discharge. By accounting for the spatial divergences in sediment transport predicted over an average annual hydrograph, we demonstrate the tendency for channel-bed aggradation in much of the backwater reach of the Mississippi River (150–600 km above the outlet); however, a region of channel-bed erosion is calculated for the final 150 km. These results help to explain the spatial variability of channel morphology and kinematics for the lower Mississippi River, and they can be extended to other lowland river systems near the coastline.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b30497.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b30497.1",
    openalex = "W2134412768",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph200601045, doi101016jjhydrol201004001"
}

@inproceedings{hasan2011characterizing,
    author = "Hasan, Khaled and Aanstoos, James and Mahrooghy, Majid and Dabbiru, Lalitha and Dunbar, Joseph",
    title = "Characterizing Mississippi River Levee Segments Using Soils and Geologic Data",
    year = "2011",
    booktitle = "Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems 2011",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4133/1.3614121",
    doi = "10.4133/1.3614121",
    openalex = "W2321380999",
    pages = "389-389"
}

This study evaluates regional‐scale hydrological simulations of the newly developed community Noah land surface model (LSM) with multiparameterization options (Noah‐MP). The model is configured for the Mississippi River Basin and driven by the North American Land Data Assimilation System Phase 2 atmospheric forcing at 1/8° resolution. The simulations are compared with various observational data sets, including the U.S. Geological Survey streamflow and groundwater data, the AmeriFlux tower micrometeorological evapotranspiration (ET) measurements, the Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN)‐observed soil moisture data, and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellite‐derived terrestrial water storage (TWS) anomaly data. Compared with these observations and to the baseline Noah LSM simulations, Noah‐MP shows significant improvement in hydrological modeling for major hydrological variables (runoff, groundwater, ET, soil moisture, and TWS), which is very likely due to the incorporation of some major improvements into Noah‐MP, particularly an unconfined aquifer storage layer for groundwater dynamics and an interactive vegetation canopy for dynamic leaf phenology. Noah‐MP produces soil moisture values consistent with the SCAN observations for the top two soil layers (0–10 cm and 10–40 cm), indicating its great potential to be used in studying land‐atmosphere coupling. In addition, the simulated groundwater spatial patterns are comparable to observations; however, the inclusion of groundwater in Noah‐MP requires a longer spin‐up time (34 years for the entire study domain). Runoff simulation is highly sensitive to three parameters: the surface dryness factor (α), the saturated hydraulic conductivity (k), and the saturated soil moisture (θ max).

@article{cai2014hydrological,
    author = "Cai, Xitian and Yang, Zong‐Liang and David, Cédric H. and Niu, Guo‐Yue and Rodell, Matthew",
    title = "Hydrological evaluation of the Noah‐MP land surface model for the Mississippi River Basin",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres",
    abstract = "This study evaluates regional‐scale hydrological simulations of the newly developed community Noah land surface model (LSM) with multiparameterization options (Noah‐MP). The model is configured for the Mississippi River Basin and driven by the North American Land Data Assimilation System Phase 2 atmospheric forcing at 1/8° resolution. The simulations are compared with various observational data sets, including the U.S. Geological Survey streamflow and groundwater data, the AmeriFlux tower micrometeorological evapotranspiration (ET) measurements, the Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN)‐observed soil moisture data, and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellite‐derived terrestrial water storage (TWS) anomaly data. Compared with these observations and to the baseline Noah LSM simulations, Noah‐MP shows significant improvement in hydrological modeling for major hydrological variables (runoff, groundwater, ET, soil moisture, and TWS), which is very likely due to the incorporation of some major improvements into Noah‐MP, particularly an unconfined aquifer storage layer for groundwater dynamics and an interactive vegetation canopy for dynamic leaf phenology. Noah‐MP produces soil moisture values consistent with the SCAN observations for the top two soil layers (0–10 cm and 10–40 cm), indicating its great potential to be used in studying land‐atmosphere coupling. In addition, the simulated groundwater spatial patterns are comparable to observations; however, the inclusion of groundwater in Noah‐MP requires a longer spin‐up time (34 years for the entire study domain). Runoff simulation is highly sensitive to three parameters: the surface dryness factor (α), the saturated hydraulic conductivity (k), and the saturated soil moisture (θ max).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jd020792",
    doi = "10.1002/2013jd020792",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W1511398861",
    pages = "23-38",
    volume = "119",
    references = "doi1010160022169470902556, doi1010292002jd003296, doi1010292003jd003823, doi1010292005gl025285, doi1010292010jd015139, doi1010292011jd016048, doi1010292011wr011453, doi1011751520045019940330140astmfm20co2, doi1011751520047720010822415fantts23co2, doi1013031201323153"
}

Several researchers have suggested use of watercraft during the Early Paleoindian period 11,500 and 10,800 rcybp (13,400–12,700 cal B.P.), but none have brought empirical data to bear on this possibility. This paper addresses the potential for fluted point-making groups to have made and used boats circa 11,000 rcybp (13,000–12,800 cal B.P.). Fluted point data from a large region of the upper and central Mississippi River valley strongly suggest that the Mississippi River was a barrier to movement and that Early Paleoindians in the midcontinent did not routinely use watercraft.

@article{doi1011792327427113y0000000001,
    author = "Morrow, Juliet E.",
    title = "Early Paleoindian Mobility and Watercraft: An Assessment from the Mississippi River Valley",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology",
    abstract = "Several researchers have suggested use of watercraft during the Early Paleoindian period 11,500 and 10,800 rcybp (13,400–12,700 cal B.P.), but none have brought empirical data to bear on this possibility. This paper addresses the potential for fluted point-making groups to have made and used boats circa 11,000 rcybp (13,000–12,800 cal B.P.). Fluted point data from a large region of the upper and central Mississippi River valley strongly suggest that the Mississippi River was a barrier to movement and that Early Paleoindians in the midcontinent did not routinely use watercraft.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1179/2327427113y.0000000001",
    doi = "10.1179/2327427113y.0000000001",
    openalex = "W1967086055",
    references = "doi101016s0305440302002054, doi10108003036758198510416849, doi101126science1137166, doi10230726599958, doi102307279189, doi1023072798599, doi1023072803482, doi102307281017, doi105860choice300366, doi107208chicago97802266680930010001, hatheway1996geomorphology"
}

@misc{gertoux2016noah,
    author = "Gertoux, Gerard",
    title = "Noah and the Deluge: Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence",
    year = "2016",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.20850/9781329631144",
    doi = "10.20850/9781329631144",
    openalex = "W2590900428"
}

@incollection{kozlovic20162,
    author = "Kozlovic, Anton Karl",
    title = "2. Noah and the Flood: A Cinematic Deluge",
    year = "2016",
    booktitle = "The Bible in Motion",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9781614513261-007",
    doi = "10.1515/9781614513261-007",
    openalex = "W2520314054",
    pages = "35-50"
}

This study investigated the importance of rainfall and various geomorphological and geometrical factors to the vulnerability of earthen levees to slump slides. The study was performed using a database including 34 slump slides that occurred in the lower Mississippi River levee system from 2008 to 2009. The impact of rainfall within the six months prior to slide occurrence was studied for 23 slides for which an accurate occurrence date was available. Several variables were used to develop a logistic regression model to predict the probability of slump slide occurrence. The proposed model was verified for both slide and non-slide cases. The regression analysis depicts the impact of channel width, river sinuosity index, riverbank erosion, channel shape condition and distance to river. Excluding the sinuosity index, the impact of the other independent variables examined was found to be significant. Occurrence of riverbank erosion around the slide locations was the most significant predictor factor. A channel width of less than 1000 m was ranked as the second most significant variable. The proposed model can aid in locating high-risk areas on levees in order to take prompt protective measures, increase monitoring efforts and enable early response under emergency conditions.

@article{doi1010801749951820171293272,
    author = "Vahedifard, Farshid and Sehat, Sona and Aanstoos, James V.",
    title = "Effects of rainfall, geomorphological and geometrical variables on vulnerability of the lower Mississippi River levee system to slump slides",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Georisk Assessment and Management of Risk for Engineered Systems and Geohazards",
    abstract = "This study investigated the importance of rainfall and various geomorphological and geometrical factors to the vulnerability of earthen levees to slump slides. The study was performed using a database including 34 slump slides that occurred in the lower Mississippi River levee system from 2008 to 2009. The impact of rainfall within the six months prior to slide occurrence was studied for 23 slides for which an accurate occurrence date was available. Several variables were used to develop a logistic regression model to predict the probability of slump slide occurrence. The proposed model was verified for both slide and non-slide cases. The regression analysis depicts the impact of channel width, river sinuosity index, riverbank erosion, channel shape condition and distance to river. Excluding the sinuosity index, the impact of the other independent variables examined was found to be significant. Occurrence of riverbank erosion around the slide locations was the most significant predictor factor. A channel width of less than 1000 m was ranked as the second most significant variable. The proposed model can aid in locating high-risk areas on levees in order to take prompt protective measures, increase monitoring efforts and enable early response under emergency conditions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/17499518.2017.1293272",
    doi = "10.1080/17499518.2017.1293272",
    openalex = "W2591382813",
    references = "doi101002bimj19710130623, doi1010160341816294900019, doi101016jgeomorph200807001, doi101016s0169555x99001130, doi101017cbo9780511806384, doi10102995eo00262, doi101061ascegm194356220000554, doi101061ascegt194356060001356, doi101093ajcp1511552b, doi102307211375, hasan2011characterizing"
}

In this study, we document sedimentary characteristics of overbank flood deposits associated with the epic A.D. 2011 flood along the Lower Mississippi River (southern USA) and directly compare the findings to sedimentation from a comparable flood event in 1973, with the general purpose of understanding how extreme floods contribute to floodplain depositional patterns and accretion rates of embanked fluvial systems. The thicknesses of the 2011 flood deposits averaged 138 mm along natural levee crests, 9 mm on meander scrolls, and 3 mm in backswamps. These thicknesses are considerably less than those documented for the 1973 flood, sampled at the same locations. We contend that less sedimentation in 2011 occurred because the flood was not supplied with much upstream sediment from the Missouri River. Further, the 2011 sediments are coarser than in 1973, indicating that the higher 2011 flood levels were associated with more energetic overbank flows that flushed fine-grained sediments downstream within the narrow embanked floodplain corridor. The largest recorded flood in North American history is only marginally preserved in the embanked floodplain stratigraphy of the alluvial valley of Earth’s third largest fluvial system.

@article{doi101130g385461,
    author = "Heitmuller, Franklin T. and Hudson, P. and Kesel, R. H.",
    title = "Overbank sedimentation from the historic A.D. 2011 flood along the Lower Mississippi River, USA",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Geology",
    abstract = "In this study, we document sedimentary characteristics of overbank flood deposits associated with the epic A.D. 2011 flood along the Lower Mississippi River (southern USA) and directly compare the findings to sedimentation from a comparable flood event in 1973, with the general purpose of understanding how extreme floods contribute to floodplain depositional patterns and accretion rates of embanked fluvial systems. The thicknesses of the 2011 flood deposits averaged 138 mm along natural levee crests, 9 mm on meander scrolls, and 3 mm in backswamps. These thicknesses are considerably less than those documented for the 1973 flood, sampled at the same locations. We contend that less sedimentation in 2011 occurred because the flood was not supplied with much upstream sediment from the Missouri River. Further, the 2011 sediments are coarser than in 1973, indicating that the higher 2011 flood levels were associated with more energetic overbank flows that flushed fine-grained sediments downstream within the narrow embanked floodplain corridor. The largest recorded flood in North American history is only marginally preserved in the embanked floodplain stratigraphy of the alluvial valley of Earth’s third largest fluvial system.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1ee8fb3b283ef943485076e4ef086d392aaee02b",
    doi = "10.1130/G38546.1",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    pages = "107-110",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "29",
    semanticscholar_id = "1ee8fb3b283ef943485076e4ef086d392aaee02b",
    volume = "45"
}

The lowermost Mississippi River (LMR) is important to the environment and economy of continental United States. Although bathymetric data have been collected over many decades at numerous cross-sectional sounding points, there has been no consensus on appropriate interpolator for generating bathymetry. Such interpolation is critical to reliable assessments of channel morphology and channel change, which serve for dredging, engineering projects, and mapping of navigation hazards. This study aimed to identify an optimal spatial interpolation for mapping the river bathymetry from cross-sectional sounding measurements. We evaluated a variety of spatial interpolation methods including Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Ordinary Kriging (OK), Radial Basis Function (RBF), and Local Polynomial Interpolation (LPI). In addition, we also considered the anisotropic form of IDW (Elliptical IDW as EIDW), that of OK (OKA), and Universal Kriging (UK). Two reaches in the LMR, located between approximately RM (River Miles) 170–140 and RM 60–35, were chosen as the study area. Those interpolators were compared in terms of root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), bias, and coefficient of determination (r2). Our results demonstrate that both of RBF and OKA performed the best in mapping the bathymetry of study reaches. Furthermore, our results also indicate that the addition of anisotropy can significantly reduce RMSE by 5–20%, as compared to isotropic methods. The findings better inform other researchers on selecting a proper interpolation technique for mapping river bathymetry, particularly for other reaches of the Mississippi River.

@article{doi1010801947568320191588781,
    author = "Wu, Chia‐Yu and Mossa, Joann and Mao, Liang and AlMulla, Mohammad",
    title = "Comparison of different spatial interpolation methods for historical hydrographic data of the lowermost Mississippi River",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Annals of GIS",
    abstract = "The lowermost Mississippi River (LMR) is important to the environment and economy of continental United States. Although bathymetric data have been collected over many decades at numerous cross-sectional sounding points, there has been no consensus on appropriate interpolator for generating bathymetry. Such interpolation is critical to reliable assessments of channel morphology and channel change, which serve for dredging, engineering projects, and mapping of navigation hazards. This study aimed to identify an optimal spatial interpolation for mapping the river bathymetry from cross-sectional sounding measurements. We evaluated a variety of spatial interpolation methods including Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Ordinary Kriging (OK), Radial Basis Function (RBF), and Local Polynomial Interpolation (LPI). In addition, we also considered the anisotropic form of IDW (Elliptical IDW as EIDW), that of OK (OKA), and Universal Kriging (UK). Two reaches in the LMR, located between approximately RM (River Miles) 170–140 and RM 60–35, were chosen as the study area. Those interpolators were compared in terms of root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), bias, and coefficient of determination (r2). Our results demonstrate that both of RBF and OKA performed the best in mapping the bathymetry of study reaches. Furthermore, our results also indicate that the addition of anisotropy can significantly reduce RMSE by 5–20\%, as compared to isotropic methods. The findings better inform other researchers on selecting a proper interpolation technique for mapping river bathymetry, particularly for other reaches of the Mississippi River.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2019.1588781",
    doi = "10.1080/19475683.2019.1588781",
    openalex = "W2922794468",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph200601045"
}

@incollection{kolb2020geologic,
    author = "Kolb, Charles R.",
    title = "Geologic Control of Sand Boils Along Mississippi River Levees 1",
    year = "2020",
    booktitle = "Geomorphology and Engineering",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003028826-6",
    doi = "10.4324/9781003028826-6",
    openalex = "W1497394965",
    pages = "99-113"
}

@article{crossref2021global,
    title = "Global Deluge, Theophany and the Ut-napištim-Noah-Oppehnaboon Connection",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Journal of Literature, Languages and Linguistics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7176/jlll/83-01",
    doi = "10.7176/jlll/83-01",
    openalex = "W4200603429",
    references = "doi101017cbo9781139097000, doi1011435gengo193919644642, openalexw2126907101, openalexw2185373997, openalexw2233156282, openalexw2259333635, openalexw2561395268, openalexw596243597, openalexw616541669"
}

Abstract Groundwater from the Quaternary Mississippi River Valley Alluvial (MRVA) aquifer in southeastern Arkansas (SE AR), USA, has higher salinity compared to other MRVA groundwater. Previous studies have argued for infiltration of evaporated soil water as a primary source for the elevated salinity, although seepage from local rivers and deep groundwater sources also have been considered. Geochemical and isotope data from irrigation, public supply, and industrial wells, as well as subsurface geologic data, are used to demonstrate that upward flow of saline water along regional faults is the primary source of salinity in MRVA aquifer groundwater in SE AR. Sodium, chloride (Cl -) and bromide (Br -) concentrations illustrate mixing relationships between MRVA aquifer groundwater and Jurassic Smackover Formation brine, with mixing percentages of <1% Smackover brine being the source of anomalously high Cl -, Br -, and other ions in MRVA groundwater with elevated salinity. Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope data suggest substantial mixing of Paleogene Wilcox Formation water with that of the MRVA aquifer groundwater and varying degrees of evaporative concentration. Radiocarbon and helium isotope data argue for contributions of chloride-rich, pre-modern and relatively fresh modern water for recharge to the MRVA aquifer. Chloride concentration in MRVA aquifer waters closely follows the spatial distribution of earthquake-induced liquefaction features and known or suspected geologic faults in SE AR and northeastern Louisiana. A conceptual model is developed where deep-seated basinal fluids in overpressured reservoirs migrate upward along faults during and following Holocene earthquakes into the overlying MRVA over 100s to 1,000s of years

@article{doi101007s10040021023213,
    author = "Larsen, Daniel and Paul, Justin Michael and Cox, Randy",
    title = "Geochemical and isotopic evidence for upward flow of saline fluid to the Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer, southeastern Arkansas, USA",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Hydrogeology Journal",
    abstract = "Abstract Groundwater from the Quaternary Mississippi River Valley Alluvial (MRVA) aquifer in southeastern Arkansas (SE AR), USA, has higher salinity compared to other MRVA groundwater. Previous studies have argued for infiltration of evaporated soil water as a primary source for the elevated salinity, although seepage from local rivers and deep groundwater sources also have been considered. Geochemical and isotope data from irrigation, public supply, and industrial wells, as well as subsurface geologic data, are used to demonstrate that upward flow of saline water along regional faults is the primary source of salinity in MRVA aquifer groundwater in SE AR. Sodium, chloride (Cl -) and bromide (Br -) concentrations illustrate mixing relationships between MRVA aquifer groundwater and Jurassic Smackover Formation brine, with mixing percentages of <1\% Smackover brine being the source of anomalously high Cl -, Br -, and other ions in MRVA groundwater with elevated salinity. Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope data suggest substantial mixing of Paleogene Wilcox Formation water with that of the MRVA aquifer groundwater and varying degrees of evaporative concentration. Radiocarbon and helium isotope data argue for contributions of chloride-rich, pre-modern and relatively fresh modern water for recharge to the MRVA aquifer. Chloride concentration in MRVA aquifer waters closely follows the spatial distribution of earthquake-induced liquefaction features and known or suspected geologic faults in SE AR and northeastern Louisiana. A conceptual model is developed where deep-seated basinal fluids in overpressured reservoirs migrate upward along faults during and following Holocene earthquakes into the overlying MRVA over 100s to 1,000s of years",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02321-3",
    doi = "10.1007/s10040-021-02321-3",
    openalex = "W3148747881",
    references = "doi101002hyp217, doi1010079781461545576, doi1010160020708x7690082x, doi101016b9780444417800500158, doi101016b9780444422255500012, doi101016jearscirev201309008, doi10103835016542, doi101126science13334651702, doi1011300016760619911030415taormo23co2, doi101306212f8cab2b2411d78648000102c1865d, hatheway1996geomorphology"
}

The Mississippi River Delta in coastal Louisiana has suffered large-scale land loss during the historic period and is representative of a global phenomenon where low-elevation deltaic coasts are increasingly at risk because of disrupted sediment supply and accelerated global sea-level rise. Land loss is a natural part of deltaic evolution over time, and most of the land loss in the Mississippi River Delta occurred after individual delta-plain headlands were abandoned as active constructional landscapes, but before 1932 when collection of air photos would make repeat land loss measurements possible. A coastwide land loss of ∼5000 km2 is now well documented for the period 1932 to 2016, which corresponds to a mean rate of ∼57 km2 yr−1. We use a LiDAR digital topobathymetric model to hindcast land-area changes through time for 1950–2010 by incrementally restoring elevation lost due to subsidence, global sea-level rise, and annual anomalies in mean sea level. Our results support the view that the magnitude and spatial distribution of 20th century land loss can be explained by an unfortunate convergence of ongoing subsidence, greatly reduced sediment dispersal due to levee construction, and acceleration of global sea-level rise. Other factors have contributed to land loss on local scales, but the magnitude of land loss that has occurred would have occurred anyway due to subsidence, lack of sediment input, and accelerated sea-level rise. Multidecadal accelerations and decelerations in land loss from 1950 to 2010 have been observed, and attributed to accelerations and decelerations in subsidence due to subsurface fluid withdrawals. However, non-linear land loss represents measurements that were made when water levels varied due to annual to multidecadal anomalies in mean sea level. Anomalies in mean sea level are driven by flux of water into and out of the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic, as well as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), which produces precipitation anomalies in the Gulf of Mexico drainage area, anomalies in Mississippi River discharge to the Gulf of Mexico, and changes in wind directions that serve to trap water along the coast and elevate coastal sea level, or advect water away from the coast to lower coastal sea level. Sea-level anomalies of the scale described here amplify or suppress the secular trend of global sea-level rise and its impacts on low-elevation delta plains as they respond to ongoing subsidence and anthropogenic disruption of sediment dispersal.

@article{doi101016jgloplacha2023104048,
    author = "Blum, Mike and Rahn, David A. and Frederick, Bruce C. and Polanco, Sara",
    title = "Land loss in the Mississippi River Delta: Role of subsidence, global sea-level rise, and coupled atmospheric and oceanographic processes",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Global and Planetary Change",
    abstract = "The Mississippi River Delta in coastal Louisiana has suffered large-scale land loss during the historic period and is representative of a global phenomenon where low-elevation deltaic coasts are increasingly at risk because of disrupted sediment supply and accelerated global sea-level rise. Land loss is a natural part of deltaic evolution over time, and most of the land loss in the Mississippi River Delta occurred after individual delta-plain headlands were abandoned as active constructional landscapes, but before 1932 when collection of air photos would make repeat land loss measurements possible. A coastwide land loss of ∼5000 km2 is now well documented for the period 1932 to 2016, which corresponds to a mean rate of ∼57 km2 yr−1. We use a LiDAR digital topobathymetric model to hindcast land-area changes through time for 1950–2010 by incrementally restoring elevation lost due to subsidence, global sea-level rise, and annual anomalies in mean sea level. Our results support the view that the magnitude and spatial distribution of 20th century land loss can be explained by an unfortunate convergence of ongoing subsidence, greatly reduced sediment dispersal due to levee construction, and acceleration of global sea-level rise. Other factors have contributed to land loss on local scales, but the magnitude of land loss that has occurred would have occurred anyway due to subsidence, lack of sediment input, and accelerated sea-level rise. Multidecadal accelerations and decelerations in land loss from 1950 to 2010 have been observed, and attributed to accelerations and decelerations in subsidence due to subsurface fluid withdrawals. However, non-linear land loss represents measurements that were made when water levels varied due to annual to multidecadal anomalies in mean sea level. Anomalies in mean sea level are driven by flux of water into and out of the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic, as well as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), which produces precipitation anomalies in the Gulf of Mexico drainage area, anomalies in Mississippi River discharge to the Gulf of Mexico, and changes in wind directions that serve to trap water along the coast and elevate coastal sea level, or advect water away from the coast to lower coastal sea level. Sea-level anomalies of the scale described here amplify or suppress the secular trend of global sea-level rise and its impacts on low-elevation delta plains as they respond to ongoing subsidence and anthropogenic disruption of sediment dispersal.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104048",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104048",
    openalex = "W4319264991",
    references = "doi101130g385461"
}

@incollection{garrison2024mississippi,
    author = "Garrison, Laurie and Anderson, Anne and West, Peter",
    title = "Mississippi River.",
    year = "2024",
    booktitle = "Panoramas, 1787–1900 Vol 5",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003513414-7",
    doi = "10.4324/9781003513414-7",
    openalex = "W4406802361",
    pages = "40-44"
}

Abstract Levees provide critical flood protection, but are vulnerable to failure from internal erosion and piping. According to the risk assessment study performed by the US Army Corps of Engineers’, more than 20% of the levees in the United States are considered to have a very high risk of failure. Therefore, rapid noninvasive methods that can assess subsurface conditions over long distances are needed to identify the critical zones along the levees. This study evaluates electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to characterize levee composition and detect anomalies indicative of defects arising from thin clay layers. ERT surveys were conducted on the Melvin Price reach of the Wood River Levee and compared to previously published multichannel analysis of surface wave (MASW) measurements and historical data. Longitudinal and transverse two‐dimensional (2D) ERT imaging revealed large‐scale stratigraphy related to old river channel deposits but lacked the resolution to discern fine‐scale layering details, including a discontinuous clay layer resolved in the MASW shear wave velocity profiles. This limitation is challenging because such features are critical for understanding internal erosion at the levee. Additionally, the 2D nature of ERT inversion is susceptible to bias caused by the complex three‐dimensional (3D) geometry of levee structures, which introduces artefacts that can affect the interpretation of resistivity data. These 3D effects are particularly pronounced for longitudinal lines with air on both sides of the levee or when resistivity contrasts are low. Forward modelling confirmed limitations in the ability of 2D ERT sections to resolve certain thin clay layers during inversion. However, ERT provided a rapid overview of subsurface stratification and moisture patterns; integrating with MASW, drilling data and advanced inversion methods that correct for 3D effects is recommended to improve characterization levee condition and defects. This study highlights both the potential and inherent challenges of geophysical methods for assessing critical flood protection infrastructure.

@article{doi101002nsg70005,
    author = "Rahimi, Mohammadyar and Wood, Clinton M. and Befus, Kevin M. and Rahimi, Salman",
    title = "Challenges of 2D electrical resistivity tomography for detecting thin clay layers under levees: A case study of Melvin price reach of the wood river levee on the Mississippi river",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Near Surface Geophysics",
    abstract = "Abstract Levees provide critical flood protection, but are vulnerable to failure from internal erosion and piping. According to the risk assessment study performed by the US Army Corps of Engineers’, more than 20\% of the levees in the United States are considered to have a very high risk of failure. Therefore, rapid noninvasive methods that can assess subsurface conditions over long distances are needed to identify the critical zones along the levees. This study evaluates electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to characterize levee composition and detect anomalies indicative of defects arising from thin clay layers. ERT surveys were conducted on the Melvin Price reach of the Wood River Levee and compared to previously published multichannel analysis of surface wave (MASW) measurements and historical data. Longitudinal and transverse two‐dimensional (2D) ERT imaging revealed large‐scale stratigraphy related to old river channel deposits but lacked the resolution to discern fine‐scale layering details, including a discontinuous clay layer resolved in the MASW shear wave velocity profiles. This limitation is challenging because such features are critical for understanding internal erosion at the levee. Additionally, the 2D nature of ERT inversion is susceptible to bias caused by the complex three‐dimensional (3D) geometry of levee structures, which introduces artefacts that can affect the interpretation of resistivity data. These 3D effects are particularly pronounced for longitudinal lines with air on both sides of the levee or when resistivity contrasts are low. Forward modelling confirmed limitations in the ability of 2D ERT sections to resolve certain thin clay layers during inversion. However, ERT provided a rapid overview of subsurface stratification and moisture patterns; integrating with MASW, drilling data and advanced inversion methods that correct for 3D effects is recommended to improve characterization levee condition and defects. This study highlights both the potential and inherent challenges of geophysical methods for assessing critical flood protection infrastructure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/nsg.70005",
    doi = "10.1002/nsg.70005",
    openalex = "W4409728808",
    references = "kolb2020geologic"
}

Abstract Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data often fills the lithologic gap between boreholes and produces large‐scale structure and heterogeneity of aquifers. However, due to the nature of AEM data, there are unavoidable uncertainties in its nonunique interpretation. This study introduces a novel framework to seamlessly interpret and integrate AEM resistivity data with boreholes for high‐resolution aquifer characterization. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC) is employed to optimize depth‐dependent zonation thresholds by nearly collocated borehole data for AEM interpretation to lithology. Then, indicator cokriging (ICK) correlates borehole data (primary data) with AEM resistivity data (secondary data) for data fusion and estimates the probabilities of sand and clay facies. The ICK eliminates the mismatch between interpreted AEM data and borehole data and reduces interpretation uncertainty and blurry subsurface characterization using only AEM. The framework is applied to Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer (MRVA) characterization, and results are compared with a regional groundwater model conceptualization. The results show that many landforms are potential recharge zones and indicate that MRVA is highly accessible and prolific. MRVA has significant hydraulic connections with the carbonate Ozark aquifer and the sedimentary Mississippi embayment aquifer system. Moreover, MRVA is well connected to the Mississippi River, represented by high riverbed resistivity and high sand percentage at the riverbed. The data fusion framework maximizes the utilization of the AEM data and can significantly improve the regional groundwater model with aquifer characteristics.

@article{doi1010292025wr040079,
    author = "Attia, Michael and Tsai, Frank T.‐C.",
    title = "Airborne Geophysical and Borehole Data Fusion to Improve Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Aquifer Characterization",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Water Resources Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data often fills the lithologic gap between boreholes and produces large‐scale structure and heterogeneity of aquifers. However, due to the nature of AEM data, there are unavoidable uncertainties in its nonunique interpretation. This study introduces a novel framework to seamlessly interpret and integrate AEM resistivity data with boreholes for high‐resolution aquifer characterization. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC) is employed to optimize depth‐dependent zonation thresholds by nearly collocated borehole data for AEM interpretation to lithology. Then, indicator cokriging (ICK) correlates borehole data (primary data) with AEM resistivity data (secondary data) for data fusion and estimates the probabilities of sand and clay facies. The ICK eliminates the mismatch between interpreted AEM data and borehole data and reduces interpretation uncertainty and blurry subsurface characterization using only AEM. The framework is applied to Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer (MRVA) characterization, and results are compared with a regional groundwater model conceptualization. The results show that many landforms are potential recharge zones and indicate that MRVA is highly accessible and prolific. MRVA has significant hydraulic connections with the carbonate Ozark aquifer and the sedimentary Mississippi embayment aquifer system. Moreover, MRVA is well connected to the Mississippi River, represented by high riverbed resistivity and high sand percentage at the riverbed. The data fusion framework maximizes the utilization of the AEM data and can significantly improve the regional groundwater model with aquifer characteristics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2025wr040079",
    doi = "10.1029/2025wr040079",
    openalex = "W4412834807",
    references = "doi101016jjhydrol2024131877, doi101016jscitotenv2024172950"
}

The Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer (MRVA) is vital to U.S. food security and global agricultural supply. However, quantitative understanding of its Quaternary origin, architecture, and hydrologic function remains incomplete. Here we develop a three-dimensional hydrostratigraphic model to characterize the deposition of clay and silt, fine-medium sands, and graveliferous sands using lithologic data from 75,000 boreholes compiled across the Lower Mississippi Valley and a geostatistical method—interval kriging. We find that cyclic glacial entrenchments, evidenced by remnants of pre-Wisconsinan postglacial sediments, alongside geodynamic activities shaped the MRVA basal configuration. Stratal weakening from faulting and salt diapirism enhanced glacial incision and thereby produced abrupt aquifer thickening. We demarcate the top of graveliferous sands as the regional marker of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. The MRVA hydrostratigraphy reveals hydrologic function and geologic controls on groundwater storage and quality, advancing the assessment of aquifer sustainability under a changing climate, with implications for alluvial aquifers globally. The configuration of the Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer reveals its Quaternary origin, hydrologic function, and geologic control on groundwater, from a 3D hydrostratigraphic model based on 75000 boreholes of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain.

@article{doi101038s43247025025451,
    author = "Song, Yuqi and Tsai, Frank T.‐C. and Minsley, Burke J. and Wu, Chenliang and Heggy, Essam",
    title = "Quantitative subsurface characterization illuminates the origin of the Quaternary Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Communications Earth \& Environment",
    abstract = "The Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer (MRVA) is vital to U.S. food security and global agricultural supply. However, quantitative understanding of its Quaternary origin, architecture, and hydrologic function remains incomplete. Here we develop a three-dimensional hydrostratigraphic model to characterize the deposition of clay and silt, fine-medium sands, and graveliferous sands using lithologic data from 75,000 boreholes compiled across the Lower Mississippi Valley and a geostatistical method—interval kriging. We find that cyclic glacial entrenchments, evidenced by remnants of pre-Wisconsinan postglacial sediments, alongside geodynamic activities shaped the MRVA basal configuration. Stratal weakening from faulting and salt diapirism enhanced glacial incision and thereby produced abrupt aquifer thickening. We demarcate the top of graveliferous sands as the regional marker of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. The MRVA hydrostratigraphy reveals hydrologic function and geologic controls on groundwater storage and quality, advancing the assessment of aquifer sustainability under a changing climate, with implications for alluvial aquifers globally. The configuration of the Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer reveals its Quaternary origin, hydrologic function, and geologic control on groundwater, from a 3D hydrostratigraphic model based on 75000 boreholes of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02545-1",
    doi = "10.1038/s43247-025-02545-1",
    openalex = "W4413250284",
    references = "doi101016jscitotenv2024172950"
}