Dentition

@article{clark1950hominid,
    author = "Clark, W. E. Le Gros",
    title = "Hominid Characters of the Australopithecine Dentition",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2844487",
    doi = "10.2307/2844487",
    number = "1/2",
    openalex = "W2795460996",
    pages = "37",
    volume = "80"
}

@article{legrosclark1950homonid2,
    author = "Le Gros Clark, W. E",
    title = "Homonid characters of the australopithecine dentition",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britian and Ireland, v. 80, p. 37-53",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Le Gros Clark, W. E., 1950, Homonid characters of the australopithecine dentition: Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britian and Ireland, v. 80, p. 37-53.}"
}

@article{g1952hominid,
    author = "G., A. J. H. and Clark, W. E. Le Gros",
    title = "Hominid Characters of the Australopithecine Dentition",
    year = "1952",
    journal = "The South African Archaeological Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3887446",
    doi = "10.2307/3887446",
    number = "26",
    openalex = "W2798117071",
    pages = "69",
    volume = "7"
}

@article{johnston1979growth,
    author = "JOHNSTON, PAUL A.",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/278635a0",
    doi = "10.1038/278635a0",
    number = "5705",
    openalex = "W2060219660",
    pages = "635-636",
    volume = "278",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051080103, doi1010160031018271900447, doi101038scientificamerican047558, doi101111j136520281973tb00081x, doi101111j136529071972tb00160x, doi101111j155856461971tb01922x, doi1023071443592, doi1023072406945, doi1023073515582, openalexw597127060"
}

@misc{johnston1979growth1,
    author = "Johnston, P. A",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 278, p. 635- 636",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Johnston, P. A., 1979, Growth rings in dinosaur teeth: Nature, v. 278, p. 635- 636.}"
}

@article{bolt1980growth,
    author = "BOLT, JOHN R. and DE MAR, ROBERT E.",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/288194b0",
    doi = "10.1038/288194b0",
    number = "5787",
    openalex = "W3139688619",
    pages = "194-195",
    volume = "288",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051080103, doi101111j136529071972tb00160x, doi1023071443592, doi1023073495, doi1023073515582, johnston1979growth, openalexw2390705542, openalexw2983381470, openalexw597127060"
}

@article{boyce1980growth,
    author = "BOYCE, MARK S.",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/288194a0",
    doi = "10.1038/288194a0",
    number = "5787",
    openalex = "W1994028542",
    pages = "194-194",
    volume = "288",
    references = "doi101111j146979981976tb02267x, doi1023073800597, johnston1979growth"
}

@article{johnston1980growth,
    author = "JOHNSTON, PAUL A.",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth (reply)",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/288195a0",
    doi = "10.1038/288195a0",
    number = "5787",
    openalex = "W2056666115",
    pages = "195-195",
    volume = "288",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051080103, doi1010073540310789121, doi1010160031018271900447, doi101111j136529071972tb00160x, doi1023071485443, johnston1979growth, openalexw2390705542, openalexw2983381470, openalexw597127060"
}

@article{meinke1980growth,
    author = "MEINKE, DEBORAH K. and PADIAN, KEVIN and KAPPELMAN, JOHN",
    title = "Growth rings in dinosaur teeth",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/288193c0",
    doi = "10.1038/288193c0",
    number = "5787",
    openalex = "W2037564563",
    pages = "193-194",
    volume = "288",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051080103, doi101111j136529071972tb00160x, doi101111j146979981976tb02267x, doi101111j155856461974tb00777x, doi101126science1353504670, doi101139z77002, doi101146annurevea03050175000415, doi1023071441916, doi1023073800597, johnston1979growth"
}

The means and variances of dental length, breadth, and area measurements of South and East African gracile and robust australopithecines are analyzed to determine the existence of statistically significant differences due possibly to different niche utilization and divergent evolution. The study material is divided into four groups: South African gracile, South African robust, East African gracile, and East African robust. Comparison of East and South African graciles, East African robusts and graciles, and South African robusts and graciles shows few significant F‐ratios; a high frequency of significance is observed between East and South African robusts. High frequencies of significance are observed in t tests between all groups. Probit analysis, carried out on each of the four groups separately for each measurement, shows little or no significant deviation from normality; similar results are obtained when the groups are combined, suggesting the joint‐normal distribution of the total australopithecine sample. High frequencies of significant t tests and low frequencies of significant F‐ratios are observed when all graciles are compared with all robusts; yet few significant t tests and many significant F‐ratios occur when all East African forms are combined with all South African forms. Observed differences in dental measurements in australopithecines tend to occur on a regional rather than a morphologic basis, especially with regard to robust samples from South and East Africa. While analysis of variance and probit analysis cannot be used to establish taxonomic divisions, results suggest the inappropriateness of dental measurements in establishing an australopithecine taxonomy.

@article{finkel1981an,
    author = "Finkel, David J.",
    title = "An analysis of australopithecine dentition",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "The means and variances of dental length, breadth, and area measurements of South and East African gracile and robust australopithecines are analyzed to determine the existence of statistically significant differences due possibly to different niche utilization and divergent evolution. The study material is divided into four groups: South African gracile, South African robust, East African gracile, and East African robust. Comparison of East and South African graciles, East African robusts and graciles, and South African robusts and graciles shows few significant F‐ratios; a high frequency of significance is observed between East and South African robusts. High frequencies of significance are observed in t tests between all groups. Probit analysis, carried out on each of the four groups separately for each measurement, shows little or no significant deviation from normality; similar results are obtained when the groups are combined, suggesting the joint‐normal distribution of the total australopithecine sample. High frequencies of significant t tests and low frequencies of significant F‐ratios are observed when all graciles are compared with all robusts; yet few significant t tests and many significant F‐ratios occur when all East African forms are combined with all South African forms. Observed differences in dental measurements in australopithecines tend to occur on a regional rather than a morphologic basis, especially with regard to robust samples from South and East Africa. While analysis of variance and probit analysis cannot be used to establish taxonomic divisions, results suggest the inappropriateness of dental measurements in establishing an australopithecine taxonomy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330550110",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330550110",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W1971460002",
    pages = "69-80",
    volume = "55",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330370108, doi101017cbo9780511897795, doi101017chol9780521077910, doi101038202007a0, doi101093genetics16297, doi101111j14718286200601560x, doi1023072798801, doi1023072800701, doi104324978131512740848"
}

Dinosaur dentine exhibits growth lines that are tens of micrometers in width. These laminations are homologous to incremental lines of von Ebner found in extant mammal and crocodilian teeth (i.e., those of amniotes). The lines likely reflect daily dentine formation, and they were used to infer tooth development and replacement rates. In general, dinosaur tooth formation rates negatively correlated with tooth size. Theropod tooth replacement rates negatively correlated with tooth size, which was due to limitations in the dentine formation rates of their odontoblasts. Derived ceratopsian and hadrosaurian dinosaurs retained relatively rapid tooth replacement rates through ontogeny. The evolution of dental batteries in hadrosaurs and ceratopsians can be explained by dentine formation constraints and rapid tooth wear. In combination with counts of shed dinosaur teeth, tooth replacement rate data can be used to assess population demographics of Mesozoic ecosystems. Finally, it is of historic importance to note that Richard Owen appears to have been the first to observe incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs more than 150 years ago.

@article{doi101073pnas932514623,
    author = "Erickson, Gregory M.",
    title = "Incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs and the assessment of tooth replacement rates using growth line counts",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Dinosaur dentine exhibits growth lines that are tens of micrometers in width. These laminations are homologous to incremental lines of von Ebner found in extant mammal and crocodilian teeth (i.e., those of amniotes). The lines likely reflect daily dentine formation, and they were used to infer tooth development and replacement rates. In general, dinosaur tooth formation rates negatively correlated with tooth size. Theropod tooth replacement rates negatively correlated with tooth size, which was due to limitations in the dentine formation rates of their odontoblasts. Derived ceratopsian and hadrosaurian dinosaurs retained relatively rapid tooth replacement rates through ontogeny. The evolution of dental batteries in hadrosaurs and ceratopsians can be explained by dentine formation constraints and rapid tooth wear. In combination with counts of shed dinosaur teeth, tooth replacement rate data can be used to assess population demographics of Mesozoic ecosystems. Finally, it is of historic importance to note that Richard Owen appears to have been the first to observe incremental lines of von Ebner in dinosaurs more than 150 years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.93.25.14623",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.93.25.14623",
    openalex = "W1964547681",
    references = "doi101002sici109746871996052282189aidjmor730co20, doi1010160003996979902218, doi1010160047248487900741, doi1010160300571278900155, doi101016s0016699588800664, doi101017s0022336000026706, doi101017s0094837300013956, doi10108002724634199610011297, johnston1979growth, openalexw2114586992, openalexw2268136853"
}

ABSTRACT Ontogenetic changes in the bone histology of Maiasaura peeblesorum are revealed by six relatively distinct but gradational growth stages: early and late nestling, early and late juvenile, sub-adult, and adult. These stages are distinguished not only by relative size but by changes in the histological patterns of bones at each stage. In general, the earliest stages are marked by spongy bone matrix with large vascular canals. Through growth, the cortical bone differentiates into fibro-lamellar tissue that tends to become more regularly layered in the outer cortex. By the sub-adult stage, lines of arrested growth (LAGs) begin to appear regularly. Resorption lines and substantial Haversian substitution in many long bones also begin to appear at this stage, and the external cortex has a lamellar-zonal structure in some bones that indicates imminent cessation of growth. Judging by the rates of apposition of similar bone tissues in living amniotes, and by the number and placement of LAGs, these patterns suggest that young Maiasaura nestlings grew at very high rates, and at high and moderately high rates during later nestling, juvenile, and sub-adult stages, slowing to low and very low growth rates in adults (7–9 m total length). The nesting period would have lasted one to two months, late juvenile size (3.5 meters) would have been reached in one or two years, and adult size in six to eight years, depending on the basis for extrapolating bone growth rates. The histological tissues, patterns, and inferred growth rates of the bones of Maiasaura are completely different from those of living non-avian reptiles, generally similar to those of most other dinosaurs and pterosaurs for which data are available, and much like those of extant birds and mammals. No living reptiles (except birds) grow to adult size at these rates, nor do they show these histological patterns. We conclude that Maiasaura did not grow at all like living non-avian reptiles, which cannot be considered informative models for most aspects of dinosaurian growth (or physiology, to the extent that growth rates reflect metabolism). The use of lines of arrested growth (LAGs) to infer dinosaurian physiology has never been tested and is not supported by independent lines of evidence; their use in calculating age is also more complex than previously suggested and should not be based on single bones.

@article{doi1016710272463420000200115lbhoth20co2,
    author = "Horner, John R. and de Ricqlès, Armand and Padian, Kevin",
    title = "Long bone histology of the hadrosaurid dinosaur Maiasaura peeblesorum: growth dynamics and physiology based on an ontogenetic series of skeletal elements",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Ontogenetic changes in the bone histology of Maiasaura peeblesorum are revealed by six relatively distinct but gradational growth stages: early and late nestling, early and late juvenile, sub-adult, and adult. These stages are distinguished not only by relative size but by changes in the histological patterns of bones at each stage. In general, the earliest stages are marked by spongy bone matrix with large vascular canals. Through growth, the cortical bone differentiates into fibro-lamellar tissue that tends to become more regularly layered in the outer cortex. By the sub-adult stage, lines of arrested growth (LAGs) begin to appear regularly. Resorption lines and substantial Haversian substitution in many long bones also begin to appear at this stage, and the external cortex has a lamellar-zonal structure in some bones that indicates imminent cessation of growth. Judging by the rates of apposition of similar bone tissues in living amniotes, and by the number and placement of LAGs, these patterns suggest that young Maiasaura nestlings grew at very high rates, and at high and moderately high rates during later nestling, juvenile, and sub-adult stages, slowing to low and very low growth rates in adults (7–9 m total length). The nesting period would have lasted one to two months, late juvenile size (3.5 meters) would have been reached in one or two years, and adult size in six to eight years, depending on the basis for extrapolating bone growth rates. The histological tissues, patterns, and inferred growth rates of the bones of Maiasaura are completely different from those of living non-avian reptiles, generally similar to those of most other dinosaurs and pterosaurs for which data are available, and much like those of extant birds and mammals. No living reptiles (except birds) grow to adult size at these rates, nor do they show these histological patterns. We conclude that Maiasaura did not grow at all like living non-avian reptiles, which cannot be considered informative models for most aspects of dinosaurian growth (or physiology, to the extent that growth rates reflect metabolism). The use of lines of arrested growth (LAGs) to infer dinosaurian physiology has never been tested and is not supported by independent lines of evidence; their use in calculating age is also more complex than previously suggested and should not be based on single bones.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0115:lbhoth]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0115:lbhoth]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2179073245",
    references = "chinsamy1994dinosaur, chinsamy1998polar, doi101001jama195602970180082039, doi101002jmor1051080103, doi1010079781489957405, doi101017s0094837300012331, doi101017s0094837300013543, doi101017s0094837300021308, doi101029sc005p0175, doi101038282296a0, doi10108002724634199310011490, doi101093clinids222240, doi101126science26251422020, doi1016660094837320010270039coosea20co2, doi105962bhltitle113905, openalexw2259112626, openalexw648632191, openalexw991367939, reid1984primary"
}

In this chapter, the authors report the minimal set of characters from the Unicode Standard that is sufficient for the notation of human dentition in Zsigmondy-Palmer style. For domestic reasons, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry expanded and revised the Japan Industrial Standard (JIS) character code set in 2004 (JIS X 0213). More than 11,000 characters that seemed to be necessary for denoting and exchanging information about personal names and toponyms were added to this revision, which also contained the characters needed for denoting human dentition (dental notation). The Unicode Standard has been adopted for these characters as part of the double-byte character standard, which enabled, mainly in eastern Asian countries, the retrieval of human dentition directly on paper or displays of computers running Unicode-compliant OS. These countries have been using the Zsigmondy-Palmer style of denoting dental records on paper forms for a long time. The authors describe the background and the application of the characters for human dentition to the exchange, storage and reuse of the history of dental diseases via e-mail and other means of electronic communication.

@incollection{tamagawa2009unicode,
    author = "Tamagawa, Hiroo and Amano, Hideaki and Hayashi, Naoji and Hirose, Yasuyuki",
    title = "Unicode Characters for Human Dentition",
    year = "2009",
    booktitle = "Dental Computing and Applications",
    abstract = "In this chapter, the authors report the minimal set of characters from the Unicode Standard that is sufficient for the notation of human dentition in Zsigmondy-Palmer style. For domestic reasons, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry expanded and revised the Japan Industrial Standard (JIS) character code set in 2004 (JIS X 0213). More than 11,000 characters that seemed to be necessary for denoting and exchanging information about personal names and toponyms were added to this revision, which also contained the characters needed for denoting human dentition (dental notation). The Unicode Standard has been adopted for these characters as part of the double-byte character standard, which enabled, mainly in eastern Asian countries, the retrieval of human dentition directly on paper or displays of computers running Unicode-compliant OS. These countries have been using the Zsigmondy-Palmer style of denoting dental records on paper forms for a long time. The authors describe the background and the application of the characters for human dentition to the exchange, storage and reuse of the history of dental diseases via e-mail and other means of electronic communication.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-292-3.ch017",
    doi = "10.4018/978-1-60566-292-3.ch017",
    openalex = "W2492534575",
    pages = "305-316",
    references = "doi101038sjbdj4812303, doi101055s00381633851, doi101111j160005791998tb00034x, openalexw2122822693, openalexw96515631"
}

Sauropod dinosaur bones are common in Mesozoic terrestrial sediments, but sauropod skulls are exceedingly rare--cranial materials are known for less than one third of sauropod genera and even fewer are known from complete skulls. Here we describe the first complete sauropod skull from the Cretaceous of the Americas, Abydosaurus mcintoshi, n. gen., n. sp., known from 104.46 +/- 0.95 Ma (megannum) sediments from Dinosaur National Monument, USA. Abydosaurus shares close ancestry with Brachiosaurus, which appeared in the fossil record ca. 45 million years earlier and had substantially broader teeth. A survey of tooth shape in sauropodomorphs demonstrates that sauropods evolved broad crowns during the Early Jurassic but did not evolve narrow crowns until the Late Jurassic, when they occupied their greatest range of crown breadths. During the Cretaceous, brachiosaurids and other lineages independently underwent a marked diminution in tooth breadth, and before the latest Cretaceous broad-crowned sauropods were extinct on all continental landmasses. Differential survival and diversification of narrow-crowned sauropods in the Late Cretaceous appears to be a directed trend that was not correlated with changes in plant diversity or abundance, but may signal a shift towards elevated tooth replacement rates and high-wear dentition. Sauropods lacked many of the complex herbivorous adaptations present within contemporaneous ornithischian herbivores, such as beaks, cheeks, kinesis, and heterodonty. The spartan design of sauropod skulls may be related to their remarkably small size--sauropod skulls account for only 1/200th of total body volume compared to 1/30th body volume in ornithopod dinosaurs.

@article{doi101007s0011401006506,
    author = "Chure, Daniel J. and Britt, Brooks B. and Whitlock, John A. and Wilson, Jeffrey A.",
    title = "First complete sauropod dinosaur skull from the Cretaceous of the Americas and the evolution of sauropod dentition",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Die Naturwissenschaften",
    abstract = "Sauropod dinosaur bones are common in Mesozoic terrestrial sediments, but sauropod skulls are exceedingly rare--cranial materials are known for less than one third of sauropod genera and even fewer are known from complete skulls. Here we describe the first complete sauropod skull from the Cretaceous of the Americas, Abydosaurus mcintoshi, n. gen., n. sp., known from 104.46 +/- 0.95 Ma (megannum) sediments from Dinosaur National Monument, USA. Abydosaurus shares close ancestry with Brachiosaurus, which appeared in the fossil record ca. 45 million years earlier and had substantially broader teeth. A survey of tooth shape in sauropodomorphs demonstrates that sauropods evolved broad crowns during the Early Jurassic but did not evolve narrow crowns until the Late Jurassic, when they occupied their greatest range of crown breadths. During the Cretaceous, brachiosaurids and other lineages independently underwent a marked diminution in tooth breadth, and before the latest Cretaceous broad-crowned sauropods were extinct on all continental landmasses. Differential survival and diversification of narrow-crowned sauropods in the Late Cretaceous appears to be a directed trend that was not correlated with changes in plant diversity or abundance, but may signal a shift towards elevated tooth replacement rates and high-wear dentition. Sauropods lacked many of the complex herbivorous adaptations present within contemporaneous ornithischian herbivores, such as beaks, cheeks, kinesis, and heterodonty. The spartan design of sauropod skulls may be related to their remarkably small size--sauropod skulls account for only 1/200th of total body volume compared to 1/30th body volume in ornithopod dinosaurs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-010-0650-6",
    doi = "10.1007/s00114-010-0650-6",
    openalex = "W1989949799",
    references = "doi101073pnas932514623, doi101371journalpone0001230, doi101371journalpone0006924, doi101525california97805202420980030015, doi105860choice435907"
}

Despite nearly two centuries of investigation, a comprehensive understanding of dinosaur biology has proven intractable. The recent development of means to study tissue-level growth, age these animals, and make growth curves has revolutionized our knowledge of dinosaur lives. From such data it is now understood that dinosaurs grew both disruptively and determinately; that they rarely if ever exceeded a century in age; that they became giants through accelerated growth and dwarfed through truncated development; that they were likely endothermic, sexually matured like crocodiles, and showed survivorship like populations of large mammals; and that basal birds retained dinosaurian physiology.

@article{erickson2014on,
    author = "Erickson, Gregory M.",
    title = "On Dinosaur Growth",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "Despite nearly two centuries of investigation, a comprehensive understanding of dinosaur biology has proven intractable. The recent development of means to study tissue-level growth, age these animals, and make growth curves has revolutionized our knowledge of dinosaur lives. From such data it is now understood that dinosaurs grew both disruptively and determinately; that they rarely if ever exceeded a century in age; that they became giants through accelerated growth and dwarfed through truncated development; that they were likely endothermic, sexually matured like crocodiles, and showed survivorship like populations of large mammals; and that basal birds retained dinosaurian physiology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054858",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054858",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2128164431",
    pages = "675-697",
    volume = "42",
    references = "doi101016jannpal200803002, doi101038nature11264, doi10108002724634200310010947, doi101086395888, doi101086410622, doi101111j1469185x201000137x, doi101111j146979981985tb04915x, doi101126science28454232137, doi101186174170071060, doi101371journalpone0016574, doi101371journalpone0021376, doi101371journalpone0033539, doi1023072802289, horner2011dinosaur, köhler2012seasonal, openalexw1558456135, openalexw3215057009, parrish1987late"
}