Depositional morphologies

@techreport{bornhauser1948possible9,
    author = "Bornhauser, M",
    title = "Possible ancient submarine canyon in southwestern Louisiana",
    year = "1948",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 32, p. 2287-2290",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bornhauser, M., 1948, Possible ancient submarine canyon in southwestern Louisiana: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 32, p. 2287-2290.}"
}

@article{kuenen1950turbidity27,
    author = "Kuenen, P. H. and Migliorini, C",
    title = "Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Journal of Geology, v. 58, p. 91-127",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kuenen, P. H., and Migliorini, C., 1950, Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding: Journal of Geology, v. 58, p. 91-127.}"
}

@article{hoyt1959erosional25,
    author = "Hoyt, W. V",
    title = "Erosional channel in the Middle Wilcox near Yoakum, Lavaca County, Texas",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 9, p. 41-50",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hoyt, W. V., 1959, Erosional channel in the Middle Wilcox near Yoakum, Lavaca County, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 9, p. 41-50.}"
}

@techreport{bornhauser1960depositional10,
    author = "Bornhauser, M",
    title = "Depositional and structural history of Northwest Hartburg Field, Newton County, Texas",
    year = "1960",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 44, p. 458-470",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bornhauser, M., 1960, Depositional and structural history of Northwest Hartburg Field, Newton County, Texas: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 44, p. 458-470.}"
}

@misc{sullwold1961turbidites49,
    author = "Sullwold, H. H. and Jr",
    title = "Turbidites in Oil Exploration, in Peterson, J. A., and Osmond, J. C., eds., Geometry of Sand Bodies",
    year = "1961",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 63-81",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sullwold, H. H., Jr., 1961, Turbidites in Oil Exploration, in Peterson, J. A., and Osmond, J. C., eds., Geometry of Sand Bodies: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 63-81.}"
}

@book{bouma1962sedimentology11,
    author = "Bouma, A. H",
    title = "Sedimentology of some flysch deposits",
    year = "1962",
    publisher = "Amsterdam, Elsevier, 168 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bouma, A. H., 1962, Sedimentology of some flysch deposits: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 168 p.}"
}

@article{walker1967turebidite51,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Turebidite sedimentary structures and their relationship to proximal and distal depositional environments",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 37, p. 25-43",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1967, Turebidite sedimentary structures and their relationship to proximal and distal depositional environments: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 37, p. 25-43.}"
}

@techreport{paine1968stratigraphy44,
    author = "Paine, R",
    title = "Stratigraphy and sedimentation of subsurface Hackberry wedge and associated beds of southwestern Louisiana",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 52, p. 322-342",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Paine, R., 1968, Stratigraphy and sedimentation of subsurface Hackberry wedge and associated beds of southwestern Louisiana: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 52, p. 322-342.}"
}

@techreport{bandy1969middle1,
    author = "Bandy, O. L. and Arnal, R. E",
    title = "Middle Tertiary Basin development, San Joaquin Valley, California",
    year = "1969",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 80, p. 783-820",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bandy, O. L., and Arnal, R. E., 1969, Middle Tertiary Basin development, San Joaquin Valley, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 80, p. 783-820.}"
}

ABSTRACT The growth pattern of a deep-sea fan relates events in and around the fan-valleys to the structure and morphology of the open fan. The growth pattern cannot be determined without knowledge of the origin and recent history of the fan-valley system. The mapping of La Jolla and San Lucas deep-sea fans with the deep-towed instrument package developed at Marine Physical Laboratory of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography details the fine-scale morphology, structure, and internal fill of the fan-valleys and suggests the growth patterns of these fans. The La Jolla fan, 20 km west of Scripps Institution, has one meandering fan-valley that extends across the entire fan. Except on the toe of the fan, the deeply incised valley has terraced walls with steeper walls on the outside of meanders. Very low-relief levees border the fan-valley in some localities. The present erosional valley bypasses the partly buried remnants of an older distributary system on the lower fan. The San Lucas fan, off the southern tip of the peninsula of Baja California, shows a depositional lobe of sediment, or suprafan, below the short, leveed fan-valley extending from San Jose Canyon. The suprafan appears as a convex-upward bulge on a radial profile of the fan. The surface of the suprafan has a series of discontinuous depressions up to 55 m deep and 1 km wide. The depressions are generally asymmetric in cross section, commonly have terraced walls, and are underlain by coarse sand and gravel. They are interpreted to be channel remnants. A model for deep-sea fan growth, based on this study, predicts that deposition on a fan will be localized in a suprafan at the end of large, leveed valleys commonly found on, and generally confined to, the upper reaches of deep-sea fans. The suprafan normally is on the midfan and is characterized by numerous smaller distributary channels. Rapid aggradation in the suprafan coupled with migration and meandering of the channels produces a surface marked by isolated depressions or channel remnants. Uniform deposition, producing a symmetrical half-cone morphology, results from the shifting through time of fan-valleys across the area of the fan.

@article{doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Normark, William R.",
    title = "Growth Patterns of Deep-Sea Fans",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The growth pattern of a deep-sea fan relates events in and around the fan-valleys to the structure and morphology of the open fan. The growth pattern cannot be determined without knowledge of the origin and recent history of the fan-valley system. The mapping of La Jolla and San Lucas deep-sea fans with the deep-towed instrument package developed at Marine Physical Laboratory of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography details the fine-scale morphology, structure, and internal fill of the fan-valleys and suggests the growth patterns of these fans. The La Jolla fan, 20 km west of Scripps Institution, has one meandering fan-valley that extends across the entire fan. Except on the toe of the fan, the deeply incised valley has terraced walls with steeper walls on the outside of meanders. Very low-relief levees border the fan-valley in some localities. The present erosional valley bypasses the partly buried remnants of an older distributary system on the lower fan. The San Lucas fan, off the southern tip of the peninsula of Baja California, shows a depositional lobe of sediment, or suprafan, below the short, leveed fan-valley extending from San Jose Canyon. The suprafan appears as a convex-upward bulge on a radial profile of the fan. The surface of the suprafan has a series of discontinuous depressions up to 55 m deep and 1 km wide. The depressions are generally asymmetric in cross section, commonly have terraced walls, and are underlain by coarse sand and gravel. They are interpreted to be channel remnants. A model for deep-sea fan growth, based on this study, predicts that deposition on a fan will be localized in a suprafan at the end of large, leveed valleys commonly found on, and generally confined to, the upper reaches of deep-sea fans. The suprafan normally is on the midfan and is characterized by numerous smaller distributary channels. Rapid aggradation in the suprafan coupled with migration and meandering of the channels produces a surface marked by isolated depressions or channel remnants. Uniform deposition, producing a symmetrical half-cone morphology, results from the shifting through time of fan-valleys across the area of the fan.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25cc79-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25cc79-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1979345769",
    references = "doi101086621596, doi101086623509, doi101086625999, doi101086627271, doi101126science1523721502, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2, doi1013065ceae13616bb11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c61516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bc743d7f16be11d78645000102c1865d, openalexw580680426"
}

@techreport{normark1970growth41,
    author = "Normark, W. R",
    title = "Growth patterns of deep sea fans",
    year = "1970",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 54, p. 2170-2195",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Normark, W. R., 1970, Growth patterns of deep sea fans: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 54, p. 2170-2195.}"
}

@article{benson1971geology4,
    author = "Benson, P. H",
    title = "Geology of the Oligocene Hackberry trend, Gillis English Bayou - Manchester area, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 21, p. 1-14",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Benson, P. H., 1971, Geology of the Oligocene Hackberry trend, Gillis English Bayou - Manchester area, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 21, p. 1-14.}"
}

@techreport{walker1971nondeltaic52,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Nondeltaic depositional environments in the Catskill clastic wedge (Upper Devonian) of central Pennsylvania",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1305-1326",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1971, Nondeltaic depositional environments in the Catskill clastic wedge (Upper Devonian) of central Pennsylvania: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 1305-1326.}"
}

@misc{bazeley1972san2,
    author = "Bazeley, W",
    title = "San Emidio Nose Field",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 16, p. 297-312",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bazeley, W., 1972, San Emidio Nose Field: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 16, p. 297-312.}"
}

@techreport{davies1972deep17,
    author = "Davies, D. K",
    title = "Deep sea sediments and their sedimentation, Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2212-2239",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Davies, D. K., 1972, Deep sea sediments and their sedimentation, Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2212-2239.}"
}

@book{fisher1972clastic19,
    author = "Fisher, W. L. and Brown, L. F. and Jr",
    title = "Clastic depositional systems - a genetic approach to facies analysis",
    year = "1972",
    publisher = "Bureau of Economic Geology: University of Texas at Austin, p. 161-183",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fisher, W. L., and Brown, L. F., Jr., 1972, Clastic depositional systems - a genetic approach to facies analysis: Bureau of Economic Geology: University of Texas at Austin, p. 161-183.}"
}

@misc{mutti1972le34,
    author = "Mutti, E. and Ricci Lucchi, F",
    title = "Le torbiditi dell'Appennino settentrionale",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "introduzione all'ananisi di facies: Memoirs Soc. Geol. Italiana, v. 11, p. 161-199",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mutti, E., and Ricci Lucchi, F., 1972, Le torbiditi dell'Appennino settentrionale: introduzione all'ananisi di facies: Memoirs Soc. Geol. Italiana, v. 11, p. 161-199.}"
}

@misc{mutti1972un33,
    author = "Mutti, E. and Ghibaudo, G",
    title = "Un esempio di torbiditi di conoide sottomarina estern",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "le Arenarie di San Salvatore (Formazione di Bobbio, Miocene) nell'Appennino de Piacenza. Memorie dell'Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Mathematiche e Naturali, Series 4, No.16, 40 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mutti, E., and Ghibaudo, G., 1972, Un esempio di torbiditi di conoide sottomarina estern: le Arenarie di San Salvatore (Formazione di Bobbio, Miocene) nell'Appennino de Piacenza. Memorie dell'Accademia delle Scienze di Torino, Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Mathematiche e Naturali, Series 4, No.16, 40 p.}"
}

@article{berg1973deepwater5,
    author = "Berg, R. R. and Findley, R",
    title = "Deep-water interpretation of Upper Wilcox sandstones from core study, Katy Field, Texas",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 23, p. 259-265",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Berg, R. R., and Findley, R., 1973, Deep-water interpretation of Upper Wilcox sandstones from core study, Katy Field, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 23, p. 259-265.}"
}

@article{bouma1973leveedchannel12,
    author = "Bouma, A. H",
    title = "Leveed-channel deposits, turbidites and contourites in the deeper parts of the Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, p. 368-376",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bouma, A. H., 1973, Leveed-channel deposits, turbidites and contourites in the deeper parts of the Gulf of Mexico: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, p. 368-376.}"
}

@article{crossref1973turbidites,
    title = "Turbidites and Deep-Water Sedimentation",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(73)90033-0",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(73)90033-0",
    number = "4",
    pages = "389",
    volume = "9"
}

@misc{nelsom1973submarine37,
    author = "Nelsom, C. H. and Kulm, L. D",
    title = "Submarine fans and deep-sea channels, in Middleton, G. V., and Bouma, A. H., eds., Turbidites and deep-water sedimentation",
    year = "1973",
    howpublished = "Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p. 39-78",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nelsom, C. H., and Kulm, L. D., 1973, Submarine fans and deep-sea channels, in Middleton, G. V., and Bouma, A. H., eds., Turbidites and deep-water sedimentation: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p. 39-78.}"
}

@book{walker1973moppingup53,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Mopping-up the turbidite mess, in Ginsburg, R. N., ed., Evolving Concepts in Sedimentology",
    year = "1973",
    publisher = "Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, p. 1-37",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1973, Mopping-up the turbidite mess, in Ginsburg, R. N., ed., Evolving Concepts in Sedimentology: Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, p. 1-37.}"
}

@misc{walker1973turbidite56,
    author = "Walker, R. G. and Mutti, E",
    title = "Turbidite Facies and Facies Associations, in Turbidites and Deep-Water Sedimentation",
    year = "1973",
    howpublished = "SEPM, p. 119-157",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., and Mutti, E., 1973, Turbidite Facies and Facies Associations, in Turbidites and Deep-Water Sedimentation: SEPM, p. 119-157.}"
}

@article{gorsline1974turbidites,
    author = "Gorsline, D. S.",
    title = "Turbidites and Deep Water Sedimentation [book review]",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.279",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.279",
    number = "1",
    pages = "279-0",
    volume = "44"
}

@misc{nelson1974depositional38,
    author = "Nelson, C. H. and Nilsen, T. H",
    title = "Depositional trends of modern and ancient deep-sea fans, in Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "SEPM Special Publication 19, p. 69-91",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nelson, C. H., and Nilsen, T. H., 1974, Depositional trends of modern and ancient deep-sea fans, in Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation: SEPM Special Publication 19, p. 69-91.}"
}

@book{whitaker1974ancient57,
    author = "Whitaker, J. H. McD",
    title = "Ancient submarine canyons and fan valleys, in Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation, 19 of SEPM Special Publications",
    year = "1974",
    publisher = "Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p. 106-125",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Whitaker, J. H. McD., 1974, Ancient submarine canyons and fan valleys, in Modern and Ancient Geosynclinal Sedimentation, 19 of SEPM Special Publications: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p. 106-125.}"
}

@misc{biddle1975channel8,
    author = "Biddle, K. T. and Maher, J. C. and Carter, P. D",
    title = "Channel Turbidite Sandstones in the Elk Hills Member of the Monterey Shale, in Maher, J. C., ed., Petroleum Geology of the Naval Peeetroleum Reserve No.1, Elk Hills, Kern County, California, 912 of USGS Professional Paper",
    year = "1975",
    howpublished = "United States Geological Survey, p. 79-85",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Biddle, K. T., Maher, J. C., and Carter, P. D., 1975, Channel Turbidite Sandstones in the Elk Hills Member of the Monterey Shale, in Maher, J. C., ed., Petroleum Geology of the Naval Peeetroleum Reserve No.1, Elk Hills, Kern County, California, 912 of USGS Professional Paper: United States Geological Survey, p. 79-85.}"
}

@article{doi10113000167606197586863acmsaa20co2,
    author = "Damuth, John E. and Kumar, Naresh",
    title = "Amazon Cone: Morphology, Sediments, Age, and Growth Pattern",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<863:acmsaa>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<863:acmsaa>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2135369138"
}

@techreport{bennetts1976characteristics3,
    author = "Bennetts, K. R. W. and Pilkey, O. H",
    title = "Characteristics of three turbidites, Hispaniola-Caicos Basin",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, no. 87, p. 1291-1300",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bennetts, K. R. W., and Pilkey, O. H., 1976, Characteristics of three turbidites, Hispaniola-Caicos Basin: Geological Society of America Bulletin, no. 87, p. 1291-1300.}"
}

@article{berg1976densityflow6,
    author = "Berg, R. R. and Powell, R. R",
    title = "Density-flow origin for Frio reservoir sandstones, Nine Mile Point Field, Aransas County, Texas",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 26, p. 310-319",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Berg, R. R., and Powell, R. R., 1976, Density-flow origin for Frio reservoir sandstones, Nine Mile Point Field, Aransas County, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 26, p. 310-319.}"
}

@article{chnelson1976thinbedded,
    author = "C. H. Nelson, W. R. Normark, A. H.",
    title = "Thin-Bedded Turbidites in Modern Submarine Canyons and Fans: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/83d927f8-16c7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/83d927f8-16c7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    volume = "60"
}

@article{doi1010160025322776900839,
    author = "Nelson, Hans",
    title = "Late Pleistocene and Holocene depositional trends, processes, and history of Astoria deep-sea fan, Northeast Pacific",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(76)90083-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0025-3227(76)90083-9",
    openalex = "W2158248674",
    references = "doi1010079781402036095226, doi1010079783662010204, doi1010160012825274901263, doi101038296014a0, doi101111j136530911971tb00218x, doi101126science1523721502, doi10113000167606197586863acmsaa20co2, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi10130674d706462b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi10130674d716452b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi101306bc74397316be11d78645000102c1865d, openalexw1570283708, openalexw831881814"
}

@misc{embley1976new18,
    author = "Embley, R. W",
    title = "New evidence for occurrence of debris flow deposits in the deep sea",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 4, p. 371-374",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Embley, R. W., 1976, New evidence for occurrence of debris flow deposits in the deep sea: Geology, v. 4, p. 371-374.}"
}

@article{stuart1976form48,
    author = "Stuart, C. J. and Caughey, C. A",
    title = "Form and composition of the Mississippi fan",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 26, p. 333-343",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Stuart, C. J., and Caughey, C. A., 1976, Form and composition of the Mississippi fan: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 26, p. 333-343.}"
}

@misc{walker1976facies54,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Facies Models 2. Turbidites and associated coarse clastic deposits",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Geoscience Canada, v. 3, p. 25-36",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1976, Facies Models 2. Turbidites and associated coarse clastic deposits: Geoscience Canada, v. 3, p. 25-36.}"
}

@article{berg1977characteristics7,
    author = "Berg, R. R. and Tedford, F. J",
    title = "Characteristics of Wilcox gas reservoirs, Northeast Thompsonville Field, Jim Hogg and Webb Counties, Texas",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 27, p. 6-19",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Berg, R. R., and Tedford, F. J., 1977, Characteristics of Wilcox gas reservoirs, Northeast Thompsonville Field, Jim Hogg and Webb Counties, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 27, p. 6-19.}"
}

@article{carlson1977submarine,
    author = "Carlson, Paul R.",
    title = "Submarine canyons and deep-sea fans",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(77)90101-5",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(77)90101-5",
    number = "1",
    pages = "104-105",
    volume = "13"
}

@book{parker1977deepsea45,
    author = "Parker, J. R",
    title = "Deep-sea sands, in Developments in Petroleum Geology",
    year = "1977",
    publisher = "Essex, England, Applied Science Publications, Limited, v. 1, p. 225-242",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Parker, J. R., 1977, Deep-sea sands, in Developments in Petroleum Geology: Essex, England, Applied Science Publications, Limited, v. 1, p. 225-242.}"
}

@book{parker1977lower46,
    author = "Parker, J. R",
    title = "Lower Tertiary sand development in the central North Sea, in Developments in Petroleum Geology",
    year = "1977",
    publisher = "Essex, England, Applied Science Publications, Limited, v. 1, p. 447-453",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Parker, J. R., 1977, Lower Tertiary sand development in the central North Sea, in Developments in Petroleum Geology: Essex, England, Applied Science Publications, Limited, v. 1, p. 447-453.}"
}

@misc{bouma1978intraslope13,
    author = "Bouma, A. H. and Smith, L. B. and Sidner, B. R. and McKee, T. R",
    title = "Intraslope basin in Northwest Gulf of Mexico, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 289-302",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bouma, A. H., Smith, L. B., Sidner, B. R., and McKee, T. R., 1978, Intraslope basin in Northwest Gulf of Mexico, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 289-302.}"
}

Abstract Five main facies of deep-water clastic rocks can be defined: classic turbidites, massive sandstones, pebbly sandstones, conglomerates, and debris flows (with slumps and slides). The classic turbidites consist of monotonously parallel-interbedded sandstones and shales without channeling; internal sedimentary structures include grading, parallel lamination, and cross-lamination. Massive sandstones are thicker, coarser, and commonly channelized. They lack the sedimentary structures of classic turbidites, but do contain evidence of dewatering during deposition. Pebbly sandstones tend to be well graded, and can contain parallel stratification and large-scale cross-stratification. Conglomerates are characterized by inverse and normal grading, parallel and cross-stratification, and commonly have a preferred clast fabric (imbrication). Both the pebbly sandstones and conglomerates commonly are channelized. The facies can be fitted into a model of submarine-fan deposition. Modern fans are subdivided into an upper fan (suprafan), characterized by (1) a single deep channel with levees, (2) a middle fan, built up from suprafan lobes that periodically switch in position, and (3) a topographically smooth lower fan. The suprafan lobes have shallow, braided channels on their inner parts, but the outer suprafan lobes are smooth, and grade basinward into the smooth lower fan and basin plain. The smooth suprafan lobes and lower fan are characterized by deposition of the classic turbidite facies, and the braided part of the suprafan lobes by massive and pebbly sandstones. When one lobe is abandoned and another starts to prograde elsewhere, the first lobe is blanketed by mud, forming a potential stratigraphic trap. The upper-fan channel is an area of coarse sediment deposition, or conglomerates where gravel and boulders are supplied to the basin. During fan progradation, thickening- and coarsening-upward facies sequences can be formed in a manner analogous to those of deltas. Fan channels also can be abandoned progressively, forming thinning- and fining-upward sequences similar to those of fluvial or distributary channels. These sequences can be identified on electric logs. Where basin shales act as hydrocarbon-source areas, the classic turbidites can act as conduits, leading the hydrocarbons to the thicker, laterally coalesced massive and pebbly sandstones of the braided suprafan lobes. These bodies can be of the order of 25 km in diameter, and up to 100 m thick. The coarse deposits of the upper-fan channel also might form good reservoirs, being bounded by shales (levee deposits) on either side, and possibly by shales above if the fan-channel system is abandoned. Such channels can be tens of kilometers long, several kilometers wide, and a few hundred meters deep. Reservoirs may be present in all of these environments.

@article{doi101306c1ea4f7716c911d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Walker, Roger G.",
    title = "Deep-Water Sandstone Facies and Ancient Submarine Fans: Models for Exploration for Stratigraphic Traps",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Five main facies of deep-water clastic rocks can be defined: classic turbidites, massive sandstones, pebbly sandstones, conglomerates, and debris flows (with slumps and slides). The classic turbidites consist of monotonously parallel-interbedded sandstones and shales without channeling; internal sedimentary structures include grading, parallel lamination, and cross-lamination. Massive sandstones are thicker, coarser, and commonly channelized. They lack the sedimentary structures of classic turbidites, but do contain evidence of dewatering during deposition. Pebbly sandstones tend to be well graded, and can contain parallel stratification and large-scale cross-stratification. Conglomerates are characterized by inverse and normal grading, parallel and cross-stratification, and commonly have a preferred clast fabric (imbrication). Both the pebbly sandstones and conglomerates commonly are channelized. The facies can be fitted into a model of submarine-fan deposition. Modern fans are subdivided into an upper fan (suprafan), characterized by (1) a single deep channel with levees, (2) a middle fan, built up from suprafan lobes that periodically switch in position, and (3) a topographically smooth lower fan. The suprafan lobes have shallow, braided channels on their inner parts, but the outer suprafan lobes are smooth, and grade basinward into the smooth lower fan and basin plain. The smooth suprafan lobes and lower fan are characterized by deposition of the classic turbidite facies, and the braided part of the suprafan lobes by massive and pebbly sandstones. When one lobe is abandoned and another starts to prograde elsewhere, the first lobe is blanketed by mud, forming a potential stratigraphic trap. The upper-fan channel is an area of coarse sediment deposition, or conglomerates where gravel and boulders are supplied to the basin. During fan progradation, thickening- and coarsening-upward facies sequences can be formed in a manner analogous to those of deltas. Fan channels also can be abandoned progressively, forming thinning- and fining-upward sequences similar to those of fluvial or distributary channels. These sequences can be identified on electric logs. Where basin shales act as hydrocarbon-source areas, the classic turbidites can act as conduits, leading the hydrocarbons to the thicker, laterally coalesced massive and pebbly sandstones of the braided suprafan lobes. These bodies can be of the order of 25 km in diameter, and up to 100 m thick. The coarse deposits of the upper-fan channel also might form good reservoirs, being bounded by shales (levee deposits) on either side, and possibly by shales above if the fan-channel system is abandoned. Such channels can be tens of kilometers long, several kilometers wide, and a few hundred meters deep. Reservoirs may be present in all of these environments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/c1ea4f77-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/c1ea4f77-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W4253862311",
    references = "doi101086625710, doi101111j136530911975tb00290x, doi101111j136530911976tb00051x, doi101111j136530911977tb00122x, doi10113000167606195970279tdispa20co2, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2, doi10113000167606197586737gfmfrc20co2, doi101144pygs3511, doi101306212f6cb72b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c61516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi10130674d716452b2111d78648000102c1865d"
}

@article{lund1978preplatform30,
    author = "Lund, J. W. and King, J. S. and Berlitz, R. and Gilreath, J. A",
    title = "Pre-platform exploration of High Island, Blocks A-560 and A-561",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 28, p. 273-294",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lund, J. W., King, J. S., Berlitz, R., and Gilreath, J. A., 1978, Pre-platform exploration of High Island, Blocks A-560 and A-561: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 28, p. 273-294.}"
}

@article{nilsen1978turbidites39,
    author = "Nilsen, T. H",
    title = "Turbidites of the Northern Appennines",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Introduction to facies analysis: International Geology Review, v. 20, p. 125-166",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nilsen, T. H., 1978, Turbidites of the Northern Appennines: Introduction to facies analysis: International Geology Review, v. 20, p. 125-166.}"
}

The growth-pattern concept for modern submarine fans has been reviewed and broadened by additional data published or obtained in the last five years. The similarities in morphology, structure, and surficial-sedimentation patterns among modern fans from different geographic and geologic settings support a general growth-pattern model that can be applied to ancient turbidite deposits. Most submarine fans have three recognizable morphologic divisions that are related to distinct facies associations for sandy and coarser turbidites. (1) The large-leveed valley(s) of the upper fan produce wide (1 to 5 km) valley-floor deposits that are the coarsest on the fan and are deposited in meandering or braided, shallow channels within the general confines of the valley. These coarse deposits grade laterally into finer grained and more regularly bedded levee sands and silts. (2) The middle-fan region is recognized as a convex-upward depositional bulge on a radial profile and includes a depositional lobe or suprafan at the terminus of the leveed valley. The coarsening- and thickening-upward sequence of sandy turbidites on the upper suprafan are cut by numerous channels, channel remnants, and isolated depressions, whereas the lower suprafan is relatively free of such features. Suprafan channels are generally less than 1 km across and probably are filled by thinning-and fining-upward sequences. (3) The lower fan division is characteristically free of channel features (and coarse turbidites), is nearly flat-wing or ponded, and, therefore, is indistinguishable morphologically from basin-plain or abyssal-plain settings in many cases. Basin shape and relief and the ultimate size of the fan appear less important than sediment-input parameters, such as the grain-size distribution and rate of sediment supply, in controlling development of the three morphologic divisions of the fan. Specifically, canyon-fed systems common along western North America tend to have a single-leveed valley terminating in a suprafan depositional lobe; some fans, such as the Monterey, have slightly more complex features where more than one canyon is involved in fan development. If the grain-size distribution is weighted toward the silt and clay fractions as in some delta-fed systems, the fans tend to have multiple-leveed valleys on the upper fan (although only one may be active at any given time), to have long valleys crossing much of the fan, and to lack (or have poorly developed) suprafan relief.

@article{normark1978fan,
    author = "Normark, William R.",
    title = "Fan Valleys, Channels, and Depositional Lobes on Modern Submarine Fans: Characters for Recognition of Sandy Turbidite Environments",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "The growth-pattern concept for modern submarine fans has been reviewed and broadened by additional data published or obtained in the last five years. The similarities in morphology, structure, and surficial-sedimentation patterns among modern fans from different geographic and geologic settings support a general growth-pattern model that can be applied to ancient turbidite deposits. Most submarine fans have three recognizable morphologic divisions that are related to distinct facies associations for sandy and coarser turbidites. (1) The large-leveed valley(s) of the upper fan produce wide (1 to 5 km) valley-floor deposits that are the coarsest on the fan and are deposited in meandering or braided, shallow channels within the general confines of the valley. These coarse deposits grade laterally into finer grained and more regularly bedded levee sands and silts. (2) The middle-fan region is recognized as a convex-upward depositional bulge on a radial profile and includes a depositional lobe or suprafan at the terminus of the leveed valley. The coarsening- and thickening-upward sequence of sandy turbidites on the upper suprafan are cut by numerous channels, channel remnants, and isolated depressions, whereas the lower suprafan is relatively free of such features. Suprafan channels are generally less than 1 km across and probably are filled by thinning-and fining-upward sequences. (3) The lower fan division is characteristically free of channel features (and coarse turbidites), is nearly flat-wing or ponded, and, therefore, is indistinguishable morphologically from basin-plain or abyssal-plain settings in many cases. Basin shape and relief and the ultimate size of the fan appear less important than sediment-input parameters, such as the grain-size distribution and rate of sediment supply, in controlling development of the three morphologic divisions of the fan. Specifically, canyon-fed systems common along western North America tend to have a single-leveed valley terminating in a suprafan depositional lobe; some fans, such as the Monterey, have slightly more complex features where more than one canyon is involved in fan development. If the grain-size distribution is weighted toward the silt and clay fractions as in some delta-fed systems, the fans tend to have multiple-leveed valleys on the upper fan (although only one may be active at any given time), to have long valleys crossing much of the fan, and to lack (or have poorly developed) suprafan relief.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/c1ea4f72-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/c1ea4f72-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "6",
    openalex = "W1989132023",
    pages = "912-931",
    volume = "62",
    references = "doi1010160025322776900839, doi101029jc074i018p04544, doi101086627725, doi101111j136530911977tb00122x, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2, doi10113000167606197182563gotbdf20co2, doi1013065ceae13616bb11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c61516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, openalexw580680426"
}

@techreport{normark1978fan42,
    author = "Normark, W. R",
    title = "Fan valleys, channels, and depositional lobes on modern submarine fans",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "characters for recognition of sandy turbidite environments: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 62, p. 912-931",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Normark, W. R., 1978, Fan valleys, channels, and depositional lobes on modern submarine fans: characters for recognition of sandy turbidite environments: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 62, p. 912-931.}"
}

@misc{stanley1978sedimentation47,
    author = "Stanley, D. J. and Kelling, G",
    title = "Sedimentation in Submarine Canyons, Fans, and Trenches",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., 395 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Stanley, D. J., and Kelling, G., 1978, Sedimentation in Submarine Canyons, Fans, and Trenches: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., 395 p.}"
}

@techreport{walker1978deepwater55,
    author = "Walker, R. G",
    title = "Deep-water sandstone facies and ancient submarine fans",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "models for exploration for stratigraphic traps: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 62, p. 932-966",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Walker, R. G., 1978, Deep-water sandstone facies and ancient submarine fans: models for exploration for stratigraphic traps: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 62, p. 932-966.}"
}

@misc{woodbury1978gulf58,
    author = "Woodbury, H. O. and Spotts, J. H. and Akers, W. H",
    title = "Gulf of Mexico continental-slope sediments and sedimentation, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "p. 117-137",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Woodbury, H. O., Spotts, J. H., and Akers, W. H., 1978, Gulf of Mexico continental-slope sediments and sedimentation, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology: p. 117-137.}"
}

@techreport{buffler1979miocene15,
    author = "Buffler, R. T. and McMillen, K. J",
    title = "Miocene submarine fans in deep western Gulf of Mexico as interpreted from seismic reflection profiles",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 426",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Buffler, R. T., and McMillen, K. J., 1979, Miocene submarine fans in deep western Gulf of Mexico as interpreted from seismic reflection profiles: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 426.}"
}

@article{christina1979the16,
    author = "Christina, C. C. and Martin, K. G",
    title = "The Lower Tuscaloosa trend of south- central Louisiana",
    year = "1979",
    journal = {You ain't seen nothing till you've seen the Tuscaloosa": Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 29, p. 37-41},
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Christina, C. C., and Martin, K. G., 1979, The Lower Tuscaloosa trend of south- central Louisiana: "You ain't seen nothing till you've seen the Tuscaloosa": Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 29, p. 37-41.}}
}

ABSTRACT The deep‐tow instrument package of Scripps Institution of Oceanography provides a unique opportunity to delineate small‐scale features of a size comparable to those features usually described from ancient deep‐sea fan deposits. On Navy Fan, the deep‐tow side‐scanning sonar readily detected steep channel walls and steps and terraces within channels. The most striking features observed in side‐scan are large crescentic depressions commonly occurring in groups. These appear to be large scours or flutes carved by turbidity currents. Four distinct acoustic facies were mapped on the basis of qualitative assessment of reflectivity of 4 kHz reflection profiles. There is a distinct increase in depth of acoustic penetration, number of sub‐bottom reflectors, and reflector continuity from the upper fan‐valley to the lower fan. These changes are accompanied by a decrease in surface relief. Navy Fan is made up of three active sectors. The active upper fan is dominated by a single channel with prominent levees that decrease in height downstream. The active mid‐fan region or suprafan is where sand is deposited. Well defined distributary channels with steps, terraces, and other mesotopography terminate in depositional lobes. Interchannel areas are rough, containing giant scours as well as other relief. The active lower fan accumulates mud and silt and is without resolvable surface morphology. The morphological features seen on Navy Fan other than levees, interchannel areas, and lobes are principally erosional. The distributary channels are up to 0.5 km wide and 5–15 m deep. Such features, because of their large size and low relief, are rarely completely exposed or easily detectable in ancient rock sequences. Some flute‐shaped scours are larger than channels in cross section but many are 5‐30 m across and 1‐2 m deep. If observed in ancient rocks transverse to palaeo‐current direction, they would perhaps be indistinguishable from channels. Surface sediment distribution combined with fan morphology can be used to relate modern sediments to facies models for ancient fan sediments. Gravel and sand occur in the upper valley, massive sand beds in the mid‐fan distributary channels, classical complete Bouma sequences on depositional lobes, incomplete Bouma sequences (lacking division a) on the lower mid‐fan, and Bouma sequence with lenticular shape or other limited extent on mid‐fan interchannel areas and on levees.

@article{doi101111j136530911979tb00971x,
    author = "Normark, William R. and Piper, David J. W. and Hess, Gordon R.",
    title = "Distributary channels, sand lobes, and mesotopography of Navy Submarine Fan, California Borderland, with applications to ancient fan sediments",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The deep‐tow instrument package of Scripps Institution of Oceanography provides a unique opportunity to delineate small‐scale features of a size comparable to those features usually described from ancient deep‐sea fan deposits. On Navy Fan, the deep‐tow side‐scanning sonar readily detected steep channel walls and steps and terraces within channels. The most striking features observed in side‐scan are large crescentic depressions commonly occurring in groups. These appear to be large scours or flutes carved by turbidity currents. Four distinct acoustic facies were mapped on the basis of qualitative assessment of reflectivity of 4 kHz reflection profiles. There is a distinct increase in depth of acoustic penetration, number of sub‐bottom reflectors, and reflector continuity from the upper fan‐valley to the lower fan. These changes are accompanied by a decrease in surface relief. Navy Fan is made up of three active sectors. The active upper fan is dominated by a single channel with prominent levees that decrease in height downstream. The active mid‐fan region or suprafan is where sand is deposited. Well defined distributary channels with steps, terraces, and other mesotopography terminate in depositional lobes. Interchannel areas are rough, containing giant scours as well as other relief. The active lower fan accumulates mud and silt and is without resolvable surface morphology. The morphological features seen on Navy Fan other than levees, interchannel areas, and lobes are principally erosional. The distributary channels are up to 0.5 km wide and 5–15 m deep. Such features, because of their large size and low relief, are rarely completely exposed or easily detectable in ancient rock sequences. Some flute‐shaped scours are larger than channels in cross section but many are 5‐30 m across and 1‐2 m deep. If observed in ancient rocks transverse to palaeo‐current direction, they would perhaps be indistinguishable from channels. Surface sediment distribution combined with fan morphology can be used to relate modern sediments to facies models for ancient fan sediments. Gravel and sand occur in the upper valley, massive sand beds in the mid‐fan distributary channels, classical complete Bouma sequences on depositional lobes, incomplete Bouma sequences (lacking division a) on the lower mid‐fan, and Bouma sequence with lenticular shape or other limited extent on mid‐fan interchannel areas and on levees.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1979.tb00971.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.1979.tb00971.x",
    openalex = "W2063746375",
    references = "doi101086627725, nelson1974depositional"
}

Five main facies of deep-water clastic rocks can be defined: classic turbidites, massive sandstones, pebbly sandstones, conglomerates, and debris flows (with slumps and slides). The classic turbidites consist of monotonously parallel-interbedded sandstones and shales without channeling; internal sedimentary structures include grading, parallel lamination, and cross-lamination. Massive sandstones are thicker, coarser, and commonly channelized. They lack the sedimentary structures of classic turbidites, but do contain evidence of dewatering during deposition. Pebbly sandstones tend to be well graded, and can contain parallel stratification and large-scale cross-stratification. Conglomerates are characterized by inverse and normal grading, parallel and cross-stratification, nd commonly have a preferred clast fabric (imbrication). Both the pebbly sandstones and conglomerates commonly are channelized. The facies can be fitted into a model of submarine-fan deposition. Modern fans are subdivided into an upper fan (suprafan), characterized by (1) a single deep channel with levees, (2) a middle fan, built up from suprafan lobes that periodically switch in position, and (3) a topographically smooth lower fan. The suprafan lobes have shallow, braided channels on their inner parts, but the outer suprafan lobes are smooth, and grade basinward into the smooth lower fan and basin plain. The smooth suprafan lobes and lower fan are characterized by deposition of the classic turbidite facies, and the braided part of the suprafan lobes by massive and pebbly sandstones. When one lobe is abandoned and another starts to prograde elsewhere, the first lobe is blanketed by mud, forming a potential stratigraphic trap. The upper-fan channel is an area of coarse sediment deposition, or conglomerates where gravel and boulders are supplied to the basin. During fan progradation, thickening- and coarsening-upward facies sequences can be formed in a manner analogous to those of deltas. Fan channels also can be abandoned progressively, forming thinning- and fining-upward sequences similar to those of fluvial or distributary channels. These sequences can be identified on electric logs. Where basin shales act as hydrocarbon-source areas, the classic turbidites can act as conduits, leading the hydrocarbons to the thicker, laterally coalesced massive and pebbly sandstones of the braided suprafan lobes. These bodies can be of the order of 25 km in diameter, and up to 100 m thick. The coarse deposits of the upper-fan channel also might form good reservoirs, being bounded by shales (levee deposits) on either side, and possibly by shales above if the fan-channel system is abandoned. Such channels can be tens of kilometers long, several kilometers wide, and a few hundred meters deep. Reservoirs may be present in all of these environments.

@article{doi1013062f9182e316ce11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Aalto, K. R.",
    title = "Deep-Water Sandstone Facies and Ancient Submarine Fans: Models for Exploration for Stratigraphic Traps: Discussion",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Five main facies of deep-water clastic rocks can be defined: classic turbidites, massive sandstones, pebbly sandstones, conglomerates, and debris flows (with slumps and slides). The classic turbidites consist of monotonously parallel-interbedded sandstones and shales without channeling; internal sedimentary structures include grading, parallel lamination, and cross-lamination. Massive sandstones are thicker, coarser, and commonly channelized. They lack the sedimentary structures of classic turbidites, but do contain evidence of dewatering during deposition. Pebbly sandstones tend to be well graded, and can contain parallel stratification and large-scale cross-stratification. Conglomerates are characterized by inverse and normal grading, parallel and cross-stratification, nd commonly have a preferred clast fabric (imbrication). Both the pebbly sandstones and conglomerates commonly are channelized. The facies can be fitted into a model of submarine-fan deposition. Modern fans are subdivided into an upper fan (suprafan), characterized by (1) a single deep channel with levees, (2) a middle fan, built up from suprafan lobes that periodically switch in position, and (3) a topographically smooth lower fan. The suprafan lobes have shallow, braided channels on their inner parts, but the outer suprafan lobes are smooth, and grade basinward into the smooth lower fan and basin plain. The smooth suprafan lobes and lower fan are characterized by deposition of the classic turbidite facies, and the braided part of the suprafan lobes by massive and pebbly sandstones. When one lobe is abandoned and another starts to prograde elsewhere, the first lobe is blanketed by mud, forming a potential stratigraphic trap. The upper-fan channel is an area of coarse sediment deposition, or conglomerates where gravel and boulders are supplied to the basin. During fan progradation, thickening- and coarsening-upward facies sequences can be formed in a manner analogous to those of deltas. Fan channels also can be abandoned progressively, forming thinning- and fining-upward sequences similar to those of fluvial or distributary channels. These sequences can be identified on electric logs. Where basin shales act as hydrocarbon-source areas, the classic turbidites can act as conduits, leading the hydrocarbons to the thicker, laterally coalesced massive and pebbly sandstones of the braided suprafan lobes. These bodies can be of the order of 25 km in diameter, and up to 100 m thick. The coarse deposits of the upper-fan channel also might form good reservoirs, being bounded by shales (levee deposits) on either side, and possibly by shales above if the fan-channel system is abandoned. Such channels can be tens of kilometers long, several kilometers wide, and a few hundred meters deep. Reservoirs may be present in all of these environments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/2f9182e3-16ce-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/2f9182e3-16ce-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2056452793",
    references = "doi1010160016714277900096, doi101086625710, doi101111j136530911975tb00290x, doi101111j136530911976tb00051x, doi101111j136530911977tb00122x, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2, doi10113000167606197586737gfmfrc20co2, doi1013065d25c0f916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c2d316c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c61516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi10130674d7262b2b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi102110scn7502, openalexw3120543430, paine1968stratigraphy"
}

@article{foss1979depositional20,
    author = "Foss, D. C",
    title = "Depositional environment of Woodbine sandstones, Polk County, Texas",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 29, p. 83-94",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Foss, D. C., 1979, Depositional environment of Woodbine sandstones, Polk County, Texas: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 29, p. 83-94.}"
}

@techreport{heritier1979frigg22,
    author = "Heritier, F. E. and Lossel, P. and Wathne, E",
    title = "Frigg Field - large submarine fan trap in lower Eocene rocks of the North Sea",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 1999-2020",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Heritier, F. E., Lossel, P., and Wathne, E., 1979, Frigg Field - large submarine fan trap in lower Eocene rocks of the North Sea: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 1999-2020.}"
}

@misc{moore1979investigation31,
    author = "Moore, G. T. and Woodbury, H. O. and Worzel, J. L. and Watkins, J. S. and Starke, G. W",
    title = "Investigation of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico, in Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins, 29 of AAPG Memoirs",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "p. 383-402",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Moore, G. T., Woodbury, H. O., Worzel, J. L., Watkins, J. S., and Starke, G. W., 1979, Investigation of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico, in Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins, 29 of AAPG Memoirs: p. 383-402.}"
}

@book{mutti1979turbidites32,
    author = "Mutti, E",
    title = "Turbidites et cones sous-marins profonds, in Sedimemtation detritique (fluviatile, littorale et marine), 1979 of Institut de Geologie de l'University de Fribourg, Short Course",
    year = "1979",
    publisher = "Fribourg, Institut de Geologie de l'University de Fribourg, p. 353-419",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Mutti, E., 1979, Turbidites et cones sous-marins profonds, in Sedimemtation detritique (fluviatile, littorale et marine), 1979 of Institut de Geologie de l'University de Fribourg, Short Course: Fribourg, Institut de Geologie de l'University de Fribourg, p. 353-419.}"
}

@article{nardin1979a36,
    author = "Nardin, T. R. and Hein, F. J. and Gorsline, D. S. and Edwards, B. D",
    title = "A review of mass movement processes, sediment and acoustic characteristics, and contrasts in slope and base-of-slope systems versus canyon-fan-basin floor systems, in Geology of Continental Slopes",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "SEPM Special Publication 27, p. 61-73",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nardin, T. R., Hein, F. J., Gorsline, D. S., and Edwards, B. D., 1979, A review of mass movement processes, sediment and acoustic characteristics, and contrasts in slope and base-of-slope systems versus canyon-fan-basin floor systems, in Geology of Continental Slopes: SEPM Special Publication 27, p. 61-73.}"
}

@article{link1980the28,
    author = "Link, M. H. and Nilsen, T. H",
    title = "The Rocks Sandstone, an Eocene sand-rich deep-sea fan deposit, northern Santa Lucia range, California",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 583-601",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Link, M. H., and Nilsen, T. H., 1980, The Rocks Sandstone, an Eocene sand-rich deep-sea fan deposit, northern Santa Lucia range, California: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 50, p. 583-601.}"
}

@techreport{nilsen1980modern40,
    author = "Nilsen, T. H",
    title = "Modern and ancient submarine fans",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Discussions of papers by R.G. Walker aand W.R. Normark: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1094-1101",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Nilsen, T. H., 1980, Modern and ancient submarine fans: Discussions of papers by R.G. Walker aand W.R. Normark: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1094-1101.}"
}

@techreport{normark1980modern43,
    author = "Normark, W. R",
    title = "Modern and ancient submarine fans",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "reply: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1108-1112",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Normark, W. R., 1980, Modern and ancient submarine fans: reply: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64, p. 1108-1112.}"
}

@article{hiscott1981deep23,
    author = "Hiscott, R. N",
    title = "Deep sea fan deposits in the Macigno Formation (Middle- Upper Oilgocene) of the Gordana Valley, Northern Appennines, Italy",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Discussion: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 51, p. 1015-1021",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hiscott, R. N., 1981, Deep sea fan deposits in the Macigno Formation (Middle- Upper Oilgocene) of the Gordana Valley, Northern Appennines, Italy: Discussion: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 51, p. 1015-1021.}"
}

@misc{kelts1981turbidites26,
    author = "Kelts, K. and Arthur, M. A",
    title = "Turbidites after ten years of deep-sea drilling - wringing out the mop?, in Warme, J. E., Douglas, R. G., and Winterer, E. L., eds., The Deep Sea Drilling Project",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "A decade of progress, 32 of SEPM Special Publication: SEPM, p. 91-127",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kelts, K., and Arthur, M. A., 1981, Turbidites after ten years of deep-sea drilling - wringing out the mop?, in Warme, J. E., Douglas, R. G., and Winterer, E. L., eds., The Deep Sea Drilling Project: A decade of progress, 32 of SEPM Special Publication: SEPM, p. 91-127.}"
}

@misc{harms1982structures21,
    author = "Harms, J. C. and Southard, J. B. and Walker, R. G",
    title = "Structures and sequences in clastic rocks",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course \#9. Variously paginated",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Harms, J. C., Southard, J. B., and Walker, R. G., 1982, Structures and sequences in clastic rocks. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course \#9. Variously paginated.}"
}

@misc{howell1982sedimentology24,
    author = "Howell, D. G. and Normark, W. R",
    title = "Sedimentology of submarine fans, in Scholle, P. A., and Spearing, D. R., eds., Sandstone depositional environments, 31 of AAPG Memoirs",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "Tulsa, OK, AAPG, p. 365-404",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Howell, D. G., and Normark, W. R., 1982, Sedimentology of submarine fans, in Scholle, P. A., and Spearing, D. R., eds., Sandstone depositional environments, 31 of AAPG Memoirs: Tulsa, OK, AAPG, p. 365-404.}"
}

@techreport{link1982sedimentology29,
    author = "Link, M. H. and Welton, J. E",
    title = "Sedimentology and reservoir potential of Matilija Sandstone",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "an Eocene sand-rich deep-sea fan and shallow marine complex, southern California: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 66, p. 1514-1534",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Link, M. H., and Welton, J. E., 1982, Sedimentology and reservoir potential of Matilija Sandstone: an Eocene sand-rich deep-sea fan and shallow marine complex, southern California: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 66, p. 1514-1534.}"
}

@misc{tillman1982deep50,
    author = "Tillman, R. W. and Ali, S. A",
    title = "Deep water canyons, fans and facies",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "models for stratigraphic trap exploration, 26 of AAPG Reprint Series: Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 596 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Tillman, R. W., and Ali, S. A., 1982, Deep water canyons, fans and facies: models for stratigraphic trap exploration, 26 of AAPG Reprint Series: Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 596 p.}"
}

ABSTRACT The late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy of Navy Fan is mapped in detail from more than 100 cores. Thirteen 14 C dates of plant detritus and of organic‐rich mud beds show that a marked change in sediment supply from sandy to muddy turbidites occurred between 9000 and 12,000 years ago. They also confirm the correlation of several individual depositional units. The sediment dispersal pattern is primarily controlled by basin configuration and fan morphology, particularly the geometry of distributary channels, which show abrupt 60° bends related to the Pleistocene history of lobe progradation. The Holocene turbidity currents are depositing on, and modifying only slightly, a relict Pleistocene morphology. The uppermost turbidite is a thin sand to mud bed on the upper‐fan valley levées and on parts of the mid‐fan. Most of its sediment volume is in a mud bed on the lower fan and basin plain downslope from a sharp bend in the mid‐fan distributary system. Little sediment occurs farther downstream within this distributary system. It appears that most of the turbidity current overtopped the levée at the channel bend, a process referred to as flow stripping. The muddy upper part of the flow continued straight down to the basin plain. The residual more sandy base of the flow in the distributary channel was not thick enough to maintain itself as gradient decreased and the channel opened out on to the mid‐fan lobe. Flow stripping may occur in any turbidity current that is thick relative to channel depth and that flows in a channel with sharp bends. Where thick sandy currents are stripped, levée and mid‐fan erosion may occur, but the residual current in the channel will lose much of its power and deposit rapidly. In thick muddy currents, progressive overflow of mud will cause less declaration of the residual channelised current. Thus both size and sand‐to‐mud ratio of turbidity currents feeding a fan are important factors controlling morphologic features and depositional areas on fans. The size‐frequency variation for different types of turbidity currents is estimated from the literature and related to the evolution of fan morphology.

@article{doi101111j136530911983tb00702x,
    author = "Piper, David J. W. and Normark, William R.",
    title = "Turbidite depositional patterns and flow characteristics, Navy Submarine Fan, California Borderland",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy of Navy Fan is mapped in detail from more than 100 cores. Thirteen 14 C dates of plant detritus and of organic‐rich mud beds show that a marked change in sediment supply from sandy to muddy turbidites occurred between 9000 and 12,000 years ago. They also confirm the correlation of several individual depositional units. The sediment dispersal pattern is primarily controlled by basin configuration and fan morphology, particularly the geometry of distributary channels, which show abrupt 60° bends related to the Pleistocene history of lobe progradation. The Holocene turbidity currents are depositing on, and modifying only slightly, a relict Pleistocene morphology. The uppermost turbidite is a thin sand to mud bed on the upper‐fan valley levées and on parts of the mid‐fan. Most of its sediment volume is in a mud bed on the lower fan and basin plain downslope from a sharp bend in the mid‐fan distributary system. Little sediment occurs farther downstream within this distributary system. It appears that most of the turbidity current overtopped the levée at the channel bend, a process referred to as flow stripping. The muddy upper part of the flow continued straight down to the basin plain. The residual more sandy base of the flow in the distributary channel was not thick enough to maintain itself as gradient decreased and the channel opened out on to the mid‐fan lobe. Flow stripping may occur in any turbidity current that is thick relative to channel depth and that flows in a channel with sharp bends. Where thick sandy currents are stripped, levée and mid‐fan erosion may occur, but the residual current in the channel will lose much of its power and deposit rapidly. In thick muddy currents, progressive overflow of mud will cause less declaration of the residual channelised current. Thus both size and sand‐to‐mud ratio of turbidity currents feeding a fan are important factors controlling morphologic features and depositional areas on fans. The size‐frequency variation for different types of turbidity currents is estimated from the literature and related to the evolution of fan morphology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1983.tb00702.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.1983.tb00702.x",
    openalex = "W2103765846",
    references = "doi101016001174717090001x, doi1010160019103580900974, doi1010160025322776900633, doi101086627725, doi101111j136530911979tb00971x, doi10113000167606197485859lcotpe20co2, doi101130001676061976871291cotthb20co2, doi101130001676061979901165bsthap20co2, doi101306212f79b42b2411d78648000102c1865d, openalexw3120543430"
}

@book{bouma1986submarine14,
    author = "Bouma, A. and Normark, W. R. and Barnes, N. E",
    title = "Submarine fans and related turbidite systems",
    year = "1986",
    publisher = "New York, Springer Verlag, 351 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bouma, A., Normark, W. R., and Barnes, N. E., 1986, Submarine fans and related turbidite systems: New York, Springer Verlag, 351 p.}"
}

ABSTRACT Four main types of sea valleys, submarine canyons, gullies, channels of turbidite systems, and a mid-ocean channel, have been characterized in the Ebro and the Gulf of Lion distal margins in the Catalan Sea, together with three main types of depositional bodies, Pyrenean Canyon deep-sedimentary body (PCDSB), apron deposits, and channel-levee complexes related to the development of these sea valleys. Erosion and deposition, mainly during the Quaternary, have formed the majority of these sea valleys, although some structurally controlled sea valleys also exist. As an example, a Messinian entrenchment has been confirmed in the Petit Rhone Canyon. The evolution of the drainage patterns is established from the detailed analysis of the sedimentary structure. This analysis reveals the presence of buried sedimentary bodies and older drainage systems differing from those observed in the bathymet-ric charts. Specific factors determine the evolutionary differences between both margins, including the absence or presence of underlying evaporitic Messinian layers and the regional geodynamic evolution during and after the Alpine orogeny. We propose a dual evolutionary model from the end of the Miocene to the Quaternary.

@article{doi1013060c9b2907171011d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Alonso, Belén and Canals, Miguel and Got, Henri and Maldonado, Andrés",
    title = "Sea Valleys and Related Depositional Systems in the Gulf of Lion and Ebro Continental Margins",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Four main types of sea valleys, submarine canyons, gullies, channels of turbidite systems, and a mid-ocean channel, have been characterized in the Ebro and the Gulf of Lion distal margins in the Catalan Sea, together with three main types of depositional bodies, Pyrenean Canyon deep-sedimentary body (PCDSB), apron deposits, and channel-levee complexes related to the development of these sea valleys. Erosion and deposition, mainly during the Quaternary, have formed the majority of these sea valleys, although some structurally controlled sea valleys also exist. As an example, a Messinian entrenchment has been confirmed in the Petit Rhone Canyon. The evolution of the drainage patterns is established from the detailed analysis of the sedimentary structure. This analysis reveals the presence of buried sedimentary bodies and older drainage systems differing from those observed in the bathymet-ric charts. Specific factors determine the evolutionary differences between both margins, including the absence or presence of underlying evaporitic Messinian layers and the regional geodynamic evolution during and after the Alpine orogeny. We propose a dual evolutionary model from the end of the Miocene to the Quaternary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/0c9b2907-1710-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/0c9b2907-1710-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1902135583",
    references = "carlson1977submarine, doi1010160012825288900645, doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160025322778900324, doi1010160025322784900744, doi1010160025322784900811, doi101126science23547931156, doi1013060bda61ca16bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi101306c1ea4f7216c911d78645000102c1865d, doi102110pec79270075, normark1978fan, openalexw580680426"
}

ABSTRACT Subaqueous slope and base-of-slope depositional systems are a major component of most marine and many lacustrine basin fills, and constitute primary targets for hydrocarbon exploration and development. Seven basic facies building blocks comprise slope systems: (1) turbidite channel fills, (2) turbidite lobes, (3) sheet turbidites, (4) slide, slump, and debris-flow sheets, lobes, and tongues, (5) finegrained turbidite fills and sheets, (6) contourite drifts, and (7) hemipelagic drapes and fills. The grain size of supplied sediment is a primary control on channel and lobe morphologies and on the scale and importance of slump and debris-flow deposits. Two general families of siliciclastic slope systems occur. Constructional (allochthonous) systems, including fans, aprons, and basin-floor channels, are built of sediment supplied from superjacent delta, shore-zone, shelf, or glacial systems. The facies architecture of allochthonous systems is determined jointly by the sediment texture and pattern of supply to the shelf margin. Point sources of supply create fans; line sources create strike-elongate prisms of slope sediment called slope aprons. Shelf-margin deltas provide a particularly common intermediate source geometry, forming offlapping delta-fed aprons. Autochthonous systems, including retrogressive aprons, canyon fills, and megaslump complexes, record slope reworking and resedimentation.

@article{doi1013061d9bc5bb172d11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Galloway, William E.",
    title = "Siliciclastic Slope and Base-of-Slope Depositional Systems: Component Facies, Stratigraphic Architecture, and Classification",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Subaqueous slope and base-of-slope depositional systems are a major component of most marine and many lacustrine basin fills, and constitute primary targets for hydrocarbon exploration and development. Seven basic facies building blocks comprise slope systems: (1) turbidite channel fills, (2) turbidite lobes, (3) sheet turbidites, (4) slide, slump, and debris-flow sheets, lobes, and tongues, (5) finegrained turbidite fills and sheets, (6) contourite drifts, and (7) hemipelagic drapes and fills. The grain size of supplied sediment is a primary control on channel and lobe morphologies and on the scale and importance of slump and debris-flow deposits. Two general families of siliciclastic slope systems occur. Constructional (allochthonous) systems, including fans, aprons, and basin-floor channels, are built of sediment supplied from superjacent delta, shore-zone, shelf, or glacial systems. The facies architecture of allochthonous systems is determined jointly by the sediment texture and pattern of supply to the shelf margin. Point sources of supply create fans; line sources create strike-elongate prisms of slope sediment called slope aprons. Shelf-margin deltas provide a particularly common intermediate source geometry, forming offlapping delta-fed aprons. Autochthonous systems, including retrogressive aprons, canyon fills, and megaslump complexes, record slope reworking and resedimentation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/1d9bc5bb-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/1d9bc5bb-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2156274950",
    references = "doi1010160012825288900645, doi10113000167606196374971wmpoea20co2, doi101306ad462b3716f711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bdff8876171811d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bdff8e16171811d78645000102c1865d"
}

Although analogies have been drawn between some types of meandering rivers and medium- to high-sinuosity, aggradational, leveed submarine channels, a number of different or additional processes operate in submarine channels. Analysis of several individual submarine channels suggests that they undergo much slower bend growth than alluvial rivers and may reach a planform equilibrium, in contrast to meandering rivers, in which bends progressively migrate downstream. Sinuous leveed submarine channels should therefore aggrade to produce isolated ribbons of thalweg deposits (of predictable 3D geometry), in contrast to the stacked channel belts characteristic of most alluvial meandering rivers. A simple model of the flow structure and flow evolution of turbidity currents traversing submarine channels is proposed, based on theoretical, experimental, and field-derived concepts. It predicts that submarine channel flows are highly stratified, have significant supra-levee thicknesses, and form broad overbank bodies of low-concentration fluid moving along the entire channel length. The interaction between the broad body of overbank fluid and within-channel flow is controlled by the processes of towing and angular shear, whose possible effects on channel sedimentation and planform stability are explored.

@article{doi1013062dc4091c0e4711d78643000102c1865d,
    author = "Peakall, Jeff and McCaffrey, B. J. and Kneller, Ben",
    title = "A Process Model for the Evolution, Morphology, and Architecture of Sinuous Submarine Channels",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Although analogies have been drawn between some types of meandering rivers and medium- to high-sinuosity, aggradational, leveed submarine channels, a number of different or additional processes operate in submarine channels. Analysis of several individual submarine channels suggests that they undergo much slower bend growth than alluvial rivers and may reach a planform equilibrium, in contrast to meandering rivers, in which bends progressively migrate downstream. Sinuous leveed submarine channels should therefore aggrade to produce isolated ribbons of thalweg deposits (of predictable 3D geometry), in contrast to the stacked channel belts characteristic of most alluvial meandering rivers. A simple model of the flow structure and flow evolution of turbidity currents traversing submarine channels is proposed, based on theoretical, experimental, and field-derived concepts. It predicts that submarine channel flows are highly stratified, have significant supra-levee thicknesses, and form broad overbank bodies of low-concentration fluid moving along the entire channel length. The interaction between the broad body of overbank fluid and within-channel flow is controlled by the processes of towing and angular shear, whose possible effects on channel sedimentation and planform stability are explored.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/2dc4091c-0e47-11d7-8643000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/2dc4091c-0e47-11d7-8643000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2043216598",
    references = "doi101061asce073394291984110111557, doi10106313128495, doi101111j136530911979tb00935x, doi101111j136530911980tb01155x, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi101130001676061967781203tgotar20co2, doi10113000167606197586487tcocmo20co2, doi101146annurevea21050193000513, doi101146annurevfl23010191002323, doi101306bdff8876171811d78645000102c1865d, openalexw1912503598"
}

Abstract Most submarine fans are supplied with both sand and mud, but these become segregated during transport, typically with the sand becoming concentrated in channels and channel-termination lobes. New data from high-resolution seismic reflection surveys and Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)/Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) wells from a variety of fans allow a synthesis of the architecture of those submarine fans that have important sand deposits. By analyzing architectural elements, we can better understand issues important for petroleum geology, such as the reservoir properties of the sand bodies and their lateral continuity and vertical connectivity. Our analysis of fan architecture is based principally on the Amazon and Hueneme fans, generally perceived to be classic examples of muddy and sandy systems, respectively. We recognize depositional elements, for example, channel deposits, levees, and lobes, from seismic reflection data and document sediment character in different elements from DSDP/ODP drill cores. We show the utility for petroleum geology of evaluating sandy and muddy elements rather than characterizing entire fans as sand rich or mud rich. We suggest that fan classification should include evaluation of source-sediment volumes and grain size, as well as the probable processes of turbidity-current initiation, because these factors control the character of fan elements and their response to changes in sea level, sediment supply, and autocyclic changes in channel pattern. Basin morphology, controlled by tectonics, influences overall geometry, as well as the balance between aggradation and progradation.

@article{doi1013068626cacd173b11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Piper, David J. W. and Normark, William R.",
    title = "Sandy Fans-From Amazon to Hueneme and Beyond",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Most submarine fans are supplied with both sand and mud, but these become segregated during transport, typically with the sand becoming concentrated in channels and channel-termination lobes. New data from high-resolution seismic reflection surveys and Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)/Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) wells from a variety of fans allow a synthesis of the architecture of those submarine fans that have important sand deposits. By analyzing architectural elements, we can better understand issues important for petroleum geology, such as the reservoir properties of the sand bodies and their lateral continuity and vertical connectivity. Our analysis of fan architecture is based principally on the Amazon and Hueneme fans, generally perceived to be classic examples of muddy and sandy systems, respectively. We recognize depositional elements, for example, channel deposits, levees, and lobes, from seismic reflection data and document sediment character in different elements from DSDP/ODP drill cores. We show the utility for petroleum geology of evaluating sandy and muddy elements rather than characterizing entire fans as sand rich or mud rich. We suggest that fan classification should include evaluation of source-sediment volumes and grain size, as well as the probable processes of turbidity-current initiation, because these factors control the character of fan elements and their response to changes in sea level, sediment supply, and autocyclic changes in channel pattern. Basin morphology, controlled by tectonics, influences overall geometry, as well as the balance between aggradation and progradation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/8626cacd-173b-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/8626cacd-173b-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2082942560",
    references = "doi1010160012825288900645, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2"
}

@article{doi101016s0264817202000090,
    author = "Babonneau, Nathalie and Savoye, Bruno and Cremer, Michel and Klein, Blandine",
    title = "Morphology and architecture of the present canyon and channel system of the Zaire deep-sea fan",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-8172(02)00009-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0264-8172(02)00009-0",
    openalex = "W2040832270",
    references = "doi1010079781468482768, doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160264817294900531, doi101029gm115p0129, doi101086648221, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2, doi101130001676061972831755esocp20co2, doi1011300091761319970250315agotbf23co2, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992, doi104324978020337108412"
}

@article{doi101016s0264817203000357,
    author = "Curray, Joseph R. and Emmel, Frans J. and Moore, David G.",
    title = "The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-8172(03)00035-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s0264-8172(03)00035-7",
    openalex = "W1990397580",
    references = "doi1010079781461251149, doi10100797814615803869, doi10100797814684827684, doi1010160012825288900645, doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160037073869900104, doi1010160040195195000232, doi101016s003707380200180x, doi101038342637a0, doi10113000167606197182563gotbdf20co2, doi1013062f9182e316ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306c1ea4f7716c911d78645000102c1865d, doi102475ajs25012849, normark1978fan"
}

Analyses of 3-D seismic data in predominantly basin-floor settings offshore Indonesia, Nigeria, and the Gulf of Mexico, reveal the extensive presence of gravity-flow depositional elements. Five key elements were observed: (1) turbidity-flow leveed channels, (2) channel-overbank sediment waves and levees, (3) frontal splays or distributary-channel complexes, (4) crevasse-splay complexes, and (5) debris-flow channels, lobes, and sheets. Each depositional element displays a unique morphology and seismic expression. The reservoir architecture of each of these depositional elements is a function of the interaction between sedimentary process, sea-floor morphology, and sediment grain-size distribution. (1) Turbidity-flow leveed-channel widths range from greater than 3 km to less than 200 m. Sinuosity ranges from moderate to high, and channel meanders in most instances migrate down-system. The high-amplitude reflection character that commonly characterizes these features suggests the presence of sand within the channels. In some instances, high-sinuosity channels are associated with (2) channel-overbank sediment-wave development in proximal overbank levee settings, especially in association with outer channel bends. These sediment waves reach heights of 20 m and spacings of 2-3 km. The crests of these sediment waves are oriented normal to the inferred transport direction of turbidity flows, and the waves have migrated in an up-flow direction. Channel-margin levee thickness decreases systematically down-system. Where levee thickness can no longer be resolved seismically, high-sinuosity channels feed (3) frontal splays or low-sinuosity, distributary-channel complexes. Low-sinuosity distributary-channel complexes are expressed as lobate sheets up to 5-10 km wide and tens of kilometers long that extend to the distal edges of these systems. They likely comprise sheet-like sandstone units consisting of shallow channelized and associated sand-rich overbank deposits. Also observed are (4) crevasse-splay deposits, which form as a result of the breaching of levees, commonly at channel bends. Similar to frontal splays, but smaller in size, these deposits commonly are characterized by sheet-like turbidites. (5) Debris-flow deposits comprise low-sinuosity channel fills, narrow elongate lobes, and sheets and are characterized seismically by contorted, chaotic, low-amplitude reflection patterns. These deposits commonly overlie striated or grooved pavements that can be up to tens of kilometers long, 15 m deep, and 25 m wide. Where flows are unconfined, striation patterns suggest that divergent flow is common. Debris-flow deposits extend as far basinward as turbidites, and individual debris-flow units can reach 80 m in thickness and commonly are marked by steep edges. Transparent to chaotic seismic reflection character suggest that these deposits are mud-rich. Stratigraphically, deep-water basin-floor successions commonly are characterized by mass-transport deposits at the base, overlain by turbidite frontal-splay deposits and subsequently by leveed-channel deposits. Capping this succession is another mass-transport unit ultimately overlain and draped by condensed-section deposits. This succession can be related to a cycle of relative sea-level change and associated events at the corresponding shelf edge. Commonly, deposition of a deep-water sequence is initiated with the onset of relative sea-level fall and ends with subsequent rapid relative sea-level rise.

@article{doi101306111302730367,
    author = "Posamentier, Henry W. and Kolla, V.",
    title = "Seismic Geomorphology and Stratigraphy of Depositional Elements in Deep-Water Settings",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Analyses of 3-D seismic data in predominantly basin-floor settings offshore Indonesia, Nigeria, and the Gulf of Mexico, reveal the extensive presence of gravity-flow depositional elements. Five key elements were observed: (1) turbidity-flow leveed channels, (2) channel-overbank sediment waves and levees, (3) frontal splays or distributary-channel complexes, (4) crevasse-splay complexes, and (5) debris-flow channels, lobes, and sheets. Each depositional element displays a unique morphology and seismic expression. The reservoir architecture of each of these depositional elements is a function of the interaction between sedimentary process, sea-floor morphology, and sediment grain-size distribution. (1) Turbidity-flow leveed-channel widths range from greater than 3 km to less than 200 m. Sinuosity ranges from moderate to high, and channel meanders in most instances migrate down-system. The high-amplitude reflection character that commonly characterizes these features suggests the presence of sand within the channels. In some instances, high-sinuosity channels are associated with (2) channel-overbank sediment-wave development in proximal overbank levee settings, especially in association with outer channel bends. These sediment waves reach heights of 20 m and spacings of 2-3 km. The crests of these sediment waves are oriented normal to the inferred transport direction of turbidity flows, and the waves have migrated in an up-flow direction. Channel-margin levee thickness decreases systematically down-system. Where levee thickness can no longer be resolved seismically, high-sinuosity channels feed (3) frontal splays or low-sinuosity, distributary-channel complexes. Low-sinuosity distributary-channel complexes are expressed as lobate sheets up to 5-10 km wide and tens of kilometers long that extend to the distal edges of these systems. They likely comprise sheet-like sandstone units consisting of shallow channelized and associated sand-rich overbank deposits. Also observed are (4) crevasse-splay deposits, which form as a result of the breaching of levees, commonly at channel bends. Similar to frontal splays, but smaller in size, these deposits commonly are characterized by sheet-like turbidites. (5) Debris-flow deposits comprise low-sinuosity channel fills, narrow elongate lobes, and sheets and are characterized seismically by contorted, chaotic, low-amplitude reflection patterns. These deposits commonly overlie striated or grooved pavements that can be up to tens of kilometers long, 15 m deep, and 25 m wide. Where flows are unconfined, striation patterns suggest that divergent flow is common. Debris-flow deposits extend as far basinward as turbidites, and individual debris-flow units can reach 80 m in thickness and commonly are marked by steep edges. Transparent to chaotic seismic reflection character suggest that these deposits are mud-rich. Stratigraphically, deep-water basin-floor successions commonly are characterized by mass-transport deposits at the base, overlain by turbidite frontal-splay deposits and subsequently by leveed-channel deposits. Capping this succession is another mass-transport unit ultimately overlain and draped by condensed-section deposits. This succession can be related to a cycle of relative sea-level change and associated events at the corresponding shelf edge. Commonly, deposition of a deep-water sequence is initiated with the onset of relative sea-level fall and ends with subsequent rapid relative sea-level rise.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/111302730367",
    doi = "10.1306/111302730367",
    openalex = "W1483157968",
    references = "doi101007978146848276818, doi10100797814684827684, doi101086629747, doi101086648221, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi1013061d9bc5d9172d11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013062dc4091c0e4711d78643000102c1865d, doi1013062f9182e316ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306a25fe3bf171b11d78645000102c1865d, doi101306m26490c5, doi102110csp9907, doi105724gcs00150782, nardin1979a, normark1978fan, openalexw1570283708, openalexw3120543430, openalexw362631153"
}

Abstract Despite existing paradigms about marine sedimentation, some submarine canyons are receiving large amounts of sediment during the present highstand of sea level. These modern examples can be used to unlock secrets of past canyon sedimentation. However, submarine canyons have complex morphology, and consequently dramatic variations in sedimentary processes and deposits can occur over a range of spatial scales as small as meters to tens of meters. Operations from surface ships usually cannot place sampling devices on the canyon seabed with this level of accuracy. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the variability of sedimentation over a range of scales, in order to delineate accurate trends along and among channels at the head of a canyon. Sampling with the ROV Ventana facilitated detailed examination of microenvironments (i.e. wall, thalweg) in Eel submarine canyon. The combination of intense sedimentation from nepheloid layers and gravity flows in a complicated morphologic system leads to clear distinctions between microenvironments, as well as some recognizable and unifying trends in sedimentation. Inherent small-scale variability due to canyon morphology is evident in narrow and steep channels. At 1-m horizontal resolution, cores exhibit consistent sediment fabric, but laminae can differ between cores. At the 10-m horizontal scale the fabric is not consistent. Broader, more gently sloping channels reveal consistent sediment fabric at the 10-m scale. In most cases, physical stratification decreases along the thalwegs of channels as water depths increase. In contrast, channel walls generally exhibit elevated impacts of bioturbation and variable amounts of physical stratification. Radiochemical profiles (210Pb, 137Cs) and the predominance of physical stratification (including discrete laminae with high sand content) suggest that the northern entrants are receiving more sediment than their southern counterparts. However, 210Pb profiles in this study demonstrate rapid accumulation of sediment everywhere in the head of Eel Canyon, with the highest rates of accumulation (> 40 mm/yr) found in the channel thalwegs. In thalwegs, evidence from sedimentary structures (e.g., erosional bases, cross-bedded sand layers) demonstrates that gravity flows occur frequently (many times each year) and have been linked by other investigations to storm impacts on the adjacent continental shelf. On decadal timescales, these processes are temporarily depositing sediment in the head of the canyon, which is removed over longer timescales—probably as larger gravity flows triggered by earthquakes. The radiochemical and sedimentological data collected at the base of entrant channels confirm that modern sediment is moving to deeper portions of the canyon.

@article{doi102110jsr2006064,
    author = "Drexler, Tina M. and Nittrouer, Charles A. and Mullenbach, B. L.",
    title = "Impact of Local Morphology on Sedimentation in a Submarine Canyon, ROV Studies in Eel Canyon, Northern California, U.S.A.",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Despite existing paradigms about marine sedimentation, some submarine canyons are receiving large amounts of sediment during the present highstand of sea level. These modern examples can be used to unlock secrets of past canyon sedimentation. However, submarine canyons have complex morphology, and consequently dramatic variations in sedimentary processes and deposits can occur over a range of spatial scales as small as meters to tens of meters. Operations from surface ships usually cannot place sampling devices on the canyon seabed with this level of accuracy. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the variability of sedimentation over a range of scales, in order to delineate accurate trends along and among channels at the head of a canyon. Sampling with the ROV Ventana facilitated detailed examination of microenvironments (i.e. wall, thalweg) in Eel submarine canyon. The combination of intense sedimentation from nepheloid layers and gravity flows in a complicated morphologic system leads to clear distinctions between microenvironments, as well as some recognizable and unifying trends in sedimentation. Inherent small-scale variability due to canyon morphology is evident in narrow and steep channels. At 1-m horizontal resolution, cores exhibit consistent sediment fabric, but laminae can differ between cores. At the 10-m horizontal scale the fabric is not consistent. Broader, more gently sloping channels reveal consistent sediment fabric at the 10-m scale. In most cases, physical stratification decreases along the thalwegs of channels as water depths increase. In contrast, channel walls generally exhibit elevated impacts of bioturbation and variable amounts of physical stratification. Radiochemical profiles (210Pb, 137Cs) and the predominance of physical stratification (including discrete laminae with high sand content) suggest that the northern entrants are receiving more sediment than their southern counterparts. However, 210Pb profiles in this study demonstrate rapid accumulation of sediment everywhere in the head of Eel Canyon, with the highest rates of accumulation (> 40 mm/yr) found in the channel thalwegs. In thalwegs, evidence from sedimentary structures (e.g., erosional bases, cross-bedded sand layers) demonstrates that gravity flows occur frequently (many times each year) and have been linked by other investigations to storm impacts on the adjacent continental shelf. On decadal timescales, these processes are temporarily depositing sediment in the head of the canyon, which is removed over longer timescales—probably as larger gravity flows triggered by earthquakes. The radiochemical and sedimentological data collected at the base of entrant channels confirm that modern sediment is moving to deeper portions of the canyon.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2006.064",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.2006.064",
    openalex = "W2144008942",
    references = "doi105479si019607684"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo200709002,
    author = "Lastras, Galderic and Canals, Miquel and Úrgeles, Roger and Amblàs, David and Ivanov, M.K. and Droz, Laurence and Dennielou, Bernard and Fabrés, Joan and Schoolmeester, Tina and Akhmetzhanov, A. and Orange, Daniel L. and García‐García, Almudena",
    title = "A walk down the Cap de Creus canyon, Northwestern Mediterranean Sea: Recent processes inferred from morphology and sediment bedforms",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2007.09.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2007.09.002",
    openalex = "W2156429626",
    references = "doi1013060c9b2907171011d78645000102c1865d"
}

Abstract The Mississippian Barnett Formation of the Fort Worth Basin is a classic shale-gas system in which the rock is the source, reservoir, and seal. Barnett strata were deposited in a deeper water foreland basin that had poor circulation with the open ocean. For most of the basin's history, bottom waters were euxinic, preserving organic matter and, thus, creating a rich source rock, along with abundant framboidal pyrite. The Barnett interval comprises a variety of facies but is dominated by fine-grained (clay- to silt-size) particles. Three general lithofacies are recognized on the basis of mineralogy, fabric, biota, and texture: (1) laminated siliceous mudstone; (2) laminated argillaceous lime mudstone (marl); and (3) skeletal, argillaceous lime packstone. Each facies contains abundant pyrite and phosphate (apatite), which are especially common at hardgrounds. Carbonate concretions, a product of early diagenesis, are also common. The entire Barnett biota is composed of debris transported to the basin from the shelf or upper oxygenated slope by hemipelagic mud plumes, dilute turbidites, and debris flows. Biogenic sediment was also sourced from the shallower, better oxygenated water column. Barnett deposition is estimated to have occurred over a 25-m.y. period, and despite the variations in sublithofacies, sedimentation style remained remarkably similar throughout this span of time.

@article{doi10130611020606059,
    author = "Loucks, Robert G. and Ruppel, Stephen C.",
    title = "Mississippian Barnett Shale: Lithofacies and depositional setting of a deep-water shale-gas succession in the Fort Worth Basin, Texas",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract The Mississippian Barnett Formation of the Fort Worth Basin is a classic shale-gas system in which the rock is the source, reservoir, and seal. Barnett strata were deposited in a deeper water foreland basin that had poor circulation with the open ocean. For most of the basin's history, bottom waters were euxinic, preserving organic matter and, thus, creating a rich source rock, along with abundant framboidal pyrite. The Barnett interval comprises a variety of facies but is dominated by fine-grained (clay- to silt-size) particles. Three general lithofacies are recognized on the basis of mineralogy, fabric, biota, and texture: (1) laminated siliceous mudstone; (2) laminated argillaceous lime mudstone (marl); and (3) skeletal, argillaceous lime packstone. Each facies contains abundant pyrite and phosphate (apatite), which are especially common at hardgrounds. Carbonate concretions, a product of early diagenesis, are also common. The entire Barnett biota is composed of debris transported to the basin from the shelf or upper oxygenated slope by hemipelagic mud plumes, dilute turbidites, and debris flows. Biogenic sediment was also sourced from the shallower, better oxygenated water column. Barnett deposition is estimated to have occurred over a 25-m.y. period, and despite the variations in sublithofacies, sedimentation style remained remarkably similar throughout this span of time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/11020606059",
    doi = "10.1306/11020606059",
    openalex = "W2166476646",
    references = "doi1010160016703796002098, doi101038142234b0, doi101046j13653091200100360x, doi1013065ceadd7616bb11d78645000102c1865d"
}

Abstract Sandy lobe deposits on submarine fans are sensitive recorders of the types of sediment gravity flows supplied to a basin and are economically important as hydrocarbon reservoirs. This study investigates the causes of variability in 20 lobes in small late Pleistocene submarine fans off East Corsica. These lobes were imaged using ultra‐high resolution boomer seismic profiles (<1 m vertical resolution) and sediment type was ground truthed using piston cores published in previous studies. Repeated crossings of the same depositional bodies were used to measure spatial changes in their dimensions and architecture. Most lobes increase abruptly down‐slope to a peak thickness of 8 to 42 m, beyond which they show a progressive, typically more gradual, decrease in thickness until they thin to below seismic resolution or pass into draping facies of the basin plain. Lobe areas range from 3 to 70 km 2 and total lengths from 2 to 14 km, with the locus of maximum sediment accumulation from 3 to 28 km from the shelf‐break. Based on their location, dimensions, internal architecture and nature of the feeder channel, the lobes are divided into two end‐member types. The first are small depositional bodies located in proximal settings, clustered near the toe‐of‐slope and fed by slope gullies or erosive channels lacking or with poorly developed levées (referred to as ‘proximal isolated lobes’). The second are larger architecturally more complex depositional bodies deposited in more distal settings, outboard more stable and longer‐lived levéed fan valleys (referred to as ‘composite mid‐fan lobes’). Hybrid lobe types are also observed. At least three hierarchical levels of compensation stacking are recognized. Individual beds and bed‐sets stack to form lobe‐elements; lobe‐elements stack to form composite lobes; and composite lobes stack to form lobe complexes. Differences in the size, shape and architectural complexity of lobe deposits reflect several inter‐related factors including: (i) flow properties (volume, duration, grain‐size, concentration and velocity); (ii) the number and frequency of flows, and their degree of variation through time; (iii) gradient change and sea floor morphology at the mouth of the feeder conduit; (iv) lobe lifespan prior to avulsion or abandonment; and (v) feeder channel geometry and stability. In general, lobes outboard stable fan valleys that are connected to shelf‐incised canyons are wider, longer and thicker, accumulate in more basinal locations and are architecturally more complex.

@article{doi101111j13653091200700926x,
    author = "Deptuck, Mark E. and Piper, David J. W. and Savoye, Bruno and Gervais, Anne",
    title = "Dimensions and architecture of late Pleistocene submarine lobes off the northern margin of East Corsica",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "Abstract Sandy lobe deposits on submarine fans are sensitive recorders of the types of sediment gravity flows supplied to a basin and are economically important as hydrocarbon reservoirs. This study investigates the causes of variability in 20 lobes in small late Pleistocene submarine fans off East Corsica. These lobes were imaged using ultra‐high resolution boomer seismic profiles (<1 m vertical resolution) and sediment type was ground truthed using piston cores published in previous studies. Repeated crossings of the same depositional bodies were used to measure spatial changes in their dimensions and architecture. Most lobes increase abruptly down‐slope to a peak thickness of 8 to 42 m, beyond which they show a progressive, typically more gradual, decrease in thickness until they thin to below seismic resolution or pass into draping facies of the basin plain. Lobe areas range from 3 to 70 km 2 and total lengths from 2 to 14 km, with the locus of maximum sediment accumulation from 3 to 28 km from the shelf‐break. Based on their location, dimensions, internal architecture and nature of the feeder channel, the lobes are divided into two end‐member types. The first are small depositional bodies located in proximal settings, clustered near the toe‐of‐slope and fed by slope gullies or erosive channels lacking or with poorly developed levées (referred to as ‘proximal isolated lobes’). The second are larger architecturally more complex depositional bodies deposited in more distal settings, outboard more stable and longer‐lived levéed fan valleys (referred to as ‘composite mid‐fan lobes’). Hybrid lobe types are also observed. At least three hierarchical levels of compensation stacking are recognized. Individual beds and bed‐sets stack to form lobe‐elements; lobe‐elements stack to form composite lobes; and composite lobes stack to form lobe complexes. Differences in the size, shape and architectural complexity of lobe deposits reflect several inter‐related factors including: (i) flow properties (volume, duration, grain‐size, concentration and velocity); (ii) the number and frequency of flows, and their degree of variation through time; (iii) gradient change and sea floor morphology at the mouth of the feeder conduit; (iv) lobe lifespan prior to avulsion or abandonment; and (v) feeder channel geometry and stability. In general, lobes outboard stable fan valleys that are connected to shelf‐incised canyons are wider, longer and thicker, accumulate in more basinal locations and are architecturally more complex.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2007.00926.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.2007.00926.x",
    openalex = "W2142396396",
    references = "doi10100797814684827684, doi10100797894009324181, doi101016jmarpetgeo200301004, doi101016jmarpetgeo200309001, doi101046j13653091200100360x, doi101086629747, doi101111j136530911977tb00122x, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi101126science1059549, doi105724gcs00150782"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo200906016,
    author = "Covault, Jacob A. and Romans, Brian W.",
    title = "Growth patterns of deep-sea fans revisited: Turbidite-system morphology in confined basins, examples from the California Borderland",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2009.06.016",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2009.06.016",
    openalex = "W2038507489",
    references = "doi1010079781402036095226"
}

Submarine canyons are shaped by turbidity currents flowing down the continental slope. But canyon morphology also depends on the patterns of sediment deposition that drive long‐term outbuilding of continental margins. Relating the importance of each to the shape of canyon long profiles provides a tool for inferring process from observed (modern and buried) canyon morphologies. Here we present a morphodynamic model that predicts the equilibrium long‐profile curvature of a canyon affected by turbidity currents and background sedimentation, with the latter defined by the average sigmoidal shape of many clastic margin clinoforms. The model includes the effects of margin progradation (i.e., seaward advance through time) and the down canyon evolution of turbidity currents. We contrast predictions for equilibrium long‐profile shape under three sets of conditions. In the absence of background sedimentation and progradation, the graded canyon long profile is concave and described by a simple power law slope‐distance relationship that arises from down canyon increases in discharge due to flow evolution. Similar slope‐distance predictions exist for rivers where discharge instead increases from tributary input. Adding background sedimentation can generate graded convex long‐profile segments in a manner analogous to rivers experiencing uplift. The curvature of an equilibrium long profile that progrades basinward with constant form depends on the relative importance of turbidity‐current deposition and background sedimentation. To illustrate and quantify model predictions in the field, we present examples of canyons from modern continental margins thought to reasonably approximate each of the three cases.

@article{doi1010292008jf001190,
    author = "Gerber, Thomas P. and Amblàs, David and Wolinsky, Matthew A. and Pratson, Lincoln F. and Canals, Miquel",
    title = "A model for the long‐profile shape of submarine canyons",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Submarine canyons are shaped by turbidity currents flowing down the continental slope. But canyon morphology also depends on the patterns of sediment deposition that drive long‐term outbuilding of continental margins. Relating the importance of each to the shape of canyon long profiles provides a tool for inferring process from observed (modern and buried) canyon morphologies. Here we present a morphodynamic model that predicts the equilibrium long‐profile curvature of a canyon affected by turbidity currents and background sedimentation, with the latter defined by the average sigmoidal shape of many clastic margin clinoforms. The model includes the effects of margin progradation (i.e., seaward advance through time) and the down canyon evolution of turbidity currents. We contrast predictions for equilibrium long‐profile shape under three sets of conditions. In the absence of background sedimentation and progradation, the graded canyon long profile is concave and described by a simple power law slope‐distance relationship that arises from down canyon increases in discharge due to flow evolution. Similar slope‐distance predictions exist for rivers where discharge instead increases from tributary input. Adding background sedimentation can generate graded convex long‐profile segments in a manner analogous to rivers experiencing uplift. The curvature of an equilibrium long profile that progrades basinward with constant form depends on the relative importance of turbidity‐current deposition and background sedimentation. To illustrate and quantify model predictions in the field, we present examples of canyons from modern continental margins thought to reasonably approximate each of the three cases.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2008jf001190",
    doi = "10.1029/2008jf001190",
    openalex = "W2004948974",
    references = "doi1013060c9b2907171011d78645000102c1865d"
}

How the processes that initiate turbidity currents influence turbidite deposition is poorly understood, and many discussions in the literature rely on concepts that are overly simplistic. Marine geological studies provide information on the initiation and flow path of turbidity currents, including their response to gradient. In case studies of late Quaternary turbidites on the eastern Canadian and western U.S. margins, initiation processes are inferred either from real-time data for historical flows or indirectly from the age and contemporary paleogeography, erosional features, and depositional record. Three major types of initiation process are recognized: transformation of failed sediment, hyperpycnal flow from rivers or ice margins, and resuspension of sediment near the shelf edge by oceanographic processes. Many high-concentration flows result from hyperpycnal supply of hyperconcentrated bedload, or liquefaction failure of coarse-grained sediment, and most tend to deposit in slope conduits and on gradients < 0.5° at the base of slope and on the mid fan. Highly turbulent flows, from transformation of retrogressive failures and from ignitive flows that are triggered by oceanographic processes, tend to cannibalize these more proximal sediments and redeposit them on lower gradients on the basin plain. Such conduit flushing provides most of the sediment in large turbidites. Initiation mechanism exerts a strong control on the duration of turbidity flows. In most basins, there is a complex feedback between different types of turbidity-current initiation, the transformation of the flows, and the associated slope morphology. As a result, there is no simple relationship between initiating process and type of deposit.

@article{doi102110jsr2009046,
    author = "Piper, David J. W. and Normark, William R.",
    title = "Processes That Initiate Turbidity Currents and Their Influence on Turbidites: A Marine Geology Perspective",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "How the processes that initiate turbidity currents influence turbidite deposition is poorly understood, and many discussions in the literature rely on concepts that are overly simplistic. Marine geological studies provide information on the initiation and flow path of turbidity currents, including their response to gradient. In case studies of late Quaternary turbidites on the eastern Canadian and western U.S. margins, initiation processes are inferred either from real-time data for historical flows or indirectly from the age and contemporary paleogeography, erosional features, and depositional record. Three major types of initiation process are recognized: transformation of failed sediment, hyperpycnal flow from rivers or ice margins, and resuspension of sediment near the shelf edge by oceanographic processes. Many high-concentration flows result from hyperpycnal supply of hyperconcentrated bedload, or liquefaction failure of coarse-grained sediment, and most tend to deposit in slope conduits and on gradients < 0.5° at the base of slope and on the mid fan. Highly turbulent flows, from transformation of retrogressive failures and from ignitive flows that are triggered by oceanographic processes, tend to cannibalize these more proximal sediments and redeposit them on lower gradients on the basin plain. Such conduit flushing provides most of the sediment in large turbidites. Initiation mechanism exerts a strong control on the duration of turbidity flows. In most basins, there is a complex feedback between different types of turbidity-current initiation, the transformation of the flows, and the associated slope morphology. As a result, there is no simple relationship between initiating process and type of deposit.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2009.046",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.2009.046",
    openalex = "W2098479229",
    references = "doi1010160016703793904512, doi101016jmarpetgeo200301003, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi101130001676061969801859dfpap20co2"
}

Research on mudrock attributes has increased dramatically since shale-gas systems have become commercial hydrocarbon production targets. One of the most significant research questions now being asked focuses on the nature of the pore system in these mudrocks. Our work on siliceous mudstones from the Mississippian Barnett Shale of the Fort Worth Basin, Texas, shows that the pores in these rocks are dominantly nanometer in scale (nanopores). We used scanning electron microscopy to characterize Barnett pores from a number of cores and have imaged pores as small as 5 nm. Key to our success in imaging these nanopores is the use of Ar-ion-beam milling; this methodology provides flat surfaces that lack topography related to differential hardness and are fundamental for high-magnification imaging. Nanopores are observed in three main modes of occurrence. Most pores are found in grains of organic matter as intraparticle pores; many of these grains contain hundreds of pores. Intraparticle organic nanopores most commonly have irregular, bubblelike, elliptical cross sections and range between 5 and 750 nm with the median nanopore size for all grains being approximately 100 nm. Internal porosities of up to 20.2% have been measured for whole grains of organic matter based on point-count data from scanning electron microscopy analysis. These nanopores in the organic matter are the predominant pore type in the Barnett mudstones and they are related to thermal maturation. Nanopores are also found in bedding-parallel, wispy, organic-rich laminae as intraparticle pores in organic grains and as interparticle pores between organic matter, but this mode is not common. Although less abundant, nanopores are also locally present in fine-grained matrix areas unassociated with organic matter and as nano- to microintercrystalline pores in pyrite framboids. Intraparticle organic nanopores and pyrite-framboid intercrystalline pores contribute to gas storage in Barnett mudstones. We postulate that permeability pathways within the Barnett mudstones are along bedding-parallel layers of organic matter or a mesh network of organic matter flakes because this material contains the most pores.

@article{doi102110jsr2009092,
    author = "Loucks, Robert G. and Reed, Robert M. and Ruppel, Stephen C. and Jarvie, Daniel M.",
    title = "Morphology, Genesis, and Distribution of Nanometer-Scale Pores in Siliceous Mudstones of the Mississippian Barnett Shale",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Research on mudrock attributes has increased dramatically since shale-gas systems have become commercial hydrocarbon production targets. One of the most significant research questions now being asked focuses on the nature of the pore system in these mudrocks. Our work on siliceous mudstones from the Mississippian Barnett Shale of the Fort Worth Basin, Texas, shows that the pores in these rocks are dominantly nanometer in scale (nanopores). We used scanning electron microscopy to characterize Barnett pores from a number of cores and have imaged pores as small as 5 nm. Key to our success in imaging these nanopores is the use of Ar-ion-beam milling; this methodology provides flat surfaces that lack topography related to differential hardness and are fundamental for high-magnification imaging. Nanopores are observed in three main modes of occurrence. Most pores are found in grains of organic matter as intraparticle pores; many of these grains contain hundreds of pores. Intraparticle organic nanopores most commonly have irregular, bubblelike, elliptical cross sections and range between 5 and 750 nm with the median nanopore size for all grains being approximately 100 nm. Internal porosities of up to 20.2\% have been measured for whole grains of organic matter based on point-count data from scanning electron microscopy analysis. These nanopores in the organic matter are the predominant pore type in the Barnett mudstones and they are related to thermal maturation. Nanopores are also found in bedding-parallel, wispy, organic-rich laminae as intraparticle pores in organic grains and as interparticle pores between organic matter, but this mode is not common. Although less abundant, nanopores are also locally present in fine-grained matrix areas unassociated with organic matter and as nano- to microintercrystalline pores in pyrite framboids. Intraparticle organic nanopores and pyrite-framboid intercrystalline pores contribute to gas storage in Barnett mudstones. We postulate that permeability pathways within the Barnett mudstones are along bedding-parallel layers of organic matter or a mesh network of organic matter flakes because this material contains the most pores.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2009.092",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.2009.092",
    openalex = "W2156608310",
    references = "doi10130694885688170411d78645000102c1865d"
}

@article{doi101016jsedgeo201009010,
    author = "Prélat, Amandine and Covault, Jacob A. and Hodgson, David M. and Fildani, Andrea and Flint, Stephen S.",
    title = "Intrinsic controls on the range of volumes, morphologies, and dimensions of submarine lobes",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Sedimentary Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2010.09.010",
    doi = "10.1016/j.sedgeo.2010.09.010",
    openalex = "W2109222348",
    references = "doi1010160191814191900803, doi101016s0264817202000090, doi101086629606, doi101111j13652117200900397x, doi101111j13653091200700926x, doi101111j13653091200901073x, doi101306111302730367, doi10130664ed878c172411d78645000102c1865d, doi102110jsr2009035, doi102110jsr2009070, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992"
}

@incollection{posamentier2011deepwater,
    author = "POSAMENTIER, HENRY W. and WALKER, ROGER G.",
    title = "Deep-Water Turbidites and Submarine Fans",
    year = "2011",
    booktitle = "Facies Models Revisited",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.06.84.0399",
    doi = "10.2110/pec.06.84.0399",
    pages = "399-520"
}

Hybrid fl ows comprising both turbidity current and submarine debris fl ow are a signifi cant departure from many previous infl uential models for submarine sediment density fl ows. Hybrid beds containing cohesive debrite and turbidite are common in distal depositional environments, as shown by detailed observations from more than 20 modern and ancient systems worldwide. Hybrid fl ows, and cohesive debris fl ows more generally, are best classifi ed in terms of a continuum of decreasing cohesive debris fl ow strength. High-strength cohesive debris fl ows tend to be clast rich and relatively thick, and their deposit extends back to near the site of original slope failure. They are typically confi ned to higher gradient continental slopes, but may occasionally form megabeds on basin plains, in both cases overlain by a thin turbidite. Intermediate-strength cohesive debris fl ows typically contain clasts, but their deposits may be <1 or 2 m thick on low-gradient fan fringes, and are encased in turbidite sand and mud. Clasts may be fartraveled, and meter-sized clasts can be rafted long distances across very low gradients if they are less dense than surrounding fl ow. Low-strength cohesive debris fl ows generally lack mud clasts, and as cohesive strength decreases further there is a transition into fl uid mud layers that do not support sand. Intermediate-and low-strength cohesive debrites are consistently absent in more proximal parts of submarine systems, where faster moving sediment-charged fl ows are more likely to be turbulent. Intermediatestrength debris fl ows can run out for long distances on low gradients without hydroplaning. Very low strength cohesive debris fl ows most likely form through late-stage transformations near the site of debrite deposition, and emplaced gently to avoid mixing with surrounding seawater. The location and geometry of cohesive debrites in hybrid beds are controlled strongly by seafl oor morphology and small changes in gradient. Debrites occur as fringes around raised channel-levee ridges, or in the central and lowest parts of basin plains lacking such ridges. Small variations in mud fraction produce profound changes in cohesive strength, fl ow viscosity, permeability, and the time taken for excess pore pressures to dissipate that span multiple orders of magnitude. Reduction in fl ow speed can also cause substantial increases in viscosity and yield strength in shear thinning muddy fl uids. Small amounts of sediment can dampen or extinguish turbulence, especially as fl ow decelerates, affecting how sediment is supported or deposited. This ensures that cohesive debris fl ows and hybrid fl ows have a rich variety of behaviors.

@article{doi101130ges007931,
    author = "Talling, Peter J.",
    title = "Hybrid submarine flows comprising turbidity current and cohesive debris flow: Deposits, theoretical and experimental analyses, and generalized models",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Geosphere",
    abstract = "Hybrid fl ows comprising both turbidity current and submarine debris fl ow are a signifi cant departure from many previous infl uential models for submarine sediment density fl ows. Hybrid beds containing cohesive debrite and turbidite are common in distal depositional environments, as shown by detailed observations from more than 20 modern and ancient systems worldwide. Hybrid fl ows, and cohesive debris fl ows more generally, are best classifi ed in terms of a continuum of decreasing cohesive debris fl ow strength. High-strength cohesive debris fl ows tend to be clast rich and relatively thick, and their deposit extends back to near the site of original slope failure. They are typically confi ned to higher gradient continental slopes, but may occasionally form megabeds on basin plains, in both cases overlain by a thin turbidite. Intermediate-strength cohesive debris fl ows typically contain clasts, but their deposits may be <1 or 2 m thick on low-gradient fan fringes, and are encased in turbidite sand and mud. Clasts may be fartraveled, and meter-sized clasts can be rafted long distances across very low gradients if they are less dense than surrounding fl ow. Low-strength cohesive debris fl ows generally lack mud clasts, and as cohesive strength decreases further there is a transition into fl uid mud layers that do not support sand. Intermediate-and low-strength cohesive debrites are consistently absent in more proximal parts of submarine systems, where faster moving sediment-charged fl ows are more likely to be turbulent. Intermediatestrength debris fl ows can run out for long distances on low gradients without hydroplaning. Very low strength cohesive debris fl ows most likely form through late-stage transformations near the site of debrite deposition, and emplaced gently to avoid mixing with surrounding seawater. The location and geometry of cohesive debrites in hybrid beds are controlled strongly by seafl oor morphology and small changes in gradient. Debrites occur as fringes around raised channel-levee ridges, or in the central and lowest parts of basin plains lacking such ridges. Small variations in mud fraction produce profound changes in cohesive strength, fl ow viscosity, permeability, and the time taken for excess pore pressures to dissipate that span multiple orders of magnitude. Reduction in fl ow speed can also cause substantial increases in viscosity and yield strength in shear thinning muddy fl uids. Small amounts of sediment can dampen or extinguish turbulence, especially as fl ow decelerates, affecting how sediment is supported or deposited. This ensures that cohesive debris fl ows and hybrid fl ows have a rich variety of behaviors.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/ges00793.1",
    doi = "10.1130/ges00793.1",
    openalex = "W2122272026",
    references = "doi101016jmarpetgeo200902012, doi1010292009jf001514, doi101038nature06273, doi101046j13653091199900204x, doi101046j13653091200100360x, doi101111j136530911995tb00395x, doi101111j13653091201201353x, doi101306212f7f312b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi102475ajs25012849, openalexw1570283708"
}

Abstract Hybrid event beds comprising both clean and mud‐rich sandstone are important components of many deep‐water systems and reflect the passage of turbulent sediment gravity flows with zones of clay‐damped or suppressed turbulence. ‘Behind‐outcrop’ cores from the Pennsylvanian deep‐water Ross Sandstone Formation reveal hybrid event beds with a wide range of expression in terms of relative abundance, character and inferred origin. Muddy hybrid event beds first appear in the underlying Clare Shale Formation where they are interpreted as the distal run‐out of the wakes to flows which deposited most of their sand up‐dip before transforming to fluid mud. These are overlain by unusually thick (up to 4·4 m), coarse sandy hybrid event beds (89% of the lowermost Ross Formation by thickness) that record deposition from outsized flows in which transformations were driven by both substrate entrainment in the body of the flow and clay fractionation in the wake. A switch to dominantly fine‐grained sand was accompanied initially by the arrest of turbulence‐damped, mud‐rich flows with evidence for transitional flow conditions and thick fluid mud caps. The mid and upper Ross Formation contain metre‐scale bed sets of hybrid event beds (21 to 14%, respectively) in (i) upward‐sandying bed set associations immediately beneath amalgamated sheet or channel elements; (ii) stacked thick‐bedded and thin‐bedded hybrid event bed‐dominated bed sets; (iii) associations of hybrid event bed‐dominated bed sets alternating with conventional turbidites; and (iv) rare outsized hybrid event beds. Hybrid event bed dominance in the lower Ross Formation may reflect significant initial disequilibrium, a bias towards large‐volume flows in distal sectors of the basin, extensive mud‐draped slopes and greater drop heights promoting erosion. Higher in the formation, hybrid event beds record local perturbations related to channel switching, lobe relocations and extension of channels across the fan surface. The Ross Sandstone Formation confirms that hybrid event beds can form in a variety of ways, even in the same system, and that different flow transformation mechanisms may operate even during the passage of a single flow.

@article{doi101111sed12412,
    author = "Pierce, Colm and Haughton, Peter D. W. and Shannon, Patrick M. and Pulham, Andy and Barker, Simon P. and Martinsen, Ole J.",
    title = "Variable character and diverse origin of hybrid event beds in a sandy submarine fan system, Pennsylvanian Ross Sandstone Formation, western Ireland",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "Abstract Hybrid event beds comprising both clean and mud‐rich sandstone are important components of many deep‐water systems and reflect the passage of turbulent sediment gravity flows with zones of clay‐damped or suppressed turbulence. ‘Behind‐outcrop’ cores from the Pennsylvanian deep‐water Ross Sandstone Formation reveal hybrid event beds with a wide range of expression in terms of relative abundance, character and inferred origin. Muddy hybrid event beds first appear in the underlying Clare Shale Formation where they are interpreted as the distal run‐out of the wakes to flows which deposited most of their sand up‐dip before transforming to fluid mud. These are overlain by unusually thick (up to 4·4 m), coarse sandy hybrid event beds (89\% of the lowermost Ross Formation by thickness) that record deposition from outsized flows in which transformations were driven by both substrate entrainment in the body of the flow and clay fractionation in the wake. A switch to dominantly fine‐grained sand was accompanied initially by the arrest of turbulence‐damped, mud‐rich flows with evidence for transitional flow conditions and thick fluid mud caps. The mid and upper Ross Formation contain metre‐scale bed sets of hybrid event beds (21 to 14\%, respectively) in (i) upward‐sandying bed set associations immediately beneath amalgamated sheet or channel elements; (ii) stacked thick‐bedded and thin‐bedded hybrid event bed‐dominated bed sets; (iii) associations of hybrid event bed‐dominated bed sets alternating with conventional turbidites; and (iv) rare outsized hybrid event beds. Hybrid event bed dominance in the lower Ross Formation may reflect significant initial disequilibrium, a bias towards large‐volume flows in distal sectors of the basin, extensive mud‐draped slopes and greater drop heights promoting erosion. Higher in the formation, hybrid event beds record local perturbations related to channel switching, lobe relocations and extension of channels across the fan surface. The Ross Sandstone Formation confirms that hybrid event beds can form in a variety of ways, even in the same system, and that different flow transformation mechanisms may operate even during the passage of a single flow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12412",
    doi = "10.1111/sed.12412",
    openalex = "W2751710159",
    references = "doi101111sed12376, doi101130ges007931"
}

Submarine channel-lobe transition zones separate well-defined channels from welldefined lobes and form morphologically complicated areas, commonly located at breaks in slope. These areas play a vital role in the transfer of sediment through deep-water systems. Extensive outcrop exposures in the Karoo Basin, South Africa, permit investigation of the depositional architecture and evolution of entirely exhumed dip transects of a channel-lobe transition zone for the first time. Furthermore, the excellent paleogeographic constraint allows correlation to genetically related updip channel-levee systems and downdip lobe deposits over 40 km, with strike control over 20 km. Unlike the single time slice afforded by modern systems, the Karoo example uniquely allows study of the temporal shifting of the channel-lobe transition zone and transfer into the stratigraphic record. Key lateral changes along the base of slope include the variation from an interfingering levee-lobe transition zone to a bypass-dominated channel-lobe transition zone over a width of 14 km. Key recognition criteria for channel-lobe transition zones in the ancient record include combinations of scours and megaflutes, composite erosional surfaces, mudstone clast/coarse-grained sediment lags, and remnants of depositional bed forms, such as sediment waves. Documented here in a single channel-lobe transition zone, these features are arranged in a zone of juxtaposed remnant erosional and depositional features. The zone reaches 6 km in length, formed by at least four stages of expansion/contraction or migration. Strike variations and changes in the dimensions of the channel-lobe transition zone through time are interpreted to be the result of physiographic changes and variations in flow dynamics across the base of slope. The dynamic nature of channellobe transition zones results in complicated and composite stratigraphy, with preservation potential generally low but increasing distally and laterally away from the mouth of the feeder channel system. Here, we present the first generic model to account for dynamic channel-lobe transition zone development, encompassing distinctive recognition criteria, fluctuations in the morphology and position of the zone, and the complex transfer into the sedimentary record.

@article{doi101130b317141,
    author = "Brooks, Hannah L. and Hodgson, David M. and Brunt, Rufus L. and Peakall, Jeff and Hofstra, Menno and Flint, Stephen S.",
    title = "Deep-water channel-lobe transition zone dynamics: Processes and depositional architecture, an example from the Karoo Basin, South Africa",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "Submarine channel-lobe transition zones separate well-defined channels from welldefined lobes and form morphologically complicated areas, commonly located at breaks in slope. These areas play a vital role in the transfer of sediment through deep-water systems. Extensive outcrop exposures in the Karoo Basin, South Africa, permit investigation of the depositional architecture and evolution of entirely exhumed dip transects of a channel-lobe transition zone for the first time. Furthermore, the excellent paleogeographic constraint allows correlation to genetically related updip channel-levee systems and downdip lobe deposits over 40 km, with strike control over 20 km. Unlike the single time slice afforded by modern systems, the Karoo example uniquely allows study of the temporal shifting of the channel-lobe transition zone and transfer into the stratigraphic record. Key lateral changes along the base of slope include the variation from an interfingering levee-lobe transition zone to a bypass-dominated channel-lobe transition zone over a width of 14 km. Key recognition criteria for channel-lobe transition zones in the ancient record include combinations of scours and megaflutes, composite erosional surfaces, mudstone clast/coarse-grained sediment lags, and remnants of depositional bed forms, such as sediment waves. Documented here in a single channel-lobe transition zone, these features are arranged in a zone of juxtaposed remnant erosional and depositional features. The zone reaches 6 km in length, formed by at least four stages of expansion/contraction or migration. Strike variations and changes in the dimensions of the channel-lobe transition zone through time are interpreted to be the result of physiographic changes and variations in flow dynamics across the base of slope. The dynamic nature of channellobe transition zones results in complicated and composite stratigraphy, with preservation potential generally low but increasing distally and laterally away from the mouth of the feeder channel system. Here, we present the first generic model to account for dynamic channel-lobe transition zone development, encompassing distinctive recognition criteria, fluctuations in the morphology and position of the zone, and the complex transfer into the sedimentary record.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b31714.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b31714.1",
    openalex = "W2796516379",
    references = "doi101130ges007931"
}

@article{doi101016jprecamres2019105364,
    author = "Köykkä, Juha and Lahtinen, Raimo and Huhma, Hannu",
    title = "Provenance evolution of the Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary cover sequences in northern Fennoscandia: Age distribution, geochemistry, and zircon morphology",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Precambrian Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105364",
    doi = "10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105364",
    openalex = "W2948658621",
    references = "doi101016jmarpetgeo201011002, doi101016jmarpetgeo201506007"
}

An estimated 8.3 billion tonnes of non-biodegradable plastic has been produced over the last 65 years. Much of this is not recycled or disposed of ‘properly’, has a long environmental residence time and accumulates in sedimentary systems worldwide, posing a threat to important ecosystems and potentially human health. We synthesise existing knowledge of seafloor microplastic distribution, and integrate this with process-based sedimentological models of particle transport, to provide new insights, and critically, to identify future research challenges. Compilation of published data shows that microplastics pervade the global seafloor, from abyssal plains to submarine canyons and deep-sea trenches. However, few studies relate microplastic accumulation to sediment transport and deposition. Microplastics may enter directly into the sea as marine litter from shipping and fishing, or indirectly via fluvial and aeolian systems from terrestrial environments. The nature of the entry-point is critical to how terrestrially-sourced microplastics are transferred to offshore sedimentary systems. We present models for physiographic shelf connection types related to the tectono-sedimentary regime of the margin. Beyond the shelf, the principal agents for microplastic transport are: i) gravity-driven transport in sediment-laden flows; ii) settling, or conveyance through biological processes, of material that was formerly floating on the surface or suspended in the water column; iii) transport by thermohaline currents, either during settling or by reworking of deposited microplastics. We compare microplastic settling velocities to natural sediments to understand how appropriate existing sediment transport models are for explaining microplastic dispersal. Based on this analysis, and the relatively well-known behaviour or deep-marine flow types, we explore the expected distribution of microplastic particles, both in individual sedimentary event deposits and within deep-marine depositional systems. Residence time within certain deposit types and depositional environments is anticipated to be variable, which has implications for the likelihood of ingestion and incorporation into the food chain, further transport, or deeper burial. We conclude that integration of process-based sedimentological and stratigraphic knowledge with insights from modern sedimentary systems, and biological activity within them, will provide essential constraints on the transfer of microplastics to deep-marine environments, their distribution and ultimate fate, and the implications that these have for benthic ecosystems.

@article{doi103389feart201900080,
    author = "Kane, Ian and Clare, Michael",
    title = "Dispersion, Accumulation, and the Ultimate Fate of Microplastics in Deep-Marine Environments: A Review and Future Directions",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Frontiers in Earth Science",
    abstract = "An estimated 8.3 billion tonnes of non-biodegradable plastic has been produced over the last 65 years. Much of this is not recycled or disposed of ‘properly’, has a long environmental residence time and accumulates in sedimentary systems worldwide, posing a threat to important ecosystems and potentially human health. We synthesise existing knowledge of seafloor microplastic distribution, and integrate this with process-based sedimentological models of particle transport, to provide new insights, and critically, to identify future research challenges. Compilation of published data shows that microplastics pervade the global seafloor, from abyssal plains to submarine canyons and deep-sea trenches. However, few studies relate microplastic accumulation to sediment transport and deposition. Microplastics may enter directly into the sea as marine litter from shipping and fishing, or indirectly via fluvial and aeolian systems from terrestrial environments. The nature of the entry-point is critical to how terrestrially-sourced microplastics are transferred to offshore sedimentary systems. We present models for physiographic shelf connection types related to the tectono-sedimentary regime of the margin. Beyond the shelf, the principal agents for microplastic transport are: i) gravity-driven transport in sediment-laden flows; ii) settling, or conveyance through biological processes, of material that was formerly floating on the surface or suspended in the water column; iii) transport by thermohaline currents, either during settling or by reworking of deposited microplastics. We compare microplastic settling velocities to natural sediments to understand how appropriate existing sediment transport models are for explaining microplastic dispersal. Based on this analysis, and the relatively well-known behaviour or deep-marine flow types, we explore the expected distribution of microplastic particles, both in individual sedimentary event deposits and within deep-marine depositional systems. Residence time within certain deposit types and depositional environments is anticipated to be variable, which has implications for the likelihood of ingestion and incorporation into the food chain, further transport, or deeper burial. We conclude that integration of process-based sedimentological and stratigraphic knowledge with insights from modern sedimentary systems, and biological activity within them, will provide essential constraints on the transfer of microplastics to deep-marine environments, their distribution and ultimate fate, and the implications that these have for benthic ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00080",
    doi = "10.3389/feart.2019.00080",
    openalex = "W2942579012",
    references = "doi101016jenvpol201302031, doi101016jmarpetgeo200301003, doi101016jmarpolbul201105030, doi101016jmarpolbul201109025, doi101021es201811s, doi101038ncomms15611, doi101098rstb20080205, doi101111j13653091201201353x, doi101126sciadv1700782, doi101126science1094559, doi101126science1260352, doi1013062f9182e316ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi101371journalpone0111913, nardin1979a"
}

The threat posed by plastic pollution to marine ecosystems and human health is under increasing scrutiny. Much of the macro- and microplastic in the ocean ends up on the seafloor, with some of the highest concentrations reported in submarine canyons that intersect the continental shelf and directly connect to terrestrial plastic sources. Gravity-driven avalanches, known as turbidity currents, are the primary process for delivering terrestrial sediment and organic carbon to the deep sea through submarine canyons. However, the ability of turbidity currents to transport and bury plastics is essentially unstudied. Using flume experiments, we investigate how turbidity currents transport microplastics, and their role in differential burial of microplastic fragments and fibers. We show that microplastic fragments become relatively concentrated within the base of turbidity currents, whereas fibers are more homogeneously distributed throughout the flow. Surprisingly, the resultant deposits show an opposing trend, as they are enriched with fibers, rather than fragments. We explain this apparent contradiction by a depositional mechanism whereby fibers are preferentially removed from suspension and buried in the deposits as they are trapped between settling sand-grains. Our results suggest that turbidity currents potentially distribute and bury large quantities of microplastics in seafloor sediments.

@article{doi101021acsest9b07527,
    author = "Pohl, Florian and Eggenhuisen, Joris T. and Kane, Ian and Clare, Michael",
    title = "Transport and Burial of Microplastics in Deep-Marine Sediments by Turbidity Currents",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Environmental Science \& Technology",
    abstract = "The threat posed by plastic pollution to marine ecosystems and human health is under increasing scrutiny. Much of the macro- and microplastic in the ocean ends up on the seafloor, with some of the highest concentrations reported in submarine canyons that intersect the continental shelf and directly connect to terrestrial plastic sources. Gravity-driven avalanches, known as turbidity currents, are the primary process for delivering terrestrial sediment and organic carbon to the deep sea through submarine canyons. However, the ability of turbidity currents to transport and bury plastics is essentially unstudied. Using flume experiments, we investigate how turbidity currents transport microplastics, and their role in differential burial of microplastic fragments and fibers. We show that microplastic fragments become relatively concentrated within the base of turbidity currents, whereas fibers are more homogeneously distributed throughout the flow. Surprisingly, the resultant deposits show an opposing trend, as they are enriched with fibers, rather than fragments. We explain this apparent contradiction by a depositional mechanism whereby fibers are preferentially removed from suspension and buried in the deposits as they are trapped between settling sand-grains. Our results suggest that turbidity currents potentially distribute and bury large quantities of microplastics in seafloor sediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b07527",
    doi = "10.1021/acs.est.9b07527",
    openalex = "W3010378517",
    references = "doi101016jmarpetgeo201506007, doi101016jsedgeo201009010, doi101021acsest8b05297, doi101021acsest9b01517, doi101038ncomms15611, doi101088174893261012124006, doi101098rsos140317, doi101126sciadv1700782, doi101126science1094559, doi101126science1260352, doi101371journalpone0111913, doi102305iucnch201701en, doi103389feart201900080"
}