Fossil forests

@article{openalexw2205067737,
    author = "Dorf, Erling",
    title = "TERTIARY FOSSIL FORESTS OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, WYOMING",
    year = "1960",
    openalex = "W2205067737"
}

@article{crossref1972wonderful,
    title = "Wonderful Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Rocks \& Minerals",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00357529.1972.11763438",
    doi = "10.1080/00357529.1972.11763438",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W4233262169",
    pages = "128-129",
    volume = "47"
}

@article{doi1010160034666775900056,
    author = "Schopf, James M.",
    title = "Modes of fossil preservation",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(75)90005-6",
    doi = "10.1016/0034-6667(75)90005-6",
    openalex = "W2132959526",
    references = "doi101093oxfordjournalsaoba083546, doi101098rstb19360008, doi101126science16238591265, doi101126science16338721157, doi101126science17440151229, doi1023071795148, doi105962bhltitle7199, openalexw2326083785, openalexw603784498"
}

@article{doi1011300091761319808309rotdeo20co2,
    author = "Fritz, William J.",
    title = "Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests”",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8<309:rotdeo>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8<309:rotdeo>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2060151626"
}

@article{fritz1980reinterpretation,
    author = "Fritz, William J.",
    title = "Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests”",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8<309:rotdeo>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1980)8<309:rotdeo>2.0.co;2",
    number = "7",
    openalex = "W2060151626",
    pages = "309",
    volume = "8"
}

@misc{fritz1980reinterpretation1,
    author = "Fritz, W. J",
    title = {Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone "fossil forests},
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 8, p. 309-313",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fritz, W. J., 1980, Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone "fossil forests": Geology, v. 8, p. 309-313.}}
}

@misc{fritz1980stumps2,
    author = "Fritz, W. J",
    title = "Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows",
    year = "1980",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 8, p. 586-588",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Fritz, W. J., 1980, Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows: Geology, v. 8, p. 586-588.}"
}

@article{doi101007bf02860537,
    author = "Müller, Jan‐Peter",
    title = "Fossil pollen records of extant angiosperms",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "The Botanical Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02860537",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02860537",
    openalex = "W2024827286",
    references = "doi101007bf02860067, doi101007bf02860849, doi1010160012825272900384, doi1010160034666768900511, doi1010800072139519739989729, doi1010800072139519759989755, doi1011639789004631038, doi102134agronj195300021962004500040018x, doi1023071220386, doi1023071484763, doi1023072258301, doi1023072395198, doi1023072418725, romero1976a"
}

@article{doi1011300091761319819146caroro20co2,
    author = "Yuretich, Richard F.",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests” ’ and ‘Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<146:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<146:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2098032594"
}

@article{doi1011300091761319819147caroro20co2,
    author = "Fritz, William J.",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests” ’ and ‘Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<147:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<147:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2053741117"
}

@article{doi101130009176131981952caroro20co2,
    author = "Retallack, Greg",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone fossil forests’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<52:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<52:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W1993089342"
}

@article{doi101130009176131981953caroro20co2,
    author = "Fritz, William J.",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone fossil forests’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<53:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<53:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2087725664"
}

@article{fritz1981comment,
    author = "Fritz, William J.",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests” ’ and ‘Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<147:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<147:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2053741117",
    pages = "147",
    volume = "9"
}

@article{retallack1981comment,
    author = "Retallack, Greg",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone fossil forests’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<52:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<52:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W1993089342",
    pages = "52",
    volume = "9"
}

@misc{retallack1981comment3,
    author = "Retallack, G. and Fritz, W. J",
    title = {Comment and reply on "Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone fossil forests},
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 9, p. 52-54",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Retallack, G., and Fritz, W. J., 1981, Comment and reply on "Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone fossil forests": Geology, v. 9, p. 52-54.}}
}

@article{yuretich1981comment,
    author = "Yuretich, R. F.",
    title = "Comment and Reply on ‘Reinterpretation of the depositional environment of the Yellowstone “fossil forests” ’ and ‘Stumps transported and deposited upright by Mount St. Helens mud flows’",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<146:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<146:caroro>2.0.co;2",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2098032594",
    pages = "146",
    volume = "9"
}

(Uploaded by Plazi from the Biodiversity Heritage Library) No abstract provided.

@article{doi105281zenodo16559207,
    author = "Jefferson, T. H.",
    title = "Fossil forests from the Lower Cretaceous of Alexander Island, Antarctica",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Biodiversity Heritage Library (Smithsonian Institution)",
    abstract = "(Uploaded by Plazi from the Biodiversity Heritage Library) No abstract provided.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16559207",
    doi = "10.5281/zenodo.16559207",
    openalex = "W2781796172"
}

@article{doi10113000917613198412159yffnef20co2,
    author = "Yuretich, Richard F.",
    title = "Yellowstone fossil forests: New evidence for burial in place",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<159:yffnef>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<159:yffnef>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2058228945"
}

@misc{yuretich1984yellowstone4,
    author = "Yuretich, R. T",
    title = "Yellowstone fossil forests",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "new evidence for burial in place: Geology, v. 12, p. 159-162",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Yuretich, R. T., 1984, Yellowstone fossil forests: new evidence for burial in place: Geology, v. 12, p. 159-162.}"
}

@article{doi1010160031018287900265,
    author = "Ammons, R. B. and Fritz, William J. and Ammons, R. B. and Ammons, A.",
    title = "Cross-identification of ring signatures in Eocene trees (Sequoia magnifica) from the specimen ridge locality of the yellowstone fossil forests",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(87)90026-5",
    doi = "10.1016/0031-0182(87)90026-5",
    openalex = "W2050680355",
    references = "doi1010160033589471900573, doi101038scientificamerican0464106, doi101111j1469185x1977tb00838x, doi101130009176131981952caroro20co2, doi101130009176131981953caroro20co2, doi10113000917613198412159yffnef20co2, doi1023071796560, doi1023072255215, doi105281zenodo16559207, fritz1980reinterpretation, fritz1981comment, openalexw133962156, openalexw592093325, retallack1981comment"
}

Abstract Lahars and fluvial sediments which buried trees following the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens were investigated during August of 1982. Trees buried in older mudflows, dated at a.d. 1885, a.d. 1450–1550, and 36000 years b.p., also were examined. Although many logs clearly were transported, large numbers of trees were buried in growth position. Burial by lahars generally resulted in the death of trees, whereas some trees survived burial by fluvial sediments. Scanning electron microscope studies show that trees buried in lahars are well preserved. Pre-1885 buried woods show incipient silicification, and woods buried 36000 years b.p. show silica impregnation of cell walls. Features of in situ and allochthonous burial very similar to those seen in southern Washington are found also in Eocene silicified forests in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S.A., and in Cretaceous fossil forests in southeastern Alexander Island, Antarctica. Observations of Recent wood from volcaniclastic deposits of Mount St Helens provide valuable insights into processes of burial and silicification of fossil forests of various ages around the world.

@article{doi101017s001675680001623x,
    author = "Karowe, Amy L. and Jefferson, T. H.",
    title = "Burial of trees by eruptions of Mount St Helens, Washington:implications for the interpretation of fossil forests",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Geological Magazine",
    abstract = "Abstract Lahars and fluvial sediments which buried trees following the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens were investigated during August of 1982. Trees buried in older mudflows, dated at a.d. 1885, a.d. 1450–1550, and 36000 years b.p., also were examined. Although many logs clearly were transported, large numbers of trees were buried in growth position. Burial by lahars generally resulted in the death of trees, whereas some trees survived burial by fluvial sediments. Scanning electron microscope studies show that trees buried in lahars are well preserved. Pre-1885 buried woods show incipient silicification, and woods buried 36000 years b.p. show silica impregnation of cell walls. Features of in situ and allochthonous burial very similar to those seen in southern Washington are found also in Eocene silicified forests in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S.A., and in Cretaceous fossil forests in southeastern Alexander Island, Antarctica. Observations of Recent wood from volcaniclastic deposits of Mount St Helens provide valuable insights into processes of burial and silicification of fossil forests of various ages around the world.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s001675680001623x",
    doi = "10.1017/s001675680001623x",
    openalex = "W2047087096",
    references = "doi1010160034666775900056, doi1010160037073881900749, doi101016b9780122150012x50016, doi101086626804, doi1010970001069419730500000019, doi101130009176131981952caroro20co2, doi101306212f86ac2b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi101306212f86b12b2411d78648000102c1865d, openalexw1515936669, openalexw391829946, openalexw600037901, retallack1981comment"
}

@book{doi105962bhltitle154222,
    author = "Manchester, Steven R.",
    title = "The fossil history of the Juglandaceae",
    year = "1987",
    booktitle = "Missouri Botanical Garden eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.154222",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.154222",
    openalex = "W169835797"
}

@incollection{doi101016s0065229608602402,
    author = "Spicer, Robert A.",
    title = "The Formation and Interpretation of Plant Fossil Assemblages",
    year = "1989",
    booktitle = "Advances in botanical research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2296(08)60240-2",
    doi = "10.1016/s0065-2296(08)60240-2",
    openalex = "W2292629061",
    references = "doi1010160034666789900547, doi1010160037073885900739, doi101017s001675680001623x, doi10113000917613198614703pefcnp20co2, doi1011300091761319880160022lctvan23co2, fritz1985transported"
}

@article{doi101016003101829190016k,
    author = "Hunt, Adrian P.",
    title = "Integrated vertebrate, invertebrate and plant taphonomy of the Fossil Forest area (Fruitland and Kirtland formations: Late Cretaceous), San Juan County, New Mexico, USA",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(91)90016-k",
    doi = "10.1016/0031-0182(91)90016-k",
    openalex = "W2050886408",
    references = "doi1010079781461299813, doi1010160034666775900056, doi1010160034666785900417, doi101016s0037073887800064, doi101017s0094837300005820, doi101017s0094837300006564, doi1011300091761319819146caroro20co2, doi1011300091761319819147caroro20co2, doi101130009176131981953caroro20co2, doi102113gsrocky8specialpaper11, doi105962bhlpart22969, fritz1981comment, openalexw113379176, openalexw1539913220, yuretich1981comment"
}

@article{doi105860choice300309,
    author = "Allison, PA and Briggs, DEG",
    title = "Taphonomy: releasing the data locked in the fossil record",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.30-0309",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.30-0309",
    openalex = "W1587340106"
}

Abstract There are many methods for inferring terrestrial palaeoclimates from palaeontological data, including the size and species diversity of ectothermic vertebrates, the locomotor and dental adaptations of mammals, characteristics of leaf shape, size, and epidermis, wood anatomy, and the climatic preferences of nearest living relatives of fossil taxa. Estimates of palaeotem perature have also been based on stable oxygen isotope ratios in shells and bones. Interpretation of any of these data relies in some way on uniformitarian assumptions, although at different levels depending on the method. Most of these methods can be applied to a palaeoclimatic reconstruction for the interior of North America during the early Eocene, which is thought to be the warmest interval of global climate in the Cenozoic. Most of the data indicate warm equable climates with little frost. Rainfall was variable, but strong aridity was local or absent. The inferred palaeoclimate is very different from the present climate of the region and from model simulations for the Eocene. This suggests that models fail to incorporate forcing factors that were present at that time, that they treat the heat regime of continents unrealistically, and/or that model inputs such as sea surface temperature gradients or palaeotopography are incorrect.

@article{doi101098rstb19930109,
    author = "Wing, Scott L. and Greenwood, David R.",
    title = "Fossils and fossil climate: the case for equable continental interiors in the Eocene",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract There are many methods for inferring terrestrial palaeoclimates from palaeontological data, including the size and species diversity of ectothermic vertebrates, the locomotor and dental adaptations of mammals, characteristics of leaf shape, size, and epidermis, wood anatomy, and the climatic preferences of nearest living relatives of fossil taxa. Estimates of palaeotem perature have also been based on stable oxygen isotope ratios in shells and bones. Interpretation of any of these data relies in some way on uniformitarian assumptions, although at different levels depending on the method. Most of these methods can be applied to a palaeoclimatic reconstruction for the interior of North America during the early Eocene, which is thought to be the warmest interval of global climate in the Cenozoic. Most of the data indicate warm equable climates with little frost. Rainfall was variable, but strong aridity was local or absent. The inferred palaeoclimate is very different from the present climate of the region and from model simulations for the Eocene. This suggests that models fail to incorporate forcing factors that were present at that time, that they treat the heat regime of continents unrealistically, and/or that model inputs such as sea surface temperature gradients or palaeotopography are incorrect.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1993.0109",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1993.0109",
    openalex = "W4242800481",
    references = "brouwers1987dinosaurs, doi101002j153721971916tb05397x, doi1010079783642717451, doi1010160034666789900547, doi1010160034666792901619, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101073pnas84155096, doi101111j109583121979tb00034x, doi101130mem150p1, doi1011632294193290001256, doi1015259780520320567, doi103133pp729c, doi105962bhlpart13183"
}

@incollection{doi10100797894011125435,
    author = "Wing, Scott L. and Greenwood, David R.",
    title = "Fossils and fossil climate: the case for equable continental interiors in the Eocene",
    year = "1994",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1254-3\_5",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-011-1254-3\_5",
    openalex = "W2165059366",
    references = "brouwers1987dinosaurs, doi101002j153721971916tb05397x, doi1010079783642717451, doi1010160012825272900384, doi1010160034666789900547, doi10102992jb01202, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101111j109583121979tb00034x, doi1015259780520320567, doi1023072484890, doi103133pp729c, doi105962bhlpart13183, openalexw1913829529"
}

This paper reviews the occurrence of biomacromolecules in fossil plants and animals. The range of techniques used in their release, preparation, microscopy and chemical analysis is described, as is the role of decay experiments in their investigation. The major plant parts that include resistant macromolecules are discussed: algal cell walls, cuticles, spore and pollen walls, propagules, periderm, secondary xylem, and secretions. The chemistry of animal cuticles preserved in the fossil record is briefly considered; they may incorporate macromolecules of plant origin during diagenesis. Some future directions for research are outlined: characterization of sporopollenin, characterization of extant and extinct tissues and organs, chemosystematic investigations, taphonomic processes, investigation of biomacromolecules in animal fossils.

@article{doi101111j143886771995tb00791x,
    author = "van Bergen, Pim F. and Collinson, M. E. and Briggs, Derek E. G. and de Leeuw, J.W. and Scott, Andrew C. and Evershed, Richard P. and Finch, Paul",
    title = "Resistant biomacromolecules in the fossil record 1",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Acta Botanica Neerlandica",
    abstract = "This paper reviews the occurrence of biomacromolecules in fossil plants and animals. The range of techniques used in their release, preparation, microscopy and chemical analysis is described, as is the role of decay experiments in their investigation. The major plant parts that include resistant macromolecules are discussed: algal cell walls, cuticles, spore and pollen walls, propagules, periderm, secondary xylem, and secretions. The chemistry of animal cuticles preserved in the fossil record is briefly considered; they may incorporate macromolecules of plant origin during diagenesis. Some future directions for research are outlined: characterization of sporopollenin, characterization of extant and extinct tissues and organs, chemosystematic investigations, taphonomic processes, investigation of biomacromolecules in animal fossils.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.1995.tb00791.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1438-8677.1995.tb00791.x",
    openalex = "W2060011917",
    references = "doi101016s0065229608601329, openalexw3025073342"
}

@article{doi101016s0031018297001089,
    author = "Markwick, Paul",
    title = "Fossil crocodilians as indicators of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic climates: implications for using palaeontological data in reconstructing palaeoclimate",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-0182(97)00108-9",
    doi = "10.1016/s0031-0182(97)00108-9",
    openalex = "W2092060384",
    references = "doi10100797814899503456, doi10100797894011125435, doi1010160031018265900131, doi101016003101829290096n, doi101016003192018990263x, doi1010160195667191900155, doi101017s0094837300006060, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi1010719781486309702, doi101098rstb19930109, doi101126science19142321131, doi101126science24148691043, doi10113000917613198614535scaia20co2, doi101146annurevph57030195000441, doi102110pec88010071, doi1023071444927, doi1023071563593, doi1023073514444, doi1023073514548, doi1023073669094, doi102973odpprocsr1192001991, openalexw2983381470, openalexw575222456, spotila1973a"
}

@article{doi101016s0037073800001858,
    author = "Pole, Mike",
    title = "Repeated flood events and fossil forests at Curio Bay (Middle Jurassic), New Zealand",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Sedimentary Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0037-0738(00)00185-8",
    doi = "10.1016/s0037-0738(00)00185-8",
    openalex = "W2038151320",
    references = "doi1010079783662032374, doi101016001282527990059x, doi1010160012825285900017, doi1010160037073883900763, doi101029tc008i004p00803, doi101130009176131981952caroro20co2, doi101144gsjgs13610039, doi101144gsjgs14230433, doi101306212f7f312b2411d78648000102c1865d, openalexw1560313239, openalexw1912927042, retallack1981comment"
}

@article{doi101038416076a,
    author = "Brasier, Martin D. and Green, Owen R. and Jephcoat, A. P. and Kleppe, Annette and Kranendonk, Martin J. Van and Lindsay, John F. and Steele, A. and Grassineau, Nathalie",
    title = "Questioning the evidence for Earth's oldest fossils",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/416076a",
    doi = "10.1038/416076a",
    openalex = "W2004710177",
    references = "doi1010160016703763900711, doi101017cbo9780511601064, doi10103823005, doi10103835065071, doi101038383423a0, doi10106311674108, doi101111j150239311988tb02083x, doi101126science1061976, doi101126science11539686, doi101126science2605108640, openalexw2469722244, openalexw566083668"
}

In a recent analysis of the historical biogeography of Melastomataceae, Renner, Clausing, and Meyer (2001; American Journal of Botany 88(7): 1290-1300) rejected the hypothesis of a Gondwana origin. Using a fossil-calibrated chloroplast DNA (ndhF) phylogeny, they placed the early diversification of Melastomataceae in Laurasia at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary (ca. 55 Ma) and suggested that long-distance oceanic dispersals in the Oligocene and Miocene (34 to 5 Ma) account for its range expansion into South America, Africa, and Madagascar. Their critical assumption-that oldest northern mid-latitude melastome fossils reflect tribal ages and their geographic origins-may be erroneous, however, because of the sparse fossil record in the tropics. We show that rates of synonymous nucleotide substitutions derived by the Renner et al. (2001) model are up to three times faster than most published rates. Under a Gondwana-origin model advocated here, which includes dispersals from Africa to Southeast Asia via the "Indian ark" and emphasizes filter rather than either sweepstakes dispersal or strict vicariance, rates of nucleotide substitution fall within the range of published rates. We suggest that biogeographic reconstructions need to consider the paucity of Gondwanan fossils and that frequently overlooked interplate dispersal routes provide alternatives to vicariance, boreotropical dispersal, and long-distance oceanic dispersal as explanations for the amphi-oceanic disjunctions of many tropical rain forest plants.

@article{doi103732ajb90111638,
    author = "Morley, Robert J. and Dick, Christopher W.",
    title = "Missing fossils, molecular clocks, and the origin of the Melastomataceae",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "American Journal of Botany",
    abstract = {In a recent analysis of the historical biogeography of Melastomataceae, Renner, Clausing, and Meyer (2001; American Journal of Botany 88(7): 1290-1300) rejected the hypothesis of a Gondwana origin. Using a fossil-calibrated chloroplast DNA (ndhF) phylogeny, they placed the early diversification of Melastomataceae in Laurasia at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary (ca. 55 Ma) and suggested that long-distance oceanic dispersals in the Oligocene and Miocene (34 to 5 Ma) account for its range expansion into South America, Africa, and Madagascar. Their critical assumption-that oldest northern mid-latitude melastome fossils reflect tribal ages and their geographic origins-may be erroneous, however, because of the sparse fossil record in the tropics. We show that rates of synonymous nucleotide substitutions derived by the Renner et al. (2001) model are up to three times faster than most published rates. Under a Gondwana-origin model advocated here, which includes dispersals from Africa to Southeast Asia via the "Indian ark" and emphasizes filter rather than either sweepstakes dispersal or strict vicariance, rates of nucleotide substitution fall within the range of published rates. We suggest that biogeographic reconstructions need to consider the paucity of Gondwanan fossils and that frequently overlooked interplate dispersal routes provide alternatives to vicariance, boreotropical dispersal, and long-distance oceanic dispersal as explanations for the amphi-oceanic disjunctions of many tropical rain forest plants.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.90.11.1638",
    doi = "10.3732/ajb.90.11.1638",
    openalex = "W2130109509",
    references = "doi101016s0065229608601329"
}

Fossil plants provide data on climate, community composition and structure, all of which are relevant to the definition and recognition of biomes. Macrofossils reflect local vegetation, whereas pollen assemblages sample a larger area. The earliest solid evidence for angiosperm tropical rainforest in Africa is based primarily on Late Eocene to Late Oligocene (ca. 39-26 Myr ago) pollen assemblages from Cameroon, which are rich in forest families. Plant macrofossil assemblages from elsewhere in interior Africa for this time interval are rare, but new work at Chilga in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands documents forest communities at 28 Myr ago. Initial results indicate botanical affinities with lowland West African forest. The earliest known woodland community in tropical Africa is dated at 46 Myr ago in northern Tanzania, as documented by leaves and fruits from lake deposits. The community around the lake was dominated by caesalpinioid legumes, but included Acacia, for which this, to my knowledge, is the earliest record. This community is structurally similar to modern miombo, although it is different at the generic level. The grass-dominated savannah biome began to expand in the Middle Miocene (16 Myr ago), and became widespread in the Late Miocene (ca. 8 Myr ago), as documented by pollen and carbon isotopes from both West and East Africa.

@article{doi101098rstb20041533,
    author = "Jacobs, Bonnie F.",
    title = "Palaeobotanical studies from tropical Africa: relevance to the evolution of forest, woodland and savannah biomes",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Fossil plants provide data on climate, community composition and structure, all of which are relevant to the definition and recognition of biomes. Macrofossils reflect local vegetation, whereas pollen assemblages sample a larger area. The earliest solid evidence for angiosperm tropical rainforest in Africa is based primarily on Late Eocene to Late Oligocene (ca. 39-26 Myr ago) pollen assemblages from Cameroon, which are rich in forest families. Plant macrofossil assemblages from elsewhere in interior Africa for this time interval are rare, but new work at Chilga in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands documents forest communities at 28 Myr ago. Initial results indicate botanical affinities with lowland West African forest. The earliest known woodland community in tropical Africa is dated at 46 Myr ago in northern Tanzania, as documented by leaves and fruits from lake deposits. The community around the lake was dominated by caesalpinioid legumes, but included Acacia, for which this, to my knowledge, is the earliest record. This community is structurally similar to modern miombo, although it is different at the generic level. The grass-dominated savannah biome began to expand in the Middle Miocene (16 Myr ago), and became widespread in the Late Miocene (ca. 8 Myr ago), as documented by pollen and carbon isotopes from both West and East Africa.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1533",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2004.1533",
    openalex = "W2131485945",
    references = "doi101016003101829290096n, doi1010160034666793900608"
}

@incollection{doi10100797890481864337,
    author = "Gastaldo, Robert A. and Demko, Timothy M.",
    title = "The Relationship Between Continental Landscape Evolution and the Plant-Fossil Record: Long Term Hydrologic Controls on Preservation",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "Topics in geobiology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8643-3\_7",
    doi = "10.1007/978-90-481-8643-3\_7",
    openalex = "W148326328",
    references = "doi1010029780470698716, doi1010160037073885900739, doi101016s0065250408603311, doi101046j13653091200000008x, doi101086648221, doi10113000167606194859463cotgr20co2, doi1011300091761319808309rotdeo20co2, doi101306bdff9258171811d78645000102c1865d, doi102110csp9907, doi102110pec88010125, doi102475ajs3042105, doi105860choice300309, fritz1980reinterpretation, fritz1985transported"
}

Abstract: The forewing of a termite from Early Miocene lake sediments in Otago, southern New Zealand is figured and described. It exhibits the generic characters of the damp‐wood termite Stolotermes Hägen, but differs from forewings of the known species in size and venation pattern and is described as Stolotermes kupe sp. nov. S. hupe represents the first confident record of fossil Stolotermitidae and extends the fossil record of the family back to the Early Miocene. It also is the first direct evidence of fossil Isoptera from New Zealand, though silicified termite faecal pellets, referable to Kalotermes brauni, have been previously described. S. kupe indicates that Stolotermitidae has been present in the Australasian region since at least the Early Miocene.

@article{doi101111j17556724201000275x,
    author = "Kaulfuß, Uwe and Harris, A. C. and Lee, Daphne E.",
    title = "A New Fossil Termite (Isoptera, Stolotermitidae, Stolotermes) from the Early Miocene of Otago, New Zealand",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition",
    abstract = "Abstract: The forewing of a termite from Early Miocene lake sediments in Otago, southern New Zealand is figured and described. It exhibits the generic characters of the damp‐wood termite Stolotermes Hägen, but differs from forewings of the known species in size and venation pattern and is described as Stolotermes kupe sp. nov. S. hupe represents the first confident record of fossil Stolotermitidae and extends the fossil record of the family back to the Early Miocene. It also is the first direct evidence of fossil Isoptera from New Zealand, though silicified termite faecal pellets, referable to Kalotermes brauni, have been previously described. S. kupe indicates that Stolotermitidae has been present in the Australasian region since at least the Early Miocene.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6724.2010.00275.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1755-6724.2010.00275.x",
    openalex = "W2066529747",
    references = "doi1010800301422320039517736"
}

Abstract: Fossil forests, buried in growth position in a geological instant (T 0 assemblages) are far more abundant in Pennsylvanian successions than in any other part of the geological record. In this review paper, we evaluate the fundamental controls on the origin of these phenomena, investigate the taphonomic biases that influence their composition, and summarize their palaeoecological significance. Following earlier workers, we highlight that high rates of burial and accommodation are essential for the formation and preservation of T 0 assemblages. Contexts especially favourable for their origin include ashfalls proximal to volcanic centres, coastal plains drowned by relative sea-level rise, and fluvial environments such as channel bars, crevasse splays, and distributary lobes. Long-term preservation requires high rates of subsidence. Consequently, the vast majority of Palaeozoic T 0 assemblages are confined to wetland settings at, or close to, sea level, whereas drylands are poorly represented and uplands rarely sampled, if ever. However, this is not the only major bias in the fossil record; taphonomic processes selectively preserve plants dependent on their anatomy and stature, and on groundwater chemistry. Thus, although T 0 assemblages offer unrivalled insights into the nature of ancient forests (whole-plant reconstructions, tree density, canopy height, productivity, plant hydraulics, cohort dynamics, spatial heterogeneity, ecological gradients, tree–sediment interactions, and animal–plant interactions, to name but a few), it is naive to believe they provide ‘photographic snapshots' of palaeoecosystems. None the less, careful taphonomic analysis of T 0 assemblages offers the potential for a nuanced understanding of these evocative phenomena, and much remains to be learned from these important palaeoecological resources.

@article{doi101144001676492010103,
    author = "DiMichele, William A. and Falcon‐Lang, Howard J.",
    title = "Pennsylvanian ‘fossil forests' in growth position (T 0 assemblages): origin, taphonomic bias and palaeoecological insights",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "Abstract: Fossil forests, buried in growth position in a geological instant (T 0 assemblages) are far more abundant in Pennsylvanian successions than in any other part of the geological record. In this review paper, we evaluate the fundamental controls on the origin of these phenomena, investigate the taphonomic biases that influence their composition, and summarize their palaeoecological significance. Following earlier workers, we highlight that high rates of burial and accommodation are essential for the formation and preservation of T 0 assemblages. Contexts especially favourable for their origin include ashfalls proximal to volcanic centres, coastal plains drowned by relative sea-level rise, and fluvial environments such as channel bars, crevasse splays, and distributary lobes. Long-term preservation requires high rates of subsidence. Consequently, the vast majority of Palaeozoic T 0 assemblages are confined to wetland settings at, or close to, sea level, whereas drylands are poorly represented and uplands rarely sampled, if ever. However, this is not the only major bias in the fossil record; taphonomic processes selectively preserve plants dependent on their anatomy and stature, and on groundwater chemistry. Thus, although T 0 assemblages offer unrivalled insights into the nature of ancient forests (whole-plant reconstructions, tree density, canopy height, productivity, plant hydraulics, cohort dynamics, spatial heterogeneity, ecological gradients, tree–sediment interactions, and animal–plant interactions, to name but a few), it is naive to believe they provide ‘photographic snapshots' of palaeoecosystems. None the less, careful taphonomic analysis of T 0 assemblages offers the potential for a nuanced understanding of these evocative phenomena, and much remains to be learned from these important palaeoecological resources.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492010-103",
    doi = "10.1144/0016-76492010-103",
    openalex = "W2120282064",
    references = "doi10100797890481864337, doi101144sp3396, doi1016690883135120020170491tpotce20co2, doi1034172007016"
}

BACKGROUND: Understanding how biodiversity is shaped through time is a fundamental question in biology. Even though tropical rain forests (TRF) represent the most diverse terrestrial biomes on the planet, the timing, location and mechanisms of their diversification remain poorly understood. Molecular phylogenies are valuable tools for exploring these issues, but to date most studies have focused only on recent time scales, which minimises their explanatory potential. In order to provide a long-term view of TRF diversification, we constructed the first complete genus-level dated phylogeny of a largely TRF-restricted plant family with a known history dating back to the Cretaceous. Palms (Arecaceae/Palmae) are one of the most characteristic and ecologically important components of TRF worldwide, and represent a model group for the investigation of TRF evolution. RESULTS: We provide evidence that diversification of extant lineages of palms started during the mid-Cretaceous period about 100 million years ago. Ancestral biome and area reconstructions for the whole family strongly support the hypothesis that palms diversified in a TRF-like environment at northern latitudes. Finally, our results suggest that palms conform to a constant diversification model (the 'museum' model or Yule process), at least until the Neogene, with no evidence for any change in diversification rates even through the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction event. CONCLUSIONS: Because palms are restricted to TRF and assuming biome conservatism over time, our results suggest the presence of a TRF-like biome in the mid-Cretaceous period of Laurasia, consistent with controversial fossil evidence of the earliest TRF. Throughout its history, the TRF biome is thought to have been highly dynamic and to have fluctuated greatly in extent, but it has persisted even during climatically unfavourable periods. This may have allowed old lineages to survive and contribute to the steady accumulation of diversity over time. In contrast to other plant studies, our results suggest that ancient and steady evolutionary processes dating back to the mid-Cretaceous period can contribute, at least in part, to present day species richness in TRF.

@article{doi10118617417007944,
    author = "Couvreur, Thomas L. P. and Forest, Félix and Baker, William J.",
    title = "Origin and global diversification patterns of tropical rain forests: inferences from a complete genus-level phylogeny of palms",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "BMC Biology",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: Understanding how biodiversity is shaped through time is a fundamental question in biology. Even though tropical rain forests (TRF) represent the most diverse terrestrial biomes on the planet, the timing, location and mechanisms of their diversification remain poorly understood. Molecular phylogenies are valuable tools for exploring these issues, but to date most studies have focused only on recent time scales, which minimises their explanatory potential. In order to provide a long-term view of TRF diversification, we constructed the first complete genus-level dated phylogeny of a largely TRF-restricted plant family with a known history dating back to the Cretaceous. Palms (Arecaceae/Palmae) are one of the most characteristic and ecologically important components of TRF worldwide, and represent a model group for the investigation of TRF evolution. RESULTS: We provide evidence that diversification of extant lineages of palms started during the mid-Cretaceous period about 100 million years ago. Ancestral biome and area reconstructions for the whole family strongly support the hypothesis that palms diversified in a TRF-like environment at northern latitudes. Finally, our results suggest that palms conform to a constant diversification model (the 'museum' model or Yule process), at least until the Neogene, with no evidence for any change in diversification rates even through the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction event. CONCLUSIONS: Because palms are restricted to TRF and assuming biome conservatism over time, our results suggest the presence of a TRF-like biome in the mid-Cretaceous period of Laurasia, consistent with controversial fossil evidence of the earliest TRF. Throughout its history, the TRF biome is thought to have been highly dynamic and to have fluctuated greatly in extent, but it has persisted even during climatically unfavourable periods. This may have allowed old lineages to survive and contribute to the steady accumulation of diversity over time. In contrast to other plant studies, our results suggest that ancient and steady evolutionary processes dating back to the mid-Cretaceous period can contribute, at least in part, to present day species richness in TRF.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-9-44",
    doi = "10.1186/1741-7007-9-44",
    openalex = "W2073491922",
    references = "doi101007bf02860540, doi101086323880, doi101126science1080475, doi1023071484763, doi1034172007016"
}

We characterize forest floor leaf litter and transported leaf samples from several depositional environments in both a temperate and a tropical forest to provide well-characterized modern analogs for the evaluation of fossil leaf localities. We compare the low-diversity, deciduous, temperate Wharton Brook forest (Connecticut, United States) with the high-diversity, evergreen, tropical Noah Creek Rainforest (Queensland, Australia) by mapping one half-hectare of each forest, collecting 25–29 leaf litter samples from four to five depositional settings in each forest and analyzing the relative abundance of species based on >31,750 leaves. In both studies, we analyze the samples as if they were fossil sites, evaluating floral composition, numerical diversity measures, rarefied richness, and climate estimates based on leaf physiognomy. We compare this analysis with data from the standing mapped forest to evaluate the biases inherent in the data derived from fossil assemblages from different depositional settings. In both forests, sample sites that were revisited over multiple years produced different species on subsequent visits, suggesting that fossil sites with close stratigraphic spacing and different composition may actually represent the same source forest. In both forests, species diversity in laterally transported samples appears to increase as the distance of transport increases. Because the species richness of a leaf sample is impacted by the diversity of the original forest, the amount of time the leaf sample spent accumulating, and the effect of transport distance, it is not possible to interpret the diversity of ancient forests without also evaluating the sedimentary facies of the fossil collections.

@article{doi102110palo2012p12073r,
    author = "Ellis, Beth and Johnson, Kirk R.",
    title = "COMPARISON OF LEAF SAMPLES FROM MAPPED TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE FORESTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DIVERSITY OF FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGES",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Palaios",
    abstract = "We characterize forest floor leaf litter and transported leaf samples from several depositional environments in both a temperate and a tropical forest to provide well-characterized modern analogs for the evaluation of fossil leaf localities. We compare the low-diversity, deciduous, temperate Wharton Brook forest (Connecticut, United States) with the high-diversity, evergreen, tropical Noah Creek Rainforest (Queensland, Australia) by mapping one half-hectare of each forest, collecting 25–29 leaf litter samples from four to five depositional settings in each forest and analyzing the relative abundance of species based on >31,750 leaves. In both studies, we analyze the samples as if they were fossil sites, evaluating floral composition, numerical diversity measures, rarefied richness, and climate estimates based on leaf physiognomy. We compare this analysis with data from the standing mapped forest to evaluate the biases inherent in the data derived from fossil assemblages from different depositional settings. In both forests, sample sites that were revisited over multiple years produced different species on subsequent visits, suggesting that fossil sites with close stratigraphic spacing and different composition may actually represent the same source forest. In both forests, species diversity in laterally transported samples appears to increase as the distance of transport increases. Because the species richness of a leaf sample is impacted by the diversity of the original forest, the amount of time the leaf sample spent accumulating, and the effect of transport distance, it is not possible to interpret the diversity of ancient forests without also evaluating the sedimentary facies of the fossil collections.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2012.p12-073r",
    doi = "10.2110/palo.2012.p12-073r",
    openalex = "W2128968707",
    references = "doi102110palo2005p0525p"
}

The Upper Valdarno Basin is located about 35 km SE of Florence between the Chianti Mountains and the Pratomagno Ridge.The basin fill is made of four synthems named as Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni, Montevarchi, Fosso Salceto and Torrente Ciuffenna synthems. The Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni Synthem (Late Pliocene) consists of coarse-grained, stream gravels grading upwards into sheet-like, alluvial sand. These sands are overlain by a muddy lacustrine unit bearing, at its base, two well-developed lignitiferous seams accumulated in a coastal marsh setting. The lacustrine mud grades upwards into deltaic sand accumulated in a shallow-water delta under repeated lake-level oscillations. The Montevarchi Synthem (Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene) consists of two portions separated by an unconformity surface passing basinward into a correlative conformity. The lower portion of the Montevarchi Synthem is made of alluvial fan gravel and sand passing upwards into fluvioaeolian sandsheet deposits, consisting of aeolian-reworked, alluvial sand bearing isolated channels. Fluvio-aeolian sandsheet deposits are covered by mollusc-rich, alluvial sand which makes lateral transition into lacustrine muddy deposits. The upper portion of the Montevarchi Synthem consists of fluvial and alluvial fan deposits. Fluvial deposits occupy the axial part of the basin and are referred to sandy channels wandering through a muddy floodplain hosting shallow lakes and swamps. Alluvial fan deposits occur along the basin margins and consist of proximal gravels grading downfan into gravelly sand and a variety of sandy facies. Floodplain lakes deposits are well-developed in the middle part of the upper Montevarchi Synthem and in the Palazzolo sub-basin (Fosso Salceto Synthem), where they are overlain by alluvial-fan gravels. The Torrente Ciuffenna Synthem (Early to Middle Pleistocene) consists of fluvial sediments in axial part of the basin and alluvial fans deposits along the basin margins. The axial fluvial deposits were accumulated by the paleoArno River and consist of gravel and overlying sand. The basal gravels were deposited by low-sinuosity channels, whereas sandy deposits were formed by moderate to high-sinuous channels. The alluvial fan deposits consist of proximal gravels passing downfaninto gravelly sand and sandy facies.

@article{doi103301ijg201207,
    author = "Ghinassi, Massimiliano",
    title = "Depositional environments of the Plio-Pleistocene Upper Valdarno Basin (Tuscany, Italy)",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Italian Journal of Geosciences",
    abstract = "The Upper Valdarno Basin is located about 35 km SE of Florence between the Chianti Mountains and the Pratomagno Ridge.The basin fill is made of four synthems named as Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni, Montevarchi, Fosso Salceto and Torrente Ciuffenna synthems. The Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni Synthem (Late Pliocene) consists of coarse-grained, stream gravels grading upwards into sheet-like, alluvial sand. These sands are overlain by a muddy lacustrine unit bearing, at its base, two well-developed lignitiferous seams accumulated in a coastal marsh setting. The lacustrine mud grades upwards into deltaic sand accumulated in a shallow-water delta under repeated lake-level oscillations. The Montevarchi Synthem (Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene) consists of two portions separated by an unconformity surface passing basinward into a correlative conformity. The lower portion of the Montevarchi Synthem is made of alluvial fan gravel and sand passing upwards into fluvioaeolian sandsheet deposits, consisting of aeolian-reworked, alluvial sand bearing isolated channels. Fluvio-aeolian sandsheet deposits are covered by mollusc-rich, alluvial sand which makes lateral transition into lacustrine muddy deposits. The upper portion of the Montevarchi Synthem consists of fluvial and alluvial fan deposits. Fluvial deposits occupy the axial part of the basin and are referred to sandy channels wandering through a muddy floodplain hosting shallow lakes and swamps. Alluvial fan deposits occur along the basin margins and consist of proximal gravels grading downfan into gravelly sand and a variety of sandy facies. Floodplain lakes deposits are well-developed in the middle part of the upper Montevarchi Synthem and in the Palazzolo sub-basin (Fosso Salceto Synthem), where they are overlain by alluvial-fan gravels. The Torrente Ciuffenna Synthem (Early to Middle Pleistocene) consists of fluvial sediments in axial part of the basin and alluvial fans deposits along the basin margins. The axial fluvial deposits were accumulated by the paleoArno River and consist of gravel and overlying sand. The basal gravels were deposited by low-sinuosity channels, whereas sandy deposits were formed by moderate to high-sinuous channels. The alluvial fan deposits consist of proximal gravels passing downfaninto gravelly sand and sandy facies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3301/ijg.2012.07",
    doi = "10.3301/ijg.2012.07",
    openalex = "W2173981279",
    references = "doi101016s0037073800001858"
}

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, rich non-marine molluscan faunas have been recognized in the Plio-Pleistocene Upper Valdarno Basin (Tuscany, central Italy). Further research has improved the palaeoecological and biochronological meaning of these faunas, which are often associated with significant Villafranchian vertebrate remains. The Upper Valdarno Basin fill consists of four unconformity-bounded units: Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni, Montevarchi, Fosso Salceto (occurring in the Palazzolo sub-basin) and Torrente Ciuffenna synthems. Rich molluscan assemblages of alluvial and palustrine environment are recorded from the Lower Pleistocene Montevarchi Synthem deposits. Extinct and archaic freshwater gastropods and bivalves characterising the Middle and Upper Villafranchian thermophilous assemblages of intermountain basins of central Italy, such as the Plio-Pleistocene Tiberino Basin, occur. The new record of the extinct genus Neumayria De STEFANI, 1877 is reported. A humid-temperate climatic phase is recognized in concomitance with the major expansion of these assemblages in the Upper Valdarno Basin. The fluvial deposits of the Torrente Ciuffenna Synthem, Middle Pleistocene in age, yielded poor mixed assemblages composed of terrestrial and freshwater species. The recorded land species, represented by Pupillidae and Vertiginidae associated with a dry exposed environment, point to an arid or semiarid cool climatic phase.

@article{doi103301ijg201222,
    author = "Esu, Daniela and Ghinassi, Massimiliano",
    title = "The non-marine molluscs of the Plio-Pleistocene Upper Valdarno Basin (Tuscany, central Italy): depositional environments, palaeoecology and biochronology",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Italian Journal of Geosciences",
    abstract = "Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, rich non-marine molluscan faunas have been recognized in the Plio-Pleistocene Upper Valdarno Basin (Tuscany, central Italy). Further research has improved the palaeoecological and biochronological meaning of these faunas, which are often associated with significant Villafranchian vertebrate remains. The Upper Valdarno Basin fill consists of four unconformity-bounded units: Castelnuovo dei Sabbioni, Montevarchi, Fosso Salceto (occurring in the Palazzolo sub-basin) and Torrente Ciuffenna synthems. Rich molluscan assemblages of alluvial and palustrine environment are recorded from the Lower Pleistocene Montevarchi Synthem deposits. Extinct and archaic freshwater gastropods and bivalves characterising the Middle and Upper Villafranchian thermophilous assemblages of intermountain basins of central Italy, such as the Plio-Pleistocene Tiberino Basin, occur. The new record of the extinct genus Neumayria De STEFANI, 1877 is reported. A humid-temperate climatic phase is recognized in concomitance with the major expansion of these assemblages in the Upper Valdarno Basin. The fluvial deposits of the Torrente Ciuffenna Synthem, Middle Pleistocene in age, yielded poor mixed assemblages composed of terrestrial and freshwater species. The recorded land species, represented by Pupillidae and Vertiginidae associated with a dry exposed environment, point to an arid or semiarid cool climatic phase.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3301/ijg.2012.22",
    doi = "10.3301/ijg.2012.22",
    openalex = "W2279500783",
    references = "doi101016s0037073800001858"
}

@book{doi107208chicago97802269229800010001,
    author = "Grande, Lance",
    title = "The Lost World of Fossil Lake",
    year = "2013",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226922980.001.0001",
    doi = "10.7208/chicago/9780226922980.001.0001",
    openalex = "W4247306174"
}

The exceptional preservation of plant fossils falls into two categories: whole plant preservation and anatomical detail. Whole plant preservation is controlled primarily by transport and event preservation (e.g., ash falls), whereas anatomical preservation can occur through one of several taphonomic pathways: compression-impression, silicification, coal-ball formation, pyritization, and charcoalification. This review focuses on these taphonomic pathways, highlighting important factors and controls on the exceptional preservation of plants. Special emphasis is given to data garnered from experimental and actualistic approaches.

@article{doi101017s1089332600002874,
    author = "Locatelli, Emma R.",
    title = "The Exceptional Preservation of Plant Fossils: A Review of Taphonomic Pathways and Biases in the Fossil Record",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "The Paleontological Society Papers",
    abstract = "The exceptional preservation of plant fossils falls into two categories: whole plant preservation and anatomical detail. Whole plant preservation is controlled primarily by transport and event preservation (e.g., ash falls), whereas anatomical preservation can occur through one of several taphonomic pathways: compression-impression, silicification, coal-ball formation, pyritization, and charcoalification. This review focuses on these taphonomic pathways, highlighting important factors and controls on the exceptional preservation of plants. Special emphasis is given to data garnered from experimental and actualistic approaches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s1089332600002874",
    doi = "10.1017/s1089332600002874",
    openalex = "W3161689857",
    references = "doi101017s1089332600002795, doi101017s247526220000486x, doi102110palo2005p0525p"
}

Fossil evidence for the evolutionary history of terrestrial arthropods in New Zealand is extremely limited; only six pre-Quaternary insects (Triassic to Eocene) have been recorded previously, none of Miocene age. The Foulden Maar fossil lagerstätte in Otago has now yielded a diverse arthropod assemblage, including members of the Araneae, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. The fauna significantly emends the fossil record for the Southern Hemisphere, provides an unparalleled insight into a 23-million-year-old New Zealand lake/forest palaeoecosystem and allows a first evaluation of arthropod diversity at a time coeval with or shortly after the maximum marine transgression of Zealandia in the late Oligocene. The well-preserved arthropods chiefly represent ground-dwelling taxa of forest floor and leaf litter habitats, mostly from sub-families and genera that are still present in the modern fauna. They provide precisely dated fossil evidence for the antiquity of some of New Zealand's terrestrial arthropods and the first potential time calibrations for phylogenetic studies. The high arthropod diversity at Foulden Maar, together with a subtropical rainforest flora and fossil evidence for complex arthropod–plant interactions, suggests that terrestrial arthropods persisted during the Oligocene marine transgression of Zealandia.

@article{doi101111let12106,
    author = "Kaulfuß, Uwe and Lee, Daphne E. and Barratt, B.I.P. and Leschen, Richard A. B. and Larivière, Marie‐Claude and Dlussky, G. M. and Henderson, Ian and Harris, A. C.",
    title = "A diverse fossil terrestrial arthropod fauna from New Zealand: evidence from the early Miocene Foulden Maar fossil lagerstätte",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Lethaia",
    abstract = "Fossil evidence for the evolutionary history of terrestrial arthropods in New Zealand is extremely limited; only six pre-Quaternary insects (Triassic to Eocene) have been recorded previously, none of Miocene age. The Foulden Maar fossil lagerstätte in Otago has now yielded a diverse arthropod assemblage, including members of the Araneae, Plecoptera, Isoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. The fauna significantly emends the fossil record for the Southern Hemisphere, provides an unparalleled insight into a 23-million-year-old New Zealand lake/forest palaeoecosystem and allows a first evaluation of arthropod diversity at a time coeval with or shortly after the maximum marine transgression of Zealandia in the late Oligocene. The well-preserved arthropods chiefly represent ground-dwelling taxa of forest floor and leaf litter habitats, mostly from sub-families and genera that are still present in the modern fauna. They provide precisely dated fossil evidence for the antiquity of some of New Zealand's terrestrial arthropods and the first potential time calibrations for phylogenetic studies. The high arthropod diversity at Foulden Maar, together with a subtropical rainforest flora and fossil evidence for complex arthropod–plant interactions, suggests that terrestrial arthropods persisted during the Oligocene marine transgression of Zealandia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/let.12106",
    doi = "10.1111/let.12106",
    openalex = "W2047641056",
    references = "doi1010800301422320039517736"
}

@article{doi101130b308921,
    author = "Retallack, Gregory J.",
    title = "Volcanosedimentary paleoenvironments of Ediacaran fossils in Newfoundland",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b30892.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b30892.1",
    openalex = "W2079145597",
    references = "doi102110sepmsp101139"
}

Understanding climate change, its effect on terrestrial and marine ecosystems, and possible ways to prevent future climate disasters is a major challenge for society, involving specialists in climate science, terrestrial and marine ecology, paleontology, and sedimentary geology. One approach is to study the deep-time record, especially when the time involved in a particular climatic change can be calibrated. Cyclostratigraphy is a useful tool for this. Throughout Earth's history, different scales of orbital cycles have had significant impacts on atmosphere-ocean dynamics; these impacts are preserved in the ecological and sedimentary record. Most characterizations of these cycles are based on the sedimentary record. But fossil records of past biota, corresponding to individual organisms and communities, have proven very useful in cyclostratigraphic research: From semidiurnal cycles mainly recorded in fossil skeletons to million-year-scale cycles involving mass extinctions, various cases illustrate their worth. This article reviews the use of the fossil record to recognize several cycles, from ecological timescales (≤1.0 yr to 10 kyr cycles; calendar and solar bands) to geological timescales (>10 kyr cycles; Milankovitch and galactic bands).

@article{doi101146annurevearth120412145922,
    author = "Rodrı́guez-Tovar, Francisco J.",
    title = "Orbital Climate Cycles in the Fossil Record: From Semidiurnal to Million-Year Biotic Responses",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "Understanding climate change, its effect on terrestrial and marine ecosystems, and possible ways to prevent future climate disasters is a major challenge for society, involving specialists in climate science, terrestrial and marine ecology, paleontology, and sedimentary geology. One approach is to study the deep-time record, especially when the time involved in a particular climatic change can be calibrated. Cyclostratigraphy is a useful tool for this. Throughout Earth's history, different scales of orbital cycles have had significant impacts on atmosphere-ocean dynamics; these impacts are preserved in the ecological and sedimentary record. Most characterizations of these cycles are based on the sedimentary record. But fossil records of past biota, corresponding to individual organisms and communities, have proven very useful in cyclostratigraphic research: From semidiurnal cycles mainly recorded in fossil skeletons to million-year-scale cycles involving mass extinctions, various cases illustrate their worth. This article reviews the use of the fossil record to recognize several cycles, from ecological timescales (≤1.0 yr to 10 kyr cycles; calendar and solar bands) to geological timescales (>10 kyr cycles; Milankovitch and galactic bands).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-120412-145922",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-120412-145922",
    openalex = "W2116206087",
    references = "doi1010160031018287900265"
}

Microbial communities developing on modern clastic sedimentary surfaces of arid lands are dominated by phototrophic microorganisms that form a variety of characteristic “microbially induced sedimentary structures” (MISS) through their interactions with detrital sedimentary grains, aided by secretions of extracellular polymeric substances and other organic materials. In this study, we describe modern MISS from unvegetated arid topsoils and compare them with fossil MISS found within decimeter- to meter-thick sedimentary sequences of Mesoproterozoic siliciclastic outcrops of the Dripping Spring Quartzite formation of the Apache Group in central Arizona, USA. These sequences contain numerous bedding plane exposures with desiccation surfaces including polygonal cracks, curls, and chips. Repetition of these structures within stratigraphic sequences indicates recurring episodes of subaerial exposure. Some of these MISS contain cellular microfossils that exhibit morphological adaptations for surviving desiccation. The strong similarities between modern and ancient MISS in this study provide additional criteria for recognizing morphological biosignatures of terrestrial microbial communities in ancient deposits. Our results provide compelling evidence for the presence of land-based microbial communities by the Mesoproterozoic (∼1200 Ma). The association of MISS features further suggests that the primary producers that had colonized Mesoproterozoic land surfaces were likely desiccation-adapted photosynthetic microbes, similar to modern desert soil crust communities.

@article{doi102110palo2013084,
    author = "Beraldi-Campesi, Hugo and Farmer, Jack and GARCIA-PICHEL, F.",
    title = "MODERN TERRESTRIAL SEDIMENTARY BIOSTRUCTURES AND THEIR FOSSIL ANALOGS IN MESOPROTEROZOIC SUBAERIAL DEPOSITS",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Palaios",
    abstract = "Microbial communities developing on modern clastic sedimentary surfaces of arid lands are dominated by phototrophic microorganisms that form a variety of characteristic “microbially induced sedimentary structures” (MISS) through their interactions with detrital sedimentary grains, aided by secretions of extracellular polymeric substances and other organic materials. In this study, we describe modern MISS from unvegetated arid topsoils and compare them with fossil MISS found within decimeter- to meter-thick sedimentary sequences of Mesoproterozoic siliciclastic outcrops of the Dripping Spring Quartzite formation of the Apache Group in central Arizona, USA. These sequences contain numerous bedding plane exposures with desiccation surfaces including polygonal cracks, curls, and chips. Repetition of these structures within stratigraphic sequences indicates recurring episodes of subaerial exposure. Some of these MISS contain cellular microfossils that exhibit morphological adaptations for surviving desiccation. The strong similarities between modern and ancient MISS in this study provide additional criteria for recognizing morphological biosignatures of terrestrial microbial communities in ancient deposits. Our results provide compelling evidence for the presence of land-based microbial communities by the Mesoproterozoic (∼1200 Ma). The association of MISS features further suggests that the primary producers that had colonized Mesoproterozoic land surfaces were likely desiccation-adapted photosynthetic microbes, similar to modern desert soil crust communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2013.084",
    doi = "10.2110/palo.2013.084",
    openalex = "W2132666243",
    references = "doi102110sepmsp101139"
}

Fossil charcoal provides direct evidence for fire events that, in turn, have implications for the evolution of both terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. Most of the ancient charcoal record is known from terrestrial or nearshore environments and indicates the earliest occurrences of fire in the Late Silurian. However, despite the rise in available fuel through the Devonian as vascular land plants became larger and trees and forests evolved, charcoal occurrences are very sparse until the Early Mississippian where extensive charcoal suggests well-established fire systems. We present data from the latest Devonian and Early Mississippian of North America from terrestrial and marine rocks indicating that fire became more widespread and significant at this time. This increase may be a function of rising O~2~ levels and the occurrence of fire itself may have contributed to this rise through positive feedback. Recent atmospheric modeling suggests an O~2~ low during the Middle Devonian (around 17.5%), with O~2~ rising steadily through the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian (to 21--22%) that allowed for widespread burning for the first time. In Devonian-Mississippian marine black shales, fossil charcoal (inertinite) steadily increases up-section suggesting the rise of widespread fire systems. There is a concomitant increase in the amount of vitrinite (preserved woody and other plant tissues) that also suggests increased sources of terrestrial organic matter. Even as end Devonian glaciation was experienced, fossil charcoal continued to be a source of organic matter being introduced into the Devonian oceans. Scanning electron and reflectance microscopy of charcoal from Late Devonian terrestrial sites indicate that the fires were moderately hot (typically 500--600 °C) and burnt mainly surface vegetation dominated by herbaceous zygopterid ferns and lycopsids, rather than being produced by forest crown fires. The occurrence and relative abundance of fossil charcoal in marine black shales are significant in that these shales may provide a more continuous record of fire than is preserved in terrestrial environments. Our data support the idea that major fires are not seen in the fossil record until there is both sufficient and connected fuel and a high enough atmospheric O~2~ content for it to burn.

@article{doi10247508201501,
    author = "Rimmer, S.M. and Hawkins, S.J. and Scott, Andrew C. and Cressler, Walter",
    title = "The rise of fire: Fossil charcoal in late Devonian marine shales as an indicator of expanding terrestrial ecosystems, fire, and atmospheric change",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    abstract = "Fossil charcoal provides direct evidence for fire events that, in turn, have implications for the evolution of both terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. Most of the ancient charcoal record is known from terrestrial or nearshore environments and indicates the earliest occurrences of fire in the Late Silurian. However, despite the rise in available fuel through the Devonian as vascular land plants became larger and trees and forests evolved, charcoal occurrences are very sparse until the Early Mississippian where extensive charcoal suggests well-established fire systems. We present data from the latest Devonian and Early Mississippian of North America from terrestrial and marine rocks indicating that fire became more widespread and significant at this time. This increase may be a function of rising O\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ levels and the occurrence of fire itself may have contributed to this rise through positive feedback. Recent atmospheric modeling suggests an O\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ low during the Middle Devonian (around 17.5\%), with O\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ rising steadily through the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian (to 21--22\%) that allowed for widespread burning for the first time. In Devonian-Mississippian marine black shales, fossil charcoal (inertinite) steadily increases up-section suggesting the rise of widespread fire systems. There is a concomitant increase in the amount of vitrinite (preserved woody and other plant tissues) that also suggests increased sources of terrestrial organic matter. Even as end Devonian glaciation was experienced, fossil charcoal continued to be a source of organic matter being introduced into the Devonian oceans. Scanning electron and reflectance microscopy of charcoal from Late Devonian terrestrial sites indicate that the fires were moderately hot (typically 500--600 °C) and burnt mainly surface vegetation dominated by herbaceous zygopterid ferns and lycopsids, rather than being produced by forest crown fires. The occurrence and relative abundance of fossil charcoal in marine black shales are significant in that these shales may provide a more continuous record of fire than is preserved in terrestrial environments. Our data support the idea that major fires are not seen in the fossil record until there is both sufficient and connected fuel and a high enough atmospheric O\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ content for it to burn.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/08.2015.01",
    doi = "10.2475/08.2015.01",
    openalex = "W2175448777",
    references = "doi101111j136530911993tb01761x, doi1034172007016"
}

The fossil record provides the primary source of data for calibrating the origin of clades. Although minimum ages of clades are given by the oldest preserved fossil, these underestimate the true age, which must be bracketed by probabilistic methods based on multiple fossil occurrences. Although most of these methods assume uniform preservation rates, this assumption is unsupported over geological timescales. On geologically long timescales (more than 10 Myr), the origin and cessation of sedimentary basins, and long-term variations in tectonic subsidence, eustatic sea level and sedimentation rate control the availability of depositional facies that preserve the environments in which species lived. The loss of doomed sediments, those with a low probability of preservation, imparts a secular trend to fossil preservation. As a result, the fossil record is spatially and temporally non-uniform. Models of fossil preservation should reflect this non-uniformity by using empirical estimates of fossil preservation that are spatially and temporally partitioned, or by using indirect proxies of fossil preservation. Geologically, realistic models of preservation will provide substantially more reliable estimates of the origination of clades.This article is part of the themed issue 'Dating species divergences using rocks and clocks'.

@article{doi101098rstb20150130,
    author = "Holland, Steven M.",
    title = "The non-uniformity of fossil preservation",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "The fossil record provides the primary source of data for calibrating the origin of clades. Although minimum ages of clades are given by the oldest preserved fossil, these underestimate the true age, which must be bracketed by probabilistic methods based on multiple fossil occurrences. Although most of these methods assume uniform preservation rates, this assumption is unsupported over geological timescales. On geologically long timescales (more than 10 Myr), the origin and cessation of sedimentary basins, and long-term variations in tectonic subsidence, eustatic sea level and sedimentation rate control the availability of depositional facies that preserve the environments in which species lived. The loss of doomed sediments, those with a low probability of preservation, imparts a secular trend to fossil preservation. As a result, the fossil record is spatially and temporally non-uniform. Models of fossil preservation should reflect this non-uniformity by using empirical estimates of fossil preservation that are spatially and temporally partitioned, or by using indirect proxies of fossil preservation. Geologically, realistic models of preservation will provide substantially more reliable estimates of the origination of clades.This article is part of the themed issue 'Dating species divergences using rocks and clocks'.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0130",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2015.0130",
    openalex = "W2467321918",
    references = "doi10100797890481864337, doi101086501220, doi101098rspb20142245, doi101111pala12042"
}

@incollection{doi10100797833194983795,
    author = "Knaust, Dirk",
    title = "Selected Trace Fossils in Core and Outcrop",
    year = "2017",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49837-9\_5",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-319-49837-9\_5",
    openalex = "W2624584125",
    references = "doi1010800301422320039517736"
}

The fossil woods and leaves of the Fossil Forest Piedra Chamana represent a diverse assemblage of plants dating to 39 Ma (late Middle Eocene). The fossils are preserved in an ashfall and overlying lahar deposits near the small village of Sexi in the northern Peruvian Andes (central Cajamarca). The assemblage includes dicot wood types and leaf morphotypes, as well as a diversity of monocot material. The ~30 dicot wood types are referred to the families Acanthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Combretaceae, Cordiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lechythidaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Muntingiaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Sapindaceae. Described herein are descriptions of the first 17 wood types that have been assigned to the families Acanthaceae through Lythraceae; descriptions of the additional wood types will appear in a later paper. The paleovegetation can be characterized as lowland tropical forest with a dry aspect based on preliminary analysis of floristic affinities and wood anatomical characteristics of the fossils.

@article{doi1011632294193220170175,
    author = "Woodcock, Deborah and Meyer, Herbert W. and Prado, Y.",
    title = "The Piedra Chamana fossil woods (Eocene, Peru)",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "IAWA Journal - KU Leuven/IAWA Journal",
    abstract = "The fossil woods and leaves of the Fossil Forest Piedra Chamana represent a diverse assemblage of plants dating to 39 Ma (late Middle Eocene). The fossils are preserved in an ashfall and overlying lahar deposits near the small village of Sexi in the northern Peruvian Andes (central Cajamarca). The assemblage includes dicot wood types and leaf morphotypes, as well as a diversity of monocot material. The \textasciitilde 30 dicot wood types are referred to the families Acanthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Combretaceae, Cordiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lechythidaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Muntingiaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Sapindaceae. Described herein are descriptions of the first 17 wood types that have been assigned to the families Acanthaceae through Lythraceae; descriptions of the additional wood types will appear in a later paper. The paleovegetation can be characterized as lowland tropical forest with a dry aspect based on preliminary analysis of floristic affinities and wood anatomical characteristics of the fossils.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1163/22941932-20170175",
    doi = "10.1163/22941932-20170175",
    openalex = "W2687071492",
    references = "doi1010800301422320039517736"
}

Retallack, G.J., 7 May 2018. Leaf preservation in Eucalyptus woodland as a model for sclerophyll fossil floras. Alcheringa 43, 71–84.A comparison of 29 identifiable vascular plant species in litter beneath Eucalyptus woodland with at least 74 species living nearby showed that the litter is a poor representation of standing vegetation. The leaf litter is dominated by sclerophyll leaves, which are a factor of 6.2 over-represented in litter for Angophora costata, factor of 5.7 for Melaleuca linariifolia, of 3.6 for Eucalyptus spp., of 3.5 for Pteridium esculentum and of 2.1 for Acacia linifolia. Angophora leaves are favored by lignification, with denser venation than Eucalyptus leaves. Sparse emergent oil glands of Angophora also provide fewer entry points for bacteria than rotted internal oil glands of Eucalyptus. The myrtaceous taxa Angophora, Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Kunzea all have oils dominantly of preservative terpene. Melaleuca linariifolia and Acacia linifolia also have leaves and phyllodes (respectively) that are narrow with a thick lignin midrib. Thickly cuticled, succulent, hirsute, pubescent, and pinnate leaves, and green stems are not favored for preservation, because they rot from the inside out. Conspicuously absent in the leaf litter are nonsclerophyll leaves, most grasses and low herbs. This modern sclerophyll leaf litter matches Sydney Basin Permian and Triassic fossil plant localities above nutrient-poor siliceous paleosols, which may have had much more diversity than the preserved fossil flora. Clayey calcareous paleosol leaf litters and lake deposits may record a truer record of local floristic diversity in deep time than sclerophyll leaf litters.Gregory J. Retallack [gregr@uoregon.edu], Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1272, USA.

@article{doi1010800311551820181457180,
    author = "Retallack, Gregory J.",
    title = "Leaf preservation in Eucalyptus woodland as a model for sclerophyll fossil floras",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Alcheringa An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology",
    abstract = "Retallack, G.J., 7 May 2018. Leaf preservation in Eucalyptus woodland as a model for sclerophyll fossil floras. Alcheringa 43, 71–84.A comparison of 29 identifiable vascular plant species in litter beneath Eucalyptus woodland with at least 74 species living nearby showed that the litter is a poor representation of standing vegetation. The leaf litter is dominated by sclerophyll leaves, which are a factor of 6.2 over-represented in litter for Angophora costata, factor of 5.7 for Melaleuca linariifolia, of 3.6 for Eucalyptus spp., of 3.5 for Pteridium esculentum and of 2.1 for Acacia linifolia. Angophora leaves are favored by lignification, with denser venation than Eucalyptus leaves. Sparse emergent oil glands of Angophora also provide fewer entry points for bacteria than rotted internal oil glands of Eucalyptus. The myrtaceous taxa Angophora, Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Kunzea all have oils dominantly of preservative terpene. Melaleuca linariifolia and Acacia linifolia also have leaves and phyllodes (respectively) that are narrow with a thick lignin midrib. Thickly cuticled, succulent, hirsute, pubescent, and pinnate leaves, and green stems are not favored for preservation, because they rot from the inside out. Conspicuously absent in the leaf litter are nonsclerophyll leaves, most grasses and low herbs. This modern sclerophyll leaf litter matches Sydney Basin Permian and Triassic fossil plant localities above nutrient-poor siliceous paleosols, which may have had much more diversity than the preserved fossil flora. Clayey calcareous paleosol leaf litters and lake deposits may record a truer record of local floristic diversity in deep time than sclerophyll leaf litters.Gregory J. Retallack [gregr@uoregon.edu], Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1272, USA.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/03115518.2018.1457180",
    doi = "10.1080/03115518.2018.1457180",
    openalex = "W2800868812",
    references = "doi1010079783642756689, doi101007s1110400900680, doi101007s1110401526378, doi101016s0006320703002945, doi101016s0038071703001494, doi101016s0378112799002947, doi101130009176131981952caroro20co2, doi101139a96017, doi1023071931725, doi1023072389178, doi1023073546886, retallack1981comment"
}

The occurrence and formation of silicified wood from five late Paleozoic basins in Central Europe was investigated. Fossil wood from diverse geological settings was studied using field observations, taphonomic determinations as well as mineralogical analyses (polarizing microscopy, cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy and spectroscopy). The results indicate that silicification is either a monophase or multiphase process under varying physico-chemical conditions. In particular, CL studies revealed complex processes of silica accumulation and crystallization. The CL characteristics of quartz phases in silicified wood can mostly be related to blue (390 and 440 nm), yellow (580 nm), and red (650 nm) emission bands, which may appear in different combinations and varying intensity ratios. Yellow CL is typical for initial silicification, reflecting quick precipitation under oxygen-deficient conditions caused by initial decay of the organic material. Blue CL is predominantly of secondary origin, resulting from replacement of precursor phases by a secondary hydrothermal quartz generation or subsequent silicification of wood. The red CL can be related to a lattice defect (non-bridging oxygen hole center—NBOHC).

@article{doi103390min8100432,
    author = "Trümper, Steffen and Rößler, Ronny and Götze, Jens",
    title = "Deciphering Silicification Pathways of Fossil Forests: Case Studies from the Late Paleozoic of Central Europe",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Minerals",
    abstract = "The occurrence and formation of silicified wood from five late Paleozoic basins in Central Europe was investigated. Fossil wood from diverse geological settings was studied using field observations, taphonomic determinations as well as mineralogical analyses (polarizing microscopy, cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy and spectroscopy). The results indicate that silicification is either a monophase or multiphase process under varying physico-chemical conditions. In particular, CL studies revealed complex processes of silica accumulation and crystallization. The CL characteristics of quartz phases in silicified wood can mostly be related to blue (390 and 440 nm), yellow (580 nm), and red (650 nm) emission bands, which may appear in different combinations and varying intensity ratios. Yellow CL is typical for initial silicification, reflecting quick precipitation under oxygen-deficient conditions caused by initial decay of the organic material. Blue CL is predominantly of secondary origin, resulting from replacement of precursor phases by a secondary hydrothermal quartz generation or subsequent silicification of wood. The red CL can be related to a lattice defect (non-bridging oxygen hole center—NBOHC).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/min8100432",
    doi = "10.3390/min8100432",
    openalex = "W2894032583"
}

Abstract Taphonomic processes are informative about the magnitude and timing of paleoecological changes but remain poorly understood with respect to freshwater invertebrates in spring-fed rivers and streams. We compared taphonomic alteration among freshwater gastropods in live, dead (surficial shell accumulations), and fossil (late Pleistocene–early Holocene in situ sediments) assemblages from two Florida spring-fed systems, the Wakulla and Silver/Ocklawaha Rivers. We assessed taphonomy of two gastropod species: the native Elimia floridensis (n = 2504) and introduced Melanoides tuberculata (n = 168). We quantified seven taphonomic attributes (aperture condition, color, fragmentation, abrasion, juvenile spire condition, dissolution, and exterior luster) and combined those attributes into a total taphonomic score (TT). Fossil E. floridensis specimens exhibited the greatest degradation (highest TT scores), whereas live specimens of both species were least degraded. Specimens of E. floridensis from death assemblages were less altered than fossil specimens of the same species. Within death assemblages, specimens of M. tuberculata were significantly less altered than specimens of E. floridensis, but highly degraded specimens dominated in both species. Radiocarbon dates on fossils clustered between 9792 and 7087 cal BP, whereas death assemblage ages ranged from 10,692 to 1173 cal BP. Possible explanations for the observed taphonomic patterns include: (1) rapid taphonomic shell alteration, (2) prolonged near-surface exposure to moderate alteration rates, and/or (3) introduction of reworked fossil shells into surficial assemblages. Combined radiocarbon dates and taphonomic analyses suggest that all these processes may have played a role in death assemblage formation. In these fluvial settings, shell accumulations develop as a complex mixture of specimens derived from multiple sources and characterized by multimillennial time-averaging. These findings suggest that, when available, fossil assemblages may be more appropriate than death assemblages for assessing preindustrial faunal associations and recent anthropogenic changes in freshwater ecosystems.

@article{doi101017pab202025,
    author = "Kusnerik, Kristopher M. and Means, Guy H. and Portell, Roger W. and Brenner, Mark and Hua, Quan and Kannai, Alshina and Means, Ryan and Monroe, Mariah A. and Kowalewski, Michał",
    title = "Live, dead, and fossil mollusks in Florida freshwater springs and spring-fed rivers: Taphonomic pathways and the formation of multisourced, time-averaged death assemblages",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Paleobiology",
    abstract = "Abstract Taphonomic processes are informative about the magnitude and timing of paleoecological changes but remain poorly understood with respect to freshwater invertebrates in spring-fed rivers and streams. We compared taphonomic alteration among freshwater gastropods in live, dead (surficial shell accumulations), and fossil (late Pleistocene–early Holocene in situ sediments) assemblages from two Florida spring-fed systems, the Wakulla and Silver/Ocklawaha Rivers. We assessed taphonomy of two gastropod species: the native Elimia floridensis (n = 2504) and introduced Melanoides tuberculata (n = 168). We quantified seven taphonomic attributes (aperture condition, color, fragmentation, abrasion, juvenile spire condition, dissolution, and exterior luster) and combined those attributes into a total taphonomic score (TT). Fossil E. floridensis specimens exhibited the greatest degradation (highest TT scores), whereas live specimens of both species were least degraded. Specimens of E. floridensis from death assemblages were less altered than fossil specimens of the same species. Within death assemblages, specimens of M. tuberculata were significantly less altered than specimens of E. floridensis, but highly degraded specimens dominated in both species. Radiocarbon dates on fossils clustered between 9792 and 7087 cal BP, whereas death assemblage ages ranged from 10,692 to 1173 cal BP. Possible explanations for the observed taphonomic patterns include: (1) rapid taphonomic shell alteration, (2) prolonged near-surface exposure to moderate alteration rates, and/or (3) introduction of reworked fossil shells into surficial assemblages. Combined radiocarbon dates and taphonomic analyses suggest that all these processes may have played a role in death assemblage formation. In these fluvial settings, shell accumulations develop as a complex mixture of specimens derived from multiple sources and characterized by multimillennial time-averaging. These findings suggest that, when available, fossil assemblages may be more appropriate than death assemblages for assessing preindustrial faunal associations and recent anthropogenic changes in freshwater ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/pab.2020.25",
    doi = "10.1017/pab.2020.25",
    openalex = "W3045244005",
    references = "doi101016003101829190016k, doi103133wri014182"
}

@article{doi101016jgeobios202104002,
    author = "Bashforth, Arden R. and DiMichele, William A. and Eble, Cortland F. and Falcon‐Lang, Howard J. and Looy, Cindy V. and Lucas, Spencer G.",
    title = "The environmental implications of upper Paleozoic plant-fossil assemblages with mixtures of wetland and drought-tolerant taxa in tropical Pangea",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Geobios",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geobios.2021.04.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.geobios.2021.04.002",
    openalex = "W3161872040",
    references = "doi101016jpalaeo200907017, doi101016jpalaeo201409013, doi101016jpalaeo201502024, doi101111pala12164, doi101130b303141, doi102110jsr201351, doi102110palo2005p0525p, doi1034172007016, doi1052321geolbalc2353"
}

@article{doi101016jpalaeo2021110481,
    author = "Cleal, Christopher J. and Pardoe, Heather S. and Berry, Christopher M. and Cascales‐Miñana, Borja and Davis, Basil A.S. and Diez, José B. and Filipova‐Marinova, Mariana and Giesecke, Thomas and Hilton, Jason and Ivanov, Dimiter and Kustatscher, Evelyn and Leroy, Suzanne A.G. and McElwain, Jennifer C. and Opluštil, Stanislav and Popa, Mihai Emilian and Seyfullah, Leyla J. and Stolle, Ellen and Thomas, Barry A. and Uhl, Dieter",
    title = "Palaeobotanical experiences of plant diversity in deep time. 1: How well can we identify past plant diversity in the fossil record?",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110481",
    doi = "10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110481",
    openalex = "W3161527289",
    references = "doi101016s0037073800001858, doi1010179781139047678, doi102110palo2005p0525p, doi1026879266"
}

One of the world’s most spectacular fossil forests occurs in Oligocene sediments in an area 30 km east of Cairo known as Gebel El Khashab (Arabic for ‘Wood Mountain’). The locality is popularly known as Maadi Petrified Forest, and New Cairo Petrified Forest. In 1989 the area was established as a protected area. Fossilized wood occurs in the form of trunks that are up to 28 m long and more than one metre in diameter. Non-articulated fossil bones are preserved in the same strata as the petrified wood. For our study, 23 samples of petrified wood, bones, and country rocks collected from G. El Khashab were examined by XRD, XRF, and optical and scanning electron microscopy. All log samples contained silica as the main constituent. With the exception of a single sample that contained opal-CT, quartz was the dominant mineral in the fossil wood. Relict organic matter, as evidenced by weight loss after 500°C heating ranged from 0.14 to 11.62 wt. %, with an average of 4.15 wt. %, with a median value of 1.45%. Silicification preserved anatomical detail, in combination with trace elements that produced colour variations. Iron oxyhydroxides cause the fossil wood to typically have reddish colours. Other accessory minerals include gypsum, fluorite, barite, and calcite. Spherical masses of iron oxide originated as pyrite framboids that became oxidized during diagenesis. Fossil bone consists mainly of carbonate fluorapatite. Diagenetic or weathering activities added several mineral constituents to the fossil bones. Of these, ferruginous minerals are the most abundant. Other secondary minerals include quartz, calcite, dolomite, halite and gypsum.

@article{doi1018261let5636,
    author = "Salama, Ahmed and Mustoe, George",
    title = "Mineralogy of Oligocene fossil wood, bone and associated sediments from the Petrified Forest protected area, New Cairo, Egypt",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Lethaia",
    abstract = "One of the world’s most spectacular fossil forests occurs in Oligocene sediments in an area 30 km east of Cairo known as Gebel El Khashab (Arabic for ‘Wood Mountain’). The locality is popularly known as Maadi Petrified Forest, and New Cairo Petrified Forest. In 1989 the area was established as a protected area. Fossilized wood occurs in the form of trunks that are up to 28 m long and more than one metre in diameter. Non-articulated fossil bones are preserved in the same strata as the petrified wood. For our study, 23 samples of petrified wood, bones, and country rocks collected from G. El Khashab were examined by XRD, XRF, and optical and scanning electron microscopy. All log samples contained silica as the main constituent. With the exception of a single sample that contained opal-CT, quartz was the dominant mineral in the fossil wood. Relict organic matter, as evidenced by weight loss after 500°C heating ranged from 0.14 to 11.62 wt. \%, with an average of 4.15 wt. \%, with a median value of 1.45\%. Silicification preserved anatomical detail, in combination with trace elements that produced colour variations. Iron oxyhydroxides cause the fossil wood to typically have reddish colours. Other accessory minerals include gypsum, fluorite, barite, and calcite. Spherical masses of iron oxide originated as pyrite framboids that became oxidized during diagenesis. Fossil bone consists mainly of carbonate fluorapatite. Diagenetic or weathering activities added several mineral constituents to the fossil bones. Of these, ferruginous minerals are the most abundant. Other secondary minerals include quartz, calcite, dolomite, halite and gypsum.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18261/let.56.3.6",
    doi = "10.18261/let.56.3.6",
    openalex = "W4387819064",
    references = "doi103390min13020206"
}

Microscopic analysis of fossils from the Lightning Ridge district of northwestern New South Wales, Australia, shows that opal has been typically deposited in variable cavities left by the degradation of the original organic material. Fine-grained, clay-rich sediments have preserved the external morphology, and opalization has produced detailed casts with different modes of preservation of internal details. Plant remains include cones, cone scales, fruiting bodies, and seeds, but the most common specimens are twigs, stems, and wood fragments. These specimens commonly contain angular inclusions that represent small tissue fragments produced by the degradation of the original wood. Inclusions commonly have a “hollow box” structure where the organic material has decomposed after the initial opal filling of the mold. These spaces commonly contain traces of the cellular architecture, in the form of wood fiber textures imprinted on the cavity wall, degraded cellular material, and silicified tracheids. Opal casts of mollusk shells and crustacean bioliths preserve the shape but no calcium carbonate residue. Likewise, opal casts of vertebrate remains (bones, teeth, osteoderms) lack preservation of the original bioapatite. These compositions are evidence that burial in fine clays and silts, isolated from the effects of water and oxygen, caused protracted delays between the timing of burial, decomposition, and the development of vacuities in the claystones that became sites for opal precipitation. The length of time required for the dissolution of cellulosic/ligninitic plant remains, calcium carbonate items, and calcium phosphates in bones and teeth cannot be quantified, but evidence from opal-bearing formations worldwide reveals that these processes can be very slow. The timing of opalization can be inferred from previous studies that concluded that Cenozoic tectonism produced faults and fissures that allowed horizontal and lateral movement of silica-bearing groundwater. Comparisons of Australian opal-AG with opal from international localities suggest that opalization was a Neogene phenomenon. The transformation of Opal-AG → Opal-CT is well-documented for the diagenesis of siliceous biogenic sediments and siliceous sinter from geothermal areas. Likewise, precious and common opal from the late Miocene Virgin Valley Formation in northern Nevada, USA, shows the rapidity of the Opal-AG → Opal-CT transformation. Taken together, we consider this evidence to indicate a Neogene age for Lightning Ridge opalization and by inference for the opalization of the extensive opal deposits of the Great Artesian Basin in Australia. New paleontology discoveries include a surprising level of cellular detail in plant fossils, the preservation of individual tracheids as opal casts, evidence of opalized plant pith or vascular tissue (non-gymnosperm), and the first report of Early Cretaceous coprolites from New South Wales, Australia.

@article{doi103390min13121471,
    author = "Mustoe, George and Smith, Elizabeth T.",
    title = "Timing of Opalization at Lightning Ridge, Australia: New Evidence from Opalized Fossils",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Minerals",
    abstract = "Microscopic analysis of fossils from the Lightning Ridge district of northwestern New South Wales, Australia, shows that opal has been typically deposited in variable cavities left by the degradation of the original organic material. Fine-grained, clay-rich sediments have preserved the external morphology, and opalization has produced detailed casts with different modes of preservation of internal details. Plant remains include cones, cone scales, fruiting bodies, and seeds, but the most common specimens are twigs, stems, and wood fragments. These specimens commonly contain angular inclusions that represent small tissue fragments produced by the degradation of the original wood. Inclusions commonly have a “hollow box” structure where the organic material has decomposed after the initial opal filling of the mold. These spaces commonly contain traces of the cellular architecture, in the form of wood fiber textures imprinted on the cavity wall, degraded cellular material, and silicified tracheids. Opal casts of mollusk shells and crustacean bioliths preserve the shape but no calcium carbonate residue. Likewise, opal casts of vertebrate remains (bones, teeth, osteoderms) lack preservation of the original bioapatite. These compositions are evidence that burial in fine clays and silts, isolated from the effects of water and oxygen, caused protracted delays between the timing of burial, decomposition, and the development of vacuities in the claystones that became sites for opal precipitation. The length of time required for the dissolution of cellulosic/ligninitic plant remains, calcium carbonate items, and calcium phosphates in bones and teeth cannot be quantified, but evidence from opal-bearing formations worldwide reveals that these processes can be very slow. The timing of opalization can be inferred from previous studies that concluded that Cenozoic tectonism produced faults and fissures that allowed horizontal and lateral movement of silica-bearing groundwater. Comparisons of Australian opal-AG with opal from international localities suggest that opalization was a Neogene phenomenon. The transformation of Opal-AG → Opal-CT is well-documented for the diagenesis of siliceous biogenic sediments and siliceous sinter from geothermal areas. Likewise, precious and common opal from the late Miocene Virgin Valley Formation in northern Nevada, USA, shows the rapidity of the Opal-AG → Opal-CT transformation. Taken together, we consider this evidence to indicate a Neogene age for Lightning Ridge opalization and by inference for the opalization of the extensive opal deposits of the Great Artesian Basin in Australia. New paleontology discoveries include a surprising level of cellular detail in plant fossils, the preservation of individual tracheids as opal casts, evidence of opalized plant pith or vascular tissue (non-gymnosperm), and the first report of Early Cretaceous coprolites from New South Wales, Australia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121471",
    doi = "10.3390/min13121471",
    openalex = "W4388943811",
    references = "doi103390min13020206"
}

Worldwide, silicified woods are found in many geological formations. Significantly, the organic materials of wood are no longer dominant; almost all wood fossils have been mineralized into inorganic silica materials. These unique geological processes must be understood to develop better understanding on organic material fossilization, particularly in the micron scale. Therefore, our aim was to characterize the composition of silicified wood using comprehensive microanalysis. The methods utilized were XRF, ICP-MS, XRD, FTIR, and FE-EPMA. Specimens are from Jasinga, West Java, Indonesia. The results showed that wood silicification was controlled by the infiltration of silica from the host rock into the spaces of the wood structure. In Jasinga, they are controlled by Pliocene tuffaceous sedimentary rocks. The ratio of silica phases revealed a trend in the degree of silicification. Besides silica, the distribution of trace elements also demonstrates the geochemical interaction between the wood fossil and host rock. Wood fossils are affected by the gradual replacement of organic carbon-based materials with silica through silicification. Silica enrichment occurs in the internal of wood, facilitates permineralization and recrystallization. Silica replaces organic material and preserves the wood structures. The microanalytical approach provides comprehensive perspectives on wood petrification, leads to better insights for paleontological studies.

@article{doi101038s41598024696810,
    author = "Harbowo, Danni Gathot and Aswan, Aswan and Zaim, Yahdi and Chaerun, Siti Khodijah and Chaerun, Raudhatul Islam and Astuti, Widi and Sato, Tsutomu",
    title = "Microanalytical approaches on the silicification process of wood fossil from Jasinga, West Java, Indonesia",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "Worldwide, silicified woods are found in many geological formations. Significantly, the organic materials of wood are no longer dominant; almost all wood fossils have been mineralized into inorganic silica materials. These unique geological processes must be understood to develop better understanding on organic material fossilization, particularly in the micron scale. Therefore, our aim was to characterize the composition of silicified wood using comprehensive microanalysis. The methods utilized were XRF, ICP-MS, XRD, FTIR, and FE-EPMA. Specimens are from Jasinga, West Java, Indonesia. The results showed that wood silicification was controlled by the infiltration of silica from the host rock into the spaces of the wood structure. In Jasinga, they are controlled by Pliocene tuffaceous sedimentary rocks. The ratio of silica phases revealed a trend in the degree of silicification. Besides silica, the distribution of trace elements also demonstrates the geochemical interaction between the wood fossil and host rock. Wood fossils are affected by the gradual replacement of organic carbon-based materials with silica through silicification. Silica enrichment occurs in the internal of wood, facilitates permineralization and recrystallization. Silica replaces organic material and preserves the wood structures. The microanalytical approach provides comprehensive perspectives on wood petrification, leads to better insights for paleontological studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-69681-0",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-024-69681-0",
    openalex = "W4401665121",
    references = "doi101038srep38191, doi103390min13020206"
}

A minuscule fraction of the Earth's paleobiological diversity is preserved in the geological record as fossils. What plant remnants have withstood taphonomic filtering, fragmentation, and alteration in their journey to become part of the fossil record provide unique information on how plants functioned in paleo-ecosystems through their traits. Plant traits are measurable morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical, or phenological characteristics that potentially affect their environment and fitness. Here, we review the rich literature of paleobotany, through the lens of contemporary trait-based ecology, to evaluate which well-established extant plant traits hold the greatest promise for application to fossils. In particular, we focus on fossil plant functional traits, those measurable properties of leaf, stem, reproductive, or whole plant fossils that offer insights into the functioning of the plant when alive. The limitations of a trait-based approach in paleobotany are considerable. However, in our critical assessment of over 30 extant traits we present an initial, semi-quantitative ranking of 26 paleo-functional traits based on taphonomic and methodological criteria on the potential of those traits to impact Earth system processes, and for that impact to be quantifiable. We demonstrate how valuable inferences on paleo-ecosystem processes (pollination biology, herbivory), past nutrient cycles, paleobiogeography, paleo-demography (life history), and Earth system history can be derived through the application of paleo-functional traits to fossil plants.

@article{doi101111nph19622,
    author = "McElwain, Jennifer C. and Matthaeus, William J. and Barbosa, Catarina and Chondrogiannis, Christos and Dea, Katie O' and Jackson, Bea and Knetge, Antonietta B. and Kwaśniewska, Kamila and Nair, Richard and White, Joseph D. and Wilson, Jonathan P. and Montañez, Isabel P. and Buckley, Yvonne M. and Belcher, Claire M. and Nogué, Sandra",
    title = "Functional traits of fossil plants",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "A minuscule fraction of the Earth's paleobiological diversity is preserved in the geological record as fossils. What plant remnants have withstood taphonomic filtering, fragmentation, and alteration in their journey to become part of the fossil record provide unique information on how plants functioned in paleo-ecosystems through their traits. Plant traits are measurable morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical, or phenological characteristics that potentially affect their environment and fitness. Here, we review the rich literature of paleobotany, through the lens of contemporary trait-based ecology, to evaluate which well-established extant plant traits hold the greatest promise for application to fossils. In particular, we focus on fossil plant functional traits, those measurable properties of leaf, stem, reproductive, or whole plant fossils that offer insights into the functioning of the plant when alive. The limitations of a trait-based approach in paleobotany are considerable. However, in our critical assessment of over 30 extant traits we present an initial, semi-quantitative ranking of 26 paleo-functional traits based on taphonomic and methodological criteria on the potential of those traits to impact Earth system processes, and for that impact to be quantifiable. We demonstrate how valuable inferences on paleo-ecosystem processes (pollination biology, herbivory), past nutrient cycles, paleobiogeography, paleo-demography (life history), and Earth system history can be derived through the application of paleo-functional traits to fossil plants.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19622",
    doi = "10.1111/nph.19622",
    openalex = "W4392196863",
    references = "doi101126scienceadd2910, doi101126scienceadi5177, doi102110palo2005p0525p"
}

Abstract Silicified wood remains, especially redeposited driftwood, are relatively abundant in the Central Paratethys upper Oligocene (Egerian) to lower Miocene (Eggenburgian) fluviatile St. Marein-Freischling Formation (SMFF) in northwestern Lower Austria (Waldviertel), especially in the Horn Basin. The SMFF is superimposed on the crystalline units of the Bohemian Massif and in the Horn Basin overlain by marine formations of the lower Miocene (Eggenburgian). Several pieces of silicified wood show flight holes, tunnels (= domichnia) and feeding traces of the new ichnofossil Polyphagichnium altenburgense igen. & isp. nov. which is described in detail herein. The cross-sections of shafts (“flight holes”) and tunnels, which are clearly visible on the surfaces of tangential sections and radial sections of several specimens, are compared with structures of different recent gnawing beetles (suborder Polyphaga). The silicified wood remains are mostly semi-ringporous hardwoods of the fossil group around Quercoxylon furwaldense G ros 1983.

@article{doi1017738ajes20240013,
    author = "Steininger, Fritz F. and Roetzel, Reinhard and Capellmann, Thomas",
    title = "Polyphagichnium altenburgense igen. \& isp. nov.: A new trace fossil from the Egerian – Eggenburgian (late Oligocene to early Miocene), Central Paratethys, Lower Austria",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geologischen Gesellschaft/Austrian journal of earth sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Silicified wood remains, especially redeposited driftwood, are relatively abundant in the Central Paratethys upper Oligocene (Egerian) to lower Miocene (Eggenburgian) fluviatile St. Marein-Freischling Formation (SMFF) in northwestern Lower Austria (Waldviertel), especially in the Horn Basin. The SMFF is superimposed on the crystalline units of the Bohemian Massif and in the Horn Basin overlain by marine formations of the lower Miocene (Eggenburgian). Several pieces of silicified wood show flight holes, tunnels (= domichnia) and feeding traces of the new ichnofossil Polyphagichnium altenburgense igen. \& isp. nov. which is described in detail herein. The cross-sections of shafts (“flight holes”) and tunnels, which are clearly visible on the surfaces of tangential sections and radial sections of several specimens, are compared with structures of different recent gnawing beetles (suborder Polyphaga). The silicified wood remains are mostly semi-ringporous hardwoods of the fossil group around Quercoxylon furwaldense G ros 1983.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.17738/ajes.2024.0013",
    doi = "10.17738/ajes.2024.0013",
    openalex = "W4405742178",
    references = "doi1010800035752920201689337"
}

Among the wonders of Yellowstone National Park are the spectacular fossil forests of Amethyst Mountain and Specimen Ridge in the northeastern section of the park and the Gallatin Fossil Forests in the northwestern section. In 1898, John Muir, who was instrumental in establishing the US National Park System, wrote: “Yonder is Amethyst Mountain … beneath the living trees the edges of petrified forests are exposed to view... standing on ledges tier above tier where they grew, solemnly silent in rigid crystalline beauty after swaying in the wind thousands of centuries ago, opening marvelous views back into the years and climates and life of the past time.” Muir’s visit to Amethyst Mountain was no doubt prompted by the early descriptions and diagrams showing multiple layers of fossil forests there (Figure 1A) (Holmes 1878, 1879). Specimen Ridge and the Gallatin Fossil Forests also have successive tiers of fossil forests. Erling Dorf’s 1964 Scientific American article “The Petrified Forests of Yellowstone Park” includes an illustration of Specimen Ridge with more than 20 layers of fossil forests within a vertical section of some 2,000 feet of volcanics. It is unclear how many different volcanic eruptions were involved in creating these massive accumulations of petrified stumps and logs and the time span represented, as well as how long-lived were the individual forests. The classic paper on the geology of the region is by Smedes and Prostka (1972), who concluded that the Lamar River Formation in which Amethyst Mountain and Specimen Ridge occur and the Sepulcher Formation in which the Gallatin Fossil Forests occur are comparable in age, approximately 50 million years old.

@article{doi105070p540162929,
    author = "Wheeler, Elisabeth A.",
    title = "Fossil woods of Yellowstone National Park",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Parks Stewardship Forum",
    abstract = "Among the wonders of Yellowstone National Park are the spectacular fossil forests of Amethyst Mountain and Specimen Ridge in the northeastern section of the park and the Gallatin Fossil Forests in the northwestern section. In 1898, John Muir, who was instrumental in establishing the US National Park System, wrote: “Yonder is Amethyst Mountain … beneath the living trees the edges of petrified forests are exposed to view... standing on ledges tier above tier where they grew, solemnly silent in rigid crystalline beauty after swaying in the wind thousands of centuries ago, opening marvelous views back into the years and climates and life of the past time.” Muir’s visit to Amethyst Mountain was no doubt prompted by the early descriptions and diagrams showing multiple layers of fossil forests there (Figure 1A) (Holmes 1878, 1879). Specimen Ridge and the Gallatin Fossil Forests also have successive tiers of fossil forests. Erling Dorf’s 1964 Scientific American article “The Petrified Forests of Yellowstone Park” includes an illustration of Specimen Ridge with more than 20 layers of fossil forests within a vertical section of some 2,000 feet of volcanics. It is unclear how many different volcanic eruptions were involved in creating these massive accumulations of petrified stumps and logs and the time span represented, as well as how long-lived were the individual forests. The classic paper on the geology of the region is by Smedes and Prostka (1972), who concluded that the Lamar River Formation in which Amethyst Mountain and Specimen Ridge occur and the Sepulcher Formation in which the Gallatin Fossil Forests occur are comparable in age, approximately 50 million years old.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5070/p540162929",
    doi = "10.5070/p540162929",
    openalex = "W4390796479",
    references = "doi1010160031018287900265"
}

@article{doi101016jjsames2025105679,
    author = "Báez, Enrique Moreno and Crisafulli, Alexandra and Kanbour, Agustín Elías and Figueredo, Elsa Iris",
    title = "Mineralogical characterization of fossil woods from the Las Cañas Formation (early Pliocene), Santiago del Estero, Argentina, mainly using SEM and EDX, XRD, FTIR and Confocal Raman spectroscopy",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of South American Earth Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2025.105679",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jsames.2025.105679",
    openalex = "W4412429201",
    references = "doi103390min13020206"
}

@article{doi1010800311551820262621074,
    author = "Retallack, Gregory J.",
    title = "Early Triassic fossil flora of sea cliffs near Sydney, Australia: a taxonomic review",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "Alcheringa An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/03115518.2026.2621074",
    doi = "10.1080/03115518.2026.2621074",
    openalex = "W7129444685",
    references = "doi1010800311551820181457180"
}

The Fossil Forests STEM kit offers a hands-on experience with petrified wood research. The kit is tailored to 6–12th-grade students but has also been appreciated by adult and college-educated audiences. The collaboration between scientists and educators in the development of the kit has produced activities that feel authentic and relevant, facilitating a situated learning experience. The kit teaches students how fossil wood is formed, how to identify the types of trees fossil wood represents, and how fossil wood can be used to infer past climate conditions. Originally designed for a U.S. audience, the kit has been translated into an Indonesian version. After using the kit, both U.S. and Indonesian students had an improvement in understanding, as measured by a word cloud, and realized that plants—not just animals—can become fossils. The Fossil Forests STEM kit helps teach Next Generation Science Standards while helping students form a stronger science identity and gain greater familiarity with plants and plant fossils. These efforts are important since familiarity is the first step to cultivating plant awareness and inspiring a lifelong connection with geoheritage.

@article{doi101525abt2026882117,
    author = "Viney, Mike and Huegele, Indah and Correa, Julian and Warnock, Andrew C. and Kamil, Puspita Insan and Boonchai, Nareerat",
    title = "Fossil Forests Kits",
    year = "2026",
    journal = "The American Biology Teacher",
    abstract = "The Fossil Forests STEM kit offers a hands-on experience with petrified wood research. The kit is tailored to 6–12th-grade students but has also been appreciated by adult and college-educated audiences. The collaboration between scientists and educators in the development of the kit has produced activities that feel authentic and relevant, facilitating a situated learning experience. The kit teaches students how fossil wood is formed, how to identify the types of trees fossil wood represents, and how fossil wood can be used to infer past climate conditions. Originally designed for a U.S. audience, the kit has been translated into an Indonesian version. After using the kit, both U.S. and Indonesian students had an improvement in understanding, as measured by a word cloud, and realized that plants—not just animals—can become fossils. The Fossil Forests STEM kit helps teach Next Generation Science Standards while helping students form a stronger science identity and gain greater familiarity with plants and plant fossils. These efforts are important since familiarity is the first step to cultivating plant awareness and inspiring a lifelong connection with geoheritage.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2026.88.2.117",
    doi = "10.1525/abt.2026.88.2.117",
    openalex = "W7133357452",
    references = "doi1010800035752920201689337"
}