Eustacy

@techreport{gutenberg1941changes7,
    author = "Gutenberg, B",
    title = "Changes in sea level, post-glacial uplift, and mobility of the earth's interior",
    year = "1941",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 52, p. 721-772",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gutenberg, B., 1941, Changes in sea level, post-glacial uplift, and mobility of the earth's interior: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 52, p. 721-772.}"
}

@misc{russell1957the10,
    author = "Russell, R. J",
    title = "The instability of sea level",
    year = "1957",
    howpublished = "American Scientist, v. 45, p. 414-430",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Russell, R. J., 1957, The instability of sea level: American Scientist, v. 45, p. 414-430.}"
}

@article{chappell1974geology,
    author = "CHAPPELL, JOHN",
    title = "Geology of Coral Terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea: A Study of Quaternary Tectonic Movements and Sea-Level Changes",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<553:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<553:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    number = "4",
    pages = "553",
    volume = "85"
}

@techreport{chappell1974geology1,
    author = "Chappell, J",
    title = "Geology of coral terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea; a study of Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 85, p. 553-570",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Chappell, J., 1974, Geology of coral terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea; a study of Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 85, p. 553-570.}"
}

Emerged coral reef terraces on the Huon Peninsula in New Guinea were reported in a reconnaissance dating study by Veeh and Chappell 1970. Age definition achieved was not good for several important terraces, and we report here a series of new 230 Th/ 234 U dates, which further clarify the history of late Quaternary eustatic sea level fluctuations. More than 20 reef complexes are present, ranging well beyond 250,000 yr old: we are concerned with the seven lowest complexes. Major reef-building episodes dated by 30 Th/ 234 U are reef complex I at 5–9 ka (kilo anno = 1000 yr), r.c. IIIb at 41 ka (four dates), r.c. IV at 61 ka (four dates), r.c. V at 85 ka (two dates), r.c. VI at 107 ka (two dates), and r.c. VII at 118–142 ka. Complex II was previously dated by 14 C at 29 ka: this age has not yet been confirmed, and may be only a lower limit. The reef crests were built during or immediately before intervals of sea level maxima, when rates of rising sea level and tectonic uplift briefly coincided. The culmination of each reef-building episode was only a few thousand years in duration, and multiple dates from the same reef complex generally group within the statistical errors of the individual dates. Several methods can be used to estimate the altitude of each sea level maximum relative to present sea level. The least complicated is to calculate mean tectonic uplift rate for each profile of the terraces, and use the mean rate to calculate the tectonic displacement of each dated reef complex on that profile. The difference between the present altitude of a reef complex and its calculated tectonic uplift gives the paleosea level at the time the reef grew. We estimate uplift rates for six surveyed sections by calibrating against published paleosea level estimates from Barbados and elsewhere, viz 125 ka, paleosea at +6 m; 103 ka, −15 m; 82 ka, −13 m. For each section the individual uplift rates for reefs V, VI, and VIIb are within 5% of their section means. Using the mean rates. paleosea level estimates for reef crests II, IIIB, and IV are made for each section. Consistency of estimates between sections is good, giving −28 m for the 60 ka paleosea level, around −38 m for the 42 ka level and −41 m for the 28 ka level (if the age is older the paleosea level would be lower. Using the mean uplift rates, the 82 ka and 103 ka paleosea levels are also estimated for each section: all individual estimates are plotted graphically, and a sea level curve drawn. The reef stratigraphy indicates sea level lowerings between each dated reef crest: the crests probably represent the interstadials of the Wisconsin (Würm, Weichsel) Glaciation, and intervening lower levels correspond to stadials. Since the last time of eustatic sea level higher than the present (about 125 ka), five sea level maxima occurred at roughly 20-ka intervals, none being as high as the present.

@article{doi1010160033589474900076,
    author = "Bloom, A. L. and Broecker, Wallace S. and Chappell, John and Matthews, R. K. and Mesolella, Kenneth J.",
    title = "Quaternary Sea Level Fluctuations on a Tectonic coast: New 230 Th/ 234 U Dates from the Huon Peninsula, New Guinea",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Emerged coral reef terraces on the Huon Peninsula in New Guinea were reported in a reconnaissance dating study by Veeh and Chappell 1970. Age definition achieved was not good for several important terraces, and we report here a series of new 230 Th/ 234 U dates, which further clarify the history of late Quaternary eustatic sea level fluctuations. More than 20 reef complexes are present, ranging well beyond 250,000 yr old: we are concerned with the seven lowest complexes. Major reef-building episodes dated by 30 Th/ 234 U are reef complex I at 5–9 ka (kilo anno = 1000 yr), r.c. IIIb at 41 ka (four dates), r.c. IV at 61 ka (four dates), r.c. V at 85 ka (two dates), r.c. VI at 107 ka (two dates), and r.c. VII at 118–142 ka. Complex II was previously dated by 14 C at 29 ka: this age has not yet been confirmed, and may be only a lower limit. The reef crests were built during or immediately before intervals of sea level maxima, when rates of rising sea level and tectonic uplift briefly coincided. The culmination of each reef-building episode was only a few thousand years in duration, and multiple dates from the same reef complex generally group within the statistical errors of the individual dates. Several methods can be used to estimate the altitude of each sea level maximum relative to present sea level. The least complicated is to calculate mean tectonic uplift rate for each profile of the terraces, and use the mean rate to calculate the tectonic displacement of each dated reef complex on that profile. The difference between the present altitude of a reef complex and its calculated tectonic uplift gives the paleosea level at the time the reef grew. We estimate uplift rates for six surveyed sections by calibrating against published paleosea level estimates from Barbados and elsewhere, viz 125 ka, paleosea at +6 m; 103 ka, −15 m; 82 ka, −13 m. For each section the individual uplift rates for reefs V, VI, and VIIb are within 5\% of their section means. Using the mean rates. paleosea level estimates for reef crests II, IIIB, and IV are made for each section. Consistency of estimates between sections is good, giving −28 m for the 60 ka paleosea level, around −38 m for the 42 ka level and −41 m for the 28 ka level (if the age is older the paleosea level would be lower. Using the mean uplift rates, the 82 ka and 103 ka paleosea levels are also estimated for each section: all individual estimates are plotted graphically, and a sea level curve drawn. The reef stratigraphy indicates sea level lowerings between each dated reef crest: the crests probably represent the interstadials of the Wisconsin (Würm, Weichsel) Glaciation, and intervening lower levels correspond to stadials. Since the last time of eustatic sea level higher than the present (about 125 ka), five sea level maxima occurred at roughly 20-ka intervals, none being as high as the present.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(74)90007-6",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(74)90007-6",
    openalex = "W1603555063",
    references = "chappell1974geology, doi1010160025322770900496, doi101017cbo9781107325098, doi101029jb077i005p00901, doi101029jz071i014p03379, doi101029rg008i001p00169, doi101086627434, doi101126science1593812297, doi101126science1673919862, doi101126science1834128959, doi10113000167606196778993phob20co2, doi102136sssaj197103615995003500040006x"
}

@article{chappell1975geology,
    author = "CHAPPELL, J.",
    title = "Geology of coral terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea: A study of Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes: Discussion and reply",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<1484:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<1484:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    number = "10",
    pages = "1484",
    volume = "86"
}

@article{ward1975geology,
    author = "WARD, W. T.",
    title = "Geology of coral terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea: A study of Quaternary tectonic movements and sea-level changes: Discussion and reply",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<1482:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0016-7606(1975)86<1482:gocthp>2.0.co;2",
    number = "10",
    pages = "1482",
    volume = "86"
}

@techreport{chappell1976holocene2,
    author = "Chappell, J. and Polach, H. A",
    title = "Holocene sea-level changes and coral reef growth at Huon Peninsula, Papua, New Guinea",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 235-240",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Chappell, J., and Polach, H. A., 1976, Holocene sea-level changes and coral reef growth at Huon Peninsula, Papua, New Guinea: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 235-240.}"
}

@misc{hallam1977secular8,
    author = "Hallam, A",
    title = "Secular changes in marine inundation of USSR and North America during the Phanerozoic",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 269, p. 769-772",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hallam, A., 1977, Secular changes in marine inundation of USSR and North America during the Phanerozoic: Nature, v. 269, p. 769-772.}"
}

@techreport{chappell1978late3,
    author = "Chappell, J. and Vesh, H. H",
    title = "Late Quaternary tectonic movements and sea- level changes at Timor and Atauro Island",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 89, p. 356-368",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Chappell, J., and Vesh, H. H., 1978, Late Quaternary tectonic movements and sea- level changes at Timor and Atauro Island: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 89, p. 356-368.}"
}

@misc{dillon1978late4,
    author = "Dillon, W. P. and Oldale, R. N",
    title = "Late Quaternary sea-level curve",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "reinterpretation based on glaciotectonic influence: Geology, v. 6, p. 56- 60",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dillon, W. P., and Oldale, R. N., 1978, Late Quaternary sea-level curve: reinterpretation based on glaciotectonic influence: Geology, v. 6, p. 56- 60.}"
}

The sea-level rise due to ice-sheet melting since the last glacial maximum was not uniform everywhere because of the deformation of the Earth's surface and its geoid by changing ice and water loads. A numerical model is employed to calculate global changes in relative sea level on a spherical viscoelastic Earth as northern hemisphere ice sheets melt and fill the ocean basins with meltwater. Predictions for the past 16,000 years explain a large proportion of the global variance in the sea-level record, particularly during the Holocene. Results indicate that the oceans can be divided into six zones, each of which is characterized by a specific form of the relative sea-level curve. In four of these zones emerged beaches are predicted, and these may form even at considerable distance from the ice sheets themselves. In the remaining zones submergence is dominant, and no emerged beaches are expected. The close agreement of these predictions with the data suggests that, contrary to the beliefs of many, no net change in ocean volume has occurred during the past 5000 years. Predictions for localities close to the ice sheets are the most in error, suggesting that slight modifications of the assumed melting history and/or the rheological model of the Earth's interior are necessary.

@article{doi1010160033589478900339,
    author = "Clark, J. A. and Farrell, William E. and Peltier, W. R.",
    title = "Global Changes in Postglacial Sea Level: A Numerical Calculation",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "The sea-level rise due to ice-sheet melting since the last glacial maximum was not uniform everywhere because of the deformation of the Earth's surface and its geoid by changing ice and water loads. A numerical model is employed to calculate global changes in relative sea level on a spherical viscoelastic Earth as northern hemisphere ice sheets melt and fill the ocean basins with meltwater. Predictions for the past 16,000 years explain a large proportion of the global variance in the sea-level record, particularly during the Holocene. Results indicate that the oceans can be divided into six zones, each of which is characterized by a specific form of the relative sea-level curve. In four of these zones emerged beaches are predicted, and these may form even at considerable distance from the ice sheets themselves. In the remaining zones submergence is dominant, and no emerged beaches are expected. The close agreement of these predictions with the data suggests that, contrary to the beliefs of many, no net change in ocean volume has occurred during the past 5000 years. Predictions for localities close to the ice sheets are the most in error, suggesting that slight modifications of the assumed melting history and/or the rheological model of the Earth's interior are necessary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(78)90033-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(78)90033-9",
    openalex = "W2094666610",
    references = "doi1010160079194661900040, doi101017s0022143000027386, doi101029jb073i022p07089, doi101029rg010i003p00761, doi101029rg010i004p00849, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01251x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01252x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01253x, doi101126science1914225353, doi1011300016760619647563lqscac20co2, doi101130001676061970811895psotpa20co2, doi1023071550617"
}

@article{donovan1979causes5,
    author = "Donovan, D. T. and Jones, E. J",
    title = "Causes of world-wide changes of sea level",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society, London, v. 136, p. 187-192",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Donovan, D. T., and Jones, E. J., 1979, Causes of world-wide changes of sea level: Journal of the Geological Society, London, v. 136, p. 187-192.}"
}

@misc{gascoyne1979sealevel6,
    author = "Gascoyne, M. and Benjamin, G. J. and Schwartz, H. P",
    title = {Sea-level lowering during the Illinoin glaciation, evidence from a Bahama "blue hole},
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 205, p. 806-808",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gascoyne, M., Benjamin, G. J., and Schwartz, H. P., 1979, Sea-level lowering during the Illinoin glaciation, evidence from a Bahama "blue hole": Science, v. 205, p. 806-808.}}
}

Carbonatites are igneous rocks formed in the crust by fractional crystallization of carbonate-rich parental melts that are mostly mantle derived. They dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, and ankerite, as well as minor...Read More

@article{doi101146annurevea12050184001225,
    author = "Hallam, A.",
    title = "Pre-Quaternary Sea-Level Changes",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "Carbonatites are igneous rocks formed in the crust by fractional crystallization of carbonate-rich parental melts that are mostly mantle derived. They dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, and ankerite, as well as minor...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.001225",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ea.12.050184.001225",
    openalex = "W2112243095",
    references = "cogley1981late, doi1010160012821x78900717, doi1010160031018281900924, doi1010160079194661900040, doi101016b0080437516071036, doi101029jc082i027p03843, doi101086627723, doi101126science21545391501, doi1011300016760619637493sitcio20co2, doi101130001676061978891389rbeass20co2, doi101144gsjgs13720171, doi1013062f91892d16ce11d78645000102c1865d, donovan1979causes, hallam1977secular, openalexw597633443, openalexw623436458"
}

Abstract Seventeen global unconformities and their correlative conformities (sequence boundaries) subdivide the strata of the Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous into genetic sequences produced by 16 eustatic cycles. These 16 cycles make up the Jurassic supercycle. Eight of the global unformities are both subaerial and submarine (Type 1), and are believed to have been caused by rapid eustatic falls of sea level. Nine of the unconformities are subaerial only (Type 2), and are believed to be related to slow eustatic falls of sea level. In addition, 16 marine condensed sections (starved intervals) have been identified. These condensed sections are interpreted to be related to rapid eustatic rises of sea level. Unconformity recognition is locally or regionally enhanced by periodic truncation of folded and faulted strata during sea-level lowstands and onlap onto topographic highs during sea-level highstands, but we find no evidence that the tectonics caused the global unconformities. The 16 eustatic cycles that make up the Jurassic supercycle correspond to 16 global chronostratigraphic intervals that subdivide Jurassic strata into a series of genetic sequences, which are recognizable from seismic, well and outcrop data. The Jurassic unconformities and the stratal and facies patterns between them are caused by the interaction of basement subsidence, eustatic changes of sea level, and differing sediment supply. Detailed analyses of the sediments with seismic stratigraphy and well data permit quantification of the subsidence history and reconstruction of paleoenvironment and sea-level changes through time. The intergrated use of seismic stratigraphy and biostratigraphy provides a better geologic age history than could be obtained by either method alone. Paleobathymetry, sediment facies, and relative changes of sea level can be interpreted from seismic data and confirmed or improved on by well control. Geohistory analysis based on geologic time-depth diagrams provides a quantitative analysis of total basin subsidence. When this subsidence is corrected for compaction and sediment loading, the tectonic subsidence and long-term eustatic changes may be determined. Short-term, rapid changes of sea level can be demonstrated from seismic, well and outcrop data. The stratigraphic resolution of these changes rarely allows exact quantification of their magnitude, but a minimum rate of change of sea level often can be determined.

@incollection{doi105724gcs84030347,
    author = "Vail, Peter R. and Hardenbol, Jan and Todd, R. G.",
    title = "Jurassic Unconformities, Chronostratigraphy and Sea-Level Changes from Seismic Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy",
    year = "1984",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "Abstract Seventeen global unconformities and their correlative conformities (sequence boundaries) subdivide the strata of the Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous into genetic sequences produced by 16 eustatic cycles. These 16 cycles make up the Jurassic supercycle. Eight of the global unformities are both subaerial and submarine (Type 1), and are believed to have been caused by rapid eustatic falls of sea level. Nine of the unconformities are subaerial only (Type 2), and are believed to be related to slow eustatic falls of sea level. In addition, 16 marine condensed sections (starved intervals) have been identified. These condensed sections are interpreted to be related to rapid eustatic rises of sea level. Unconformity recognition is locally or regionally enhanced by periodic truncation of folded and faulted strata during sea-level lowstands and onlap onto topographic highs during sea-level highstands, but we find no evidence that the tectonics caused the global unconformities. The 16 eustatic cycles that make up the Jurassic supercycle correspond to 16 global chronostratigraphic intervals that subdivide Jurassic strata into a series of genetic sequences, which are recognizable from seismic, well and outcrop data. The Jurassic unconformities and the stratal and facies patterns between them are caused by the interaction of basement subsidence, eustatic changes of sea level, and differing sediment supply. Detailed analyses of the sediments with seismic stratigraphy and well data permit quantification of the subsidence history and reconstruction of paleoenvironment and sea-level changes through time. The intergrated use of seismic stratigraphy and biostratigraphy provides a better geologic age history than could be obtained by either method alone. Paleobathymetry, sediment facies, and relative changes of sea level can be interpreted from seismic data and confirmed or improved on by well control. Geohistory analysis based on geologic time-depth diagrams provides a quantitative analysis of total basin subsidence. When this subsidence is corrected for compaction and sediment loading, the tectonic subsidence and long-term eustatic changes may be determined. Short-term, rapid changes of sea level can be demonstrated from seismic, well and outcrop data. The stratigraphic resolution of these changes rarely allows exact quantification of their magnitude, but a minimum rate of change of sea level often can be determined.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5724/gcs.84.03.0347",
    doi = "10.5724/gcs.84.03.0347",
    openalex = "W1574646141",
    references = "doi101017s0016756800057800, doi101038246018a0, doi101098rsta19800021, doi101130001676061978891389rbeass20co2, doi101306c1ea481516c911d78645000102c1865d, donovan1979causes, openalexw1521644843, openalexw657752760"
}

@misc{laferriere1987effects9,
    author = "Laferriere, A. P. and Hattin, D. E. and Archer, A. W",
    title = "Effects of climate, tectonics, and sea-level changes on rhymthmic bedding patterns in the Niobrara Formation (Upper Cretaceous), U.S. Western Interior",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 15, p. 233-236",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Laferriere, A. P., Hattin, D. E., and Archer, A. W., 1987, Effects of climate, tectonics, and sea-level changes on rhymthmic bedding patterns in the Niobrara Formation (Upper Cretaceous), U.S. Western Interior: Geology, v. 15, p. 233-236.}"
}

@article{doi101016s0016787889800276,
    author = "Hancock, Jake M.",
    title = "Sea-level changes in the British region during the Late Cretaceous",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Geologists Association",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7878(89)80027-6",
    doi = "10.1016/s0016-7878(89)80027-6",
    openalex = "W1989763349",
    references = "cobban1984midcretaceous, doi102110pec88010003"
}

Cretaceous transgressive regressive cycles over the northern margins of the Arabo‐Nubian craton in the region of present‐ day Israel and the adjacent countries were reconstructed by tracing the position of the ancient Tethyan shorelines. Many of these cycles suggest inverse relationships to the relative sea‐level changes deduced from litho‐ and biofacies analyses. Transgressions are frequently associated with shallowing, resulting in local exposure. The following rapid relative sea‐level rise is associated with regressive oscillations caused by prograding sedimentation. Generally, the relative sea‐level gradually rose throughout the Cretaceous, as reflected by the onlapping trend of the marine sediments. With the exception of one greater relative sea‐level drop in the Middle Turonian, probably tectonically induced, all other relative sea‐level variations were short stillstands and very minor falls. The dominant tectonic control on the relative sea‐level changes and transgressive‐ regressive cycles during the Late Coniacian‐Maastrichtian times, and on the Middle Turonian and early Late Coniacian shallowing events recognised in Israel render their previous attribution exclusively to eustasy erroneous. The opposing relationship between relative bathymetric changes and transgressive‐regressive tendencies, as well as the poor biostratigraphic control in many of the sea‐level curves compiled on the basis of these two criteria, raise additional doubts as to their presumed significance for global correlations. The present study supports Jeletzky's [1977, 1978] critical analysis, and his call for similar critical re‐evaluation of previous studies throughout the world, rather than the “emendation” of data to improve correlation to a given scheme.

@article{doi101029pa005i004p00619,
    author = "Lewy, Zeev",
    title = "Transgressions, regressions and relative sea level changes on the Cretaceous shelf of Israel and adjacent countries. A critical evaluation of Cretaceous global sea level correlations",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Paleoceanography",
    abstract = "Cretaceous transgressive regressive cycles over the northern margins of the Arabo‐Nubian craton in the region of present‐ day Israel and the adjacent countries were reconstructed by tracing the position of the ancient Tethyan shorelines. Many of these cycles suggest inverse relationships to the relative sea‐level changes deduced from litho‐ and biofacies analyses. Transgressions are frequently associated with shallowing, resulting in local exposure. The following rapid relative sea‐level rise is associated with regressive oscillations caused by prograding sedimentation. Generally, the relative sea‐level gradually rose throughout the Cretaceous, as reflected by the onlapping trend of the marine sediments. With the exception of one greater relative sea‐level drop in the Middle Turonian, probably tectonically induced, all other relative sea‐level variations were short stillstands and very minor falls. The dominant tectonic control on the relative sea‐level changes and transgressive‐ regressive cycles during the Late Coniacian‐Maastrichtian times, and on the Middle Turonian and early Late Coniacian shallowing events recognised in Israel render their previous attribution exclusively to eustasy erroneous. The opposing relationship between relative bathymetric changes and transgressive‐regressive tendencies, as well as the poor biostratigraphic control in many of the sea‐level curves compiled on the basis of these two criteria, raise additional doubts as to their presumed significance for global correlations. The present study supports Jeletzky's [1977, 1978] critical analysis, and his call for similar critical re‐evaluation of previous studies throughout the world, rather than the “emendation” of data to improve correlation to a given scheme.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/pa005i004p00619",
    doi = "10.1029/pa005i004p00619",
    openalex = "W2148119735",
    references = "doi102110pec88010003"
}

@article{doi101038346456a0,
    author = "Bard, Édouard and Hamelin, Bruno and Fairbanks, Richard G.",
    title = "U-Th ages obtained by mass spectrometry in corals from Barbados: sea level during the past 130,000 years",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/346456a0",
    doi = "10.1038/346456a0",
    openalex = "W2022716702",
    references = "doi101126science1593812297"
}

@misc{wang1990holocene11,
    author = "Wang, C.-H. and Burnett, W. C",
    title = "Holocene mean uplift rates across an active plate-collision boundary in Taiwan",
    year = "1990",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 248, p. 204-206",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Wang, C.-H., and Burnett, W. C., 1990, Holocene mean uplift rates across an active plate-collision boundary in Taiwan: Science, v. 248, p. 204-206.}"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x96000623,
    author = "Chappell, John and Omura, Akio and Esat, T. M. and McCulloch, Malcolm T. and Pandolfi, John M. and Ôta, Yôko and Pillans, Brad",
    title = "Reconciliaion of late Quaternary sea levels derived from coral terraces at Huon Peninsula with deep sea oxygen isotope records",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(96)00062-3",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(96)00062-3",
    openalex = "W2167451751",
    references = "chappell1974geology, doi1010160012821x86901081, doi1010160012821x87901543, doi1010160012825272900384, doi101016003101828690101x, doi1010160033589474900076, doi1010160033589487900469, doi1010160277379187900035, doi101038324137a0, doi101038366552a0, openalexw653466241"
}

Sea level change during the Quaternary is primarily a consequence of the cyclic growth and decay of ice sheets, resulting in a complex spatial and temporal pattern. Observations of this variability provide constraints on the timing, rates, and magnitudes of the changes in ice mass during a glacial cycle, as well as more limited information on the distribution of ice between the major ice sheets at any time. Observations of glacially induced sea level changes also provide information on the response of the mantle to surface loading on time scales of 10(3) to 10(5) years. Regional analyses indicate that the earth-response function is depth dependent as well as spatially variable. Comprehensive models of sea level change enable the migration of coastlines to be predicted during glacial cycles, including the anthropologically important period from about 60,000 to 20,000 years ago.

@article{doi101126science1059549,
    author = "Lambeck, Kurt and Chappell, John",
    title = "Sea Level Change Through the Last Glacial Cycle",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Sea level change during the Quaternary is primarily a consequence of the cyclic growth and decay of ice sheets, resulting in a complex spatial and temporal pattern. Observations of this variability provide constraints on the timing, rates, and magnitudes of the changes in ice mass during a glacial cycle, as well as more limited information on the distribution of ice between the major ice sheets at any time. Observations of glacially induced sea level changes also provide information on the response of the mantle to surface loading on time scales of 10(3) to 10(5) years. Regional analyses indicate that the earth-response function is depth dependent as well as spatially variable. Comprehensive models of sea level change enable the migration of coastlines to be predicted during glacial cycles, including the anthropologically important period from about 60,000 to 20,000 years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059549",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1059549",
    openalex = "W2109459276",
    references = "doi1010160012821x96000623, doi10102990jb01583, doi10102995jb03208, doi101029jb089ib07p06003, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101038324137a0, doi101038342637a0, doi10103835021035, doi101038365143a0, doi101038382241a0, doi101046j1365246x199800541x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01252x, doi101111j1365246x1989tb06010x, doi101126science2655169195, doi101126science28854681033, doi101126science28954861897, doi101144gsjgs15230437, doi101146annurevea12050184001225, doi1023073673075, openalexw2260624936"
}

This paper presents a combined analysis of geological and geophysical data collected both onshore and offshore along the northwestern Peru forearc area (3°30′–7°30′S), from the coastal plain to the trench axis. Onshore, geomorphic analysis places constraints on the relative importance of eustatic versus tectonic factors in preserving and modifying the uplifted coastal landforms along the coastal plain. Breaking‐wave morphologic markers were dated using the in situ produced 10 Be cosmonuclide. The data document a tectonic segmentation, allowing us to differentiate two areas with regard to their evolution through time: the northern Cabo Blanco and the southern Paita‐Illesca segments. For the past 200 kyr, both segments uplifted at high rates of 10 to 20 mm yr −1 through tectonic pulses coeval with the eustatic deglacial sea level rises of isotope stage 1 and warm isotope substage 5e, respectively. The uplift and related extensive emersion of the coastal plain require high coupling along the subduction zone and/or underplating at depth. Offshore, industry‐acquired reflection seismic lines combined with EM12 bathymetric data allow us to investigate the tectonic regime and deformation of the continental margin and shelf. Major dipping seaward detachments control the long‐term subsidence of this area. These main tectonic features define a tectonic segmentation. The Talara, Paita, and Sechura segments are identified from north to south. No clear tectonic correlation in time exists between the onshore and the continental margin segmentations, or in space either. The long‐term subsidence of the offshore, indicative of subduction erosion working at depth, requires low coupling along the subduction channel at depth. The distribution of permanent deformation along the northern Peru forearc area includes long‐term uplift along the coastal plain and long‐term subsidence along the continental margin, the neutral line being located within the 10 km seaward from the Present coastline. An extensive sequence of raised marine cliffs and associated notches evidences that the most recent uplift step (20–23 ka to Present) along the Cabo Blanco segment is related to a sequence of major earthquakes. We infer that eustacy exerts important feedback coupling to the seismogenic behavior of the North Peru subduction zone. We speculate that during sea level fall, pore fluid pressure diminishes along the subduction channel inducing a possible seaward migration of the locked zone (i.e., migration of the updip limit) reaching a maximum by the end of the eustatic low stand. During eustatic sea level rise, pore fluid pressure increases along the subduction channel. This in turn is capable of weakening the previously locked zone along the plate interface beginning an earthquake sequence. Earth's orbital variations are a potential external cause that may control the physical processes at work along plate interface.

@article{doi1010292006jb004491,
    author = "Bourgois, Jacques and Bigot‐Cormier, Florence and Bourlès, Didier and Braucher, Régis and Dauteuil, Olivier and Witt, César and Michaud, François",
    title = "Tectonic record of strain buildup and abrupt coseismic stress release across the northwestern Peru coastal plain, shelf, and continental slope during the past 200 kyr",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "This paper presents a combined analysis of geological and geophysical data collected both onshore and offshore along the northwestern Peru forearc area (3°30′–7°30′S), from the coastal plain to the trench axis. Onshore, geomorphic analysis places constraints on the relative importance of eustatic versus tectonic factors in preserving and modifying the uplifted coastal landforms along the coastal plain. Breaking‐wave morphologic markers were dated using the in situ produced 10 Be cosmonuclide. The data document a tectonic segmentation, allowing us to differentiate two areas with regard to their evolution through time: the northern Cabo Blanco and the southern Paita‐Illesca segments. For the past 200 kyr, both segments uplifted at high rates of 10 to 20 mm yr −1 through tectonic pulses coeval with the eustatic deglacial sea level rises of isotope stage 1 and warm isotope substage 5e, respectively. The uplift and related extensive emersion of the coastal plain require high coupling along the subduction zone and/or underplating at depth. Offshore, industry‐acquired reflection seismic lines combined with EM12 bathymetric data allow us to investigate the tectonic regime and deformation of the continental margin and shelf. Major dipping seaward detachments control the long‐term subsidence of this area. These main tectonic features define a tectonic segmentation. The Talara, Paita, and Sechura segments are identified from north to south. No clear tectonic correlation in time exists between the onshore and the continental margin segmentations, or in space either. The long‐term subsidence of the offshore, indicative of subduction erosion working at depth, requires low coupling along the subduction channel at depth. The distribution of permanent deformation along the northern Peru forearc area includes long‐term uplift along the coastal plain and long‐term subsidence along the continental margin, the neutral line being located within the 10 km seaward from the Present coastline. An extensive sequence of raised marine cliffs and associated notches evidences that the most recent uplift step (20–23 ka to Present) along the Cabo Blanco segment is related to a sequence of major earthquakes. We infer that eustacy exerts important feedback coupling to the seismogenic behavior of the North Peru subduction zone. We speculate that during sea level fall, pore fluid pressure diminishes along the subduction channel inducing a possible seaward migration of the locked zone (i.e., migration of the updip limit) reaching a maximum by the end of the eustatic low stand. During eustatic sea level rise, pore fluid pressure increases along the subduction channel. This in turn is capable of weakening the previously locked zone along the plate interface beginning an earthquake sequence. Earth's orbital variations are a potential external cause that may control the physical processes at work along plate interface.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2006jb004491",
    doi = "10.1029/2006jb004491",
    openalex = "W2033849427",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190220c, doi101016s0895981102000184, doi1010292000jb900181, doi10102991rg00969, doi101029jb088ib06p04984, doi101038324137a0, doi10103835008046, doi101038382241a0, doi101046j136521172001001452x, doi101146annurevearth261643"
}

During the last interglacial period, ~125,000 years ago, sea level was at least several meters higher than at present, with substantial variability observed for peak sea level at geographically diverse sites. Speculation that the West Antarctic ice sheet collapsed during the last interglacial period has drawn particular interest to understanding climate and ice-sheet dynamics during this time interval. We provide an internally consistent database of coral U-Th ages to assess last interglacial sea-level observations in the context of isostatic modeling and stratigraphic evidence. These data indicate that global (eustatic) sea level peaked 5.5 to 9 meters above present sea level, requiring smaller ice sheets in both Greenland and Antarctica relative to today and indicating strong sea-level sensitivity to small changes in radiative forcing.

@article{doi101126science1205749,
    author = "Dutton, Andrea and Lambeck, Kurt",
    title = "Ice Volume and Sea Level During the Last Interglacial",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "During the last interglacial period, \textasciitilde 125,000 years ago, sea level was at least several meters higher than at present, with substantial variability observed for peak sea level at geographically diverse sites. Speculation that the West Antarctic ice sheet collapsed during the last interglacial period has drawn particular interest to understanding climate and ice-sheet dynamics during this time interval. We provide an internally consistent database of coral U-Th ages to assess last interglacial sea-level observations in the context of isostatic modeling and stratigraphic evidence. These data indicate that global (eustatic) sea level peaked 5.5 to 9 meters above present sea level, requiring smaller ice sheets in both Greenland and Antarctica relative to today and indicating strong sea-level sensitivity to small changes in radiative forcing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1205749",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1205749",
    openalex = "W1994155113"
}

Due to their outstanding resolution and well-constrained chronologies, Greenland ice-core records provide a master record of past climatic changes throughout the Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle in the North Atlantic region. As part of the INTIMATE (INTegration of Ice-core, MArine and TErrestrial records) project, protocols have been proposed to ensure consistent and robust correlation between different records of past climate. A key element of these protocols has been the formal definition and ordinal numbering of the sequence of Greenland Stadials (GS) and Greenland Interstadials (GI) within the most recent glacial period. The GS and GI periods are the Greenland expressions of the characteristic Dansgaard–Oeschger events that represent cold and warm phases of the North Atlantic region, respectively. We present here a more detailed and extended GS/GI template for the whole of the Last Glacial period. It is based on a synchronization of the NGRIP, GRIP, and GISP2 ice-core records that allows the parallel analysis of all three records on a common time scale. The boundaries of the GS and GI periods are defined based on a combination of stable-oxygen isotope ratios of the ice (δ18O, reflecting mainly local temperature) and calcium ion concentrations (reflecting mainly atmospheric dust loading) measured in the ice. The data not only resolve the well-known sequence of Dansgaard–Oeschger events that were first defined and numbered in the ice-core records more than two decades ago, but also better resolve a number of short-lived climatic oscillations, some defined here for the first time. Using this revised scheme, we propose a consistent approach for discriminating and naming all the significant abrupt climatic events of the Last Glacial period that are represented in the Greenland ice records. The final product constitutes an extended and better resolved Greenland stratotype sequence, against which other proxy records can be compared and correlated. It also provides a more secure basis for investigating the dynamics and fundamental causes of these climatic perturbations.

@article{doi101016jquascirev201409007,
    author = "Rasmussen, Sune Olander and Bigler, Matthias and Blockley, Simon and Blunier, Thomas and Buchardt, S. L. and Clausen, Henrik and Cvijanović, Ivana and Dahl‐Jensen, Dorthe and Johnsen, S. J. and Fischer, Hubertus and Gkinis, Vasileios and Guillevic, Myriam and Hoek, Wim Z. and Lowe, J. John and Pedro, Joel B and Popp, Trevor and Seierstad, Inger K and Steffensen, J. P. and Svensson, Anders and Vallelonga, Paul and Vinther, Bo and Walker, Mike and Wheatley, J. J. and Winstrup, Mai",
    title = "A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the Last Glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Quaternary Science Reviews",
    abstract = "Due to their outstanding resolution and well-constrained chronologies, Greenland ice-core records provide a master record of past climatic changes throughout the Last Interglacial–Glacial cycle in the North Atlantic region. As part of the INTIMATE (INTegration of Ice-core, MArine and TErrestrial records) project, protocols have been proposed to ensure consistent and robust correlation between different records of past climate. A key element of these protocols has been the formal definition and ordinal numbering of the sequence of Greenland Stadials (GS) and Greenland Interstadials (GI) within the most recent glacial period. The GS and GI periods are the Greenland expressions of the characteristic Dansgaard–Oeschger events that represent cold and warm phases of the North Atlantic region, respectively. We present here a more detailed and extended GS/GI template for the whole of the Last Glacial period. It is based on a synchronization of the NGRIP, GRIP, and GISP2 ice-core records that allows the parallel analysis of all three records on a common time scale. The boundaries of the GS and GI periods are defined based on a combination of stable-oxygen isotope ratios of the ice (δ18O, reflecting mainly local temperature) and calcium ion concentrations (reflecting mainly atmospheric dust loading) measured in the ice. The data not only resolve the well-known sequence of Dansgaard–Oeschger events that were first defined and numbered in the ice-core records more than two decades ago, but also better resolve a number of short-lived climatic oscillations, some defined here for the first time. Using this revised scheme, we propose a consistent approach for discriminating and naming all the significant abrupt climatic events of the Last Glacial period that are represented in the Greenland ice records. The final product constitutes an extended and better resolved Greenland stratotype sequence, against which other proxy records can be compared and correlated. It also provides a more secure basis for investigating the dynamics and fundamental causes of these climatic perturbations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.007",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.007",
    openalex = "W2007331923",
    references = "doi101002jqs1227, doi101002jqs2565, doi101002sici1099141719980708134283aidjqs38630co2a, doi1010160033589488900579, doi101016jquascirev200608002, doi1010292003rg000128, doi1010292005jd006079, doi10102996jc03365, doi10102997jc00880, doi10103829447, doi101038359311a0, doi101038360245a0, doi101038362527a0, doi101038364218a0, doi101038nature01690, doi101038nature02805, doi101038nature05301, doi101038nature08686, doi101038nature11789, doi101126science1157707, doi101126science2915501109, doi105194cp4472008"
}

This work utilizes the current understanding of South Carolina geology to provide a stratigraphic review of the late-Pliocene and Pleistocene marine deposits. Almost two centuries of recorded geological study includes geomorphic and stratigraphic units that were described, proposed, revised, abandoned, and revived. Along with the history of the age assignments, changes in geological time scales, and the changes in the understanding of geological concepts, this review is necessary because two concurrent and conflicting stratigraphies exist for late-Pliocene and Pleistocene marine sediments that record multiple sea-level transgressions that were more often destructive than constructive. The result, when tested against existing geological data covering >22,000 km2, is a set of interpretations providing a revised and unified geomorphic and stratigraphic nomenclature. Eleven stratigraphic units occur only in the subsurface. Ten Plio-Pleistocene highstand deposits are preserved at the surface: one Pliocene, eight Pleistocene, and the current transgression. When the Pleistocene highstand elevations and geochronology were compared to sea-level reconstructions, based on predicted elevations from marine isotope studies, only two highstands matched. Other observed highstand elevations are higher than predicted by reconstructions. The factors affecting relative sea-level changes were studied to rectify the gap between the observed and predicted elevations. When applied, the factors partially reduce the gap; however, the results suggest that the processes affecting post-depositional changes in shoreline elevations are complex and not completely understood.

@article{openalexw47560717,
    author = "Doar, William R.",
    title = "The Geologic Implications of the Factors that Affected Relative Sea-level Positions in South Carolina During the Pleistocene and the Associated Preserved High-stand Deposits",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina)",
    abstract = "This work utilizes the current understanding of South Carolina geology to provide a stratigraphic review of the late-Pliocene and Pleistocene marine deposits. Almost two centuries of recorded geological study includes geomorphic and stratigraphic units that were described, proposed, revised, abandoned, and revived. Along with the history of the age assignments, changes in geological time scales, and the changes in the understanding of geological concepts, this review is necessary because two concurrent and conflicting stratigraphies exist for late-Pliocene and Pleistocene marine sediments that record multiple sea-level transgressions that were more often destructive than constructive. The result, when tested against existing geological data covering >22,000 km2, is a set of interpretations providing a revised and unified geomorphic and stratigraphic nomenclature. Eleven stratigraphic units occur only in the subsurface. Ten Plio-Pleistocene highstand deposits are preserved at the surface: one Pliocene, eight Pleistocene, and the current transgression. When the Pleistocene highstand elevations and geochronology were compared to sea-level reconstructions, based on predicted elevations from marine isotope studies, only two highstands matched. Other observed highstand elevations are higher than predicted by reconstructions. The factors affecting relative sea-level changes were studied to rectify the gap between the observed and predicted elevations. When applied, the factors partially reduce the gap; however, the results suggest that the processes affecting post-depositional changes in shoreline elevations are complex and not completely understood.",
    openalex = "W47560717",
    references = "doi101002jqs1338, doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101038346456a0, doi101126science28954861897, doi1011270078042120110011, doi102110pec95040129, openalexw2912219260, ward1975geology"
}

There is considerable uncertainty about future sea‐level projections due to the current poor understanding of the vulnerability and sensitivity of ice sheets to global warming. Fossil coral reefs represent a unique archive of sea‐level and associated environmental changes that extend far beyond instrumental records. Here, recent advances in this field are summarized, focusing on periods of Earth history typified by rapid sea‐level rise and short‐term climate excursions. Sea‐level and reef response records from the Last Deglaciation, and periods characterized by higher sea‐level stands and short‐term and low‐magnitude sea‐level oscillations such as the Mid to Late Holocene and the Last Interglacial are synthesised. Special emphasis is given to understanding how coral reefs have responded to these changes in terms of reef development, architecture and composition. Finally, seven major challenges and future research directions are identified.

@article{camoin2015coral,
    author = "Camoin, Gilbert F. and Webster, Jody M.",
    title = "Coral reef response to Quaternary sea‐level and environmental changes: State of the science",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "There is considerable uncertainty about future sea‐level projections due to the current poor understanding of the vulnerability and sensitivity of ice sheets to global warming. Fossil coral reefs represent a unique archive of sea‐level and associated environmental changes that extend far beyond instrumental records. Here, recent advances in this field are summarized, focusing on periods of Earth history typified by rapid sea‐level rise and short‐term climate excursions. Sea‐level and reef response records from the Last Deglaciation, and periods characterized by higher sea‐level stands and short‐term and low‐magnitude sea‐level oscillations such as the Mid to Late Holocene and the Last Interglacial are synthesised. Special emphasis is given to understanding how coral reefs have responded to these changes in terms of reef development, architecture and composition. Finally, seven major challenges and future research directions are identified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12184",
    doi = "10.1111/sed.12184",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2048693638",
    pages = "401-428",
    volume = "62",
    references = "doi1010160012821x87901543, doi101016jquascirev200504007, doi101016jquascirev200604010, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101038342637a0, doi101038346456a0, doi101038382241a0, doi101073pnas1411762111, doi101126science2655169195, doi1023073514674"
}

Interdisciplinary studies of geologic archives have ushered in a new era of deciphering magnitudes, rates, and sources of sea-level rise from polar ice-sheet loss during past warm periods. Accounting for glacial isostatic processes helps to reconcile spatial variability in peak sea level during marine isotope stages 5e and 11, when the global mean reached 6 to 9 meters and 6 to 13 meters higher than present, respectively. Dynamic topography introduces large uncertainties on longer time scales, precluding robust sea-level estimates for intervals such as the Pliocene. Present climate is warming to a level associated with significant polar ice-sheet loss in the past. Here, we outline advances and challenges involved in constraining ice-sheet sensitivity to climate change with use of paleo-sea level records.

@article{doi101126scienceaaa4019,
    author = "Dutton, Andrea and Carlson, Anders E. and Long, Antony J. and Milne, Glenn A. and Clark, Peter U. and DeConto, Robert M. and Horton, Benjamin P. and Rahmstorf, Stefan and Raymo, Maureen E.",
    title = "Sea-level rise due to polar ice-sheet mass loss during past warm periods",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Interdisciplinary studies of geologic archives have ushered in a new era of deciphering magnitudes, rates, and sources of sea-level rise from polar ice-sheet loss during past warm periods. Accounting for glacial isostatic processes helps to reconcile spatial variability in peak sea level during marine isotope stages 5e and 11, when the global mean reached 6 to 9 meters and 6 to 13 meters higher than present, respectively. Dynamic topography introduces large uncertainties on longer time scales, precluding robust sea-level estimates for intervals such as the Pliocene. Present climate is warming to a level associated with significant polar ice-sheet loss in the past. Here, we outline advances and challenges involved in constraining ice-sheet sensitivity to climate change with use of paleo-sea level records.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa4019",
    doi = "10.1126/science.aaa4019",
    openalex = "W1733916393",
    references = "camoin2015coral, doi1010160033589478900339, doi101016s0012821x98001988, doi101016s0277379101000713, doi101017cbo9781107415324, doi1010292004pa001071, doi10102990jb01583, doi101038342637a0, doi101038nature01690, doi101038nature08686, doi101038nature11593, doi101038nature11789, doi101046j1365246x199800541x, doi101073pnas1411762111, doi101126science1059412, doi101126science1059549, doi101126science1141038, doi101126science1172873, doi101146annurevearth32082503144359, openalexw2924055038, openalexw2939474406"
}

@article{braithwaite2016coralreef,
    author = "Braithwaite, Colin J.R.",
    title = "Coral-reef records of Quaternary changes in climate and sea-level",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.03.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.03.002",
    openalex = "W2300063794",
    pages = "137-154",
    volume = "156",
    references = "camoin2015coral, doi1010160033589488900579, doi101038342637a0, doi101038360245a0, doi101038364218a0, doi101038366552a0, doi101038nature06692, doi101126science1064618, doi101126science1116448, doi101126science27853411257, doi101146annurevmarine010908163834"
}

This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.

@article{doi101016jquaint201706025,
    author = "Benjamín, Jonathan and Rovere, Alessio and Fontana, Alessandro and Furlani, Stefano and Vacchi, Matteo and Inglis, Robyn and Galili, Ehud and Antonioli, Fabrizio and Sivan, Dorit and Miko, Slobodan and Mourtzas, Nikos and Felja, Igor and Meredith‐Williams, Matthew and Goodman‐Tchernov, Beverly and Kolaiti, Eleni and Anzidei, Marco and Gehrels, W. Roland",
    title = "Late Quaternary sea-level changes and early human societies in the central and eastern Mediterranean Basin: An interdisciplinary review",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Quaternary International",
    abstract = "This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.025",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.025",
    openalex = "W2738023605",
    references = "doi1010022015rg000482, doi101073pnas0903532106, doi101073pnas0914088107, doi105194cp1210792016"
}

Abstract Global variations in reef productivity during the Quaternary depend on external parameters that may alter the global chemical balance in the oceans and atmosphere. We designed a numerical model that simulates reef growth, erosion, and sedimentation on coastlines undergoing sea level oscillations, and uplift or subsidence. We further develop a probabilistic evaluation that accounts for variable vertical ground motion, erosion, and foundation morphologies. Absolute sea level change appears primordial, as productivity must have increased by an order of magnitude since the onset of the glacial cycles, ∼2.6 Ma. But most important is relative sea level change, i.e., eustasy modulated by uplift or subsidence, that rejuvenates the accommodation space and exposes pristine domains of the shore to active reefs at each cycle. Integrated over the long‐term, vertical land motion sets the pace of reef growth: productivity in tectonically unstable domains is thus expected to be up to 10 times higher than in stable regions, if any. We quantify the global length of reef coasts and the probability density functions for slopes and uplift rates. Productivity waxes during transgressions to reach 2–8 and wanes during highstands, which may contribute to increase atmospheric p CO 2 by several tens of ppm during deglaciations. Over the last 1.5 Ma, reefs precipitated ∼0.8 × 10 6 (∼500 × 10 3 km 3), the equivalent of a 1 m‐thick layer spread over the entire surface of the Earth. This production modulates the calcium budget, for it represents some 30% of the modern Ca flux in the ocean.

@article{doi1010022017gc007335,
    author = "Husson, Laurent and Pastier, Anne‐Morwenn and Pedoja, Kévin and Elliot, Mary and Paillard, Didier and Authémayou, Christine and Sarr, Anta‐Clarisse and Schmitt, Anaïs and Cahyarini, Sri Yudawati",
    title = "Reef Carbonate Productivity During Quaternary Sea Level Oscillations",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Abstract Global variations in reef productivity during the Quaternary depend on external parameters that may alter the global chemical balance in the oceans and atmosphere. We designed a numerical model that simulates reef growth, erosion, and sedimentation on coastlines undergoing sea level oscillations, and uplift or subsidence. We further develop a probabilistic evaluation that accounts for variable vertical ground motion, erosion, and foundation morphologies. Absolute sea level change appears primordial, as productivity must have increased by an order of magnitude since the onset of the glacial cycles, ∼2.6 Ma. But most important is relative sea level change, i.e., eustasy modulated by uplift or subsidence, that rejuvenates the accommodation space and exposes pristine domains of the shore to active reefs at each cycle. Integrated over the long‐term, vertical land motion sets the pace of reef growth: productivity in tectonically unstable domains is thus expected to be up to 10 times higher than in stable regions, if any. We quantify the global length of reef coasts and the probability density functions for slopes and uplift rates. Productivity waxes during transgressions to reach 2–8 and wanes during highstands, which may contribute to increase atmospheric p CO 2 by several tens of ppm during deglaciations. Over the last 1.5 Ma, reefs precipitated ∼0.8 × 10 6 (∼500 × 10 3 km 3), the equivalent of a 1 m‐thick layer spread over the entire surface of the Earth. This production modulates the calcium budget, for it represents some 30\% of the modern Ca flux in the ocean.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gc007335",
    doi = "10.1002/2017gc007335",
    openalex = "W2795060108",
    references = "braithwaite2016coralreef, camoin2015coral"
}

Mid- to late-Holocene sea-level records from low-latitude regions serve as an important baseline of natural variability in sea level and global ice volume prior to the Anthropocene. Here, we reconstruct a high-resolution sea-level curve encompassing the last 6000 years based on a comprehensive study of coral microatolls, which are sensitive low-tide recorders. Our curve is based on microatolls from several islands in a single region and comprises a total of 82 sea-level index points. Assuming thermosteric contributions are negligible on millennial time scales, our results constrain global ice melting to be 1.5-2.5 m (sea-level equivalent) since ~5500 years before present. The reconstructed curve includes isolated rapid events of several decimetres within a few centuries, one of which is most likely related to loss from the Antarctic ice sheet mass around 5000 years before present. In contrast, the occurrence of large and flat microatolls indicates periods of significant sea-level stability lasting up to ~300 years.

@article{doi101038s41467017026957,
    author = "Hallmann, Nadine and Camoin, Gilbert and Eisenhauer, Anton and Botella, A. and Milne, Glenn A. and Vella, Claude and Samankassou, Elias and Pothin, Virginie and Dussouillez, Philippe and Fleury, Jules and Fietzke, Jan",
    title = "Ice volume and climate changes from a 6000 year sea-level record in French Polynesia",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "Mid- to late-Holocene sea-level records from low-latitude regions serve as an important baseline of natural variability in sea level and global ice volume prior to the Anthropocene. Here, we reconstruct a high-resolution sea-level curve encompassing the last 6000 years based on a comprehensive study of coral microatolls, which are sensitive low-tide recorders. Our curve is based on microatolls from several islands in a single region and comprises a total of 82 sea-level index points. Assuming thermosteric contributions are negligible on millennial time scales, our results constrain global ice melting to be 1.5-2.5 m (sea-level equivalent) since \textasciitilde 5500 years before present. The reconstructed curve includes isolated rapid events of several decimetres within a few centuries, one of which is most likely related to loss from the Antarctic ice sheet mass around 5000 years before present. In contrast, the occurrence of large and flat microatolls indicates periods of significant sea-level stability lasting up to \textasciitilde 300 years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02695-7",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-017-02695-7",
    openalex = "W2782700418",
    references = "camoin2015coral"
}

Abstract The variety of coral reefs morphologies highlights their sensitivities to several forcings; fossil reefs stack in sequences that are accordingly diverse. In order to understand their genesis and architectures, we devised a numerical approach, accounting for Quaternary sea level oscillations, vertical land motion, initial slope, wave erosion, and reef growth. We first test our model on the subsiding sequence of Hawaii and on the uplifting sequence of Wangi‐Wangi (Sulawesi) that bears active barriers. We then construct a parametric study that we analyze based on a comprehensive yet compact description of sequences as barcodes, that depict the vertical distribution of a few geometrical characteristics (number, width, and height of the terraces and barriers). We find that geological factors suffice to explain the variety of architectures of reefal sequences at first order, regardless of additional ecosystemic processes. Vertical land motion and foundation slopes are the prime players, while reef growth rates only play a minor role. Barriers may develop both in uplift and subsidence mode, and their preservation attests for the erosional power. Last, we reappraise the genesis of sequences and find that sequences do not fingerprint discrete events of sea level oscillations but a continuous process harrowed by stochastic events: Major sea level fluctuations can be overrepresented by several terraces or conversely absent; reoccupations may yield composite terraces representing multiple events. Overall, sequences shall not be regarded as stacks of reef bodies forming during sea level highstands, which implies that the commonly assumed bijective relationship between sea level highstands and terraces shall be abandoned.

@article{doi1010292019gc008239,
    author = "Pastier, Anne‐Morwenn and Husson, Laurent and Pedoja, K. and Bézos, Antoine and Authémayou, Christine and Arias-Ruiz, Camilo and Cahyarini, Sri Yudawati",
    title = "Genesis and Architecture of Sequences of Quaternary Coral Reef Terraces: Insights From Numerical Models",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Abstract The variety of coral reefs morphologies highlights their sensitivities to several forcings; fossil reefs stack in sequences that are accordingly diverse. In order to understand their genesis and architectures, we devised a numerical approach, accounting for Quaternary sea level oscillations, vertical land motion, initial slope, wave erosion, and reef growth. We first test our model on the subsiding sequence of Hawaii and on the uplifting sequence of Wangi‐Wangi (Sulawesi) that bears active barriers. We then construct a parametric study that we analyze based on a comprehensive yet compact description of sequences as barcodes, that depict the vertical distribution of a few geometrical characteristics (number, width, and height of the terraces and barriers). We find that geological factors suffice to explain the variety of architectures of reefal sequences at first order, regardless of additional ecosystemic processes. Vertical land motion and foundation slopes are the prime players, while reef growth rates only play a minor role. Barriers may develop both in uplift and subsidence mode, and their preservation attests for the erosional power. Last, we reappraise the genesis of sequences and find that sequences do not fingerprint discrete events of sea level oscillations but a continuous process harrowed by stochastic events: Major sea level fluctuations can be overrepresented by several terraces or conversely absent; reoccupations may yield composite terraces representing multiple events. Overall, sequences shall not be regarded as stacks of reef bodies forming during sea level highstands, which implies that the commonly assumed bijective relationship between sea level highstands and terraces shall be abandoned.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2019gc008239",
    doi = "10.1029/2019gc008239",
    openalex = "W2959836218",
    references = "braithwaite2016coralreef"
}

Our understanding of how global climatic changes are translated into ice-sheet fluctuations and sea-level change is currently limited by a lack of knowledge of the configuration of ice sheets prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Here, we compile a synthesis of empirical data and numerical modelling results related to pre-LGM ice sheets to produce new hypotheses regarding their extent in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) at 17 time-slices that span the Quaternary. Our reconstructions illustrate pronounced ice-sheet asymmetry within the last glacial cycle and significant variations in ice-marginal positions between older glacial cycles. We find support for a significant reduction in the extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) during MIS 3, implying that global sea levels may have been 30-40 m higher than most previous estimates. Our ice-sheet reconstructions illustrate the current state-of-the-art knowledge of pre-LGM ice sheets and provide a conceptual framework to interpret NH landscape evolution.

@article{doi101038s41467019116012,
    author = "Batchelor, Christine L. and Margold, Martin and Krapp, Mario and Murton, Della and Dalton, April S. and Gibbard, Philip L. and Stokes, Chris R. and Murton, Julian B. and Manica, Andrea",
    title = "The configuration of Northern Hemisphere ice sheets through the Quaternary",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "Our understanding of how global climatic changes are translated into ice-sheet fluctuations and sea-level change is currently limited by a lack of knowledge of the configuration of ice sheets prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Here, we compile a synthesis of empirical data and numerical modelling results related to pre-LGM ice sheets to produce new hypotheses regarding their extent in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) at 17 time-slices that span the Quaternary. Our reconstructions illustrate pronounced ice-sheet asymmetry within the last glacial cycle and significant variations in ice-marginal positions between older glacial cycles. We find support for a significant reduction in the extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) during MIS 3, implying that global sea levels may have been 30-40 m higher than most previous estimates. Our ice-sheet reconstructions illustrate the current state-of-the-art knowledge of pre-LGM ice sheets and provide a conceptual framework to interpret NH landscape evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-019-11601-2",
    openalex = "W2967322835",
    references = "doi101016jquascirev200312008, doi101016s0277379197000036, doi1010292004pa001071, doi10102997pa02660, doi101038nature10574, doi101038nature12921, doi101038nature17145, doi101038ng3015, doi101073pnas1411762111, doi101111bor12142, doi101126science1172873, doi101130b253161, doi105194cp1210792016, openalexw2883478268"
}

Abstract. This dataset is a comprehensive, global compilation of published uranium–thorium (U-series) dated fossil coral records from ∼ 150 000–110 000 years ago, as well as associated elevation measurements and sample metadata. In total, 1312 U-series measurements from 994 unique coral colonies are included in the current version of the dataset, all of which have been normalized and recalculated using the same decay constant values. Of these measurements, 444 analyses from 330 colonies are relative sea-level indicators, whereas 15 analyses from 13 colonies are marine limiting. Two example geochemical screening criteria have been included to assist users with identifying altered fossil corals that display geochemical open-system behavior, and the originally published interpretations on age quality have been preserved within the sample metadata. Additionally, a clear distinction has been made between coral colonies that are in primary growth position, which may be used for relative sea-level reconstructions, and colonies that have been transported/reworked, which cannot be used for these purposes. Future research efforts involving fossil coral sea-level reconstructions should emphasize an “integrated” and holistic approach that combines careful assessment of U-series age quality with high-precision surveying techniques and detailed facies/stratigraphic observations. This database is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4309796 (Chutcharavan and Dutton, 2020).

@article{doi105194essd1331552021,
    author = "Chutcharavan, P. and Dutton, Andrea",
    title = "A global compilation of U-series-dated fossil coral sea-level indicators for the Last Interglacial period (Marine Isotope Stage 5e)",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Earth system science data",
    abstract = "Abstract. This dataset is a comprehensive, global compilation of published uranium–thorium (U-series) dated fossil coral records from ∼ 150 000–110 000 years ago, as well as associated elevation measurements and sample metadata. In total, 1312 U-series measurements from 994 unique coral colonies are included in the current version of the dataset, all of which have been normalized and recalculated using the same decay constant values. Of these measurements, 444 analyses from 330 colonies are relative sea-level indicators, whereas 15 analyses from 13 colonies are marine limiting. Two example geochemical screening criteria have been included to assist users with identifying altered fossil corals that display geochemical open-system behavior, and the originally published interpretations on age quality have been preserved within the sample metadata. Additionally, a clear distinction has been made between coral colonies that are in primary growth position, which may be used for relative sea-level reconstructions, and colonies that have been transported/reworked, which cannot be used for these purposes. Future research efforts involving fossil coral sea-level reconstructions should emphasize an “integrated” and holistic approach that combines careful assessment of U-series age quality with high-precision surveying techniques and detailed facies/stratigraphic observations. This database is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4309796 (Chutcharavan and Dutton, 2020).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3155-2021",
    doi = "10.5194/essd-13-3155-2021",
    openalex = "W3186931602",
    references = "doi105194essd202114"
}

@misc{maxwell2024relative,
    author = "Maxwell, Kathrine and Rovere, Alessio and Westphal, Hildegard and Garas, Kevin and Guinto, Mirasol and Chauveau, Denovan and Hu, Hsun-Ming and Shen, Chuan-chou",
    title = "Relative Sea-Level Changes and Reef Development in the Northern Coral Triangle During the Late Quaternary",
    year = "2024",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4888948",
    doi = "10.2139/ssrn.4888948",
    openalex = "W4400405018",
    references = "doi101016jpepi201204002, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101017rdc202068, doi1010292019gc008515, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101103physrevc41889, doi101126science1059549, doi101126science1215507, doi105194cp1210792016, doi105194esurf212014"
}

@article{maxwell2025relative,
    author = "Maxwell, Kathrine and Rovere, Alessio and Westphal, Hildegard and Garas, Kevin and Guinto, Mirasol and Chauveau, Denovan and Hu, Hsun-Ming and Shen, Chuan-Chou",
    title = "Relative sea-level changes and reef development in the northern Coral Triangle during the late Quaternary",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Geomorphology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2025.109796",
    doi = "10.1016/j.geomorph.2025.109796",
    openalex = "W4409744259",
    pages = "109796",
    volume = "483",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201304006, doi101016jpepi201204002, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101017rdc202068, doi101017s0033822200033865, doi1010292019gc008515, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101103physrevc41889, doi101126science1059549, openalexw4306246725"
}

Abstract The morphology of a coral reef terrace (CRT) is a key parameter in the interpretation and quantification of past sea‐level changes, but it is directly influenced by local morphodynamic and hydrodynamic conditions. Spatial differences in terrace morphology may therefore result in over‐ or underestimation of paleorelative sea levels and their associated uncertainties. To investigate this, we integrate high‐precision field surveys from the island of Aruba (Leeward Antilles, Caribbean Sea) with a stratigraphic forward model (DionisosFlow®) to quantify the intra‐island variability of the Quaternary coral reef sequence. We establish that a possible slight North‐South tectonic tilt of the island may drive differences in the elevation of CRTs and the number of emerged fossil coral reefs imprinted on the coastal landscape. However, terrace geometry is primarily defined by the basement slope and wave exposure. All together, our results show that even small‐scale environmental and hydrodynamic variability can introduce meter‐scale errors in sea‐level reconstructions derived from CRTs.

@article{doi1010292025jf008384,
    author = "Chauveau, Denovan and Boyden, Patrick and Desfromont, Florent and Scardino, Giovanni and Scicchitano, Giovanni and Mijts, Eric and Bejarano, Sonia and Dean, Silas and Cerrone, Ciro and Rovere, Alessio",
    title = "Unraveling the Spatial Variability of Fossil Coral Reef Morphology on Aruba and the Implications for Paleo Sea Level Estimates",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface",
    abstract = "Abstract The morphology of a coral reef terrace (CRT) is a key parameter in the interpretation and quantification of past sea‐level changes, but it is directly influenced by local morphodynamic and hydrodynamic conditions. Spatial differences in terrace morphology may therefore result in over‐ or underestimation of paleorelative sea levels and their associated uncertainties. To investigate this, we integrate high‐precision field surveys from the island of Aruba (Leeward Antilles, Caribbean Sea) with a stratigraphic forward model (DionisosFlow®) to quantify the intra‐island variability of the Quaternary coral reef sequence. We establish that a possible slight North‐South tectonic tilt of the island may drive differences in the elevation of CRTs and the number of emerged fossil coral reefs imprinted on the coastal landscape. However, terrace geometry is primarily defined by the basement slope and wave exposure. All together, our results show that even small‐scale environmental and hydrodynamic variability can introduce meter‐scale errors in sea‐level reconstructions derived from CRTs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2025jf008384",
    doi = "10.1029/2025jf008384",
    openalex = "W7118491419",
    references = "doi101016jjaesx2025100208"
}