Geologic time

@article{doi101086606218,
    author = "Walcott, Charles D.",
    title = "Geologic Time, as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America",
    year = "1893",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/606218",
    doi = "10.1086/606218",
    openalex = "W2068521992"
}

@article{doi101038095105a0,
    title = "Geology in Relation to the Exact Sciences, With an Excursus on Geological Time 1",
    year = "1915",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/095105a0",
    doi = "10.1038/095105a0",
    openalex = "W4241320213"
}

Combiniiig the indications regarding the present high rate of denuda tion with the evidence of the halting and discontinuous nature of past deposition, it is seen that geologic time is certainly much longer-perhaps ten or fifteen times longer-than the estimates based on strictly uniformitarian interpretation.

@article{doi101130gsab28745,
    author = "Barrell, J.",
    title = "Rhythms and the measurements of geologic time",
    year = "1917",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "Combiniiig the indications regarding the present high rate of denuda tion with the evidence of the halting and discontinuous nature of past deposition, it is seen that geologic time is certainly much longer-perhaps ten or fifteen times longer-than the estimates based on strictly uniformitarian interpretation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/gsab-28-745",
    doi = "10.1130/gsab-28-745",
    openalex = "W2313585873",
    references = "doi101038095105a0, doi103133b360, doi103133b420, doi105962bhltitle70403, doi109750psas005196222"
}

The isotopic constitution of 21 samples of radiogenic lead has been determined with a mass spectrometer and the results have been correlated with mineral analysis data available for the specimens from which the leads were extracted. The common lead contamination in the samples was found, on the whole, to agree closely with that estimated from earlier atomic weight determinations. The AcD/RaG ratios (${\mathrm{Pb}}^{207}$/${\mathrm{Pb}}^{206}$ ratios corrected for common lead contamination) appear to be in better agreement with a value 4.6 percent for the present day ratio of the activity of the actinium series to that of the uranium series than with the directly determined and commonly accepted value 4.0 percent. The results indicate that AcU was not nearly as abundant in the early days of the earth as was at one time believed.The measurement of geologic age from AcD/RaG ratios is discussed and it is shown that in the event of mineral alteration the ages obtained are more reliable than those found from the Pb/U ratios.The relatively small amount of ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{204}$ present in samples containing a large amount of thorium indicates that it is extremely unlikely that ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{208}$ decays to ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{204}$.

@article{doi101103physrev55153,
    author = "Nier, A. O.",
    title = "The Isotopic Constitution of Radiogenic Leads and the Measurement of Geological Time. II",
    year = "1939",
    journal = "Physical Review",
    abstract = "The isotopic constitution of 21 samples of radiogenic lead has been determined with a mass spectrometer and the results have been correlated with mineral analysis data available for the specimens from which the leads were extracted. The common lead contamination in the samples was found, on the whole, to agree closely with that estimated from earlier atomic weight determinations. The AcD/RaG ratios (${\mathrm{Pb}}^{207}$/${\mathrm{Pb}}^{206}$ ratios corrected for common lead contamination) appear to be in better agreement with a value 4.6 percent for the present day ratio of the activity of the actinium series to that of the uranium series than with the directly determined and commonly accepted value 4.0 percent. The results indicate that AcU was not nearly as abundant in the early days of the earth as was at one time believed.The measurement of geologic age from AcD/RaG ratios is discussed and it is shown that in the event of mineral alteration the ages obtained are more reliable than those found from the Pb/U ratios.The relatively small amount of ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{204}$ present in samples containing a large amount of thorium indicates that it is extremely unlikely that ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{208}$ decays to ${\mathrm{Pb}}^{204}$.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physrev.55.153",
    doi = "10.1103/physrev.55.153",
    openalex = "W1982048114"
}

A mass spectrographic measurement of the relative abundances of the isotopes in eight samples of radiogenic lead and thirteen samples of common lead has been made. As five of the radiogenic lead samples originated from minerals containing both uranium and thorium, three independent determinations of the age could be made. One of the samples was the oldest so far studied and appears to have an age close to two billion years. The common lead samples were found to have large variations in the relative abundances of the same sort as were reported in a previous investigation of twelve other samples.

@article{doi101103physrev60112,
    author = "Nier, A. O. and Thompson, Robert W. and Murphey, Byron F.",
    title = "The Isotopic Constitution of Lead and the Measurement of Geological Time. III",
    year = "1941",
    journal = "Physical Review",
    abstract = "A mass spectrographic measurement of the relative abundances of the isotopes in eight samples of radiogenic lead and thirteen samples of common lead has been made. As five of the radiogenic lead samples originated from minerals containing both uranium and thorium, three independent determinations of the age could be made. One of the samples was the oldest so far studied and appears to have an age close to two billion years. The common lead samples were found to have large variations in the relative abundances of the same sort as were reported in a previous investigation of twelve other samples.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physrev.60.112",
    doi = "10.1103/physrev.60.112",
    openalex = "W2050722009"
}

I. Introduction. To measure geological time with reasonable accuracy the first essential is the recognition of a natural process which, operating at a known rate from a defined starting point, brings about measurable results either periodically or progressively. The establishment of an exact chronology by counting correlated sequences of the varves deposited during the last 15,000 years is a perfect example of the application of a periodic process, the period in this case being the year. The dating of a uranium-bearing mineral by determining the lead-isotopes generated within it during its life-history illustrates the use of a progressive process, the process in this case being spontaneous atomic disintegration. For the successful application of a method based on a progressive process, it is necessary to know: 1. the rate of the process at the present time; 2. the law expressing the variation of rate during the interval to be measured; and 3. the total change effected by the process during that interval. The accumulation in minerals of the end-products of radioactive decay constitutes the only progressive process so far recognised in which these conditions are satisfactorily fulfilled over the whole range of geological time. The traditional geological methods, on the other hand, involve a complex of processes—denudation, deposition and diastrophism—so highly variable in space and time that they can be used as an hour-glass only in specially favourable circumstances covering relatively short periods. Samuel Haughton (1878, p. 268) introduced the celebrated principle that “the proper relative measure of geological periods is the maximum thickness This 250-word extract was created in the absence of an abstract

@article{doi101144transglas211117,
    author = "Holmes, Arthur",
    title = "VII.— The Construction of a Geological Time-Scale",
    year = "1947",
    journal = "Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow",
    abstract = "I. Introduction. To measure geological time with reasonable accuracy the first essential is the recognition of a natural process which, operating at a known rate from a defined starting point, brings about measurable results either periodically or progressively. The establishment of an exact chronology by counting correlated sequences of the varves deposited during the last 15,000 years is a perfect example of the application of a periodic process, the period in this case being the year. The dating of a uranium-bearing mineral by determining the lead-isotopes generated within it during its life-history illustrates the use of a progressive process, the process in this case being spontaneous atomic disintegration. For the successful application of a method based on a progressive process, it is necessary to know: 1. the rate of the process at the present time; 2. the law expressing the variation of rate during the interval to be measured; and 3. the total change effected by the process during that interval. The accumulation in minerals of the end-products of radioactive decay constitutes the only progressive process so far recognised in which these conditions are satisfactorily fulfilled over the whole range of geological time. The traditional geological methods, on the other hand, involve a complex of processes—denudation, deposition and diastrophism—so highly variable in space and time that they can be used as an hour-glass only in specially favourable circumstances covering relatively short periods. Samuel Haughton (1878, p. 268) introduced the celebrated principle that “the proper relative measure of geological periods is the maximum thickness This 250-word extract was created in the absence of an abstract",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/transglas.21.1.117",
    doi = "10.1144/transglas.21.1.117",
    openalex = "W2332803693",
    references = "doi1010079789401759021, doi101038031025a0, doi101086606218, doi101086621299, doi101103physrev55150, doi101103physrev55153, doi101103physrev60112, doi101130gsab28745, doi1023071786079, doi1023071787674"
}

@article{doi101126science1263273545,
    author = "Wetherill, G. W.",
    title = "Radioactivity of Potassium and Geologic Time",
    year = "1957",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.126.3273.545",
    doi = "10.1126/science.126.3273.545",
    openalex = "W2001978361"
}

ABSTRACT X-ray analyses of the clay minerals from thousands of sediments indicate that any of the major clay minerals can occur in abundance in any of the major depositional environments and there is no consistent coincidence between specific clay minerals and specific depositional environments. It is concluded that the great majority of clay minerals in sedimentary rocks are detrital in origin, strongly reflect the character of their source material, and are only slightly modified in their depositional environments. The most common process acting on the clay minerals in marine environments is cation adsorption. The modifications produced by this process are secondary but because of the overemphasis of names rather than processes, they have been considered fundamental changes and the process has been called diagenesis. From the geologist’s viewpoint, the basic clay mineral lattice, which is inherited from the source material, is the most significant parameter of the clay minerals, and modifications caused by the adsorbed cations are secondary, derived parameters reflecting the character of the depositional environment. This concept of dualism is essential to the understanding of clay genesis and the significance of the two parameters must be understood before a genetic classification can be constructed and before clays can be used for geologic interpretation.

@article{doi1013060bda5a7716bd11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Weaver, Charles E.",
    title = "Geologic Interpretation of Argillaceous Sediments: Part I. Origin and Significance of Clay Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks",
    year = "1958",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT X-ray analyses of the clay minerals from thousands of sediments indicate that any of the major clay minerals can occur in abundance in any of the major depositional environments and there is no consistent coincidence between specific clay minerals and specific depositional environments. It is concluded that the great majority of clay minerals in sedimentary rocks are detrital in origin, strongly reflect the character of their source material, and are only slightly modified in their depositional environments. The most common process acting on the clay minerals in marine environments is cation adsorption. The modifications produced by this process are secondary but because of the overemphasis of names rather than processes, they have been considered fundamental changes and the process has been called diagenesis. From the geologist’s viewpoint, the basic clay mineral lattice, which is inherited from the source material, is the most significant parameter of the clay minerals, and modifications caused by the adsorbed cations are secondary, derived parameters reflecting the character of the depositional environment. This concept of dualism is essential to the understanding of clay genesis and the significance of the two parameters must be understood before a genetic classification can be constructed and before clays can be used for geologic interpretation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/0bda5a77-16bd-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/0bda5a77-16bd-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2076245040"
}

The time-scale constructed in 1947 was based on certain assumptions that have recently been shown to be wrong. Appalachian pegmatites dated at 350 million years (m.y.) and thought to be Taconic (Ordovician) are now found to be Acadian (late Devonian), while others, dated at 255 m.y. and thought to be Acadian can now be referred to the Permian. Other recent evidence consistently leads to an extension of the 1947 scale that carries the beginning of the Cambrian back to about 600 m.y. ago. The scale now constructed from the data available up to October, 1959, is as follows (in m.y.): One of the more significant consequences of this revision is that many dated rocks from Africa and the other “Gondwanaland” continents which were formerly ascribed to the late Precambrian now become Cambrian. Important orogenic and plutonic phases of a major geological cycle, implying by analogy an extensive system of geosynclines, occurred at about the close of the Precambrian and early in the Ordovician.

@article{doi101144transed173183,
    author = "Holmes, A.",
    title = "A revised geological time-scale",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society",
    abstract = "The time-scale constructed in 1947 was based on certain assumptions that have recently been shown to be wrong. Appalachian pegmatites dated at 350 million years (m.y.) and thought to be Taconic (Ordovician) are now found to be Acadian (late Devonian), while others, dated at 255 m.y. and thought to be Acadian can now be referred to the Permian. Other recent evidence consistently leads to an extension of the 1947 scale that carries the beginning of the Cambrian back to about 600 m.y. ago. The scale now constructed from the data available up to October, 1959, is as follows (in m.y.): One of the more significant consequences of this revision is that many dated rocks from Africa and the other “Gondwanaland” continents which were formerly ascribed to the late Precambrian now become Cambrian. Important orogenic and plutonic phases of a major geological cycle, implying by analogy an extensive system of geosynclines, occurred at about the close of the Precambrian and early in the Ordovician.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/transed.17.3.183",
    doi = "10.1144/transed.17.3.183",
    openalex = "W2031744970",
    references = "doi101029tr039i006p01124"
}

@article{doi101126science13334591105,
    author = "Kulp, J. Laurence",
    title = "Geologic Time Scale",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.133.3459.1105",
    doi = "10.1126/science.133.3459.1105",
    openalex = "W2163185817",
    references = "doi1010160016703761900199, doi1010160016703761900898, doi101029tr039i006p01124, doi101038185495a0, doi101111j174966321961tb35469x, doi101126science1243218385, doi101130gsab28745, doi101144transglas211117, doi102475ajs2586429, doi102475ajs2588583"
}

@misc{toulmin1965the8,
    author = "Toulmin, S. and Goodfield, J",
    title = "The Discovery of Time",
    year = "1965",
    howpublished = "New York, Harper and Row",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Toulmin, S., and Goodfield, J., 1965, The Discovery of Time: New York, Harper and Row.}"
}

@misc{eicher1968geologic2,
    author = "Eicher, D. L",
    title = "Geologic Time",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Eicher, D. L., 1968, Geologic Time: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall.}"
}

@article{doi101038243391a0,
    author = "Berggren, William A.",
    title = "The Pliocene Time Scale: Calibration of Planktonic Foraminiferal and Calcareous Nannoplankton Zones",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/243391a0",
    doi = "10.1038/243391a0",
    openalex = "W2046713607",
    references = "doi1010160016703761900898, doi101038225289a0"
}

@misc{eicher1976geologic3,
    author = "Eicher, D. L",
    title = "Geologic Time [2nd ed.]",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 150 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Eicher, D. L., 1976, Geologic Time [2nd ed.]: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 150 p.}"
}

Containing papers given at the Geological Time Scale Symposium in 1976, this volume begins with a review of dating and correlation, and includes papers on the topics of: geochronoloic scales, biochronology, the magnetic polarity time scale, the potassium-argon isotopic dating method, isotopic methods, and worldwide Permian chronostratigraphy, among others.

@incollection{doi101306st6398c16,
    author = "Hardenbol, Jan and Berggren, William A.",
    title = "A New Paleogene Numerical Time Scale",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists eBooks",
    abstract = "Containing papers given at the Geological Time Scale Symposium in 1976, this volume begins with a review of dating and correlation, and includes papers on the topics of: geochronoloic scales, biochronology, the magnetic polarity time scale, the potassium-argon isotopic dating method, isotopic methods, and worldwide Permian chronostratigraphy, among others.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/st6398c16",
    doi = "10.1306/st6398c16",
    openalex = "W1689910235"
}

A change in the constants used in K‐Ar dating and a significant increase in new data have made a recompilation and recomputation of data used to define the Late Cenozoic K‐Ar polarity time scale highly desirable at this time. All available data in the range 0–5 m.y. have been recalculated using the refined constants, with 354 data points in this time interval now meeting the minimum criteria for acceptability. Recalculation of the major polarity epoch boundaries has yielded ages of 0.73 m.y. for the Brunhes‐Matuyama, 2.48 m.y. for the Matuyama‐Gauss, and 3.40 m.y. for the Gauss‐Gilbert boundaries. A revised polarity time scale has been constructed based on available K‐Ar data and information obtained from marine magnetic anomalies and deep‐sea sedimentary cores.

@article{doi101029jb084ib02p00615,
    author = "Mankinen, Edward A. and Dalrymple, G. Brent",
    title = "Revised geomagnetic polarity time scale for the interval 0–5 m.y. B.P.",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A change in the constants used in K‐Ar dating and a significant increase in new data have made a recompilation and recomputation of data used to define the Late Cenozoic K‐Ar polarity time scale highly desirable at this time. All available data in the range 0–5 m.y. have been recalculated using the refined constants, with 354 data points in this time interval now meeting the minimum criteria for acceptability. Recalculation of the major polarity epoch boundaries has yielded ages of 0.73 m.y. for the Brunhes‐Matuyama, 2.48 m.y. for the Matuyama‐Gauss, and 3.40 m.y. for the Gauss‐Gilbert boundaries. A revised polarity time scale has been constructed based on available K‐Ar data and information obtained from marine magnetic anomalies and deep‐sea sedimentary cores.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb084ib02p00615",
    doi = "10.1029/jb084ib02p00615",
    openalex = "W1999012927",
    references = "doi1010160012821x69901599, doi1010160012821x77900607, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb081i005p00725, doi101029jz072i010p02603, doi101029rg010i001p00213, doi1010381981049a0, doi101086200619, doi101126science1433604351, doi101126science1633864237, doi1011300091761319775330rmptsf20co2, doi102475ajs2622145, openalexw2020861622"
}

@book{frakes1979climates4,
    author = "Frakes, L. A",
    title = "Climates Throughout Geologic Time",
    year = "1979",
    publisher = "Amsterdam, Elsevier",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Frakes, L. A., 1979, Climates Throughout Geologic Time: Amsterdam, Elsevier.}"
}

@book{harland1982the7,
    author = "Harland, W. B. et al",
    title = "The Geologic Time Scale",
    year = "1982",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Harland, W. B. et al., 1982, The Geologic Time Scale: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.}"
}

@book{openalexw2989049194,
    author = "Harland, W. B.",
    title = "A Geologic time scale",
    year = "1982",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W2989049194",
    openalex = "W2989049194"
}

@article{doi10113000917613198311503tdonag20co2,
    author = "Palmer, Allison R.",
    title = "The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11<503:tdonag>2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11<503:tdonag>2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W1974767724"
}

@article{doi102307634028,
    author = "Falcon, N. L. and Harland, W. B.",
    title = "A Geological Time Scale",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Geographical Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/634028",
    doi = "10.2307/634028",
    openalex = "W2316046157"
}

@book{glenister1983interpreting5,
    author = "Glenister, B. F. and Witzke, B. J",
    title = "Interpreting Earth History, in Wilson, D. B., ed., Did the Devil Make Darwin Do It? Modern Perspectives on the Creation-Evolution Controversy",
    year = "1983",
    publisher = "Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 55-84",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Glenister, B. F., and Witzke, B. J., 1983, Interpreting Earth History, in Wilson, D. B., ed., Did the Devil Make Darwin Do It? Modern Perspectives on the Creation-Evolution Controversy: Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University Press, p. 55-84.}"
}

The temporal distribution of the major extinctions over the past 250 million years has been investigated statistically using various forms of time series analysis. The analyzed record is based on variation in extinction intensity for fossil families of marine vertebrates, invertebrates, and protozoans and contains 12 extinction events. The 12 events show a statistically significant periodicity (P less than 0.01) with a mean interval between events of 26 million years. Two of the events coincide with extinctions that have been previously linked to meteorite impacts (terminal Cretaceous and Late Eocene). Although the causes of the periodicity are unknown, it is possible that they are related to extraterrestrial forces (solar, solar system, or galactic).

@article{doi101073pnas813801,
    author = "Raup, David M. and Sepkoski, J. John",
    title = "Periodicity of extinctions in the geologic past.",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The temporal distribution of the major extinctions over the past 250 million years has been investigated statistically using various forms of time series analysis. The analyzed record is based on variation in extinction intensity for fossil families of marine vertebrates, invertebrates, and protozoans and contains 12 extinction events. The 12 events show a statistically significant periodicity (P less than 0.01) with a mean interval between events of 26 million years. Two of the events coincide with extinctions that have been previously linked to meteorite impacts (terminal Cretaceous and Late Eocene). Although the causes of the periodicity are unknown, it is possible that they are related to extraterrestrial forces (solar, solar system, or galactic).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.81.3.801",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.81.3.801",
    openalex = "W2036995861",
    references = "alvarez1980extraterrestrial, doi1010079783642693175, doi1010160016703783901205, doi101016b9780125196406x50017, doi101126science2064415217, doi101126science21545391501, doi101126science2164548885, doi101126science2164548886, doi101126science2214614944, doi102110pec7725"
}

@misc{cowie1985late1,
    author = "Cowie, J. W. and Johnson, M. R. W",
    title = "Late Precambrian and Cambrian geological time scale, in Snelling, N. J., ed., The Chronology of the Geological Record, 10 of",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "London, Geological Society of London, p. 47- 64",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cowie, J. W., and Johnson, M. R. W., 1985, Late Precambrian and Cambrian geological time scale, in Snelling, N. J., ed., The Chronology of the Geological Record, 10 of : London, Geological Society of London, p. 47- 64.}"
}

@book{haq1987geological6,
    author = "Haq, B. U. and van Eysinga, F. W",
    title = "Geological Time Table",
    year = "1987",
    publisher = "Elsevier, scale none; Fourth Revised Edition",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Haq, B. U., and van Eysinga, F. W., 1987, Geological Time Table: Elsevier, scale none; Fourth Revised Edition.}"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x9190082s,
    author = "Hilgen, F.J.",
    title = "Extension of the astronomically calibrated (polarity) time scale to the Miocene/Pliocene boundary",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(91)90082-s",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(91)90082-s",
    openalex = "W2017114107",
    references = "doi1010160016703783901205"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x9190206w,
    author = "Hilgen, F.J.",
    title = "Astronomical calibration of Gauss to Matuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implication for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(91)90206-w",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(91)90206-w",
    openalex = "W2100918151",
    references = "doi1010160033589482900552, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi102307634028, openalexw638747108"
}

We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.

@article{doi10102992jb01202,
    author = "Cande, S. C. and Kent, Dennis V.",
    title = "A new geomagnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92jb01202",
    doi = "10.1029/92jb01202",
    openalex = "W2096557357",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190206w, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101038199947a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi10113000167606197788367ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788374ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788383ucmsag20co2, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi101130dnaggnam351, doi101144gslmem19850100115, doi1015159781400862924, doi102110pec88010071, openalexw2989049194, openalexw638747108"
}

We present an integrated geomagnetic polarity and stratigraphic time scale for the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic Era, with age estimates and uncertainty limits for stage boundaries. The time scale uses a suite of 324 radiometric dates, including high‐resolution 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age estimates. This framework involves the observed ties between (1) radiometric dates, biozones, and stage boundaries, and (2) between biozones and magnetic reversals on the seafloor and in sediments. Interpolation techniques include maximum likelihood estimation, smoothing cubic spline fitting, and magnetochronology. The age estimates for the 31 stage boundaries (in mega‐annum) with uncertainty (millions of years) to 2 standard deviations, and the duration of the preceding stages (in parentheses) are Maastrichtian/Danian (Cretaceous/‐Cenozoic) is 65.0±0.1 Ma (6.3 m.y.), Campanian/Maastrichtian is 71.3±0.5 Ma (12.2 m.y.), Santonian/Campanian is 83.5±0.5 Ma (2.3 m.y.), Coniacian/Santonian is 85.8±0.5 Ma (3.2 m.y.), Turonian/Coniacian is 89.0±0.5 Ma (4.5 m.y.), Cenomanian/Turonian is 93.5±0.2 Ma (5.4 m.y.), Albian/Cenomanian is 98.9±0.6 Ma (13.3 m.y.), Aptian/Albian is 112.2±1.1 Ma (8.8 m.y.), Barremian/Aptian is 121.0±1.4 Ma (6.0 m.y.), Hauterivian/Barremian is 127.0±1.6 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Valanginian/Hauterivian is 132.0±1.9 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Berriasian/Valanginian is 137.0±2.2 Ma (7.2 m.y.), Tithonian/Berriasian (Jurassic/Cretaceous) is 144.2±2.6 Ma (6.5 m.y.), Kimmeridgian/Tithonian is 150.7±3.0 Ma (3.4 m.y.), Oxfordian/Kimmeridgian is 154.1±3.2 Ma (5.3 m.y.), Callovian/Oxfordian is 159.4±3.6 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Bathonian/Callovian is 164.4±3.8 Ma (4.8 m.y.), Bajocian/Bathonian is 169.2±4.0 Ma (7.3 m.y.), Aalenian/Bajocian is 176.5±4.0 Ma (3.6 m.y.), Toarcian/Aalenian is 180.1±4.0 Ma (9.5 m.y.), Sinemurian/Pliensbachian is 195.3±3.9 Ma (6.6 m.y.), Hettangian/Sinemurian is 201.9±3.9 Ma (3.8 m.y.), Rhaetian/Hettangian (Triassic/Jurassic) is 205.7±4.0 Ma (3.9 m.y.), Norian/Rhaetian is 209.6±4.1 Ma (11.1 m.y.), Carnian/Norian is 220.7±4.4 Ma (6.7 m.y.), Ladinian/Carnian is 227.4±4.5 Ma (6.9 m.y.), Anisian/Ladinian is 234.3±4.6 Ma (7.4 m.y.), Olenekian/Anisian is 241.7±4.7 Ma (3.1 m.y.), Induan/Olenekian is 244.8±4.8 Ma (3.4 m.y.), Tatarian/Induan (Permian/Triassic) is 248.2±4.8 Ma. The uncertainty in the relative duration of each individual stage is much less than the uncertainties on the ages of the stage boundaries.

@article{doi10102994jb01889,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Agterberg, Frits and Ogg, James G. and Hardenbol, Jan and van Veen, Paul and Thierry, Jacques and Huang, Zehui",
    title = "A Mesozoic time scale",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We present an integrated geomagnetic polarity and stratigraphic time scale for the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic Era, with age estimates and uncertainty limits for stage boundaries. The time scale uses a suite of 324 radiometric dates, including high‐resolution 40 Ar/ 39 Ar age estimates. This framework involves the observed ties between (1) radiometric dates, biozones, and stage boundaries, and (2) between biozones and magnetic reversals on the seafloor and in sediments. Interpolation techniques include maximum likelihood estimation, smoothing cubic spline fitting, and magnetochronology. The age estimates for the 31 stage boundaries (in mega‐annum) with uncertainty (millions of years) to 2 standard deviations, and the duration of the preceding stages (in parentheses) are Maastrichtian/Danian (Cretaceous/‐Cenozoic) is 65.0±0.1 Ma (6.3 m.y.), Campanian/Maastrichtian is 71.3±0.5 Ma (12.2 m.y.), Santonian/Campanian is 83.5±0.5 Ma (2.3 m.y.), Coniacian/Santonian is 85.8±0.5 Ma (3.2 m.y.), Turonian/Coniacian is 89.0±0.5 Ma (4.5 m.y.), Cenomanian/Turonian is 93.5±0.2 Ma (5.4 m.y.), Albian/Cenomanian is 98.9±0.6 Ma (13.3 m.y.), Aptian/Albian is 112.2±1.1 Ma (8.8 m.y.), Barremian/Aptian is 121.0±1.4 Ma (6.0 m.y.), Hauterivian/Barremian is 127.0±1.6 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Valanginian/Hauterivian is 132.0±1.9 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Berriasian/Valanginian is 137.0±2.2 Ma (7.2 m.y.), Tithonian/Berriasian (Jurassic/Cretaceous) is 144.2±2.6 Ma (6.5 m.y.), Kimmeridgian/Tithonian is 150.7±3.0 Ma (3.4 m.y.), Oxfordian/Kimmeridgian is 154.1±3.2 Ma (5.3 m.y.), Callovian/Oxfordian is 159.4±3.6 Ma (5.0 m.y.), Bathonian/Callovian is 164.4±3.8 Ma (4.8 m.y.), Bajocian/Bathonian is 169.2±4.0 Ma (7.3 m.y.), Aalenian/Bajocian is 176.5±4.0 Ma (3.6 m.y.), Toarcian/Aalenian is 180.1±4.0 Ma (9.5 m.y.), Sinemurian/Pliensbachian is 195.3±3.9 Ma (6.6 m.y.), Hettangian/Sinemurian is 201.9±3.9 Ma (3.8 m.y.), Rhaetian/Hettangian (Triassic/Jurassic) is 205.7±4.0 Ma (3.9 m.y.), Norian/Rhaetian is 209.6±4.1 Ma (11.1 m.y.), Carnian/Norian is 220.7±4.4 Ma (6.7 m.y.), Ladinian/Carnian is 227.4±4.5 Ma (6.9 m.y.), Anisian/Ladinian is 234.3±4.6 Ma (7.4 m.y.), Olenekian/Anisian is 241.7±4.7 Ma (3.1 m.y.), Induan/Olenekian is 244.8±4.8 Ma (3.4 m.y.), Tatarian/Induan (Permian/Triassic) is 248.2±4.8 Ma. The uncertainty in the relative duration of each individual stage is much less than the uncertainties on the ages of the stage boundaries.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/94jb01889",
    doi = "10.1029/94jb01889",
    openalex = "W2033223278",
    references = "doi1010029780470316436, doi101007978940156861618, doi101007bf02162161, doi101016019566719190037d, doi1010160377839889900352, doi101017s0016756800019580, doi10102992jb01202, doi101029jz072i010p02603, doi101038359819a0, doi101126science2535016176, doi101126science2575072954, doi10113000167606197788383ucmsag20co2, doi101130001676061985961419acajg20co2, doi10113000917613198311503tdonag20co2, doi1023071932029, doi1037570bgsd19843301, openalexw1586251589, openalexw3190829860"
}

Revision of the GEOCARB model (Berner, 1991, 1994) for paleolevels of atmospheric CO2, has been made with emphasis on factors affecting CO2 uptake by continental weathering. This includes: (1) new GCM (general circulation model) results for the dependence of global mean surface temperature and runoff on CO2, for both glaciated and non-glaciated periods, coupled with new results for the temperature response to changes in solar radiation; (2) demonstration that values for the weathering-uplift factor fR(t) based on Sr isotopes as was done in GEOCARB II are in general agreement with independent values calculated from the abundance of terrigenous sediments as a measure of global physical erosion rate over Phanerozoic time; (3) more accurate estimates of the timing and the quantitative effects on Ca-Mg silicate weathering of the rise of large vascular plants on the continents during the Devonian; (4) inclusion of the effects of changes in paleogeography alone (constant CO2 and solar radiation) on global mean land surface temperature as it affects the rate of weathering; (5) consideration of the effects of volcanic weathering, both in subduction zones and on the seafloor; (6) use of new data on the d 13 C values for Phanerozoic limestones and organic matter; (7) consideration of the relative weather- ing enhancement by gymnosperms versus angiosperms; (8) revision of paleo land area based on more recent data and use of this data, along with GCM-based paleo-runoff results, to calculate global water discharge from the continents over time. Results show a similar overall pattern to those for GEOCARB II: very high CO2 values during the early Paleozoic, a large drop during the Devonian and Carbonifer- ous, high values during the early Mesozoic, and a gradual decrease from about 170 Ma to low values during the Cenozoic. However, the new results exhibit considerably higher CO2 values during the Mesozoic, and their downward trend with time agrees with the independent estimates of Ekart and others (1999). Sensitivity analysis shows that results for paleo-CO2 are especially sensitive to: the effects of CO2 fertilization and temperature on the acceleration of plant-mediated chemical weathering; the quantitative effects of plants on mineral dissolution rate for constant temperature and CO2; the relative roles of angiosperms and gymnosperms in accelerating rock weather- ing; and the response of paleo-temperature to the global climate model used. This emphasizes the need for further study of the role of plants in chemical weathering and the application of GCMs to study of paleo-CO2 and the long term carbon cycle.

@article{doi102475ajs294156,
    author = "Berner, Robert A.",
    title = "GEOCARB II; a revised model of atmospheric CO 2 over Phanerozoic time",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    abstract = "Revision of the GEOCARB model (Berner, 1991, 1994) for paleolevels of atmospheric CO2, has been made with emphasis on factors affecting CO2 uptake by continental weathering. This includes: (1) new GCM (general circulation model) results for the dependence of global mean surface temperature and runoff on CO2, for both glaciated and non-glaciated periods, coupled with new results for the temperature response to changes in solar radiation; (2) demonstration that values for the weathering-uplift factor fR(t) based on Sr isotopes as was done in GEOCARB II are in general agreement with independent values calculated from the abundance of terrigenous sediments as a measure of global physical erosion rate over Phanerozoic time; (3) more accurate estimates of the timing and the quantitative effects on Ca-Mg silicate weathering of the rise of large vascular plants on the continents during the Devonian; (4) inclusion of the effects of changes in paleogeography alone (constant CO2 and solar radiation) on global mean land surface temperature as it affects the rate of weathering; (5) consideration of the effects of volcanic weathering, both in subduction zones and on the seafloor; (6) use of new data on the d 13 C values for Phanerozoic limestones and organic matter; (7) consideration of the relative weather- ing enhancement by gymnosperms versus angiosperms; (8) revision of paleo land area based on more recent data and use of this data, along with GCM-based paleo-runoff results, to calculate global water discharge from the continents over time. Results show a similar overall pattern to those for GEOCARB II: very high CO2 values during the early Paleozoic, a large drop during the Devonian and Carbonifer- ous, high values during the early Mesozoic, and a gradual decrease from about 170 Ma to low values during the Cenozoic. However, the new results exhibit considerably higher CO2 values during the Mesozoic, and their downward trend with time agrees with the independent estimates of Ekart and others (1999). Sensitivity analysis shows that results for paleo-CO2 are especially sensitive to: the effects of CO2 fertilization and temperature on the acceleration of plant-mediated chemical weathering; the quantitative effects of plants on mineral dissolution rate for constant temperature and CO2; the relative roles of angiosperms and gymnosperms in accelerating rock weather- ing; and the response of paleo-temperature to the global climate model used. This emphasizes the need for further study of the role of plants in chemical weathering and the application of GCMs to study of paleo-CO2 and the long term carbon cycle.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.294.1.56",
    doi = "10.2475/ajs.294.1.56",
    openalex = "W2107127140",
    references = "doi101006anbo19951112, doi1010160012821x9290070c, doi101038340457a0, doi10106313067687, doi1011300091761319910190344gestcc23co2, doi1011300091761319910190547lpoeef23co2, doi101146annureves21110190001123, doi102475ajs2914339, doi102475ajs2947802, openalexw1564144063"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x9500207s,
    author = "Hilgen, F.J. and Krijgsman, Wout and Langereis, Cor G. and Lourens, Lucas Joost and Santarelli, A. and Zachariasse, W.J.",
    title = "Extending the astronomical (polarity) time scale into the Miocene",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(95)00207-s",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(95)00207-s",
    openalex = "W2147985533"
}

A Macintosh computer program that can perform many time‐series analysis procedures is now available on the Internet free of charge. Although AnalySeries was originally designed for paleoclimatic time series, it can be useful for most fields of Earth sciences. The program's graphical user interface allows easy access even for people unfamiliar with computer calculations. Previous versions of the program are already used by hundreds of scientists worldwide.

@article{doi10102996eo00259,
    author = "Paillard, Didier and Labeyrie, Laurent D and Yiou, Pascal",
    title = "Macintosh Program performs time‐series analysis",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Eos",
    abstract = "A Macintosh computer program that can perform many time‐series analysis procedures is now available on the Internet free of charge. Although AnalySeries was originally designed for paleoclimatic time series, it can be useful for most fields of Earth sciences. The program's graphical user interface allows easy access even for people unfamiliar with computer calculations. Previous versions of the program are already used by hundreds of scientists worldwide.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/96eo00259",
    doi = "10.1029/96eo00259",
    openalex = "W2101372386"
}

Preface 1. The road ahead 2. Patterns in space 3. Temporal patterns 4. Dimensionless patterns 5. Speciation 6. Extinction 7. Evolution of the relationship between habitat diversity and species diversity 8. Species-area curves in ecological time 9. Species-area curves in evolutionary time 10. Paleobiological patterns 11. Other patterns with dynamic roots 12. Energy flow and diversity 13. A hierarchical dynamic puzzle References Index.

@article{doi105860choice332720,
    author = "Rosenzweig, Michael L.",
    title = "Species diversity in space and time",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "Preface 1. The road ahead 2. Patterns in space 3. Temporal patterns 4. Dimensionless patterns 5. Speciation 6. Extinction 7. Evolution of the relationship between habitat diversity and species diversity 8. Species-area curves in ecological time 9. Species-area curves in evolutionary time 10. Paleobiological patterns 11. Other patterns with dynamic roots 12. Energy flow and diversity 13. A hierarchical dynamic puzzle References Index.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.33-2720",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.33-2720",
    openalex = "W2018204894"
}

A new method for estimating divergence times when evolutionary rates are variable across lineages is proposed. The method, called nonparametric rate smoothing (NPRS), relies on minimization of ancestor-descendant local rate changes and is motivated by the likelihood that evolutionary rates are autocorrelated in time. Fossil information pertaining to minimum and/or maximum ages of nodes in a phylogeny is incorporated into the algorithms by constrained optimization techniques. The accuracy of NPRS was examined by comparison to a clock-based maximum-likelihood method in computer simulations. NPRS provides more accurate estimates of divergence times when (1) sequence lengths are sufficiently long, (2) rates are truly nonclocklike, and (3) rates are moderately to highly autocorrelated in time. The algorithms were applied to estimate divergence times in seed plants based on data from the chloroplast rbcL gene. Both constrained and unconstrained NPRS methods tended to produce divergence time estimates more consistent with paleobotanical evidence than did clock-based estimates.

@article{doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva025731,
    author = "Sanderson, Michael J.",
    title = "A Nonparametric Approach to Estimating Divergence Times in the Absence of Rate Constancy",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Molecular Biology and Evolution",
    abstract = "A new method for estimating divergence times when evolutionary rates are variable across lineages is proposed. The method, called nonparametric rate smoothing (NPRS), relies on minimization of ancestor-descendant local rate changes and is motivated by the likelihood that evolutionary rates are autocorrelated in time. Fossil information pertaining to minimum and/or maximum ages of nodes in a phylogeny is incorporated into the algorithms by constrained optimization techniques. The accuracy of NPRS was examined by comparison to a clock-based maximum-likelihood method in computer simulations. NPRS provides more accurate estimates of divergence times when (1) sequence lengths are sufficiently long, (2) rates are truly nonclocklike, and (3) rates are moderately to highly autocorrelated in time. The algorithms were applied to estimate divergence times in seed plants based on data from the chloroplast rbcL gene. Both constrained and unconstrained NPRS methods tended to produce divergence time estimates more consistent with paleobotanical evidence than did clock-based estimates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025731",
    doi = "10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025731",
    openalex = "W1964575260",
    references = "doi101007bf01797451, doi101126science2715248470, doi10113000917613198311503tdonag20co2"
}

A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50–40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000–1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.

@article{doi101146annurevearth281211,
    author = "Yin, An and Harrison, T. Mark",
    title = "Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50–40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000–1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211",
    openalex = "W2115518283",
    references = "doi101007bf02440107, doi1010160012821x82900073, doi101016s0040195197002102, doi10102993rg02030, doi101029jb083ib10p04975, doi101029jb091ib03p03664, doi101029jb093ib12p15085, doi101029jd094id15p18409, doi101038307017a0, doi101038311615a0, doi101038373055a0, doi101038386061a0, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science25550521663, doi101126science2765313788, doi1011300016760619881001666ssf23co2, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101130spe233p1, doi101130spe269, doi101130spe281p1, doi101144gslsp19860190107, doi102475ajs27511, openalexw614437925, powell1973plate"
}

Revision of the GEOCARB model (Berner, 1991, 1994) for paleolevels of atmospheric CO~2~, has been made with emphasis on factors affecting CO~2~ uptake by continental weathering. This includes: (1) new GCM (general circulation model) results for the dependence of global mean surface temperature and runoff on CO~2~, for both glaciated and non-glaciated periods, coupled with new results for the temperature response to changes in solar radiation; (2) demonstration that values for the weathering-uplift factor f~R~(t) based on Sr isotopes as was done in GEOCARB II are in general agreement with independent values calculated from the abundance of terrigenous sediments as a measure of global physical erosion rate over Phanerozoic time; (3) more accurate estimates of the timing and the quantitative effects on Ca-Mg silicate weathering of the rise of large vascular plants on the continents during the Devonian; (4) inclusion of the effects of changes in paleogeography alone (constant CO~2~ and solar radiation) on global mean land surface temperature as it affects the rate of weathering; (5) consideration of the effects of volcanic weathering, both in subduction zones and on the seafloor; (6) use of new data on the δ^13^C values for Phanerozoic limestones and organic matter; (7) consideration of the relative weather- ing enhancement by gymnosperms versus angiosperms; (8) revision of paleo land area based on more recent data and use of this data, along with GCM-based paleo-runoff results, to calculate global water discharge from the continents over time. Results show a similar overall pattern to those for GEOCARB II: very high CO~2~ values during the early Paleozoic, a large drop during the Devonian and Carbonifer- ous, high values during the early Mesozoic, and a gradual decrease from about 170 Ma to low values during the Cenozoic. However, the new results exhibit considerably higher CO~2~ values during the Mesozoic, and their downward trend with time agrees with the independent estimates of Ekart and others (1999). Sensitivity analysis shows that results for paleo-CO~2~ are especially sensitive to: the effects of CO~2~ fertilization and temperature on the acceleration of plant-mediated chemical weathering; the quantitative effects of plants on mineral dissolution rate for constant temperature and CO~2~; the relative roles of angiosperms and gymnosperms in accelerating rock weather- ing; and the response of paleo-temperature to the global climate model used. This emphasizes the need for further study of the role of plants in chemical weathering and the application of GCMs to study of paleo-CO~2~ and the long term carbon cycle.

@article{doi102475ajs3012182,
    author = "Berner, Robert A.",
    title = "GEOCARB III: A revised model of atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    abstract = "Revision of the GEOCARB model (Berner, 1991, 1994) for paleolevels of atmospheric CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde , has been made with emphasis on factors affecting CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ uptake by continental weathering. This includes: (1) new GCM (general circulation model) results for the dependence of global mean surface temperature and runoff on CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde , for both glaciated and non-glaciated periods, coupled with new results for the temperature response to changes in solar radiation; (2) demonstration that values for the weathering-uplift factor f\textasciitilde R\textasciitilde (t) based on Sr isotopes as was done in GEOCARB II are in general agreement with independent values calculated from the abundance of terrigenous sediments as a measure of global physical erosion rate over Phanerozoic time; (3) more accurate estimates of the timing and the quantitative effects on Ca-Mg silicate weathering of the rise of large vascular plants on the continents during the Devonian; (4) inclusion of the effects of changes in paleogeography alone (constant CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ and solar radiation) on global mean land surface temperature as it affects the rate of weathering; (5) consideration of the effects of volcanic weathering, both in subduction zones and on the seafloor; (6) use of new data on the δ^13^C values for Phanerozoic limestones and organic matter; (7) consideration of the relative weather- ing enhancement by gymnosperms versus angiosperms; (8) revision of paleo land area based on more recent data and use of this data, along with GCM-based paleo-runoff results, to calculate global water discharge from the continents over time. Results show a similar overall pattern to those for GEOCARB II: very high CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ values during the early Paleozoic, a large drop during the Devonian and Carbonifer- ous, high values during the early Mesozoic, and a gradual decrease from about 170 Ma to low values during the Cenozoic. However, the new results exhibit considerably higher CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ values during the Mesozoic, and their downward trend with time agrees with the independent estimates of Ekart and others (1999). Sensitivity analysis shows that results for paleo-CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ are especially sensitive to: the effects of CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ fertilization and temperature on the acceleration of plant-mediated chemical weathering; the quantitative effects of plants on mineral dissolution rate for constant temperature and CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde ; the relative roles of angiosperms and gymnosperms in accelerating rock weather- ing; and the response of paleo-temperature to the global climate model used. This emphasizes the need for further study of the role of plants in chemical weathering and the application of GCMs to study of paleo-CO\textasciitilde 2\textasciitilde\ and the long term carbon cycle.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.301.2.182",
    doi = "10.2475/ajs.301.2.182",
    openalex = "W4245300726",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9290070c, doi1010160012821x9600091x, doi101016001600325290625x, doi101016s0009254199000315, doi101038340457a0, doi10113000917613198210516vosstp20co2, doi10113008137233291, doi1011751520044219980111131tncfar20co2, doi102475ajs2914339, doi102475ajs294156"
}

A Geologic Time Scale (GTS2004) is presented that integrates currently available stratigraphic and geochronologic information. The construction of Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS2004) incorporated different techniques depending on the data available within each interval. Construction involved a large number of specialists, including contributions by past and present subcommissions officers of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), geochemists working with radiogenic and stable isotopes, stratigraphers using diverse tools from traditional fossils to astronomical cycles to database programming, and geomathematicians. Anticipated advances during the next four years include formalization of all Phanerozoic stage boundaries, orbital tuning extended into the Cretaceous, standardization of radiometric dating methods and resolving poorly dated intervals, detailed integrated stratigraphy for all periods, and on-line stratigraphic databases and tools. The geochronological science community and the International Commission on Stratigraphy are focusing on these issues. The next version of the Geologic Time Scale is planned for 2008, concurrent with the planned completion of boundary-stratotype (GSSP) definitions for all international stages.

@article{doi10108000241160410006483,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Ogg, James G.",
    title = "Geologic Time Scale 2004 – why, how, and where next!",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Lethaia",
    abstract = "A Geologic Time Scale (GTS2004) is presented that integrates currently available stratigraphic and geochronologic information. The construction of Geologic Time Scale 2004 (GTS2004) incorporated different techniques depending on the data available within each interval. Construction involved a large number of specialists, including contributions by past and present subcommissions officers of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), geochemists working with radiogenic and stable isotopes, stratigraphers using diverse tools from traditional fossils to astronomical cycles to database programming, and geomathematicians. Anticipated advances during the next four years include formalization of all Phanerozoic stage boundaries, orbital tuning extended into the Cretaceous, standardization of radiometric dating methods and resolving poorly dated intervals, detailed integrated stratigraphy for all periods, and on-line stratigraphic databases and tools. The geochronological science community and the International Commission on Stratigraphy are focusing on these issues. The next version of the Geologic Time Scale is planned for 2008, concurrent with the planned completion of boundary-stratotype (GSSP) definitions for all international stages.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00241160410006483",
    doi = "10.1080/00241160410006483",
    openalex = "W1980597728",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9500207s, doi101016s0012821x00002478, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi10102992jb01202, doi10102994jb01889, doi10102994jb03098, doi101098rsta19990407, doi101126science28053661039, doi1011300091761320030310431eocana20co2, doi101144transglas211117, doi10130683d923ed16c711d78645000102c1865d"
}

A Geologic Time Scale (GTS2004) is presented that integrates currently available stratigraphic and geochronologic information. Key features of the new scale are outlined, how it was constructed, and how it can be further improved. The accompanying International Stratigraphic Chart, issued under auspices of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), shows the current chronostratigraphic scale and ages with estimates of uncertainty for all stage boundaries. Special reference is made to the Precambrian part of the time scale, which is coming of age in terms of detail, and to the Neogene portion, which has attained an ultra-high-precision absolute-age calibration.

@article{doi1018814epiiugs2004v27i2002,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Ogg, James G. and Smith, Alan G. and Bleeker, Wouter and Lourens, Lucas Joost",
    title = "A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Episodes",
    abstract = "A Geologic Time Scale (GTS2004) is presented that integrates currently available stratigraphic and geochronologic information. Key features of the new scale are outlined, how it was constructed, and how it can be further improved. The accompanying International Stratigraphic Chart, issued under auspices of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), shows the current chronostratigraphic scale and ages with estimates of uncertainty for all stage boundaries. Special reference is made to the Precambrian part of the time scale, which is coming of age in terms of detail, and to the Neogene portion, which has attained an ultra-high-precision absolute-age calibration.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002",
    doi = "10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002",
    openalex = "W2974031284",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190082s, doi1010160012821x9500207s, doi101016jlithos200307003, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi10102992jb01202, doi10102994jb03098, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi10103823231, doi101126science1059412, doi102475ajs2726537"
}

@misc{doi104095215638,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Ogg, J G and Smith, Alan G. and Agterberg, F P and Bleeker, Wouter and Cooper, R. A. and Davydov, V and Gibbard, Philip L. and Hinnov, Linda A. and House, M R and Lourens, Lucas Joost and Luterbacher, H -P and McArthur, J and Melchin, M J and Robb, L J and Shergold, J and Villeneuve, Marlène and Wardlaw, Bruce R. and Ali, J and Brinkhuis, Henk and Hilgen, F J and Hooker, Jerry J. and Howarth, Richard J. and Knoll, Andrew H. and Laskar, J. and Monechi, Simonetta and Plumb, K.A. and Powell, J. H. and Raffi, Isabella and Röhl, Ursula and Sanfilippo, Alessio and Schmitz, B and Shackleton, N J and Shields, Graham and Strauß, Harald and Dam, Jacques and van Kolfschoten, T and Veizer, J and Wilson, David Gordon",
    title = "A Geological Time Scale 2004",
    year = "2004",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4095/215638",
    doi = "10.4095/215638",
    openalex = "W4232328127"
}

An international team of over forty stratigraphic experts have helped to build the most up-to-date international stratigraphic framework for the Precambrian and Phanerozoic. This successor to A Geologic Time Scale 1989 by W. Brian Harland et al. (CUP 0521 387655) begins with an introduction to the theory and methodology behind the construction of the new time scale. The main part of the book is devoted to the scale itself, systematically presenting the standard subdivisions at all levels using a variety of correlation markers. Extensive use is made of isotope geochronology, geomathematics and orbital tuning to produce a standard geologic scale of unprecedented detail and accuracy with a full error analysis. A wallchart summarising the whole time scale, with paleogeographic reconstructions throughout the Phanerozoic, is included in the back of the book. The time scale will be an invaluable reference source for academic and professional researchers and students.

@book{doi101017cbo9780511536045,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Ogg, James G. 1952- and Smith, A. Gilbert 1937-",
    title = "A Geologic Time Scale 2004",
    year = "2005",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "An international team of over forty stratigraphic experts have helped to build the most up-to-date international stratigraphic framework for the Precambrian and Phanerozoic. This successor to A Geologic Time Scale 1989 by W. Brian Harland et al. (CUP 0521 387655) begins with an introduction to the theory and methodology behind the construction of the new time scale. The main part of the book is devoted to the scale itself, systematically presenting the standard subdivisions at all levels using a variety of correlation markers. Extensive use is made of isotope geochronology, geomathematics and orbital tuning to produce a standard geologic scale of unprecedented detail and accuracy with a full error analysis. A wallchart summarising the whole time scale, with paleogeographic reconstructions throughout the Phanerozoic, is included in the back of the book. The time scale will be an invaluable reference source for academic and professional researchers and students.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511536045",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9780511536045",
    openalex = "W1630322587"
}

We implement a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm for estimating species divergence times that uses heterogeneous data from multiple gene loci and accommodates multiple fossil calibration nodes. A birth-death process with species sampling is used to specify a prior for divergence times, which allows easy assessment of the effects of that prior on posterior time estimates. We propose a new approach for specifying calibration points on the phylogeny, which allows the use of arbitrary and flexible statistical distributions to describe uncertainties in fossil dates. In particular, we use soft bounds, so that the probability that the true divergence time is outside the bounds is small but nonzero. A strict molecular clock is assumed in the current implementation, although this assumption may be relaxed. We apply our new algorithm to two data sets concerning divergences of several primate species, to examine the effects of the substitution model and of the prior for divergence times on Bayesian time estimation. We also conduct computer simulation to examine the differences between soft and hard bounds. We demonstrate that divergence time estimation is intrinsically hampered by uncertainties in fossil calibrations, and the error in Bayesian time estimates will not go to zero with increased amounts of sequence data. Our analyses of both real and simulated data demonstrate potentially large differences between divergence time estimates obtained using soft versus hard bounds and a general superiority of soft bounds. Our main findings are as follows. (1) When the fossils are consistent with each other and with the molecular data, and the posterior time estimates are well within the prior bounds, soft and hard bounds produce similar results. (2) When the fossils are in conflict with each other or with the molecules, soft and hard bounds behave very differently; soft bounds allow sequence data to correct poor calibrations, while poor hard bounds are impossible to overcome by any amount of data. (3) Soft bounds eliminate the need for "safe" but unrealistically high upper bounds, which may bias posterior time estimates. (4) Soft bounds allow more reliable assessment of estimation errors, while hard bounds generate misleadingly high precisions when fossils and molecules are in conflict.

@article{doi101093molbevmsj024,
    author = "Yang, Ziheng and Rannala, Bruce",
    title = "Bayesian Estimation of Species Divergence Times Under a Molecular Clock Using Multiple Fossil Calibrations with Soft Bounds",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Molecular Biology and Evolution",
    abstract = {We implement a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm for estimating species divergence times that uses heterogeneous data from multiple gene loci and accommodates multiple fossil calibration nodes. A birth-death process with species sampling is used to specify a prior for divergence times, which allows easy assessment of the effects of that prior on posterior time estimates. We propose a new approach for specifying calibration points on the phylogeny, which allows the use of arbitrary and flexible statistical distributions to describe uncertainties in fossil dates. In particular, we use soft bounds, so that the probability that the true divergence time is outside the bounds is small but nonzero. A strict molecular clock is assumed in the current implementation, although this assumption may be relaxed. We apply our new algorithm to two data sets concerning divergences of several primate species, to examine the effects of the substitution model and of the prior for divergence times on Bayesian time estimation. We also conduct computer simulation to examine the differences between soft and hard bounds. We demonstrate that divergence time estimation is intrinsically hampered by uncertainties in fossil calibrations, and the error in Bayesian time estimates will not go to zero with increased amounts of sequence data. Our analyses of both real and simulated data demonstrate potentially large differences between divergence time estimates obtained using soft versus hard bounds and a general superiority of soft bounds. Our main findings are as follows. (1) When the fossils are consistent with each other and with the molecular data, and the posterior time estimates are well within the prior bounds, soft and hard bounds produce similar results. (2) When the fossils are in conflict with each other or with the molecules, soft and hard bounds behave very differently; soft bounds allow sequence data to correct poor calibrations, while poor hard bounds are impossible to overcome by any amount of data. (3) Soft bounds eliminate the need for "safe" but unrealistically high upper bounds, which may bias posterior time estimates. (4) Soft bounds allow more reliable assessment of estimation errors, while hard bounds generate misleadingly high precisions when fossils and molecules are in conflict.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msj024",
    doi = "10.1093/molbev/msj024",
    openalex = "W2036628186",
    references = "doi101038nature00879, rambaut1998estimating"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev200601001,
    author = "Kaufmann, Bernd",
    title = "Calibrating the Devonian Time Scale: A synthesis of U–Pb ID–TIMS ages and conodont stratigraphy",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.01.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.01.001",
    openalex = "W2164759790",
    references = "doi101016b9780444594259000202, doi101016b9780444594259000214"
}

The Triassic time scale is poorly constrained due to a paucity of high-precision radiometric ages. We present a 206Pb/238U age of 230.91 0.33 Ma (error includes all known sources) for zircon from an ash bed in the upper Carnian (Upper Triassic) of southern \nItaly that requires a major revision of the Triassic time scale. For example, the Norian stage is lengthened to more than 20 m.y. The section containing the ash bed is correlated with other Tethyan sections and, indirectly, with the Newark astronomical polarity time scale (APTS). The dating provides also a minimum age for some important climatic and biotic events that occurred during the Carnian. We note a coincidence between these \nevents and the eruption of the large igneous province of Wrangellia, but the possible link between volcanism and climatic and biotic events requires further scrutiny.

@article{doi101130g22967a1,
    author = "Furin, Stefano and Preto, Nereo and Rigo, Manuel and Roghi, Guido and Gianolla, Piero and Crowley, James L. and Bowring, Samuel A.",
    title = "High-precision U-Pb zircon age from the Triassic of Italy: Implications for the Triassic time scale and the Carnian origin of calcareous nannoplankton and dinosaurs",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Geology",
    abstract = "The Triassic time scale is poorly constrained due to a paucity of high-precision radiometric ages. We present a 206Pb/238U age of 230.91 0.33 Ma (error includes all known sources) for zircon from an ash bed in the upper Carnian (Upper Triassic) of southern \nItaly that requires a major revision of the Triassic time scale. For example, the Norian stage is lengthened to more than 20 m.y. The section containing the ash bed is correlated with other Tethyan sections and, indirectly, with the Newark astronomical polarity time scale (APTS). The dating provides also a minimum age for some important climatic and biotic events that occurred during the Carnian. We note a coincidence between these \nevents and the eruption of the large igneous province of Wrangellia, but the possible link between volcanism and climatic and biotic events requires further scrutiny.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/g22967a.1",
    doi = "10.1130/g22967a.1",
    openalex = "W2162656165",
    references = "doi101016jpalaeo200508011, openalexw2894525608"
}

Madagascar is one of the world's hottest biodiversity hot spots due to its diverse, endemic, and highly threatened biota. This biota shows a distinct signature of evolution in isolation, both in the high levels of diversity within lineages and in the imbalance of lineages that are represented. For example, chameleon diversity is the highest of any place on Earth, yet there are no salamanders. These biotic enigmas have inspired centuries of speculation relating to the mechanisms by which Madagascar's biota came to reside there. The two most probable causal factors are Gondwanan vicariance and/or Cenozoic dispersal. By reviewing a comprehensive sample of phylogenetic studies of Malagasy biota, we find that the predominant pattern is one of sister group relationships to African taxa. For those studies that include divergence time analysis, we find an overwhelming indication of Cenozoic origins for most Malagasy clades. We conclude that most of the present-day biota of Madagascar is comprised of the descendents of Cenozoic dispersers, predominantly with African origins.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys37091305110239,
    author = "Yoder, Anne D. and Nowak, Michael",
    title = "Has Vicariance or Dispersal Been the Predominant Biogeographic Force in Madagascar? Only Time Will Tell",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "Madagascar is one of the world's hottest biodiversity hot spots due to its diverse, endemic, and highly threatened biota. This biota shows a distinct signature of evolution in isolation, both in the high levels of diversity within lineages and in the imbalance of lineages that are represented. For example, chameleon diversity is the highest of any place on Earth, yet there are no salamanders. These biotic enigmas have inspired centuries of speculation relating to the mechanisms by which Madagascar's biota came to reside there. The two most probable causal factors are Gondwanan vicariance and/or Cenozoic dispersal. By reviewing a comprehensive sample of phylogenetic studies of Malagasy biota, we find that the predominant pattern is one of sister group relationships to African taxa. For those studies that include divergence time analysis, we find an overwhelming indication of Cenozoic origins for most Malagasy clades. We conclude that most of the present-day biota of Madagascar is comprised of the descendents of Cenozoic dispersers, predominantly with African origins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110239",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110239",
    openalex = "W2151382623",
    references = "doi101016jtree200411006, doi10108000222939700770141, doi101093sysbio232265, doi101098rspb20001368, doi10113008137233291, doi1023072412139, doi102307634028"
}

Evolution may be dominated by biotic factors, as in the Red Queen model, or abiotic factors, as in the Court Jester model, or a mixture of both. The two models appear to operate predominantly over different geographic and temporal scales: Competition, predation, and other biotic factors shape ecosystems locally and over short time spans, but extrinsic factors such as climate and oceanographic and tectonic events shape larger-scale patterns regionally and globally, and through thousands and millions of years. Paleobiological studies suggest that species diversity is driven largely by abiotic factors such as climate, landscape, or food supply, and comparative phylogenetic approaches offer new insights into clade dynamics.

@article{doi101126science1157719,
    author = "Benton, Michael J.",
    title = "The Red Queen and the Court Jester: Species Diversity and the Role of Biotic and Abiotic Factors Through Time",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Evolution may be dominated by biotic factors, as in the Red Queen model, or abiotic factors, as in the Court Jester model, or a mixture of both. The two models appear to operate predominantly over different geographic and temporal scales: Competition, predation, and other biotic factors shape ecosystems locally and over short time spans, but extrinsic factors such as climate and oceanographic and tectonic events shape larger-scale patterns regionally and globally, and through thousands and millions of years. Paleobiological studies suggest that species diversity is driven largely by abiotic factors such as climate, landscape, or food supply, and comparative phylogenetic approaches offer new insights into clade dynamics.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1157719",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1157719",
    openalex = "W2092302011",
    references = "doi101017s0094837300008186, doi101073pnas092150999, doi101098rspb20080715, doi101111j14754983200600611x, doi101111j14754983200600612x, doi101111j15585646200800317x, doi101126science1130880, doi101126science1156963, doi101126science1161833, doi101126science7701342, doi1016710272463420010210172dteotr20co2"
}

@article{doi105860choice465038,
    title = "The concise geologic time scale",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.46-5038",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.46-5038",
    openalex = "W4300900741"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201009003,
    author = "Wade, Bridget S. and Pearson, Paul N. and Berggren, William A. and Pälike, Heiko",
    title = "Review and revision of Cenozoic tropical planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and calibration to the geomagnetic polarity and astronomical time scale",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.09.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.09.003",
    openalex = "W2073551687",
    references = "doi101002jqs1338, doi1010160025322771900533, doi101016b9780444594259000287, doi101016b9780444594259000299, doi101016jearscirev200902004, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi10102994jb03098, doi1010510004636120041335, doi101126science1133822, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi1011639789004616455018, doi102110pec95040129, doi1023071485586, doi1023071485903, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992, openalexw1234840642, openalexw2989049194"
}

With Sichuan Basin as focus, this paper introduces the depositional environment, geochemical and reservoir characteristics, gas concentration and prospective resource potential of three different types of shale in China: marine shale, marine-terrigenous shale and terrigenous shale. Marine shale features high organic abundance (TOC: 1.0%–5.5%), high-over maturity (Ro: 2%–5%), rich accumulation of shale gas (gas concentration: 1.17–6.02 m3/t) and mainly continental shelf deposition, mainly distributed in the Paleozoic in the Yangtze area, Southern China, the Paleozoic in Northern China Platform and the Cambrian-Ordovician in Tarim Basin; Marine-terrigenous coalbed carbonaceous shale has high organic abundance (TOC: 2.6%–5.4%) and medium maturity (Ro: 1.1%–2.5%); terrigenous shale in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic has high organic abundance (TOC: 0.5%–22.0%) and mid-low maturity (Ro: 0.6–1.5%). The study on shale reservoirs in the Lower Paleozoic in Sichuan Basin discoveried nanometer-sized pores for the first time, and Cambrian and Silurian marine shale developed lots of micro- and nanometer-sized pores (100–200 nm), which is quite similar to the conditions in North America. Through comprehensive evaluation, it is thought that several shale gas intervals in Sichuan Basin are the practical targets for shale gas exploration and development, and that the Weiyuan-Changning area in the Mid-South of Sichuan Basin, which is characterized by high thermal evolution degree (Ro: 2.0%–4.0%), high porosity (3.0%–4.8%), high gas concentration (2.82–3.28 m3/t), high brittle mineral content (40%–80%) and proper burial depth (1500–4500 m), is the core area for shale gas exploration and development, the daily gas production for Well Wei 201 is 1×104–2×104 m3. ： 以四川盆地为重点，介绍中国海相、海陆过渡相、陆相三大类型页岩形成的沉积环境、地球化学与储集层特征、含气量与远景资源量。中国海相页岩是一套高有机质丰度（TOC为1.0%～5.5%）、高—过成熟（Ro值为2.0%～5.0%）、富含页岩气（含气量1.17～6.02 m3/t）、以陆棚相为主的沉积，主要分布在华南扬子地区古生界、华北地台古生界和塔里木盆地寒武系—奥陶系；海陆过渡相煤系炭质页岩有机质丰度高（TOC为2.6%～5.4%）、成熟度适中（Ro值为1.1%～2.5%）；中新生界陆相页岩有机质丰度高（TOC为0.5%～22.0%）、低熟—成熟（Ro值为0.6%～1.5%）。在对四川盆地下古生界页岩储集层研究中首次发现，寒武系和志留系海相页岩发育大量与北美地区相似的微米—纳米级孔隙。综合评价认为四川盆地发育的多套页岩气层系是勘探开发的现实领域，四川盆地中南部威远—长宁等地区的寒武系和志留系是页岩气勘探开发的核心区与层系，其特点是：热演化程度较高（Ro值为2.0%～4.0%）、孔隙度较高（3.0%～4.8%），含气量较高（2.82～3.28 m3/t）、脆性矿物含量较高（40%～80%）、埋深适中（1 500～4 500 m），有利于开采。图7表7参38

@article{doi101016s1876380411600013,
    author = "Zou, Caineng and Dong, Dazhong and Wang, Shejiao and Li, Jianzhong and Li, Xinjing and Wang, Yuman and Li, Denghua and Cheng, Keming",
    title = "Geological characteristics and resource potential of shale gas in China",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Petroleum Exploration and Development",
    abstract = "With Sichuan Basin as focus, this paper introduces the depositional environment, geochemical and reservoir characteristics, gas concentration and prospective resource potential of three different types of shale in China: marine shale, marine-terrigenous shale and terrigenous shale. Marine shale features high organic abundance (TOC: 1.0\%–5.5\%), high-over maturity (Ro: 2\%–5\%), rich accumulation of shale gas (gas concentration: 1.17–6.02 m3/t) and mainly continental shelf deposition, mainly distributed in the Paleozoic in the Yangtze area, Southern China, the Paleozoic in Northern China Platform and the Cambrian-Ordovician in Tarim Basin; Marine-terrigenous coalbed carbonaceous shale has high organic abundance (TOC: 2.6\%–5.4\%) and medium maturity (Ro: 1.1\%–2.5\%); terrigenous shale in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic has high organic abundance (TOC: 0.5\%–22.0\%) and mid-low maturity (Ro: 0.6–1.5\%). The study on shale reservoirs in the Lower Paleozoic in Sichuan Basin discoveried nanometer-sized pores for the first time, and Cambrian and Silurian marine shale developed lots of micro- and nanometer-sized pores (100–200 nm), which is quite similar to the conditions in North America. Through comprehensive evaluation, it is thought that several shale gas intervals in Sichuan Basin are the practical targets for shale gas exploration and development, and that the Weiyuan-Changning area in the Mid-South of Sichuan Basin, which is characterized by high thermal evolution degree (Ro: 2.0\%–4.0\%), high porosity (3.0\%–4.8\%), high gas concentration (2.82–3.28 m3/t), high brittle mineral content (40\%–80\%) and proper burial depth (1500–4500 m), is the core area for shale gas exploration and development, the daily gas production for Well Wei 201 is 1×104–2×104 m3. ： 以四川盆地为重点，介绍中国海相、海陆过渡相、陆相三大类型页岩形成的沉积环境、地球化学与储集层特征、含气量与远景资源量。中国海相页岩是一套高有机质丰度（TOC为1.0\%～5.5\%）、高—过成熟（Ro值为2.0\%～5.0\%）、富含页岩气（含气量1.17～6.02 m3/t）、以陆棚相为主的沉积，主要分布在华南扬子地区古生界、华北地台古生界和塔里木盆地寒武系—奥陶系；海陆过渡相煤系炭质页岩有机质丰度高（TOC为2.6\%～5.4\%）、成熟度适中（Ro值为1.1\%～2.5\%）；中新生界陆相页岩有机质丰度高（TOC为0.5\%～22.0\%）、低熟—成熟（Ro值为0.6\%～1.5\%）。在对四川盆地下古生界页岩储集层研究中首次发现，寒武系和志留系海相页岩发育大量与北美地区相似的微米—纳米级孔隙。综合评价认为四川盆地发育的多套页岩气层系是勘探开发的现实领域，四川盆地中南部威远—长宁等地区的寒武系和志留系是页岩气勘探开发的核心区与层系，其特点是：热演化程度较高（Ro值为2.0\%～4.0\%）、孔隙度较高（3.0\%～4.8\%），含气量较高（2.82～3.28 m3/t）、脆性矿物含量较高（40\%～80\%）、埋深适中（1 500～4 500 m），有利于开采。图7表7参38",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s1876-3804(11)60001-3",
    doi = "10.1016/s1876-3804(11)60001-3",
    openalex = "W1995026965"
}

A range of ages have been proposed for the timing of India‐Asia collision; the range to some extent reflects different definitions of collision and methods used to date it. In this paper we discuss three approaches that have been used to constrain the time of collision: the time of cessation of marine facies, the time of the first arrival of Asian detritus on the Indian plate, and the determination of the relative positions of India and Asia through time. In the Qumiba sedimentary section located south of the Yarlung Tsangpo suture in Tibet, a previous work has dated marine facies at middle to late Eocene, by far the youngest marine sediments recorded in the region. By contrast, our biostratigraphic data indicate the youngest marine facies preserved at this locality are 50.6–52.8 Ma, in broad agreement with the timing of cessation of marine facies elsewhere throughout the region. Double dating of detrital zircons from this formation, by U‐Pb and fission track methods, indicates an Asian contribution to the rocks thus documenting the time of arrival of Asian material onto the Indian plate at this time and hence constraining the time of India‐Asia collision. Our reconstruction of the positions of India and Asia by using a compilation of published palaeomagnetic data indicates initial contact between the continents in the early Eocene. We conclude the paper with a discussion on the viability of a recent assertion that collision between India and Asia could not have occurred prior to ∼35 Ma.

@article{doi1010292010jb007673,
    author = "Najman, Yani and Appel, Erwin and BouDagher‐Fadel, Marcelle K. and Bown, Paul R. and Carter, Andy and Garzanti, Eduardo and Godin, Laurent and Han, Jingtai and Liebke, Ursina and Oliver, G. J. H. and Parrish, R. R. and Vezzoli, Giovanni",
    title = "Timing of India‐Asia collision: Geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A range of ages have been proposed for the timing of India‐Asia collision; the range to some extent reflects different definitions of collision and methods used to date it. In this paper we discuss three approaches that have been used to constrain the time of collision: the time of cessation of marine facies, the time of the first arrival of Asian detritus on the Indian plate, and the determination of the relative positions of India and Asia through time. In the Qumiba sedimentary section located south of the Yarlung Tsangpo suture in Tibet, a previous work has dated marine facies at middle to late Eocene, by far the youngest marine sediments recorded in the region. By contrast, our biostratigraphic data indicate the youngest marine facies preserved at this locality are 50.6–52.8 Ma, in broad agreement with the timing of cessation of marine facies elsewhere throughout the region. Double dating of detrital zircons from this formation, by U‐Pb and fission track methods, indicates an Asian contribution to the rocks thus documenting the time of arrival of Asian material onto the Indian plate at this time and hence constraining the time of India‐Asia collision. Our reconstruction of the positions of India and Asia by using a compilation of published palaeomagnetic data indicates initial contact between the continents in the early Eocene. We conclude the paper with a discussion on the viability of a recent assertion that collision between India and Asia could not have occurred prior to ∼35 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2010jb007673",
    doi = "10.1029/2010jb007673",
    openalex = "W1987562178",
    references = "doi101007978940172809615, doi101007bf02440107, doi101016jchemgeo200901020, doi101016jearscirev200405001, doi1010292000jb000050, doi1010292006jb004706, doi1010292007gc001805, doi10108000241160410006483, doi101130001676062000112324tothas20co2, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi101130g197961, doi1018814epiiugs2004v27i2002"
}

The Amazonian rainforest is arguably the most species-rich terrestrial ecosystem in the world, yet the timing of the origin and evolutionary causes of this diversity are a matter of debate. We review the geologic and phylogenetic evidence from Amazonia and compare it with uplift records from the Andes. This uplift and its effect on regional climate fundamentally changed the Amazonian landscape by reconfiguring drainage patterns and creating a vast influx of sediments into the basin. On this "Andean" substrate, a region-wide edaphic mosaic developed that became extremely rich in species, particularly in Western Amazonia. We show that Andean uplift was crucial for the evolution of Amazonian landscapes and ecosystems, and that current biodiversity patterns are rooted deep in the pre-Quaternary.

@article{doi101126science1194585,
    author = "Hoorn, Carina and Wesselingh, Frank P. and ter Steege, Hans and Bermúdez, Mauricio A. and Mora, A. and Sevink, J. and Sanmartín, Isabel and Meseguer, Andrea S. and Anderson, Cajsa Lisa and Figueiredo, J. and Jaramillo, Carlos and Riff, Douglas and Negri, Francisco Ricardo and Hooghiemstra, H. and Lundberg, John G. and Stadler, Tanja and Särkinen, Tiina and Antonelli, Alexandre",
    title = "Amazonia Through Time: Andean Uplift, Climate Change, Landscape Evolution, and Biodiversity",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {The Amazonian rainforest is arguably the most species-rich terrestrial ecosystem in the world, yet the timing of the origin and evolutionary causes of this diversity are a matter of debate. We review the geologic and phylogenetic evidence from Amazonia and compare it with uplift records from the Andes. This uplift and its effect on regional climate fundamentally changed the Amazonian landscape by reconfiguring drainage patterns and creating a vast influx of sediments into the basin. On this "Andean" substrate, a region-wide edaphic mosaic developed that became extremely rich in species, particularly in Western Amazonia. We show that Andean uplift was crucial for the evolution of Amazonian landscapes and ecosystems, and that current biodiversity patterns are rooted deep in the pre-Quaternary.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194585",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1194585",
    openalex = "W2112184907",
    references = "doi101038nature06588, doi10108010635150490423430, doi1012060003009020042840001fsotgr20co2, openalexw3001739384"
}

Although temporal calibration is widely recognized as critical for obtaining accurate divergence-time estimates using molecular dating methods, few studies have evaluated the variation resulting from different calibration strategies. Depending on the information available, researchers have often used primary calibrations from the fossil record or secondary calibrations from previous molecular dating studies. In analyses of flowering plants, primary calibration data can be obtained from macro- and mesofossils (e.g., leaves, flowers, and fruits) or microfossils (e.g., pollen). Fossil data can vary substantially in accuracy and precision, presenting a difficult choice when selecting appropriate calibrations. Here, we test the impact of eight plausible calibration scenarios for Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae, Fagales), a plant genus with a particularly rich and well-studied fossil record. To do so, we reviewed the phylogenetic placement and geochronology of 38 fossil taxa of Nothofagus and other Fagales, and we identified minimum age constraints for up to 18 nodes of the phylogeny of Fagales. Molecular dating analyses were conducted for each scenario using maximum likelihood (RAxML + r8s) and Bayesian (BEAST) approaches on sequence data from six regions of the chloroplast and nuclear genomes. Using either ingroup or outgroup constraints, or both, led to similar age estimates, except near strongly influential calibration nodes. Using early but risky fossil constraints in addition to safe but late constraints, or using assumptions of vicariance instead of fossil constraints, led to older age estimates. In contrast, using secondary calibration points yielded drastically younger age estimates. This empirical study highlights the critical influence of calibration on molecular dating analyses. Even in a best-case situation, with many thoroughly vetted fossils available, substantial uncertainties can remain in the estimates of divergence times. For example, our estimates for the crown group age of Nothofagus varied from 13 to 113 Ma across our full range of calibration scenarios. We suggest that increased background research should be made at all stages of the calibration process to reduce errors wherever possible, from verifying the geochronological data on the fossils to critical reassessment of their phylogenetic position.

@article{doi101093sysbiosyr116,
    author = "Sauquet, Hervé and Ho, Simon Y. W. and Gandolfo, María A. and Jordan, Gregory J. and Wilf, Peter and Cantrill, David J. and Bayly, Michael J. and Bromham, Lindell and Brown, Gillian K. and Carpenter, Raymond J. and Lee, Daphne M. and Murphy, Daniel J. and Sniderman, Kale and Udovicic, Frank",
    title = "Testing the Impact of Calibration on Molecular Divergence Times Using a Fossil-Rich Group: The Case of Nothofagus (Fagales)",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Systematic Biology",
    abstract = "Although temporal calibration is widely recognized as critical for obtaining accurate divergence-time estimates using molecular dating methods, few studies have evaluated the variation resulting from different calibration strategies. Depending on the information available, researchers have often used primary calibrations from the fossil record or secondary calibrations from previous molecular dating studies. In analyses of flowering plants, primary calibration data can be obtained from macro- and mesofossils (e.g., leaves, flowers, and fruits) or microfossils (e.g., pollen). Fossil data can vary substantially in accuracy and precision, presenting a difficult choice when selecting appropriate calibrations. Here, we test the impact of eight plausible calibration scenarios for Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae, Fagales), a plant genus with a particularly rich and well-studied fossil record. To do so, we reviewed the phylogenetic placement and geochronology of 38 fossil taxa of Nothofagus and other Fagales, and we identified minimum age constraints for up to 18 nodes of the phylogeny of Fagales. Molecular dating analyses were conducted for each scenario using maximum likelihood (RAxML + r8s) and Bayesian (BEAST) approaches on sequence data from six regions of the chloroplast and nuclear genomes. Using either ingroup or outgroup constraints, or both, led to similar age estimates, except near strongly influential calibration nodes. Using early but risky fossil constraints in addition to safe but late constraints, or using assumptions of vicariance instead of fossil constraints, led to older age estimates. In contrast, using secondary calibration points yielded drastically younger age estimates. This empirical study highlights the critical influence of calibration on molecular dating analyses. Even in a best-case situation, with many thoroughly vetted fossils available, substantial uncertainties can remain in the estimates of divergence times. For example, our estimates for the crown group age of Nothofagus varied from 13 to 113 Ma across our full range of calibration scenarios. We suggest that increased background research should be made at all stages of the calibration process to reduce errors wherever possible, from verifying the geochronological data on the fossils to critical reassessment of their phylogenetic position.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr116",
    doi = "10.1093/sysbio/syr116",
    openalex = "W2171217030",
    references = "doi101016b9780444594259000287, doi101111j14698137201103794x, doi101371journalpone0001615, doi1018900921381"
}

• Plants have utterly transformed the planet, but testing hypotheses of causality requires a reliable time-scale for plant evolution. While clock methods have been extensively developed, less attention has been paid to the correct interpretation and appropriate implementation of fossil data. • We constructed 17 calibrations, consisting of minimum constraints and soft maximum constraints, for divergences between model representatives of the major land plant lineages. Using a data set of seven plastid genes, we performed a cross-validation analysis to determine the consistency of the calibrations. Six molecular clock analyses were then conducted, one with the original calibrations, and others exploring the impact on divergence estimates of changing maxima at basal nodes, and prior probability densities within calibrations. • Cross-validation highlighted Tracheophyta and Euphyllophyta calibrations as inconsistent, either because their soft maxima were overly conservative or because of undetected rate variation. Molecular clock analyses yielded estimates ranging from 568-815 million yr before present (Ma) for crown embryophytes and from 175-240 Ma for crown angiosperms. • We reject both a post-Jurassic origin of angiosperms and a post-Cambrian origin of land plants. Our analyses also suggest that the establishment of the major embryophyte lineages occurred at a much slower tempo than suggested in most previous studies. These conclusions are entirely compatible with current palaeobotanical data, although not necessarily with their interpretation by palaeobotanists.

@article{doi101111j14698137201103794x,
    author = "Clarke, John T. and Warnock, Rachel C. M. and Donoghue, Philip C. J.",
    title = "Establishing a time‐scale for plant evolution",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "• Plants have utterly transformed the planet, but testing hypotheses of causality requires a reliable time-scale for plant evolution. While clock methods have been extensively developed, less attention has been paid to the correct interpretation and appropriate implementation of fossil data. • We constructed 17 calibrations, consisting of minimum constraints and soft maximum constraints, for divergences between model representatives of the major land plant lineages. Using a data set of seven plastid genes, we performed a cross-validation analysis to determine the consistency of the calibrations. Six molecular clock analyses were then conducted, one with the original calibrations, and others exploring the impact on divergence estimates of changing maxima at basal nodes, and prior probability densities within calibrations. • Cross-validation highlighted Tracheophyta and Euphyllophyta calibrations as inconsistent, either because their soft maxima were overly conservative or because of undetected rate variation. Molecular clock analyses yielded estimates ranging from 568-815 million yr before present (Ma) for crown embryophytes and from 175-240 Ma for crown angiosperms. • We reject both a post-Jurassic origin of angiosperms and a post-Cambrian origin of land plants. Our analyses also suggest that the establishment of the major embryophyte lineages occurred at a much slower tempo than suggested in most previous studies. These conclusions are entirely compatible with current palaeobotanical data, although not necessarily with their interpretation by palaeobotanists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03794.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03794.x",
    openalex = "W2161280431",
    references = "doi101007978443168416915, doi101016003466679190024w, doi101016b9780444594259000202, doi101016b9780444594259000214, doi101016b9780444594259000238, doi101016b9781483227344500176, doi101016c20090644421, doi101016jearscirev200911002, doi101016jrevpalbo200709002, doi101016jtig200403007, doi101016s0037073898000268, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017cbo9780511536045020, doi101017s0016756809990434, doi101017s0094837300026907, doi10108010635150490264699, doi101093molbevmsm088, doi101098rspb20011782, doi101098rstb20061846, doi101371journalpbio0040088, doi10166600948373200026103tap20co2, doi1023071485834, doi1023072399846, doi103732ajb0800047, doi105860choice465038, openalexw2989049194"
}

A quantitative biostratigraphic and radiometric calibration is presented for the Pennsylvanian through Early Permian global time scale, based upon high-precision, isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometer (ID-TIMS) U-Pb zircon ages for interstratified ash beds in the parastratotype sections of the southern Urals of Russia. Twenty-four ash-bed ages in three outer ramp and basinal sections of the Pre-Uralian foredeep bracket the biotic definitions of global stages and regional substages from the base of the Upper Pennsylvanian Kasimovian Stage to the base of the Lower Permian Artinskian Stage; four additional ash-bed ages in two sections of the eastern slope of the Urals constrain the global Bashkirian and Serpukhovian Stages. Quantitative stratigraphic methods (CONOP9) are applied to a compilation of over 2000 bioevents in 22 stratigraphic sections supplemented by our dated volcanic horizons to refine the Pennsylvanian–Early Permian global time scale. Significant shifts in the duration of several stages are demonstrated, ranging from one to six million years, compared with prior estimates. The unprecedented density of radiometric calibration points for the Pennsylvanian–Permian transition provides a high-resolution (∼0.1-Ma) global chronostratigraphic standard for testing and improving biostratigraphic correlations across Euramerica. We integrate radiometric ages, biostratigraphic correlation, and cyclostratigraphic tuning of major cyclothems to the long-period (404-ka) eccentricity cycle to elucidate the tempo, magnitude, and forcing of eustatic changes and cyclothemic deposition associated with the waxing and waning of Gondwanan ice sheets, and establish a pan-Euramerican chronostratigraphic framework for most of Pennsylvanian and Early Permian time.

@article{doi101130b303851,
    author = "Schmitz, Mark D. and Davydov, Vladimir I.",
    title = "Quantitative radiometric and biostratigraphic calibration of the Pennsylvanian-Early Permian (Cisuralian) time scale and pan-Euramerican chronostratigraphic correlation",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Geological Society of America Bulletin",
    abstract = "A quantitative biostratigraphic and radiometric calibration is presented for the Pennsylvanian through Early Permian global time scale, based upon high-precision, isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometer (ID-TIMS) U-Pb zircon ages for interstratified ash beds in the parastratotype sections of the southern Urals of Russia. Twenty-four ash-bed ages in three outer ramp and basinal sections of the Pre-Uralian foredeep bracket the biotic definitions of global stages and regional substages from the base of the Upper Pennsylvanian Kasimovian Stage to the base of the Lower Permian Artinskian Stage; four additional ash-bed ages in two sections of the eastern slope of the Urals constrain the global Bashkirian and Serpukhovian Stages. Quantitative stratigraphic methods (CONOP9) are applied to a compilation of over 2000 bioevents in 22 stratigraphic sections supplemented by our dated volcanic horizons to refine the Pennsylvanian–Early Permian global time scale. Significant shifts in the duration of several stages are demonstrated, ranging from one to six million years, compared with prior estimates. The unprecedented density of radiometric calibration points for the Pennsylvanian–Permian transition provides a high-resolution (∼0.1-Ma) global chronostratigraphic standard for testing and improving biostratigraphic correlations across Euramerica. We integrate radiometric ages, biostratigraphic correlation, and cyclostratigraphic tuning of major cyclothems to the long-period (404-ka) eccentricity cycle to elucidate the tempo, magnitude, and forcing of eustatic changes and cyclothemic deposition associated with the waxing and waning of Gondwanan ice sheets, and establish a pan-Euramerican chronostratigraphic framework for most of Pennsylvanian and Early Permian time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/b30385.1",
    doi = "10.1130/b30385.1",
    openalex = "W2007056514",
    references = "doi101016jpalaeo200803052, doi101666061211"
}

Timing is crucial to understanding the causes and consequences of events in Earth history. The calibration of geological time relies heavily on the accuracy of radioisotopic and astronomical dating. Uncertainties in the computations of Earth's orbital parameters and in radioisotopic dating have hampered the construction of a reliable astronomically calibrated time scale beyond 40 Ma. Attempts to construct a robust astronomically tuned time scale for the early Paleogene by integrating radioisotopic and astronomical dating are only partially consistent. Here, using the new La2010 and La2011 orbital solutions, we present the first accurate astronomically calibrated time scale for the early Paleogene (47–65 Ma) uniquely based on astronomical tuning and thus independent of the radioisotopic determination of the Fish Canyon standard. Comparison with geological data confirms the stability of the new La2011 solution back to ∼54 Ma. Subsequent anchoring of floating chronologies to the La2011 solution using the very long eccentricity nodes provides an absolute age of 55.530 ± 0.05 Ma for the onset of the Paleocene/Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), 54.850 ± 0.05 Ma for the early Eocene ash −17, and 65.250 ± 0.06 Ma for the K/Pg boundary. The new astrochronology presented here indicates that the intercalibration and synchronization of U/Pb and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar radioisotopic geochronology is much more challenging than previously thought.

@article{doi1010292012gc004096,
    author = "Westerhold, Thomas and Röhl, Ursula and Laskar, J.",
    title = "Time scale controversy: Accurate orbital calibration of the early Paleogene",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Timing is crucial to understanding the causes and consequences of events in Earth history. The calibration of geological time relies heavily on the accuracy of radioisotopic and astronomical dating. Uncertainties in the computations of Earth's orbital parameters and in radioisotopic dating have hampered the construction of a reliable astronomically calibrated time scale beyond 40 Ma. Attempts to construct a robust astronomically tuned time scale for the early Paleogene by integrating radioisotopic and astronomical dating are only partially consistent. Here, using the new La2010 and La2011 orbital solutions, we present the first accurate astronomically calibrated time scale for the early Paleogene (47–65 Ma) uniquely based on astronomical tuning and thus independent of the radioisotopic determination of the Fish Canyon standard. Comparison with geological data confirms the stability of the new La2011 solution back to ∼54 Ma. Subsequent anchoring of floating chronologies to the La2011 solution using the very long eccentricity nodes provides an absolute age of 55.530 ± 0.05 Ma for the onset of the Paleocene/Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), 54.850 ± 0.05 Ma for the early Eocene ash −17, and 65.250 ± 0.06 Ma for the K/Pg boundary. The new astrochronology presented here indicates that the intercalibration and synchronization of U/Pb and 40 Ar/ 39 Ar radioisotopic geochronology is much more challenging than previously thought.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2012gc004096",
    doi = "10.1029/2012gc004096",
    openalex = "W1848853457",
    references = "doi101016s0012821x03005570"
}

Fossils and molecular data are two independent sources of information that should in principle provide consistent inferences of when evolutionary lineages diverged. Here we use an alternative approach to genetic inference of species split times in recent human and ape evolution that is independent of the fossil record. We first use genetic parentage information on a large number of wild chimpanzees and mountain gorillas to directly infer their average generation times. We then compare these generation time estimates with those of humans and apply recent estimates of the human mutation rate per generation to derive estimates of split times of great apes and humans that are independent of fossil calibration. We date the human-chimpanzee split to at least 7-8 million years and the population split between Neanderthals and modern humans to 400,000-800,000 y ago. This suggests that molecular divergence dates may not be in conflict with the attribution of 6- to 7-million-y-old fossils to the human lineage and 400,000-y-old fossils to the Neanderthal lineage.

@article{doi101073pnas1211740109,
    author = "Langergraber, Kevin E. and Prüfer, Kay and Rowney, Carolyn and Boesch, Christophe and Crockford, Catherine and Fawcett, Katie and Inoue, Eiji and Inoue-Muruyama, Miho and Mitani, John C. and Muller, Martin N. and Robbins, Martha M. and Schubert, Grit and Stoinski, Tara S. and Viola, Bence and Watts, David P. and Wittig, Roman M. and Wrangham, Richard W. and Zuberbühler, Klaus and Pääbo, Svante and Vigilant, Linda",
    title = "Generation times in wild chimpanzees and gorillas suggest earlier divergence times in great ape and human evolution",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Fossils and molecular data are two independent sources of information that should in principle provide consistent inferences of when evolutionary lineages diverged. Here we use an alternative approach to genetic inference of species split times in recent human and ape evolution that is independent of the fossil record. We first use genetic parentage information on a large number of wild chimpanzees and mountain gorillas to directly infer their average generation times. We then compare these generation time estimates with those of humans and apply recent estimates of the human mutation rate per generation to derive estimates of split times of great apes and humans that are independent of fossil calibration. We date the human-chimpanzee split to at least 7-8 million years and the population split between Neanderthals and modern humans to 400,000-800,000 y ago. This suggests that molecular divergence dates may not be in conflict with the attribution of 6- to 7-million-y-old fossils to the human lineage and 400,000-y-old fossils to the Neanderthal lineage.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211740109",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1211740109",
    openalex = "W2013018787",
    references = "doi101006jhev19960122, doi101038nature00879, doi101038nature04072, doi101038nature09534, doi101038nature10842, doi101093acprofoso97801992132760010001, doi101093molbevmsl150, doi101126science1139247, doi101126science1186802, doi101126science1188021, sarich1967immunological"
}

Molecular dating of species divergences has become an important means to add a temporal dimension to the Tree of Life. Increasingly larger datasets encompassing greater taxonomic diversity are becoming available to generate molecular timetrees by using sophisticated methods that model rate variation among lineages. However, the practical application of these methods is challenging because of the exorbitant calculation times required by current methods for contemporary data sizes, the difficulty in correctly modeling the rate heterogeneity in highly diverse taxonomic groups, and the lack of reliable clock calibrations and their uncertainty distributions for most groups of species. Here, we present a method that estimates relative times of divergences for all branching points (nodes) in very large phylogenetic trees without assuming a specific model for lineage rate variation or specifying any clock calibrations. The method (RelTime) performed better than existing methods when applied to very large computer simulated datasets where evolutionary rates were varied extensively among lineages by following autocorrelated and uncorrelated models. On average, RelTime completed calculations 1,000 times faster than the fastest Bayesian method, with even greater speed difference for larger number of sequences. This speed and accuracy will enable molecular dating analysis of very large datasets. Relative time estimates will be useful for determining the relative ordering and spacing of speciation events, identifying lineages with significantly slower or faster evolutionary rates, diagnosing the effect of selected calibrations on absolute divergence times, and estimating absolute times of divergence when highly reliable calibration points are available.

@article{doi101073pnas1213199109,
    author = "Tamura, Koichiro and Battistuzzi, Fabia U. and Billing-Ross, Paul and Murillo, Oscar and Filipski, Alan and Kumar, Sudhir",
    title = "Estimating divergence times in large molecular phylogenies",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Molecular dating of species divergences has become an important means to add a temporal dimension to the Tree of Life. Increasingly larger datasets encompassing greater taxonomic diversity are becoming available to generate molecular timetrees by using sophisticated methods that model rate variation among lineages. However, the practical application of these methods is challenging because of the exorbitant calculation times required by current methods for contemporary data sizes, the difficulty in correctly modeling the rate heterogeneity in highly diverse taxonomic groups, and the lack of reliable clock calibrations and their uncertainty distributions for most groups of species. Here, we present a method that estimates relative times of divergences for all branching points (nodes) in very large phylogenetic trees without assuming a specific model for lineage rate variation or specifying any clock calibrations. The method (RelTime) performed better than existing methods when applied to very large computer simulated datasets where evolutionary rates were varied extensively among lineages by following autocorrelated and uncorrelated models. On average, RelTime completed calculations 1,000 times faster than the fastest Bayesian method, with even greater speed difference for larger number of sequences. This speed and accuracy will enable molecular dating analysis of very large datasets. Relative time estimates will be useful for determining the relative ordering and spacing of speciation events, identifying lineages with significantly slower or faster evolutionary rates, diagnosing the effect of selected calibrations on absolute divergence times, and estimating absolute times of divergence when highly reliable calibration points are available.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1213199109",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1213199109",
    openalex = "W1992566665",
    references = "doi101007bf02101694, doi10103831927, doi101093bioinformatics133235, doi101093molbevmsm088, doi101093molbevmsr121, doi101093oso97801995350330010001, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva003974, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva025892, doi101093sysbiosyr107, doi101098rstb20061845, doi101111j14698137201103794x, doi101126science1206375, doi101126science1211028, doi101186147121487214, doi101371journalpbio0040088"
}

Ocean acidification may have severe consequences for marine ecosystems; however, assessing its future impact is difficult because laboratory experiments and field observations are limited by their reduced ecologic complexity and sample period, respectively. In contrast, the geological record contains long-term evidence for a variety of global environmental perturbations, including ocean acidification plus their associated biotic responses. We review events exhibiting evidence for elevated atmospheric CO(2), global warming, and ocean acidification over the past ~300 million years of Earth's history, some with contemporaneous extinction or evolutionary turnover among marine calcifiers. Although similarities exist, no past event perfectly parallels future projections in terms of disrupting the balance of ocean carbonate chemistry-a consequence of the unprecedented rapidity of CO(2) release currently taking place.

@article{doi101126science1208277,
    author = "Hönisch, Bärbel and Ridgwell, Andy and Schmidt, Daniela N. and Thomas, Ellen and Gibbs, Samantha J. and Sluijs, Appy and Zeebe, Richard E. and Kump, Lee R. and Martindale, Rowan C. and Greene, Sarah E. and Kiessling, Wolfgang and Ries, Justin B. and Zachos, James C. and Royer, Dana L. and Barker, S. and Marchitto, Thomas M. and Moyer, Ryan P. and Pelejero, Carles and Ziveri, Patrizia and Foster, Gavin L. and Williams, B.",
    title = "The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Ocean acidification may have severe consequences for marine ecosystems; however, assessing its future impact is difficult because laboratory experiments and field observations are limited by their reduced ecologic complexity and sample period, respectively. In contrast, the geological record contains long-term evidence for a variety of global environmental perturbations, including ocean acidification plus their associated biotic responses. We review events exhibiting evidence for elevated atmospheric CO(2), global warming, and ocean acidification over the past \textasciitilde 300 million years of Earth's history, some with contemporaneous extinction or evolutionary turnover among marine calcifiers. Although similarities exist, no past event perfectly parallels future projections in terms of disrupting the balance of ocean carbonate chemistry-a consequence of the unprecedented rapidity of CO(2) release currently taking place.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1208277",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1208277",
    openalex = "W2147331520",
    references = "doi101007978366206278418, doi1010160031018294902518, doi101016jpalaeo200508011, doi101016s0012825200000374, doi101016s0031018298000170, doi1010292001pa000623, doi1010292004gb002247, doi1010292009gc002788, doi101038353225a0, doi101126science1133822, doi101126science1177265, doi101126science1213454, doi101126science29255252310, doi101130g322301, doi101130spe369, doi101146annurevecolsys35021103105715, doi102475ajs2914377"
}

This report summarizes the international divisions and ages in the Geologic Time Scale, published \nin 2012 (GTS2012). Since 2004, when GTS2004 was detailed, major developments have taken place \nthat directly bear and have considerable impact on the intricate science of geologic time scaling. Precam brian \nnow has a detailed proposal for chronostratigraphic subdivision instead of an outdated and abstract chronometric \none. Of 100 chronostratigraphic units in the Phanerozoic 63 now have formal definitions, but stable \nchronostratigraphy in part of upper Paleozoic, Triassic and Middle Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous is still wanting. \nDetailed age calibration now exist between radiometric methods and orbital tuning, making 40Ar-39Ar dates \n0.64% older and more accurate. In general, numeric uncertainty in the time scale, although complex and not \nentirely amenable to objective analysis, is improved and reduced. Bases of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic \nare bracketed by analytically precise ages, respectively 541 0.63, 252.16 0.5, and 65.95 0.05 Ma. \nHigh-resolution, direct age-dates now exist for base-Carboniferous, base-Permian, base-Jurassic, base-Cenomanian \nand base-Eocene. Relative to GTS2004, 26 of 100 time scale boundaries have changed age, of which \n14 have changed more than 4 Ma, and 4 (in Middle to Late Triassic) between 6 and 12 Ma. There is much \nhigher stratigraphic resolution in Late Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene, and improved integration \nwith stable isotopes stratigraphy. Cenozoic and Cretaceous have a refined magneto-biochronology. \nThe spectacular outcrop sections for the Rosello Composite in Sicily, Italy and at Zumaia, Basque Province, \nSpain encompass the Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points for two Pliocene and two Paleocene \nstages. Since the cycle record indicates, to the best of our knowledge that the stages sediment fill is stratigraphically \ncomplete, these sections also may fulfill the important role of stage unit stratotypes for three of \nthese stages, Piacenzian, Zanclean and Danian

@article{doi1011270078042120120020,
    author = "Gradstein, Felix M. and Ogg, James G. and Hilgen, Frits J.",
    title = "On The Geologic Time Scale",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Newsletters on Stratigraphy",
    abstract = "This report summarizes the international divisions and ages in the Geologic Time Scale, published \nin 2012 (GTS2012). Since 2004, when GTS2004 was detailed, major developments have taken place \nthat directly bear and have considerable impact on the intricate science of geologic time scaling. Precam brian \nnow has a detailed proposal for chronostratigraphic subdivision instead of an outdated and abstract chronometric \none. Of 100 chronostratigraphic units in the Phanerozoic 63 now have formal definitions, but stable \nchronostratigraphy in part of upper Paleozoic, Triassic and Middle Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous is still wanting. \nDetailed age calibration now exist between radiometric methods and orbital tuning, making 40Ar-39Ar dates \n0.64\% older and more accurate. In general, numeric uncertainty in the time scale, although complex and not \nentirely amenable to objective analysis, is improved and reduced. Bases of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic \nare bracketed by analytically precise ages, respectively 541 0.63, 252.16 0.5, and 65.95 0.05 Ma. \nHigh-resolution, direct age-dates now exist for base-Carboniferous, base-Permian, base-Jurassic, base-Cenomanian \nand base-Eocene. Relative to GTS2004, 26 of 100 time scale boundaries have changed age, of which \n14 have changed more than 4 Ma, and 4 (in Middle to Late Triassic) between 6 and 12 Ma. There is much \nhigher stratigraphic resolution in Late Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene, and improved integration \nwith stable isotopes stratigraphy. Cenozoic and Cretaceous have a refined magneto-biochronology. \nThe spectacular outcrop sections for the Rosello Composite in Sicily, Italy and at Zumaia, Basque Province, \nSpain encompass the Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points for two Pliocene and two Paleocene \nstages. Since the cycle record indicates, to the best of our knowledge that the stages sediment fill is stratigraphically \ncomplete, these sections also may fulfill the important role of stage unit stratotypes for three of \nthese stages, Piacenzian, Zanclean and Danian",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1127/0078-0421/2012/0020",
    doi = "10.1127/0078-0421/2012/0020",
    openalex = "W1999206191",
    references = "doi101016b9780444594259000020, doi101016b9780444594259000202, doi101016s0012821x03005570, doi101017cbo9780511536045, doi101017cbo9780511536045020, doi10102994jb01889, doi10103823231, doi101038nature05163, openalexw1234840642, openalexw623436458"
}

Mass extinctions manifest in Earth's geologic record were turning points in biotic evolution. We present (40)Ar/(39)Ar data that establish synchrony between the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary and associated mass extinctions with the Chicxulub bolide impact to within 32,000 years. Perturbation of the atmospheric carbon cycle at the boundary likely lasted less than 5000 years, exhibiting a recovery time scale two to three orders of magnitude shorter than that of the major ocean basins. Low-diversity mammalian fauna in the western Williston Basin persisted for as little as 20,000 years after the impact. The Chicxulub impact likely triggered a state shift of ecosystems already under near-critical stress.

@article{doi101126science1230492,
    author = "Renne, Paul R. and Deino, Alan L. and Hilgen, F.J. and Kuiper, Klaudia F. and Mark, Darren F. and Mitchell, William S. and Morgan, Leah E. and Mundil, Roland and Smit, Jan",
    title = "Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Mass extinctions manifest in Earth's geologic record were turning points in biotic evolution. We present (40)Ar/(39)Ar data that establish synchrony between the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary and associated mass extinctions with the Chicxulub bolide impact to within 32,000 years. Perturbation of the atmospheric carbon cycle at the boundary likely lasted less than 5000 years, exhibiting a recovery time scale two to three orders of magnitude shorter than that of the major ocean basins. Low-diversity mammalian fauna in the western Williston Basin persisted for as little as 20,000 years after the impact. The Chicxulub impact likely triggered a state shift of ecosystems already under near-critical stress.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1230492",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1230492",
    openalex = "W1964523361",
    references = "doi101007s1091400569434, doi101016jchemgeo200503011, doi101016jcretres200805030, doi101016jepsl200902019, doi101016jepsl201107015, doi101016jgca2006061563, doi101016jgca201006017, doi101016jgca201106021, doi101016s0009254197001599, doi101016s0012821x03005570, doi101016s1631071303000063, doi1010292008jb005644, doi101038nature08227, doi101038nature11018, doi1010510004636120041335, doi10105100046361201116836, doi101073pnas802627, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science1154339, doi101126science1177265, doi101126science22346411177, doi101126science25250131690, doi101126science2575072954, doi1011270078042120120020, doi10113000917613198614279ssaedt20co2, doi1011300091761319910190867ccapct23co2, doi101130spe332, doi101146annurevecolsys35021103105715, doi101666070341, openalexw610180004"
}

Significance Divergence time estimation on an absolute timescale requires external calibration information, which typically is derived from the fossil record. The common practice in Bayesian divergence time estimation involves applying calibration densities to individual nodes. Often, these priors are arbitrarily chosen and specified yet have an excessive impact on estimates of absolute time. We introduce the fossilized birth–death process—a fossil calibration method that unifies extinct and extant species with a single macroevolutionary model, eliminating the need for ad hoc calibration priors. Compared with common calibration density approaches, Bayesian inference under this mechanistic model yields more accurate node age estimates while providing a coherent measure of statistical uncertainty. Furthermore, unlike calibration densities, our model accommodates all the reliable fossils for a given phylogenetic dataset.

@article{doi101073pnas1319091111,
    author = "Heath, Tracy A. and Huelsenbeck, John P. and Stadler, Tanja",
    title = "The fossilized birth–death process for coherent calibration of divergence-time estimates",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Significance Divergence time estimation on an absolute timescale requires external calibration information, which typically is derived from the fossil record. The common practice in Bayesian divergence time estimation involves applying calibration densities to individual nodes. Often, these priors are arbitrarily chosen and specified yet have an excessive impact on estimates of absolute time. We introduce the fossilized birth–death process—a fossil calibration method that unifies extinct and extant species with a single macroevolutionary model, eliminating the need for ad hoc calibration priors. Compared with common calibration density approaches, Bayesian inference under this mechanistic model yields more accurate node age estimates while providing a coherent measure of statistical uncertainty. Furthermore, unlike calibration densities, our model accommodates all the reliable fossils for a given phylogenetic dataset.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319091111",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1319091111",
    openalex = "W2039879168",
    references = "doi101007bf00160154, doi101007bf01734359, doi101016s0169534703002167, doi10103818872, doi10108010635150290102456, doi101086383584, doi101093bioinformatics178754, doi101093biomet824711, doi101093molbevmsl150, doi101093molbevmss075, doi101093molbevmst010, doi101093sysbiosyr047, doi101093sysbiosyr107, doi101093sysbiosys029, doi101098rspb20120683, doi101111j1469185x201100178x, doi101111j15585646201201723x, doi101126science1101074, doi101371journalpbio0040088, openalexw1593676244"
}

Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and Elasmobranchii (sharks, skates and rays) represent more than half of today's vertebrate taxic diversity (approximately 33000 species) and form the largest component of vertebrate diversity in extant aquatic ecosystems. Yet, patterns of 'fish' evolutionary history remain insufficiently understood and previous studies generally treated each group independently mainly because of their contrasting fossil record composition and corresponding sampling strategies. Because direct reading of palaeodiversity curves is affected by several biases affecting the fossil record, analytical approaches are needed to correct for these biases. In this review, we propose a comprehensive analysis based on comparison of large data sets related to competing phylogenies (including all Recent and fossil taxa) and the fossil record for both groups during the Mesozoic-Cainozoic interval. This approach provides information on the 'fish' fossil record quality and on the corrected 'fish' deep-time phylogenetic palaeodiversity signals, with special emphasis on diversification events. Because taxonomic information is preserved after analytical treatment, identified palaeodiversity events are considered both quantitatively and qualitatively and put within corresponding palaeoenvironmental and biological settings. Results indicate a better fossil record quality for elasmobranchs due to their microfossil-like fossil distribution and their very low diversity in freshwater systems, whereas freshwater actinopterygians are diverse in this realm with lower preservation potential. Several important diversification events are identified at familial and generic levels for elasmobranchs, and marine and freshwater actinopterygians, namely in the Early-Middle Jurassic (elasmobranchs), Late Jurassic (actinopterygians), Early Cretaceous (elasmobranchs, freshwater actinopterygians), Cenomanian (all groups) and the Paleocene-Eocene interval (all groups), the latter two representing the two most exceptional radiations among vertebrates. For each of these events along with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, we provide an in-depth review of the taxa involved and factors that may have influenced the diversity patterns observed. Among these, palaeotemperatures, sea-levels, ocean circulation and productivity as well as continent fragmentation and environment heterogeneity (reef environments) are parameters that largely impacted on 'fish' evolutionary history, along with other biotic constraints.

@article{doi101111brv12203,
    author = "Guinot, Guillaume and Cavin, Lionel",
    title = "‘Fish’ (A ctinopterygii and E lasmobranchii) diversification patterns through deep time",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) and Elasmobranchii (sharks, skates and rays) represent more than half of today's vertebrate taxic diversity (approximately 33000 species) and form the largest component of vertebrate diversity in extant aquatic ecosystems. Yet, patterns of 'fish' evolutionary history remain insufficiently understood and previous studies generally treated each group independently mainly because of their contrasting fossil record composition and corresponding sampling strategies. Because direct reading of palaeodiversity curves is affected by several biases affecting the fossil record, analytical approaches are needed to correct for these biases. In this review, we propose a comprehensive analysis based on comparison of large data sets related to competing phylogenies (including all Recent and fossil taxa) and the fossil record for both groups during the Mesozoic-Cainozoic interval. This approach provides information on the 'fish' fossil record quality and on the corrected 'fish' deep-time phylogenetic palaeodiversity signals, with special emphasis on diversification events. Because taxonomic information is preserved after analytical treatment, identified palaeodiversity events are considered both quantitatively and qualitatively and put within corresponding palaeoenvironmental and biological settings. Results indicate a better fossil record quality for elasmobranchs due to their microfossil-like fossil distribution and their very low diversity in freshwater systems, whereas freshwater actinopterygians are diverse in this realm with lower preservation potential. Several important diversification events are identified at familial and generic levels for elasmobranchs, and marine and freshwater actinopterygians, namely in the Early-Middle Jurassic (elasmobranchs), Late Jurassic (actinopterygians), Early Cretaceous (elasmobranchs, freshwater actinopterygians), Cenomanian (all groups) and the Paleocene-Eocene interval (all groups), the latter two representing the two most exceptional radiations among vertebrates. For each of these events along with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, we provide an in-depth review of the taxa involved and factors that may have influenced the diversity patterns observed. Among these, palaeotemperatures, sea-levels, ocean circulation and productivity as well as continent fragmentation and environment heterogeneity (reef environments) are parameters that largely impacted on 'fish' evolutionary history, along with other biotic constraints.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12203",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12203",
    openalex = "W2152500589",
    references = "doi101007978146848851721, doi101016b9780126709506500035, doi101016jcretres201112005, doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi10103835019044, doi101038nature06588, doi101038nature09329, doi101111brv12038, doi101111j109600311988tb00514x, doi101111j14610248200400671x, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science23547931156, doi1023073545569, openalexw2106559152, openalexw2898156694"
}

The establishment of modern terrestrial life is indissociable from angiosperm evolution. While available molecular clock estimates of angiosperm age range from the Paleozoic to the Late Cretaceous, the fossil record is consistent with angiosperm diversification in the Early Cretaceous. The time-frame of angiosperm evolution is here estimated using a sample representing 87% of families and sequences of five plastid and nuclear markers, implementing penalized likelihood and Bayesian relaxed clocks. A literature-based review of the palaeontological record yielded calibrations for 137 phylogenetic nodes. The angiosperm crown age was bound within a confidence interval calculated with a method that considers the fossil record of the group. An Early Cretaceous crown angiosperm age was estimated with high confidence. Magnoliidae, Monocotyledoneae and Eudicotyledoneae diversified synchronously 135-130 million yr ago (Ma); Pentapetalae is 126-121 Ma; and Rosidae (123-115 Ma) preceded Asteridae (119-110 Ma). Family stem ages are continuously distributed between c. 140 and 20 Ma. This time-frame documents an early phylogenetic proliferation that led to the establishment of major angiosperm lineages, and the origin of over half of extant families, in the Cretaceous. While substantial amounts of angiosperm morphological and functional diversity have deep evolutionary roots, extant species richness was probably acquired later.

@article{doi101111nph13264,
    author = "Magallón, Susana and Gómez‐Acevedo, Sandra Luz and Sánchez‐Reyes, Luna L. and Hernández‐Hernández, Tania",
    title = "A metacalibrated time‐tree documents the early rise of flowering plant phylogenetic diversity",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "The establishment of modern terrestrial life is indissociable from angiosperm evolution. While available molecular clock estimates of angiosperm age range from the Paleozoic to the Late Cretaceous, the fossil record is consistent with angiosperm diversification in the Early Cretaceous. The time-frame of angiosperm evolution is here estimated using a sample representing 87\% of families and sequences of five plastid and nuclear markers, implementing penalized likelihood and Bayesian relaxed clocks. A literature-based review of the palaeontological record yielded calibrations for 137 phylogenetic nodes. The angiosperm crown age was bound within a confidence interval calculated with a method that considers the fossil record of the group. An Early Cretaceous crown angiosperm age was estimated with high confidence. Magnoliidae, Monocotyledoneae and Eudicotyledoneae diversified synchronously 135-130 million yr ago (Ma); Pentapetalae is 126-121 Ma; and Rosidae (123-115 Ma) preceded Asteridae (119-110 Ma). Family stem ages are continuously distributed between c. 140 and 20 Ma. This time-frame documents an early phylogenetic proliferation that led to the establishment of major angiosperm lineages, and the origin of over half of extant families, in the Cretaceous. While substantial amounts of angiosperm morphological and functional diversity have deep evolutionary roots, extant species richness was probably acquired later.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13264",
    doi = "10.1111/nph.13264",
    openalex = "W1989471759",
    references = "doi101007bf02858880, doi1010160047248491900698, doi101038nature11631, doi101073pnas1001225107, doi101073pnas1319091111, doi10108010635150802429642, doi101093bioinformaticsbtl446, doi101093molbevmsm193, doi101093nargkh340, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva003974, doi101093sysbiosyr047, doi101093sysbiosys029, doi101109gce20105676129, doi101111j14698137201103794x, doi101126science1059412, doi101126science13334591105, doi101146annurevearth042711105313, doi101371journalpbio0040088, doi1014601phytopatholmediterr14998u129"
}

@book{doi101016c20090644421,
    title = "A Concise Geologic Time Scale",
    year = "2016",
    booktitle = "Elsevier eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/c2009-0-64442-1",
    doi = "10.1016/c2009-0-64442-1",
    openalex = "W1645227000"
}

We present a revised global plate motion model with continuously closing plate boundaries ranging from the Triassic at 230 Ma to the present day, assess differences among alternative absolute plate motion models, and review global tectonic events. Relatively high mean absolute plate motion rates of approximately 9–10 cm yr −1 between 140 and 120 Ma may be related to transient plate motion accelerations driven by the successive emplacement of a sequence of large igneous provinces during that time. An event at ∼100 Ma is most clearly expressed in the Indian Ocean and may reflect the initiation of Andean-style subduction along southern continental Eurasia, whereas an acceleration at ∼80 Ma of mean rates from 6 to 8 cm yr −1 reflects the initial northward acceleration of India and simultaneous speedups of plates in the Pacific. An event at ∼50 Ma expressed in relative, and some absolute, plate motion changes around the globe and in a reduction of global mean plate speeds from about 6 to 4–5 cm yr −1 indicates that an increase in collisional forces (such as the India–Eurasia collision) and ridge subduction events in the Pacific (such as the Izanagi–Pacific Ridge) play a significant role in modulating plate velocities.

@article{doi101146annurevearth060115012211,
    author = "Müller, R. Dietmar and Seton, Maria and Zahirovic, Sabin and Williams, Simon and Matthews, Kara J. and Wright, Nicky M. and Shephard, Grace E. and Maloney, Kayla and Barnett‐Moore, Nicholas and Hosseinpour, Maral and Bower, Dan J. and Cannon, John",
    title = "Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "We present a revised global plate motion model with continuously closing plate boundaries ranging from the Triassic at 230 Ma to the present day, assess differences among alternative absolute plate motion models, and review global tectonic events. Relatively high mean absolute plate motion rates of approximately 9–10 cm yr −1 between 140 and 120 Ma may be related to transient plate motion accelerations driven by the successive emplacement of a sequence of large igneous provinces during that time. An event at ∼100 Ma is most clearly expressed in the Indian Ocean and may reflect the initiation of Andean-style subduction along southern continental Eurasia, whereas an acceleration at ∼80 Ma of mean rates from 6 to 8 cm yr −1 reflects the initial northward acceleration of India and simultaneous speedups of plates in the Pacific. An event at ∼50 Ma expressed in relative, and some absolute, plate motion changes around the globe and in a reduction of global mean plate speeds from about 6 to 4–5 cm yr −1 indicates that an increase in collisional forces (such as the India–Eurasia collision) and ridge subduction events in the Pacific (such as the Izanagi–Pacific Ridge) play a significant role in modulating plate velocities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012211",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012211",
    openalex = "W2178317302",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jearscirev201206007, doi101016jgloplacha201610002, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292007rg000227, doi10102994jb03098, doi10102996jb01781, doi101126science1151540, doi101126science1258213, openalexw2883478268"
}

Although the axial and dominant geocentric character of the Earth's magnetic field means that paleolongitude is indeterminate, paleomagnetism is otherwise the only truly quantitative method available to the Earth scientist for constraining paleogeography and reconstructing the kinematic evolution of continental blocks. During the past half-century numerous paleomagnetic results have provided substantial quantitative constraints on the origin and tectonic evolution of the major tectonic divisions now comprising Eastern Asian. In this paper we first assess the available Early Paleozoic to Early Cretaceous paleomagnetic results from the South China, North China, and Tarim blocks using internationally-recognized reliability criteria. We then construct a running mean through a 20 Ma window by weighting the poles according to their Q-factors and fit a spherical spline with smoothing factor of 300 to derive apparent polar wander (APW) paths for these three major blocks during this Early Paleozoic to Late Mesozoic time interval. Together with Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic paleomagnetic poles from the Qaidam, Qiangtang, Lhasa, Sibumasu, Indochina, and some other smaller blocks/terranes of East Asia, we produce a series of paleogeographic reconstructions for these major blocks and lesser terranes of East Asia between mid-Ordovician and late Jurassic times (~460–160 Ma) which, although based primarily upon paleomagnetic evidence, aim to embrace the geological constraints. Finally, we discuss the current evidence for closure times of the Paleo-Asian, Mianlue, and East Paleo-Tethyan oceans which incorporate fundamental issues concerning the formation of the East Asian continental collage and collision with the northern main body of the Pangean supercontinent. We use the collective evidence to argue that these major paleo-oceans had closed by the Late Triassic, and that the East Asian sector of the supercontinent had united to become an integral part of Pangea by that time (~220 Ma).

@article{doi101016jearscirev201802004,
    author = "Huang, Baochun and Yan, Yonggang and Piper, J. D. A. and Zhang, Donghai and Yi, Zhiyu and Yu, Shan and Zhou, Tinghong",
    title = "Paleomagnetic constraints on the paleogeography of the East Asian blocks during Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic times",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    abstract = "Although the axial and dominant geocentric character of the Earth's magnetic field means that paleolongitude is indeterminate, paleomagnetism is otherwise the only truly quantitative method available to the Earth scientist for constraining paleogeography and reconstructing the kinematic evolution of continental blocks. During the past half-century numerous paleomagnetic results have provided substantial quantitative constraints on the origin and tectonic evolution of the major tectonic divisions now comprising Eastern Asian. In this paper we first assess the available Early Paleozoic to Early Cretaceous paleomagnetic results from the South China, North China, and Tarim blocks using internationally-recognized reliability criteria. We then construct a running mean through a 20 Ma window by weighting the poles according to their Q-factors and fit a spherical spline with smoothing factor of 300 to derive apparent polar wander (APW) paths for these three major blocks during this Early Paleozoic to Late Mesozoic time interval. Together with Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic paleomagnetic poles from the Qaidam, Qiangtang, Lhasa, Sibumasu, Indochina, and some other smaller blocks/terranes of East Asia, we produce a series of paleogeographic reconstructions for these major blocks and lesser terranes of East Asia between mid-Ordovician and late Jurassic times (\textasciitilde 460–160 Ma) which, although based primarily upon paleomagnetic evidence, aim to embrace the geological constraints. Finally, we discuss the current evidence for closure times of the Paleo-Asian, Mianlue, and East Paleo-Tethyan oceans which incorporate fundamental issues concerning the formation of the East Asian continental collage and collision with the northern main body of the Pangean supercontinent. We use the collective evidence to argue that these major paleo-oceans had closed by the Late Triassic, and that the East Asian sector of the supercontinent had united to become an integral part of Pangea by that time (\textasciitilde 220 Ma).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.02.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.02.004",
    openalex = "W2794050677",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201109001, doi101016jearscirev201212001, doi101016jgr201202019, doi101016jjseaes201212020, doi101016s0012825200000295, doi101146annurevearth060614105254, doi101371journalpone0126946"
}

= 46) sourced from the primary literature. High-precision impact ages can be used to (1) reconstruct and quantify the impact flux in the inner Solar System and, in particular, the Earth-Moon system, thereby placing constraints on the delivery of extraterrestrial mass accreted on Earth through geologic time; (2) utilize impact ejecta as event markers in the stratigraphic record and to refine bio- and magneto-stratigraphy; (3) test models and hypotheses of synchronous double or multiple impact events in the terrestrial record; (4) assess the potential link between large impacts, mass extinctions, and diversification events in the biosphere; and (5) constrain the duration of melt sheet crystallization in large impact basins and the lifetime of hydrothermal systems in cooling impact craters, which may have served as habitats for microbial life on the early Earth and, possibly, Mars.

@article{doi101089ast20192085,
    author = "Schmieder, M. and Kring, D. A.",
    title = "Earth's Impact Events Through Geologic Time: A List of Recommended Ages for Terrestrial Impact Structures and Deposits",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Astrobiology",
    abstract = "= 46) sourced from the primary literature. High-precision impact ages can be used to (1) reconstruct and quantify the impact flux in the inner Solar System and, in particular, the Earth-Moon system, thereby placing constraints on the delivery of extraterrestrial mass accreted on Earth through geologic time; (2) utilize impact ejecta as event markers in the stratigraphic record and to refine bio- and magneto-stratigraphy; (3) test models and hypotheses of synchronous double or multiple impact events in the terrestrial record; (4) assess the potential link between large impacts, mass extinctions, and diversification events in the biosphere; and (5) constrain the duration of melt sheet crystallization in large impact basins and the lifetime of hydrothermal systems in cooling impact craters, which may have served as habitats for microbial life on the early Earth and, possibly, Mars.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2019.2085",
    doi = "10.1089/ast.2019.2085",
    openalex = "W2997502701",
    references = "doi101016jchemgeo201502028, doi101016jgca201306010, doi101016jpalaeo200702037, doi101016jpalaeo201703014, doi101073pnas1319253111, doi101130081372356655, doi101130b310761, doi101130b318901, openalexw1615946943"
}

Caenophidian snakes include the file snake genus Acrochordus and advanced colubroidean snakes that radiated mainly during the Neogene. Although caenophidian snakes are a well-supported clade, their inferred affinities, based either on molecular or morphological data, remain poorly known or controversial. Here, we provide an expanded molecular phylogenetic analysis of Caenophidia and use three non-parametric measures of support-Shimodaira-Hasegawa-Like test (SHL), Felsentein (FBP) and transfer (TBE) bootstrap measures-to evaluate the robustness of each clade in the molecular tree. That very different alternative support values are common suggests that results based on only one support value should be viewed with caution. Using a scheme to combine support values, we find 20.9% of the 1265 clades comprising the inferred caenophidian tree are unambiguously supported by both SHL and FBP values, while almost 37% are unsupported or ambiguously supported, revealing the substantial extent of phylogenetic problems within Caenophidia. Combined FBP/TBE support values show similar results, while SHL/TBE result in slightly higher combined values. We consider key morphological attributes of colubroidean cranial, vertebral and hemipenial anatomy and provide additional morphological evidence supporting the clades Colubroides, Colubriformes, and Endoglyptodonta. We review and revise the relevant caenophidian fossil record and provide a time-calibrated tree derived from our molecular data to discuss the main cladogenetic events that resulted in present-day patterns of caenophidian diversification. Our results suggest that all extant families of Colubroidea and Elapoidea composing the present-day endoglyptodont fauna originated rapidly within the early Oligocene-between approximately 33 and 28 Mya-following the major terrestrial faunal turnover known as the "Grande Coupure" and associated with the overall climate shift at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Our results further suggest that the caenophidian radiation originated within the Caenozoic, with the divergence between Colubroides and Acrochordidae occurring in the early Eocene, at ~ 56 Mya.

@article{doi101371journalpone0216148,
    author = "Zaher, Hussam and Murphy, Robert W. and Arredondo, Juan Camilo and Graboski, Roberta and Machado-Filho, Paulo Roberto and Mahlow, Kristin and Montingelli, Giovanna G. and de Aguiar Quadros, Ana Bottallo and Orlov, Nikolai L. and Wilkinson, Mark and Zhang, Ya‐Ping and Grazziotin, Felipe G.",
    title = "Large-scale molecular phylogeny, morphology, divergence-time estimation, and the fossil record of advanced caenophidian snakes (Squamata: Serpentes)",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = {Caenophidian snakes include the file snake genus Acrochordus and advanced colubroidean snakes that radiated mainly during the Neogene. Although caenophidian snakes are a well-supported clade, their inferred affinities, based either on molecular or morphological data, remain poorly known or controversial. Here, we provide an expanded molecular phylogenetic analysis of Caenophidia and use three non-parametric measures of support-Shimodaira-Hasegawa-Like test (SHL), Felsentein (FBP) and transfer (TBE) bootstrap measures-to evaluate the robustness of each clade in the molecular tree. That very different alternative support values are common suggests that results based on only one support value should be viewed with caution. Using a scheme to combine support values, we find 20.9\% of the 1265 clades comprising the inferred caenophidian tree are unambiguously supported by both SHL and FBP values, while almost 37\% are unsupported or ambiguously supported, revealing the substantial extent of phylogenetic problems within Caenophidia. Combined FBP/TBE support values show similar results, while SHL/TBE result in slightly higher combined values. We consider key morphological attributes of colubroidean cranial, vertebral and hemipenial anatomy and provide additional morphological evidence supporting the clades Colubroides, Colubriformes, and Endoglyptodonta. We review and revise the relevant caenophidian fossil record and provide a time-calibrated tree derived from our molecular data to discuss the main cladogenetic events that resulted in present-day patterns of caenophidian diversification. Our results suggest that all extant families of Colubroidea and Elapoidea composing the present-day endoglyptodont fauna originated rapidly within the early Oligocene-between approximately 33 and 28 Mya-following the major terrestrial faunal turnover known as the "Grande Coupure" and associated with the overall climate shift at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Our results further suggest that the caenophidian radiation originated within the Caenozoic, with the divergence between Colubroides and Acrochordidae occurring in the early Eocene, at \textasciitilde\ 56 Mya.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216148",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0216148",
    openalex = "W2944627306",
    references = "doi1010160031018279901639, doi101017cbo9780511536045020, doi101093bioinformaticsbtl446, doi101093bioinformaticsbts199, doi101093bioinformaticsbtz305, doi101093molbevmsm088, doi101093molbevmss020, doi101093molbevmss075, doi101093nargkf436, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva003974, doi101093sysbiosyq010, doi101111j10960031201200393x, doi101111j155856461985tb00420x, doi101146annurevea22050194001045"
}

Deep shale gas reservoir (3,500 ∼ 4,500 m) of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in southern Sichuan Basin in China has great potential for exploration and development, with resource of 16.31 × 1012 m3, counting 84% of the total resources in this area. And the deep shale gas wells in Luzhou and west Chongqing have achieved good development results in the past two years. We systematically summarized the geological characteristics of deep shale gas reservoir of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation, and discussed the facing challenges and proposed some corresponding strategies. The deep shale gas reservoir in southern Sichuan Basin has six major characteristics. The reservoir is concentrated in depositional center and deep-water shelf environment. The reservoir is rich in silica and organic carbon while low in calcium and clay. Organic pores, inorganic pores, and microfractures are developed and well interconnected to form networks. Surface porosity is generally > 5% and increasing with depth. The gas content is 4.7 ∼ 7.5 m3/t, higher than that in Changning, Weiyuan, and Zhaotong area. The deep shale gas pressure coefficient is greater than 2.0 and is the highest in the southern Sichuan Basin, indicating its best preservation condition. Up to now, deep shale gas exploration is still encountered with many problems and challenges, including great difficulty in accurately obtaining reservoir parameters, unclear of high production mechanism, urgent need for optimal and quick drilling technology, great difficulty in reservoir fracturing, and unclear of hydro-fracture expansion rules. We proposed two strategies corresponding to the challenges, including deepen the delicate reservoir evaluation and clarify the rules of high production and enrichment of shale gas wells, and strengthen field experiments and explore effective and applicable technologies for drilling and fracturing of deep shale gas in China.

@article{doi101016jegyr202103043,
    author = "Ma, Xinhua and Wang, Hongyan and Zhou, Shangwen and Shi, Zhensheng and Zhang, Leifu",
    title = "Deep shale gas in China: Geological characteristics and development strategies",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Energy Reports",
    abstract = "Deep shale gas reservoir (3,500 ∼ 4,500 m) of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in southern Sichuan Basin in China has great potential for exploration and development, with resource of 16.31 × 1012 m3, counting 84\% of the total resources in this area. And the deep shale gas wells in Luzhou and west Chongqing have achieved good development results in the past two years. We systematically summarized the geological characteristics of deep shale gas reservoir of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation, and discussed the facing challenges and proposed some corresponding strategies. The deep shale gas reservoir in southern Sichuan Basin has six major characteristics. The reservoir is concentrated in depositional center and deep-water shelf environment. The reservoir is rich in silica and organic carbon while low in calcium and clay. Organic pores, inorganic pores, and microfractures are developed and well interconnected to form networks. Surface porosity is generally > 5\% and increasing with depth. The gas content is 4.7 ∼ 7.5 m3/t, higher than that in Changning, Weiyuan, and Zhaotong area. The deep shale gas pressure coefficient is greater than 2.0 and is the highest in the southern Sichuan Basin, indicating its best preservation condition. Up to now, deep shale gas exploration is still encountered with many problems and challenges, including great difficulty in accurately obtaining reservoir parameters, unclear of high production mechanism, urgent need for optimal and quick drilling technology, great difficulty in reservoir fracturing, and unclear of hydro-fracture expansion rules. We proposed two strategies corresponding to the challenges, including deepen the delicate reservoir evaluation and clarify the rules of high production and enrichment of shale gas wells, and strengthen field experiments and explore effective and applicable technologies for drilling and fracturing of deep shale gas in China.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.03.043",
    doi = "10.1016/j.egyr.2021.03.043",
    openalex = "W3158487586",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201812002"
}

The big success in marine shale gas exploration and production made China the third country worldwide to commercialize shale gas development. However, the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation and the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in and around the Sichuan Basin are currently the only targets that have realized shale gas industrial development. Great challenges are emerging since tremendous shale gas resources of marine facies, continental facies, and transitional facies that are trapped in new areas and multiple other formations are yet to be successfully developed. Thus, we find it a great necessity to provide suggestions on shale gas exploration and development in China, which hopefully can be helpful for global shale gas exploitation. To meet this goal, this work provides a critical review on the history and current status of China’s shale gas exploration and development and summarizes key practical experiences. In the light of characteristic analysis of typical industrial gas fields and wells, research status, problems and challenges, along with suggestions on pivotal scientific issues are addressed including the development of organic-rich shales, reservoir types and characteristics, shale gas content, and the main controlling factors on shale gas enrichment. Further, future directions of shale gas exploration and development are nailed down, incorporating three levels: areas to improve development technology, areas to seek exploration breakthrough, and areas to conduct preliminary studies. The normal-pressure and deep shale gas retained in the Wufeng and Longmaxi Formations in and around the Sichuan Basin are the first level, which are the most realistic resources that can be commercially developed. For the normal-pressure shale gas, detailed research on the sweet spot selection, drilling–encounter ratio enhancement, and cost minimization by advanced technologies are most imperative; for the deep shale gas, state-of-the-art technology to maximize the stimulated reservoir volume of lateral wells is the key. Gas resources in other shale formations in the Sichuan Basin and its periphery such as the Cambrian marine shales, Permian transitional shales, and Jurassic continental shales are the second level, which have the greatest prospective to claim exploration breakthroughs, while shale gas resources in other basins or regions still demand grand scientific and technological tasks for exploration and development preparation. All in all, as a country with diverse shale gas types and such intricate geological and surface conditions, the summary of China’s shale gas exploration and development practices is of vital significance that will not only shed light on China’s shale gas development directions but also provide references for the shale gas industry in other countries and regions.

@article{doi101021acsenergyfuels0c04131,
    author = "Sun, Chuanxiang and Nie, Haikuan and Dang, Wei and Chen, Qian and Zhang, Guangrong and Li, Wangpeng and Lu, Zhiyuan",
    title = "Shale Gas Exploration and Development in China: Current Status, Geological Challenges, and Future Directions",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Energy \& Fuels",
    abstract = "The big success in marine shale gas exploration and production made China the third country worldwide to commercialize shale gas development. However, the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation and the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation in and around the Sichuan Basin are currently the only targets that have realized shale gas industrial development. Great challenges are emerging since tremendous shale gas resources of marine facies, continental facies, and transitional facies that are trapped in new areas and multiple other formations are yet to be successfully developed. Thus, we find it a great necessity to provide suggestions on shale gas exploration and development in China, which hopefully can be helpful for global shale gas exploitation. To meet this goal, this work provides a critical review on the history and current status of China’s shale gas exploration and development and summarizes key practical experiences. In the light of characteristic analysis of typical industrial gas fields and wells, research status, problems and challenges, along with suggestions on pivotal scientific issues are addressed including the development of organic-rich shales, reservoir types and characteristics, shale gas content, and the main controlling factors on shale gas enrichment. Further, future directions of shale gas exploration and development are nailed down, incorporating three levels: areas to improve development technology, areas to seek exploration breakthrough, and areas to conduct preliminary studies. The normal-pressure and deep shale gas retained in the Wufeng and Longmaxi Formations in and around the Sichuan Basin are the first level, which are the most realistic resources that can be commercially developed. For the normal-pressure shale gas, detailed research on the sweet spot selection, drilling–encounter ratio enhancement, and cost minimization by advanced technologies are most imperative; for the deep shale gas, state-of-the-art technology to maximize the stimulated reservoir volume of lateral wells is the key. Gas resources in other shale formations in the Sichuan Basin and its periphery such as the Cambrian marine shales, Permian transitional shales, and Jurassic continental shales are the second level, which have the greatest prospective to claim exploration breakthroughs, while shale gas resources in other basins or regions still demand grand scientific and technological tasks for exploration and development preparation. All in all, as a country with diverse shale gas types and such intricate geological and surface conditions, the summary of China’s shale gas exploration and development practices is of vital significance that will not only shed light on China’s shale gas development directions but also provide references for the shale gas industry in other countries and regions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c04131",
    doi = "10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c04131",
    openalex = "W3138999950",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201812002, doi101016s0012825299000604"
}