Glacial lakes

@article{davis1883lake,
    author = "Davis, W. M.",
    title = "Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1883",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ns-1.20.570-a",
    doi = "10.1126/science.ns-1.20.570-a",
    number = "20",
    openalex = "W1963617711",
    pages = "570-570",
    volume = "ns-1",
    references = "doi101007bf01847973, doi101007bf01926081"
}

@misc{crossref1890lake,
    title = "Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1890",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3133/m1",
    doi = "10.3133/m1",
    openalex = "W4232112942"
}

@misc{gilbert1890lake2,
    author = "Gilbert, G. K",
    title = "Lake Bonneville, 1 of United States Geological Survey, Monographs",
    year = "1890",
    howpublished = "Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 438 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gilbert, G. K., 1890, Lake Bonneville, 1 of United States Geological Survey, Monographs: Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 438 p.}"
}

@article{graf1961a,
    author = "Graf, D. L. and Eardley, A. J. and Shimp, N. F.",
    title = "A Preliminary Report on Magnesium Carbonate Formation in Glacial Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1961",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/626730",
    doi = "10.1086/626730",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W71452134",
    pages = "219-223",
    volume = "69",
    references = "doi1010160016703757901011, doi10106311699228, doi101086626295, doi101126science1243218385, doi101130001676061957681141holbas20co2, doi101130001676061958691009rcolla20co2, doi101130001676061960711323aopcfg20co2, doi10113000167606196071515cmotso20co2, doi102475ajs2558561, doi102475ajs25610689"
}

@article{crittenden1963effective,
    author = "Crittenden, Max D.",
    title = "Effective viscosity of the Earth derived from isostatic loading of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz068i019p05517",
    doi = "10.1029/jz068i019p05517",
    number = "19",
    openalex = "W2072915131",
    pages = "5517-5530",
    volume = "68",
    references = "broecker1958radiocarbon, broecker1962the, doi101007bf02526792, doi1010160016003259901851, doi101029jz064i010p01521, doi101029jz065i012p04151, doi101130001676061957681141holbas20co2, doi1013063d9337a416b111d78645000102c1865d, doi105962bhltitle45550, gutenberg1941changes"
}

@article{crittenden1963effective1,
    author = "Crittenden, M. D. and Jr",
    title = "Effective viscosity of the earth derived from isostatic loading of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 68, p. 5517-5530",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Crittenden, M. D., Jr., 1963, Effective viscosity of the earth derived from isostatic loading of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 68, p. 5517-5530.}"
}

Purpose and methods-_________________ Extent of lake____-.-__---________. Nomenclature of Lake Bonneville events. Identity of the highest shoreline.________ Observed deformation._________________ Water load.__________________________ Possible causes of deformation...._______ Superficial versus deep-seated effects. Elastic compression of the crust

@article{doi103133pp454e,
    author = "Crittenden, Max D.",
    title = "New data on the isostatic deformation of Lake Bonneville",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "USGS professional paper",
    abstract = "Purpose and methods-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Extent of lake\_\_\_\_-.-\_\_---\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Nomenclature of Lake Bonneville events. Identity of the highest shoreline.\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Observed deformation.\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Water load.\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Possible causes of deformation....\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Superficial versus deep-seated effects. Elastic compression of the crust",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3133/pp454e",
    doi = "10.3133/pp454e",
    openalex = "W562454549",
    references = "doi1010160016003259901851, doi101029jz064i010p01521, doi101029jz065i007p02173, doi10106311745329, doi10106313060812, doi101130001676061957681141holbas20co2, doi101130001676061958691009rcolla20co2, doi101130gsab52721, doi102475ajs25610689, openalexw2426368118"
}

A simple isostatic model explaining the pattern of deformation of the shorelines of proglacial lakes has been developed. The rate of glacial retreat before the formation of the shoreline can be derived from the curvature of its uplifted portion. The rate calculated in this way for the retreat preceding the formation of Lake Algonquin is 120 km/103 yr, a value not in conflict with the radiocarbon chronology for this interval. The agreement between the uplift predicted at the iceward extreme of the shoreline (260 meters) and the actual maximum uplift (250±50 meters) provides an independent check on the validity of the model. If the model proves to be correct, the implications are as follows. (1) The continental ice sheets had shapes and total thicknesses during their retreat phases not dissimilar to those observed for present-day ice masses on Greenland and Antarctica, i.e., dynamic equilibrium was maintained; (2) rebound at the edge of large continental ice sheets is a simple isostatic process occurring with the Washburn-Stuiver time constant of about 700 years; and (3) the strength of the crust is sufficiently small to prevent the lateral influence of a continental ice sheet from extending more than a few tens of kilometers beyond its margins.

@article{doi101029jz071i020p04777,
    author = "Broecker, Wallace S.",
    title = "Glacial rebound and the deformation of the shorelines of proglacial lakes",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A simple isostatic model explaining the pattern of deformation of the shorelines of proglacial lakes has been developed. The rate of glacial retreat before the formation of the shoreline can be derived from the curvature of its uplifted portion. The rate calculated in this way for the retreat preceding the formation of Lake Algonquin is 120 km/103 yr, a value not in conflict with the radiocarbon chronology for this interval. The agreement between the uplift predicted at the iceward extreme of the shoreline (260 meters) and the actual maximum uplift (250±50 meters) provides an independent check on the validity of the model. If the model proves to be correct, the implications are as follows. (1) The continental ice sheets had shapes and total thicknesses during their retreat phases not dissimilar to those observed for present-day ice masses on Greenland and Antarctica, i.e., dynamic equilibrium was maintained; (2) rebound at the edge of large continental ice sheets is a simple isostatic process occurring with the Washburn-Stuiver time constant of about 700 years; and (3) the strength of the crust is sufficiently small to prevent the lateral influence of a continental ice sheet from extending more than a few tens of kilometers beyond its margins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz071i020p04777",
    doi = "10.1029/jz071i020p04777",
    openalex = "W1984765750",
    references = "broecker1962the, doi101029jz067i012p04837"
}

A substantially modified history of the last two cycles of Lake Bonneville is proposed. The Bonneville lake cycle began prior to 26,000 yr B.P.; the lake reached the Bonneville shoreline about 16,000 yr B.P. Poor dating control limits our knowledge of the timing of subsequent events. Lake level was maintained at the Bonneville shoreline until about 15,000 yr B.P., or somewhat later, when catastrophic downcutting of the outlet caused a rapid drop of 100 m. The Provo shoreline was formed as rates of isostatic uplift due to this unloading slowed. By 13,000 yr B.P., the lake had fallen below the Provo level and reached one close to that of Great Salt Lake by 11,000 yr B.P. Deposits of the Little Valley lake cycle are identified by their position below a marked unconformity and by amino acid ratios of their fossil gastropods. The maximum level of the Little Valley lake was well below the Bonneville shoreline. Based on degree of soil development and other evidence, the Little Valley lake cycle may be equivalent in age to marine oxygenisotope stage 6. The proposed lake history has climatic implications for the region. First, because the fluctuations of Lake Bonneville and Lake Lahontan during the last cycle of each were apparently out of phase, there may have been significant local differences in the timing and character of late Pleistocene climate changes in the Great Basin. Second, although the Bonneville and Little Valley lake cycles were broadly synchronous with maximum episodes of glaciation, environmental conditions necessary to generate large lakes did not exist during early Wisconsin time.

@article{doi1010160033589483900133,
    author = "Scott, William E. and McCoy, William D. and Shroba, Ralph R. and Rubin, Meyer",
    title = "Reinterpretation of the Exposed Record of the Last two Cycles of Lake Bonneville, Western United States",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "A substantially modified history of the last two cycles of Lake Bonneville is proposed. The Bonneville lake cycle began prior to 26,000 yr B.P.; the lake reached the Bonneville shoreline about 16,000 yr B.P. Poor dating control limits our knowledge of the timing of subsequent events. Lake level was maintained at the Bonneville shoreline until about 15,000 yr B.P., or somewhat later, when catastrophic downcutting of the outlet caused a rapid drop of 100 m. The Provo shoreline was formed as rates of isostatic uplift due to this unloading slowed. By 13,000 yr B.P., the lake had fallen below the Provo level and reached one close to that of Great Salt Lake by 11,000 yr B.P. Deposits of the Little Valley lake cycle are identified by their position below a marked unconformity and by amino acid ratios of their fossil gastropods. The maximum level of the Little Valley lake was well below the Bonneville shoreline. Based on degree of soil development and other evidence, the Little Valley lake cycle may be equivalent in age to marine oxygenisotope stage 6. The proposed lake history has climatic implications for the region. First, because the fluctuations of Lake Bonneville and Lake Lahontan during the last cycle of each were apparently out of phase, there may have been significant local differences in the timing and character of late Pleistocene climate changes in the Great Basin. Second, although the Bonneville and Little Valley lake cycles were broadly synchronous with maximum episodes of glaciation, environmental conditions necessary to generate large lakes did not exist during early Wisconsin time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(83)90013-3",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(83)90013-3",
    openalex = "W2060501649",
    references = "doi1010160016703771900317, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589478900352, doi101029jb075i020p03941, doi101029jz070i016p04039, doi1010970001069419660500000001, doi101130001676061957681141holbas20co2, doi1023071792487, doi102307212699, doi103133pp454e, openalexw1904021077, passey1981upper, wright1972glacial"
}

@misc{crossref1988geological,
    title = "Geological history of glacial Lake Algonquin and the upper Great Lakes",
    year = "1988",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3133/b1801",
    doi = "10.3133/b1801",
    openalex = "W2259258971",
    references = "doi101029rg010i004p00849, doi101086608138, doi101086629752, doi101130gsab21179, doi101130gsab52721, doi101139e70069, doi101139e70070, doi101144gsljgs1865021010224, doi102475ajs2603181, openalexw92972333"
}

Lake Mead is a large reservoir in Nevada, formed by the construction of the 221‐m‐high Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. The lake encompasses an area of 635 km 2, and the total volume of the reservoir is 35.5 km 3. Filling started in February 1935. On the basis of a first‐order leveling in 1935, several levelings were carried out to measure the deformation induced by the load of the reservoir. Subsidence in the central parts of the lake relative to the first leveling was around 120 mm (1941), 218 mm (1950), and 200 mm (1963). The subsidence pattern clearly shows relaxation of the underlying basement due to the water load of the lake, which ceased after 1950. Modeling of the relaxation process by means of layered, viscoelastic, compressible flat Earth models with a detailed representation of the spatial and temporal distribution of the water load shows that the thickness of the elastic crust underneath Lake Mead is 30±3 km. The data are also consistent with a 10‐km‐thick elastic upper crust and a 20‐km‐thick viscoelastic lower crust, with 10 20 Pa s as a lower bound for its viscosity. The subcrust has an average viscosity of 10 18±0.2 Pa s, a surprisingly low value. The leveling data constrain the viscosity profile down to ∼200 km depth.

@article{doi1010292000jb900079,
    author = "Kaufmann, Georg and Amelung, Falk",
    title = "Reservoir‐induced deformation and continental rheology in vicinity of Lake Mead, Nevada",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Lake Mead is a large reservoir in Nevada, formed by the construction of the 221‐m‐high Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River. The lake encompasses an area of 635 km 2, and the total volume of the reservoir is 35.5 km 3. Filling started in February 1935. On the basis of a first‐order leveling in 1935, several levelings were carried out to measure the deformation induced by the load of the reservoir. Subsidence in the central parts of the lake relative to the first leveling was around 120 mm (1941), 218 mm (1950), and 200 mm (1963). The subsidence pattern clearly shows relaxation of the underlying basement due to the water load of the lake, which ceased after 1950. Modeling of the relaxation process by means of layered, viscoelastic, compressible flat Earth models with a detailed representation of the spatial and temporal distribution of the water load shows that the thickness of the elastic crust underneath Lake Mead is 30±3 km. The data are also consistent with a 10‐km‐thick elastic upper crust and a 20‐km‐thick viscoelastic lower crust, with 10 20 Pa s as a lower bound for its viscosity. The subcrust has an average viscosity of 10 18±0.2 Pa s, a surprisingly low value. The leveling data constrain the viscosity profile down to ∼200 km depth.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jb900079",
    doi = "10.1029/2000jb900079",
    openalex = "W2110740157",
    references = "doi101007bf02525647, doi101016s0074614208x60085, doi10102990eo00319, doi10102994jb02770, doi10102995jb01460, doi101029jb085ib11p06248, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101029rg020i002p00219, doi10106311728759, doi101111j1365246x1979tb02567x"
}

Abstract Computer reconstructions of the bathymetry of the lake were used to quantify variations in the size and form of Lake Agassiz during its final two phases (the Nipigon and Ojibway phases), between about 9200 and 7700 14 C yr B.P. (ca. 10,300–8400 cal yr B.P.). New bathymetric models for four Nipigon Phase stages (corresponding to the McCauleyville, Hillsboro, Burnside, and The Pas strandlines) indicate that Lake Agassiz ranged between about 19,200 and 4600 km 3 in volume and 254,000 and 151,000 km 2 in areal extent at those times. A bathymetric model of the last (Ponton) stage of the lake, corresponding to the period in which Lake Agassiz was combined with glacial Lake Ojbway to the east, shows that Lake Agassiz–Ojibway was about 163,000 km 3 in volume and 841,000 km 2 in areal extent prior to the final release of lake waters into the Tyrrell Sea. During the Nipigon Phase, a number of catastrophic releases of water from Lake Agassiz occurred as more northerly (lower) outlets were made available by the retreating southern margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet; we estimate that each of the four newly investigated Nipigon Phase releases involved water volumes of between 1600 and 2300 km 3. The final release of Lake Agassiz waters into the Tyrrell Sea at about 7700 14 C yr B.P. is estimated to have been about 163,000 km 3 in volume.

@article{doi101006qres20012311,
    author = "Leverington, David and Mann, Jason D. and Teller, James T.",
    title = "Changes in the Bathymetry and Volume of Glacial Lake Agassiz between 9200 and 7700 14 C yr B.P.",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Computer reconstructions of the bathymetry of the lake were used to quantify variations in the size and form of Lake Agassiz during its final two phases (the Nipigon and Ojibway phases), between about 9200 and 7700 14 C yr B.P. (ca. 10,300–8400 cal yr B.P.). New bathymetric models for four Nipigon Phase stages (corresponding to the McCauleyville, Hillsboro, Burnside, and The Pas strandlines) indicate that Lake Agassiz ranged between about 19,200 and 4600 km 3 in volume and 254,000 and 151,000 km 2 in areal extent at those times. A bathymetric model of the last (Ponton) stage of the lake, corresponding to the period in which Lake Agassiz was combined with glacial Lake Ojbway to the east, shows that Lake Agassiz–Ojibway was about 163,000 km 3 in volume and 841,000 km 2 in areal extent prior to the final release of lake waters into the Tyrrell Sea. During the Nipigon Phase, a number of catastrophic releases of water from Lake Agassiz occurred as more northerly (lower) outlets were made available by the retreating southern margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet; we estimate that each of the four newly investigated Nipigon Phase releases involved water volumes of between 1600 and 2300 km 3. The final release of Lake Agassiz waters into the Tyrrell Sea at about 7700 14 C yr B.P. is estimated to have been about 163,000 km 3 in volume.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/qres.2001.2311",
    doi = "10.1006/qres.2001.2311",
    openalex = "W2140075905",
    references = "doi101016s0277379101000075"
}

▪ Abstract The 100 kyr quasiperiodic variation of continental ice cover, which has been a persistent feature of climate system evolution throughout the most recent 900 kyr of Earth history, has occurred as a consequence of changes in the seasonal insolation regime forced by the influence of gravitational n-body effects in the Solar System on the geometry of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The impacts of the changing surface ice load upon both Earth's shape and gravitational field, as well as upon sea-level history, have come to be measurable using a variety of geological and geophysical techniques. These observations are invertible to obtain useful information on both the internal viscoelastic structure of the solid Earth and on the detailed spatiotemporal characteristics of glaciation history. This review focuses upon the most recent advances that have been achieved in each of these areas, advances that have proven to be central to the construction of the refined model of the global process of glacial isostatic adjustment, denoted ICE-5G (VM2). A significant test of this new global model will be provided by the global measurement of the time dependence of the gravity field of the planet that will be delivered by the GRACE satellite system that is now in space.

@article{doi101146annurevearth32082503144359,
    author = "Peltier, W. R.",
    title = "GLOBAL GLACIAL ISOSTASY AND THE SURFACE OF THE ICE-AGE EARTH: The ICE-5G (VM2) Model and GRACE",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract The 100 kyr quasiperiodic variation of continental ice cover, which has been a persistent feature of climate system evolution throughout the most recent 900 kyr of Earth history, has occurred as a consequence of changes in the seasonal insolation regime forced by the influence of gravitational n-body effects in the Solar System on the geometry of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The impacts of the changing surface ice load upon both Earth's shape and gravitational field, as well as upon sea-level history, have come to be measurable using a variety of geological and geophysical techniques. These observations are invertible to obtain useful information on both the internal viscoelastic structure of the solid Earth and on the detailed spatiotemporal characteristics of glaciation history. This review focuses upon the most recent advances that have been achieved in each of these areas, advances that have proven to be central to the construction of the refined model of the global process of glacial isostatic adjustment, denoted ICE-5G (VM2). A significant test of this new global model will be provided by the global measurement of the time dependence of the gravity field of the planet that will be delivered by the GRACE satellite system that is now in space.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359",
    openalex = "W2112363056",
    references = "doi1010160031920181900467, doi1010160033589478900339, doi101017s0033822200019123, doi10102990jb01583, doi101029jb073i022p07089, doi101029rg010i003p00761, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101029rg020i002p00219, doi101038342637a0, doi101038345405a0, doi10103835021035, doi101038364218a0, doi101046j1365246x199800541x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01251x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01253x, doi101111j1365246x1982tb04976x, doi101126science1072497, doi101126science2605109771, doi101126science2655169195, doi101126science28754612225, doi101126science28954861897, doi101144gsjgs15230437"
}

In the Great Lakes region, the vertical motion of crustal rebound since the last glaciation has decelerated with time, and is described by exponential decay constrained by observed warping of strandlines of former lakes. A composite isostatic response surface relative to an area southwest of Lake Michigan beyond the limit of the last glacial maximum was prepared for the complete Great Lakes watershed at 10.6 ka BP (12.6 cal ka BP). Uplift of sites computed using values from the response surface facilitated the transformation of a digital elevation model of the present Great Lakes basins to represent the paleogeography of the watershed at selected times. Similarly, the original elevations of radiocarbon-dated geomorphic and stratigraphic indicators of former lake levels were reconstructed and plotted against age to define lake level history. A comparison with the independently computed basin outlet paleo-elevations reveals a phase of severely reduced water levels and hydrologically-closed lakes below overflow outlets between 7.9 and 7.0 ka BP (8.7 and 7.8 cal ka BP) in the Huron-Michigan basin. Severe evaporative draw-down is postulated to result from the early Holocene dry climate when inflows of meltwater from the upstream Agassiz basin began to bypass the upper Great Lakes basin.

@article{doi107202014754ar,
    author = "Lewis, C F M and Blasco, Steve and Gareau, Pierre L.",
    title = "Glacial Isostatic Adjustment of the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin: Using the Empirical Record of Strandline Deformation for Reconstruction of Early Holocene Paleo-Lakes and Discovery of a Hydrologically Closed Phase*",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Géographie physique et Quaternaire",
    abstract = "In the Great Lakes region, the vertical motion of crustal rebound since the last glaciation has decelerated with time, and is described by exponential decay constrained by observed warping of strandlines of former lakes. A composite isostatic response surface relative to an area southwest of Lake Michigan beyond the limit of the last glacial maximum was prepared for the complete Great Lakes watershed at 10.6 ka BP (12.6 cal ka BP). Uplift of sites computed using values from the response surface facilitated the transformation of a digital elevation model of the present Great Lakes basins to represent the paleogeography of the watershed at selected times. Similarly, the original elevations of radiocarbon-dated geomorphic and stratigraphic indicators of former lake levels were reconstructed and plotted against age to define lake level history. A comparison with the independently computed basin outlet paleo-elevations reveals a phase of severely reduced water levels and hydrologically-closed lakes below overflow outlets between 7.9 and 7.0 ka BP (8.7 and 7.8 cal ka BP) in the Huron-Michigan basin. Severe evaporative draw-down is postulated to result from the early Holocene dry climate when inflows of meltwater from the upstream Agassiz basin began to bypass the upper Great Lakes basin.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7202/014754ar",
    doi = "10.7202/014754ar",
    openalex = "W2124680961",
    references = "crossref1988geological, doi101016s0277379101001457, doi101016s038013300170665x, doi101016s1571086604802094, doi101017s0033822200013904, doi101017s0033822200019123, doi10102990jb01583, doi10102998rg02638, doi101029rg010i004p00849, doi101126science2655169195, doi101126science27352801359"
}

The premise of this article is that climate effects on lakes can be quantified most effectively by the integration of process‐oriented limnological studies with paleolimnological research, particularly when both disciplines operate within a common conceptual framework. To this end, the energy (E)‐mass (m) flux framework (E m flux) is developed and applied to selected retrospective studies to demonstrate that climate variability regulates lake structure and function over diverse temporal and spatial scales through four main pathways: rapid direct transfer of E to the lake surface by irradiance, heat, and wind; slow indirect effects of E via changes in terrestrial development and subsequent m subsidies to lakes; direct influx of m as precipitation, particles, and solutes from the atmosphere; and indirect influx of water, suspended particles, and dissolved substances from the catchment. Sedimentary analyses are used to illustrate the unique effects of each pathway on lakes but suggest that interactions among mechanisms are complex and depend on the landscape position of lakes, catchment characteristics, the range of temporal variation of individual pathways, ontogenetic changes in lake basins, and the selective effects of humans on m transfers. In particular, preliminary synthesis suggests that m influx can overwhelm the direct effects of E transfer to lakes, especially when anthropogenic activities alter m subsidies from catchments.

@article{doi104319lo2009546part22330,
    author = "Leavitt, Peter R. and Fritz, Sherilyn C. and Anderson, N. John and Baker, P. A. and Blenckner, Thorsten and Bunting, Lynda and Catalán, Jordi and Conley, Daniel J. and Hobbs, William O. and Jeppesen, Erik and Korhola, Atte and McGowan, Suzanne and Rühland, Kathleen M. and Rusak, James A. and Simpson, Gavin L. and Solovieva, Nadia and Werne, Josef P.",
    title = "Paleolimnological evidence of the effects on lakes of energy and mass transfer from climate and humans",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Limnology and Oceanography",
    abstract = "The premise of this article is that climate effects on lakes can be quantified most effectively by the integration of process‐oriented limnological studies with paleolimnological research, particularly when both disciplines operate within a common conceptual framework. To this end, the energy (E)‐mass (m) flux framework (E m flux) is developed and applied to selected retrospective studies to demonstrate that climate variability regulates lake structure and function over diverse temporal and spatial scales through four main pathways: rapid direct transfer of E to the lake surface by irradiance, heat, and wind; slow indirect effects of E via changes in terrestrial development and subsequent m subsidies to lakes; direct influx of m as precipitation, particles, and solutes from the atmosphere; and indirect influx of water, suspended particles, and dissolved substances from the catchment. Sedimentary analyses are used to illustrate the unique effects of each pathway on lakes but suggest that interactions among mechanisms are complex and depend on the landscape position of lakes, catchment characteristics, the range of temporal variation of individual pathways, ontogenetic changes in lake basins, and the selective effects of humans on m transfers. In particular, preliminary synthesis suggests that m influx can overwhelm the direct effects of E transfer to lakes, especially when anthropogenic activities alter m subsidies from catchments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2009.54.6\_part\_2.2330",
    doi = "10.4319/lo.2009.54.6\_part\_2.2330",
    openalex = "W2112926151",
    references = "doi101017cbo9781107415379, doi101111j15410420200500440x, doi101126science2695224676, doi1011751520047719970781069apicow20co2, doi101890039000, doi102134jeq20080015br, doi104319lo2009546part22298, doi104324978184977263119, doi105281zenodo7356334, openalexw1905429483"
}

@misc{crossref2011glacial,
    title = "Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal",
    year = "2011",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.53055/icimod.543",
    doi = "10.53055/icimod.543",
    openalex = "W3203447319"
}

We develop a 3-D finite-element model to study the viscoelastic response of a compressible Earth to surface loads. The effects of centre of mass motion, polar wander feedback, and self-consistent ocean loading are implemented. To assess the model's accuracy, we benchmark the numerical results against a semi-analytic solution for spherically symmetric structure. We force our model with the ICE-5G global ice loading history to study the effects of laterally varying viscosity structure on several glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) observables, including relative sea-level (RSL) measurements in Canada, and present-day time-variable gravity and uplift rates in Antarctica. Canadian RSL observations have been used to determine the Earth's globally averaged viscosity profile. Antarctic GPS uplift rates have been used to constrain Antarctic GIA models. And GIA time-variable gravity and uplift signals are error sources for GRACE and altimeter estimates of present-day Antarctic ice mass loss, and must be modelled and removed from those estimates. Computing GIA results for a 3-D viscosity profile derived from a realistic seismic tomography model, and comparing with results computed for 1-D averages of that 3-D profile, we conclude that: (1) a GIA viscosity model based on Canadian relative sea-level data is more likely to represent a Canadian average than a true global average; (2) the effects of 3-D viscosity structure on GRACE estimates of present-day Antarctic mass loss are probably smaller than the difference between GIA models based on different Antarctic deglaciation histories and (3) the effects of 3-D viscosity structure on Antarctic GPS observations of present-day uplift rate can be significant, and can complicate efforts to use GPS observations to constrain 1-D GIA models.

@article{doi101093gjiggs030,
    author = "Geruo, A and Wahr, John and Zhong, Shijie",
    title = "Computations of the viscoelastic response of a 3-D compressible Earth to surface loading: an application to Glacial Isostatic Adjustment in Antarctica and Canada",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "We develop a 3-D finite-element model to study the viscoelastic response of a compressible Earth to surface loads. The effects of centre of mass motion, polar wander feedback, and self-consistent ocean loading are implemented. To assess the model's accuracy, we benchmark the numerical results against a semi-analytic solution for spherically symmetric structure. We force our model with the ICE-5G global ice loading history to study the effects of laterally varying viscosity structure on several glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) observables, including relative sea-level (RSL) measurements in Canada, and present-day time-variable gravity and uplift rates in Antarctica. Canadian RSL observations have been used to determine the Earth's globally averaged viscosity profile. Antarctic GPS uplift rates have been used to constrain Antarctic GIA models. And GIA time-variable gravity and uplift signals are error sources for GRACE and altimeter estimates of present-day Antarctic ice mass loss, and must be modelled and removed from those estimates. Computing GIA results for a 3-D viscosity profile derived from a realistic seismic tomography model, and comparing with results computed for 1-D averages of that 3-D profile, we conclude that: (1) a GIA viscosity model based on Canadian relative sea-level data is more likely to represent a Canadian average than a true global average; (2) the effects of 3-D viscosity structure on GRACE estimates of present-day Antarctic mass loss are probably smaller than the difference between GIA models based on different Antarctic deglaciation histories and (3) the effects of 3-D viscosity structure on Antarctic GPS observations of present-day uplift rate can be significant, and can complicate efforts to use GPS observations to constrain 1-D GIA models.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggs030",
    doi = "10.1093/gji/ggs030",
    openalex = "W2022712506",
    references = "doi101111j1365246x1982tb04976x"
}

This study establishes a detailed lake-level history for the Lake Superior basin by mapping strandlines from 10-m and 3-m digital elevation models. There are 24 levels above the mid-Holocene Nipissing level, and elevations increase along a direction of 23.1° due to post-glacial rebound. The highest level, the Epi-Duluth, is steeper than subsequent levels and may pre-date the Lake View ice advance into the western Lake Superior basin at the end of the Younger Dryas stade. The most prominent level is the Duluth, ca. 10,800 cal yr BP. Ice retreat exposed successively lower outlets, routing overflow to the Lake Michigan and Huron basins. By 10,600 cal yr BP, lake levels in the western Superior basin had dropped almost 200 m. This transformative period is complicated by multiple basin-wide events: the influx of glacial Lake Agassiz overflow, the creation of three sub-aqueous moraines, and a red to gray color transition in basin sediments. A later drawdown event has been hypothesized to have initiated the 9300 cal yr BP cooling event, but this flood was much smaller than estimated previously. If freshwater triggered the 9300 cal yr BP event, the source of the water must have been Lake Agassiz, not Lake Superior.

@article{doi101016jyqres201309001,
    author = "Breckenridge, Andy",
    title = "An analysis of the late glacial lake levels within the western Lake Superior basin based on digital elevation models",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "This study establishes a detailed lake-level history for the Lake Superior basin by mapping strandlines from 10-m and 3-m digital elevation models. There are 24 levels above the mid-Holocene Nipissing level, and elevations increase along a direction of 23.1° due to post-glacial rebound. The highest level, the Epi-Duluth, is steeper than subsequent levels and may pre-date the Lake View ice advance into the western Lake Superior basin at the end of the Younger Dryas stade. The most prominent level is the Duluth, ca. 10,800 cal yr BP. Ice retreat exposed successively lower outlets, routing overflow to the Lake Michigan and Huron basins. By 10,600 cal yr BP, lake levels in the western Superior basin had dropped almost 200 m. This transformative period is complicated by multiple basin-wide events: the influx of glacial Lake Agassiz overflow, the creation of three sub-aqueous moraines, and a red to gray color transition in basin sediments. A later drawdown event has been hypothesized to have initiated the 9300 cal yr BP cooling event, but this flood was much smaller than estimated previously. If freshwater triggered the 9300 cal yr BP event, the source of the water must have been Lake Agassiz, not Lake Superior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.09.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.yqres.2013.09.001",
    openalex = "W2071314403",
    references = "doi107202014754ar"
}

@article{doi101016jquageo201411002,
    author = "Lifton, Nathaniel A. and Caffee, Marc W. and Finkel, Robert W. and Marrero, Shasta M. and Nishiizumi, K. and Phillips, Fred M. and Goehring, Brent M. and Gosse, John and Stone, John O. and Schaefer, Joerg M. and Theriault, Bailey and Jull, A. J. T. and Fifield, L.K.",
    title = "In situ cosmogenic nuclide production rate calibration for the CRONUS-Earth project from Lake Bonneville, Utah, shoreline features",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Quaternary Geochronology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2014.11.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quageo.2014.11.002",
    openalex = "W2072476947",
    references = "crossref1984major, doi101016jquascirev201404012, doi1011300091761319970250155lbfagc23co2, doi105962bhltitle45550"
}

Abstract. Supraglacial, moraine-dammed and ice-dammed lakes represent a potential glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) threat to downstream communities in many mountain regions. This has motivated the development of empirical relationships to predict lake volume given a measurement of lake surface area obtained from satellite imagery. Such relationships are based on the notion that lake depth, area and volume scale predictably. We critically evaluate the performance of these existing empirical relationships by examining a global database of glacial lake depths, areas and volumes. Results show that lake area and depth are not always well correlated (r2 = 0.38) and that although lake volume and area are well correlated (r2 = 0.91), and indeed are auto-correlated, there are distinct outliers in the data set. These outliers represent situations where it may not be appropriate to apply existing empirical relationships to predict lake volume and include growing supraglacial lakes, glaciers that recede into basins with complex overdeepened morphologies or that have been deepened by intense erosion and lakes formed where glaciers advance across and block a main trunk valley. We use the compiled data set to develop a conceptual model of how the volumes of supraglacial ponds and lakes, moraine-dammed lakes and ice-dammed lakes should be expected to evolve with increasing area. Although a large amount of bathymetric data exist for moraine-dammed and ice-dammed lakes, we suggest that further measurements of growing supraglacial ponds and lakes are needed to better understand their development.

@article{doi105194esurf35592015,
    author = "Cook, Simon J. and Quincey, Duncan J.",
    title = "Estimating the volume of Alpine glacial lakes",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Earth Surface Dynamics",
    abstract = "Abstract. Supraglacial, moraine-dammed and ice-dammed lakes represent a potential glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) threat to downstream communities in many mountain regions. This has motivated the development of empirical relationships to predict lake volume given a measurement of lake surface area obtained from satellite imagery. Such relationships are based on the notion that lake depth, area and volume scale predictably. We critically evaluate the performance of these existing empirical relationships by examining a global database of glacial lake depths, areas and volumes. Results show that lake area and depth are not always well correlated (r2 = 0.38) and that although lake volume and area are well correlated (r2 = 0.91), and indeed are auto-correlated, there are distinct outliers in the data set. These outliers represent situations where it may not be appropriate to apply existing empirical relationships to predict lake volume and include growing supraglacial lakes, glaciers that recede into basins with complex overdeepened morphologies or that have been deepened by intense erosion and lakes formed where glaciers advance across and block a main trunk valley. We use the compiled data set to develop a conceptual model of how the volumes of supraglacial ponds and lakes, moraine-dammed lakes and ice-dammed lakes should be expected to evolve with increasing area. Although a large amount of bathymetric data exist for moraine-dammed and ice-dammed lakes, we suggest that further measurements of growing supraglacial ponds and lakes are needed to better understand their development.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-3-559-2015",
    doi = "10.5194/esurf-3-559-2015",
    openalex = "W1639620002",
    references = "crossref2011glacial, doi101002sici10969837199608218701aidesp61530co22, doi101016jearscirev201209009, doi101016jearscirev201403009, doi101016jquascirev201307028, doi101016s0277379100000901, doi101016s104061829900035x, doi101017s0022143000011746, doi1011300016760619881001054tfafon23co2, doi101139t01099, doi101139t04053, doi1031892015jog15j017"
}

Himalayan glaciers, in general, are shrinking and glacial lakes are evolving and growing rapidly in number and size as a result of climate change. This study presents the latest remote sensing-based inventory (2017) of glacial lakes (size ≥0.0036 km2) across the Nepal Himalaya using optical satellite data. Furthermore, this study traces the decadal glacial lake dynamics from 1977 to 2017 in the Nepal Himalaya. The decadal mapping of glacial lakes (both glacial-fed and nonglacial-fed) across the Nepal Himalaya reveals an increase in the number and area of lakes from 1977 to 2017, with 606 (55.53 ± 16.52 km2), 1137 (64.56 ± 11.64 km2), 1228 (68.87 ± 12.18 km2), 1489 (74.2 ± 14.22 km2), and 1541 (80.95 ± 15.25 km2) glacial lakes being mapped in 1977, 1987, 1997, 2007, and 2017, respectively. Glacial lakes show heterogeneous rates of expansion in different river basins and elevation zones of Nepal, with apparent decadal emergences and disappearances. Overall, the glacial lakes exhibited ~25% expansion of surface areas from 1987 to 2017. For the period from 1987 to 2017, proglacial lakes with ice contact, among others, exhibited the highest incremental changes in terms of number (181%) and surface area (82%). The continuous amplified mass loss of glaciers, as reported in Central Himalaya, is expected to accompany glacial lake expansion in the future, increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). We emphasize that the rapidly increasing glacial lakes in the Nepal Himalaya can pose potential GLOF threats to downstream population and infrastructure.

@article{doi103390rs10121913,
    author = "Khadka, Nitesh and Zhang, Guoqing and Thakuri, Sudeep",
    title = "Glacial Lakes in the Nepal Himalaya: Inventory and Decadal Dynamics (1977–2017)",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Remote Sensing",
    abstract = "Himalayan glaciers, in general, are shrinking and glacial lakes are evolving and growing rapidly in number and size as a result of climate change. This study presents the latest remote sensing-based inventory (2017) of glacial lakes (size ≥0.0036 km2) across the Nepal Himalaya using optical satellite data. Furthermore, this study traces the decadal glacial lake dynamics from 1977 to 2017 in the Nepal Himalaya. The decadal mapping of glacial lakes (both glacial-fed and nonglacial-fed) across the Nepal Himalaya reveals an increase in the number and area of lakes from 1977 to 2017, with 606 (55.53 ± 16.52 km2), 1137 (64.56 ± 11.64 km2), 1228 (68.87 ± 12.18 km2), 1489 (74.2 ± 14.22 km2), and 1541 (80.95 ± 15.25 km2) glacial lakes being mapped in 1977, 1987, 1997, 2007, and 2017, respectively. Glacial lakes show heterogeneous rates of expansion in different river basins and elevation zones of Nepal, with apparent decadal emergences and disappearances. Overall, the glacial lakes exhibited \textasciitilde 25\% expansion of surface areas from 1987 to 2017. For the period from 1987 to 2017, proglacial lakes with ice contact, among others, exhibited the highest incremental changes in terms of number (181\%) and surface area (82\%). The continuous amplified mass loss of glaciers, as reported in Central Himalaya, is expected to accompany glacial lake expansion in the future, increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). We emphasize that the rapidly increasing glacial lakes in the Nepal Himalaya can pose potential GLOF threats to downstream population and infrastructure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10121913",
    doi = "10.3390/rs10121913",
    openalex = "W2902482546",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph201802002"
}

Abstract. Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) describes the response of the solid Earth, the gravitational field, and the oceans to the growth and decay of the global ice sheets. A commonly studied component of GIA is “postglacial rebound”, which specifically relates to uplift of the land surface following ice melt. GIA is a relatively rapid process, triggering 100 m scale changes in sea level and solid Earth deformation over just a few tens of thousands of years. Indeed, the first-order effects of GIA could already be quantified several hundred years ago without reliance on precise measurement techniques and scientists have been developing a unifying theory for the observations for over 200 years. Progress towards this goal required a number of significant breakthroughs to be made, including the recognition that ice sheets were once more extensive, the solid Earth changes shape over time, and gravity plays a central role in determining the pattern of sea-level change. This article describes the historical development of the field of GIA and provides an overview of the processes involved. Significant recent progress has been made as concepts associated with GIA have begun to be incorporated into parallel fields of research; these advances are discussed, along with the role that GIA is likely to play in addressing outstanding research questions within the field of Earth system modelling.

@article{doi105194esurf64012018,
    author = "Whitehouse, Pippa L.",
    title = "Glacial isostatic adjustment modelling: historical perspectives, recent advances, and future directions",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Earth Surface Dynamics",
    abstract = "Abstract. Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) describes the response of the solid Earth, the gravitational field, and the oceans to the growth and decay of the global ice sheets. A commonly studied component of GIA is “postglacial rebound”, which specifically relates to uplift of the land surface following ice melt. GIA is a relatively rapid process, triggering 100 m scale changes in sea level and solid Earth deformation over just a few tens of thousands of years. Indeed, the first-order effects of GIA could already be quantified several hundred years ago without reliance on precise measurement techniques and scientists have been developing a unifying theory for the observations for over 200 years. Progress towards this goal required a number of significant breakthroughs to be made, including the recognition that ice sheets were once more extensive, the solid Earth changes shape over time, and gravity plays a central role in determining the pattern of sea-level change. This article describes the historical development of the field of GIA and provides an overview of the processes involved. Significant recent progress has been made as concepts associated with GIA have begun to be incorporated into parallel fields of research; these advances are discussed, along with the role that GIA is likely to play in addressing outstanding research questions within the field of Earth system modelling.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-6-401-2018",
    doi = "10.5194/esurf-6-401-2018",
    openalex = "W2786401474",
    references = "doi1010022014jb011176, doi101007s1071201091004, doi101007s1071201191191, doi1010160031920181900467, doi101016jquascirev201611033, doi101029138gm06, doi1010292006jf000664, doi1010292011jb008930, doi101038342637a0, doi101073pnas1411762111, doi101111j1365246x201104952x, doi101126science1228102, doi101144gsljgs1865021010224, doi101146annurevearth042711105457, doi101146annurevearth32082503144359, doi105962bhltitle45550, openalexw2986345846"
}

Abstract. Despite recent research identifying a clear anthropogenic impact on glacier recession, the effect of recent climate change on glacier-related hazards is at present unclear. Here we present the first global spatio-temporal assessment of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) focusing explicitly on lake drainage following moraine dam failure. These floods occur as mountain glaciers recede and downwaste. GLOFs can have an enormous impact on downstream communities and infrastructure. Our assessment of GLOFs associated with the rapid drainage of moraine-dammed lakes provides insights into the historical trends of GLOFs and their distributions under current and future global climate change. We observe a clear global increase in GLOF frequency and their regularity around 1930, which likely represents a lagged response to post-Little Ice Age warming. Notably, we also show that GLOF frequency and regularity – rather unexpectedly – have declined in recent decades even during a time of rapid glacier recession. Although previous studies have suggested that GLOFs will increase in response to climate warming and glacier recession, our global results demonstrate that this has not yet clearly happened. From an assessment of the timing of climate forcing, lag times in glacier recession, lake formation and moraine-dam failure, we predict increased GLOF frequencies during the next decades and into the 22nd century.

@article{doi105194tc1211952018,
    author = "Harrison, Stephan and Kargel, Jeffrey S. and Huggel, Christian and Reynolds, John V. and Shugar, Dan H. and Betts, Richard and Emmer, Adam and Glasser, Neil F. and Haritashya, Umesh K. and Klimeš, Jan and Reinhardt, Liam and Schaub, Yvonne and Wiltshire, Andy and Regmi, Dhananjay and Vilímek, Vít",
    title = "Climate change and the global pattern of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "˜The œcryosphere",
    abstract = "Abstract. Despite recent research identifying a clear anthropogenic impact on glacier recession, the effect of recent climate change on glacier-related hazards is at present unclear. Here we present the first global spatio-temporal assessment of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) focusing explicitly on lake drainage following moraine dam failure. These floods occur as mountain glaciers recede and downwaste. GLOFs can have an enormous impact on downstream communities and infrastructure. Our assessment of GLOFs associated with the rapid drainage of moraine-dammed lakes provides insights into the historical trends of GLOFs and their distributions under current and future global climate change. We observe a clear global increase in GLOF frequency and their regularity around 1930, which likely represents a lagged response to post-Little Ice Age warming. Notably, we also show that GLOF frequency and regularity – rather unexpectedly – have declined in recent decades even during a time of rapid glacier recession. Although previous studies have suggested that GLOFs will increase in response to climate warming and glacier recession, our global results demonstrate that this has not yet clearly happened. From an assessment of the timing of climate forcing, lag times in glacier recession, lake formation and moraine-dam failure, we predict increased GLOF frequencies during the next decades and into the 22nd century.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1195-2018",
    doi = "10.5194/tc-12-1195-2018",
    openalex = "W2765724164",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph201602009, doi1011300016760619881001054tfafon23co2"
}

) was derived from recent remote sensing studies, and a fully automated and object assessment scheme was implemented using customised GIS tools. Based on four core determinates of GLOF hazard (lake size, watershed area, topographic potential for ice/rock avalanching, and dam steepness), the scheme accurately distinguishes the high to very high hazard level of 19 out of 20 lakes that have previously generated GLOFs. Notably, 16% of all glacial lakes threaten human settlements, with a hotspot of GLOF danger identified in the central Himalayan counties of Jilong, Nyalam, and Dingri, where the potential trans-boundary threat to communities located downstream in Nepal is also recognised. The results provide an important and object scientific basis for decision-making, and the methodological approach is ideally suited for replication across other mountainous regions where such first-order studies are lacking.

@article{doi101016jscib201903011,
    author = "Allen, Simon and Zhang, Guoqing and Wang, Weicai and Yao, Tandong and Bolch, Tobias",
    title = "Potentially dangerous glacial lakes across the Tibetan Plateau revealed using a large-scale automated assessment approach",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Science Bulletin",
    abstract = ") was derived from recent remote sensing studies, and a fully automated and object assessment scheme was implemented using customised GIS tools. Based on four core determinates of GLOF hazard (lake size, watershed area, topographic potential for ice/rock avalanching, and dam steepness), the scheme accurately distinguishes the high to very high hazard level of 19 out of 20 lakes that have previously generated GLOFs. Notably, 16\% of all glacial lakes threaten human settlements, with a hotspot of GLOF danger identified in the central Himalayan counties of Jilong, Nyalam, and Dingri, where the potential trans-boundary threat to communities located downstream in Nepal is also recognised. The results provide an important and object scientific basis for decision-making, and the methodological approach is ideally suited for replication across other mountainous regions where such first-order studies are lacking.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scib.2019.03.011",
    doi = "10.1016/j.scib.2019.03.011",
    openalex = "W2924528214",
    references = "doi101007s1034601505843, doi101016jscitotenv201211043"
}

ABSTRACT Despite previous studies, glacier–lake interactions and future lake development in the Poiqu River basin, central Himalaya, are still not well understood. We mapped glacial lakes, glaciers, their frontal positions and ice flow from optical remote sensing data, and calculated glacier surface elevation change from digital terrain models. During 1964–2017, the total glacial-lake area increased by ~110%. Glaciers retreated with an average rate of ~1.4 km 2 a −1 between 1975 and 2015. Based on rapid area expansion (>150%), and information from previous studies, eight lakes were considered to be potentially dangerous glacial lakes. Corresponding lake-terminating glaciers showed an overall retreat of 6.0 ± 1.4 to 26.6 ± 1.1 m a −1 and accompanying lake expansion. The regional mean glacier elevation change was −0.39 ± 0.13 m a −1 while the glaciers associated with the eight potentially dangerous lakes lowered by −0.71 ± 0.05 m a −1 from 1974 to 2017. The mean ice flow speed of these glaciers was ~10 m a −1 from 2013 to 2017; about double the mean for the entire study area. Analysis of these data along with climate observations suggests that ice melting and calving processes play the dominant role in driving lake enlargement. Modelling of future lake development shows where new lakes might emerge and existing lakes could expand with projected glacial recession.

@article{doi101017jog201913,
    author = "Zhang, Guoqing and Bolch, Tobias and Allen, Simon and Linsbauer, Andreas and Chen, Wenfeng and Wang, Weicai",
    title = "Glacial lake evolution and glacier–lake interactions in the Poiqu River basin, central Himalaya, 1964–2017",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Journal of Glaciology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Despite previous studies, glacier–lake interactions and future lake development in the Poiqu River basin, central Himalaya, are still not well understood. We mapped glacial lakes, glaciers, their frontal positions and ice flow from optical remote sensing data, and calculated glacier surface elevation change from digital terrain models. During 1964–2017, the total glacial-lake area increased by \textasciitilde 110\%. Glaciers retreated with an average rate of \textasciitilde 1.4 km 2 a −1 between 1975 and 2015. Based on rapid area expansion (>150\%), and information from previous studies, eight lakes were considered to be potentially dangerous glacial lakes. Corresponding lake-terminating glaciers showed an overall retreat of 6.0 ± 1.4 to 26.6 ± 1.1 m a −1 and accompanying lake expansion. The regional mean glacier elevation change was −0.39 ± 0.13 m a −1 while the glaciers associated with the eight potentially dangerous lakes lowered by −0.71 ± 0.05 m a −1 from 1974 to 2017. The mean ice flow speed of these glaciers was \textasciitilde 10 m a −1 from 2013 to 2017; about double the mean for the entire study area. Analysis of these data along with climate observations suggests that ice melting and calving processes play the dominant role in driving lake enlargement. Modelling of future lake development shows where new lakes might emerge and existing lakes could expand with projected glacial recession.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.13",
    doi = "10.1017/jog.2019.13",
    openalex = "W2929999089",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph201802002"
}

) mass balances for lake-terminating glaciers, in comparison to land-terminating glaciers, with the largest differences occurring after 2000. Despite representing a minor portion of the total glacier population (~10%), the recession of lake-terminating glaciers accounted for up to 32% of mass loss in different sub-regions. The continued expansion of established glacial lakes, and the preconditioning of land-terminating glaciers for new lake development increases the likelihood of enhanced ice mass loss from the region in coming decades; a scenario not currently considered in regional ice mass loss projections.

@article{doi101038s4159801953733x,
    author = "King, Owen and Bhattacharya, Atanu and Bhambri, Rakesh and Bolch, Tobias",
    title = "Glacial lakes exacerbate Himalayan glacier mass loss",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = ") mass balances for lake-terminating glaciers, in comparison to land-terminating glaciers, with the largest differences occurring after 2000. Despite representing a minor portion of the total glacier population (\textasciitilde 10\%), the recession of lake-terminating glaciers accounted for up to 32\% of mass loss in different sub-regions. The continued expansion of established glacial lakes, and the preconditioning of land-terminating glaciers for new lake development increases the likelihood of enhanced ice mass loss from the region in coming decades; a scenario not currently considered in regional ice mass loss projections.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53733-x",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-019-53733-x",
    openalex = "W2992210793",
    references = "doi10100797833199228817"
}

Abstract Indian Himalayas are home to numerous glacial lakes, which can pose serious threat to downstream communities and lead to catastrophic socioeconomic disasters in case of a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). This study first identified 329 glacial lakes of size greater than 0.05 km 2 in the Indian Himalayas, and then a remote sensing‐based hazard and risk assessment was performed on these lakes. Different factors such as avalanche, rockfall, upstream GLOF, lake expansion, identification of the presence of ice cores, and assessment of the stability of moraine were considered for the hazard modeling. Further, a stochastic inundation model was applied to quantify the potential number of buildings, bridges, and hydropower systems that could be inundated by GLOF in each lake. Finally, the hazard parameters and downstream impact were collectively considered to determine the risk linked with each lake. A total of 23 lakes were identified as very high risk lakes and 50 as high‐risk lakes. The potential flood volumes associated with various triggering mechanisms were also measured and were used to identify the lakes with the most considerable risk, such as Shakho Cho and Khangchung Tso. This study is anticipated to support stakeholders and decision‐makers in identifying critical glacial lakes and make well‐informed decisions related to future modeling efforts, field studies, and risk mitigation measures.

@article{doi1010292019wr026533,
    author = "Dubey, Saket and Goyal, Manish Kumar",
    title = "Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Hazard, Downstream Impact, and Risk Over the Indian Himalayas",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Water Resources Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Indian Himalayas are home to numerous glacial lakes, which can pose serious threat to downstream communities and lead to catastrophic socioeconomic disasters in case of a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). This study first identified 329 glacial lakes of size greater than 0.05 km 2 in the Indian Himalayas, and then a remote sensing‐based hazard and risk assessment was performed on these lakes. Different factors such as avalanche, rockfall, upstream GLOF, lake expansion, identification of the presence of ice cores, and assessment of the stability of moraine were considered for the hazard modeling. Further, a stochastic inundation model was applied to quantify the potential number of buildings, bridges, and hydropower systems that could be inundated by GLOF in each lake. Finally, the hazard parameters and downstream impact were collectively considered to determine the risk linked with each lake. A total of 23 lakes were identified as very high risk lakes and 50 as high‐risk lakes. The potential flood volumes associated with various triggering mechanisms were also measured and were used to identify the lakes with the most considerable risk, such as Shakho Cho and Khangchung Tso. This study is anticipated to support stakeholders and decision‐makers in identifying critical glacial lakes and make well‐informed decisions related to future modeling efforts, field studies, and risk mitigation measures.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2019wr026533",
    doi = "10.1029/2019wr026533",
    openalex = "W3012700026",
    references = "doi101016jgeomorph201802002"
}

Abstract. There is currently no glacial lake inventory data set for the entire high-mountain Asia (HMA) area. The definition and classification of glacial lakes remain controversial, presenting certain obstacles to extensive utilization of glacial lake inventory data. This study integrated glacier inventory data and 668 Landsat TM, ETM+, and OLI images and adopted manual visual interpretation to extract glacial lake boundaries within a 10 km buffer from glacier extent using ArcGIS and ENVI software, normalized difference water index maps, and Google Earth images. The theoretical and methodological basis for all processing steps including glacial lake definition and classification, lake boundary delineation, and uncertainty assessment is discussed comprehensively in the paper. Moreover, detailed information regarding the coding, location, perimeter and area, area error, type, time phase, source image information, and subregions of the located lakes is presented. It was established that 27 205 and 30 121 glacial lakes (size 0.0054–6.46 km2) in HMA covered a combined area of 1806.47±2.11 and 2080.12±2.28 km2 in 1990 and 2018, respectively. The data set is now available from the National Special Environment and Function of Observation and Research Stations Shared Service Platform (China): https://doi.org/10.12072/casnw.064.2019.db (Wang et al., 2019a).

@article{doi105194essd1221692020,
    author = "Wang, Xin and Guo, Xiaoyu and Yang, Chengde and Liu, Qionghuan and Wei, Junfeng and Zhang, Yong and Liu, Shiyin and Zhang, Yanlin and Jiang, Zongli and Tang, Zhiguang",
    title = "Glacial lake inventory of high-mountain Asia in 1990 and 2018 derived from Landsat images",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Earth system science data",
    abstract = "Abstract. There is currently no glacial lake inventory data set for the entire high-mountain Asia (HMA) area. The definition and classification of glacial lakes remain controversial, presenting certain obstacles to extensive utilization of glacial lake inventory data. This study integrated glacier inventory data and 668 Landsat TM, ETM+, and OLI images and adopted manual visual interpretation to extract glacial lake boundaries within a 10 km buffer from glacier extent using ArcGIS and ENVI software, normalized difference water index maps, and Google Earth images. The theoretical and methodological basis for all processing steps including glacial lake definition and classification, lake boundary delineation, and uncertainty assessment is discussed comprehensively in the paper. Moreover, detailed information regarding the coding, location, perimeter and area, area error, type, time phase, source image information, and subregions of the located lakes is presented. It was established that 27 205 and 30 121 glacial lakes (size 0.0054–6.46 km2) in HMA covered a combined area of 1806.47±2.11 and 2080.12±2.28 km2 in 1990 and 2018, respectively. The data set is now available from the National Special Environment and Function of Observation and Research Stations Shared Service Platform (China): https://doi.org/10.12072/casnw.064.2019.db (Wang et al., 2019a).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2169-2020",
    doi = "10.5194/essd-12-2169-2020",
    openalex = "W3000094388",
    references = "doi101007s114420181467z, doi101016jgeomorph201602009, doi101016jscitotenv201211043"
}

Abstract. The archetype of a cycle has played an essential role in explaining observations of nature over thousands of years. At present, this perception significantly influences the worldview of modern societies, including several areas of science. In Earth sciences, the concept of cyclicity offers simple analytical solutions in the face of complex events and their respective products, both in time and space. Current stratigraphic research integrates several methods to identify repetitive patterns in the stratigraphic record and to interpret oscillatory geological processes. This essay proposes a historical review of the cyclic conceptions from the earliest phases in Earth sciences to their subsequent evolution into current stratigraphic principles and practices, contributing to identifying opportunities in integrating methodologies and developing future research mainly associated with quantitative approaches.

@misc{doi105194hgss202121,
    author = "Fragoso, Daniel Galvão Carnier and Kuchenbecker, Matheus and Magalhães, A.J.C. and dos Santos Scherer, Claiton Marlon and Gabaglia, Guilherme Pederneiras Raja and Strasser, André",
    title = "Cycles in Earth Sciences, Quo Vadis? Essay on Cyclicity Concepts in Geological Thinking and their Historical Influence on Stratigraphic Practices",
    year = "2021",
    abstract = "Abstract. The archetype of a cycle has played an essential role in explaining observations of nature over thousands of years. At present, this perception significantly influences the worldview of modern societies, including several areas of science. In Earth sciences, the concept of cyclicity offers simple analytical solutions in the face of complex events and their respective products, both in time and space. Current stratigraphic research integrates several methods to identify repetitive patterns in the stratigraphic record and to interpret oscillatory geological processes. This essay proposes a historical review of the cyclic conceptions from the earliest phases in Earth sciences to their subsequent evolution into current stratigraphic principles and practices, contributing to identifying opportunities in integrating methodologies and developing future research mainly associated with quantitative approaches.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-2021-21",
    doi = "10.5194/hgss-2021-21",
    openalex = "W4200057595",
    references = "crossref1890lake"
}

Abstract. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a major concern throughout High Mountain Asia, where societal impacts can extend far downstream. This is particularly true for transboundary Himalayan basins, where risks are expected to further increase as new lakes develop. Given the need for anticipatory approaches to disaster risk reduction, this study aims to demonstrate how the threat from a future lake can be feasibly assessed alongside that of worst-case scenarios from current lakes, as well as how this information is relevant for disaster risk management. We have focused on two previously identified dangerous lakes (Galongco and Jialongco), comparing the timing and magnitude of simulated worst-case outburst events from these lakes both in the Tibetan town of Nyalam and downstream at the border with Nepal. In addition, a future scenario has been assessed, whereby an avalanche-triggered GLOF was simulated for a potential large new lake forming upstream of Nyalam. Results show that large (>20×106 m3) rock and/or ice avalanches could generate GLOF discharges at the border with Nepal that are more than 15 times larger than what has been observed previously or anticipated based on more gradual breach simulations. For all assessed lakes, warning times in Nyalam would be only 5–11 min and 30 min at the border. Recent remedial measures undertaken to lower the water level at Jialongco would have little influence on downstream impacts resulting from a very large-magnitude GLOF, particularly in Nyalam where there has been significant development of infrastructure directly within the high-intensity flood zone. Based on these findings, a comprehensive approach to disaster risk management is called for, combining early warning systems with effective land use zoning and programmes to build local response capacities. Such approaches would address the current drivers of GLOF risk in the basin while remaining robust in the face of worst-case, catastrophic outburst events that become more likely under a warming climate.

@article{doi105194nhess2237652022,
    author = "Allen, Simon and Sattar, Ashim and King, Owen and Zhang, Guoqing and Bhattacharya, Atanu and Yao, Tandong and Bolch, Tobias",
    title = "Glacial lake outburst flood hazard under current and future conditions: worst-case scenarios in a transboundary Himalayan basin",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Natural hazards and earth system sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a major concern throughout High Mountain Asia, where societal impacts can extend far downstream. This is particularly true for transboundary Himalayan basins, where risks are expected to further increase as new lakes develop. Given the need for anticipatory approaches to disaster risk reduction, this study aims to demonstrate how the threat from a future lake can be feasibly assessed alongside that of worst-case scenarios from current lakes, as well as how this information is relevant for disaster risk management. We have focused on two previously identified dangerous lakes (Galongco and Jialongco), comparing the timing and magnitude of simulated worst-case outburst events from these lakes both in the Tibetan town of Nyalam and downstream at the border with Nepal. In addition, a future scenario has been assessed, whereby an avalanche-triggered GLOF was simulated for a potential large new lake forming upstream of Nyalam. Results show that large (>20×106 m3) rock and/or ice avalanches could generate GLOF discharges at the border with Nepal that are more than 15 times larger than what has been observed previously or anticipated based on more gradual breach simulations. For all assessed lakes, warning times in Nyalam would be only 5–11 min and 30 min at the border. Recent remedial measures undertaken to lower the water level at Jialongco would have little influence on downstream impacts resulting from a very large-magnitude GLOF, particularly in Nyalam where there has been significant development of infrastructure directly within the high-intensity flood zone. Based on these findings, a comprehensive approach to disaster risk management is called for, combining early warning systems with effective land use zoning and programmes to build local response capacities. Such approaches would address the current drivers of GLOF risk in the basin while remaining robust in the face of worst-case, catastrophic outburst events that become more likely under a warming climate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3765-2022",
    doi = "10.5194/nhess-22-3765-2022",
    openalex = "W4309746228",
    references = "doi1010179781009157964004"
}

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) represent a major hazard and can result in significant loss of life. Globally, since 1990, the number and size of glacial lakes has grown rapidly along with downstream population, while socio-economic vulnerability has decreased. Nevertheless, contemporary exposure and vulnerability to GLOFs at the global scale has never been quantified. Here we show that 15 million people globally are exposed to impacts from potential GLOFs. Populations in High Mountains Asia (HMA) are the most exposed and on average live closest to glacial lakes with ~1 million people living within 10 km of a glacial lake. More than half of the globally exposed population are found in just four countries: India, Pakistan, Peru, and China. While HMA has the highest potential for GLOF impacts, we highlight the Andes as a region of concern, with similar potential for GLOF impacts to HMA but comparatively few published research studies.

@article{doi101038s4146702336033x,
    author = "Taylor, Caroline and Robinson, Tom and Dunning, Stuart and Carr, J. Rachel and Westoby, Matthew",
    title = "Glacial lake outburst floods threaten millions globally",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) represent a major hazard and can result in significant loss of life. Globally, since 1990, the number and size of glacial lakes has grown rapidly along with downstream population, while socio-economic vulnerability has decreased. Nevertheless, contemporary exposure and vulnerability to GLOFs at the global scale has never been quantified. Here we show that 15 million people globally are exposed to impacts from potential GLOFs. Populations in High Mountains Asia (HMA) are the most exposed and on average live closest to glacial lakes with \textasciitilde 1 million people living within 10 km of a glacial lake. More than half of the globally exposed population are found in just four countries: India, Pakistan, Peru, and China. While HMA has the highest potential for GLOF impacts, we highlight the Andes as a region of concern, with similar potential for GLOF impacts to HMA but comparatively few published research studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36033-x",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-023-36033-x",
    openalex = "W4319345041",
    references = "doi101007s1034601505843"
}

Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150-years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is going to be important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.

@article{doi1032388g4dah0,
    author = "Spedden, Richard",
    title = "Lake Bonneville and the Wasatch Fault – new theories and new paradigms yield insights into present day hazards in other regions of the world",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Qeios",
    abstract = "Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150-years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is going to be important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.32388/g4dah0",
    doi = "10.32388/g4dah0",
    openalex = "W4378717375",
    references = "crossref1890lake"
}

Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150 years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current-day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is going to be important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.

@article{doi1032388g4dah02,
    author = "Spedden, Richard",
    title = "Lake Bonneville and the Wasatch Fault – new theories and new paradigms yield insights into present-day hazards in other regions of the world",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Qeios",
    abstract = "Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150 years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current-day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is going to be important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.32388/g4dah0.2",
    doi = "10.32388/g4dah0.2",
    openalex = "W4379467447",
    references = "crossref1890lake"
}

Abstract. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have been intensely investigated in High Mountain Asia (HMA) in recent years and are the most well-known hazard associated with the cryosphere. As glaciers recede and surrounding slopes become increasingly unstable, such events are expected to increase, although current evidence for an increase in events is ambiguous. Many studies have investigated individual events, and while several regional inventories exist, they either do not cover all types of GLOF or are geographically constrained. Further, downstream impacts are rarely discussed. Previous inventories have relied on academic sources and have not been combined with existing inventories of glaciers and lakes. In this study, we present the first comprehensive inventory of GLOFs in HMA, including details on the time of their occurrence, processes of lake formation and drainage involved, and downstream impacts. We document 697 individual GLOFs that occurred between 1833 and 2022. Of these, 23 % were recurring events from just three ephemeral ice-dammed lakes. In combination, the documented events resulted in 6906 fatalities of which 906 can be attributed to 24 individual GLOF events, which is 3 times higher than a previous assessment for the region. The integration of previous inventories of glaciers and lakes within this database will inform future assessments of potential drivers of GLOFs, allowing more robust projections to be developed. The database and future, updated versions are traceable and version-controlled and can be directly incorporated into further analysis. The database is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7271187 (Steiner and Shrestha, 2023), while the code including a development version is available on GitHub.

@article{doi105194essd1539412023,
    author = "Shrestha, Finu and Steiner, Jakob and Shrestha, Reeju and Dhungel, Yathartha and Joshi, Sharad and Inglis, Sam and Ashraf, Arshad and Wali, Sher and Walizada, Khwaja Momin and Zhang, Taigang",
    title = "A comprehensive and version-controlled database of glacial lake outburst floods in High Mountain Asia",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Earth system science data",
    abstract = "Abstract. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) have been intensely investigated in High Mountain Asia (HMA) in recent years and are the most well-known hazard associated with the cryosphere. As glaciers recede and surrounding slopes become increasingly unstable, such events are expected to increase, although current evidence for an increase in events is ambiguous. Many studies have investigated individual events, and while several regional inventories exist, they either do not cover all types of GLOF or are geographically constrained. Further, downstream impacts are rarely discussed. Previous inventories have relied on academic sources and have not been combined with existing inventories of glaciers and lakes. In this study, we present the first comprehensive inventory of GLOFs in HMA, including details on the time of their occurrence, processes of lake formation and drainage involved, and downstream impacts. We document 697 individual GLOFs that occurred between 1833 and 2022. Of these, 23 \% were recurring events from just three ephemeral ice-dammed lakes. In combination, the documented events resulted in 6906 fatalities of which 906 can be attributed to 24 individual GLOF events, which is 3 times higher than a previous assessment for the region. The integration of previous inventories of glaciers and lakes within this database will inform future assessments of potential drivers of GLOFs, allowing more robust projections to be developed. The database and future, updated versions are traceable and version-controlled and can be directly incorporated into further analysis. The database is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7271187 (Steiner and Shrestha, 2023), while the code including a development version is available on GitHub.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023",
    doi = "10.5194/essd-15-3941-2023",
    openalex = "W4386442580",
    references = "doi101002joc6686"
}

Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150 years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current-day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Bonneville Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.

@article{doi1032388g4dah03,
    author = "Spedden, Richard",
    title = "Lake Bonneville and the Wasatch Fault – New Theories and New Paradigms Yield Insights into Present-Day Hazards in Other Regions of the World",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Qeios",
    abstract = "Three new theories challenge the assumptions underlying 150 years of research regarding Lake Bonneville and extend and redefine the history of this late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene lake. These new theories have relevance to current-day hazards in many areas of the globe and are important to our understanding of the climate of the western United States. The lake’s level history and shorelines have presented a confusing array of conflicting data, which has universally and incorrectly been attributed to abrupt and temporary climate oscillations. The Earthquake-induced Surging Theory explains misunderstood lake features, extends the lake level data back to 40kya, and explains the Bonneville Flood, confirming a 17.4kya (cal) date for that event. The Isostatic Rebound Pop Seiche Theory explains the “Intermediate Shorelines” first identified by G.K. Gilbert with a shocking twist regarding timing. This theory teaches us something of importance regarding glacial lakes forming today. The Bear River Bonneville Exclusion Theory explains the anomalously rapid fall from the Provo Level and resolves the early/late Provo Level controversy. This last theory is important for addressing the future of the Great Salt Lake.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.32388/g4dah0.3",
    doi = "10.32388/g4dah0.3",
    openalex = "W4391381047",
    references = "crossref1890lake"
}