Glaciology

@misc{keilhack1920die10,
    author = "Keilhack, W",
    title = "Die Staumorane bei Guben",
    year = "1920",
    howpublished = "Berlin, Jahrb. Pruess. Geolog. Landesanst",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Keilhack, W., 1920, Die Staumorane bei Guben: Berlin, Jahrb. Pruess. Geolog. Landesanst.}"
}

@misc{lewinski1924zaburzenia11,
    author = "Lewinski, J",
    title = {Zaburzenia czwartorzedowe i "morena dolinowa" w pradolinie Wisly pod Wloclawkiem, 2 of Sprawozd, Pol. Inst. Geol},
    year = "1924",
    howpublished = "Warszawa, Pol. Inst. Geol., v. 3-4",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewinski, J., 1924, Zaburzenia czwartorzedowe i "morena dolinowa" w pradolinie Wisly pod Wloclawkiem, 2 of Sprawozd, Pol. Inst. Geol: Warszawa, Pol. Inst. Geol., v. 3-4.}}
}

@book{flint1957glacial6,
    author = "Flint, R. F",
    title = "Glacial and Pleistocene Geology",
    year = "1957",
    publisher = "New York, John Wiley \& Sons, 553 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Flint, R. F., 1957, Glacial and Pleistocene Geology: New York, John Wiley \& Sons, 553 p.}"
}

@misc{wojcik1960charakterystyka13,
    author = "Wojcik, Z",
    title = "Charakterystyka faldowan glacitetonicznych w Turoszowie [VIII ed.]",
    year = "1960",
    howpublished = "Warszawa, Przegled Geologicnzy, v. 12",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Wojcik, Z., 1960, Charakterystyka faldowan glacitetonicznych w Turoszowie [VIII ed.]: Warszawa, Przegled Geologicnzy, v. 12.}"
}

@article{farrand1962postglacial5,
    author = "Farrand, W. R",
    title = "Postglacial rebound in North America",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "American Journal of Science, v. 260, p. 181-198",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Farrand, W. R., 1962, Postglacial rebound in North America: American Journal of Science, v. 260, p. 181-198.}"
}

@misc{broecker1966absolute2,
    author = "Broecker, W. S",
    title = "Absolute dating and the astronomical theory of glaciation",
    year = "1966",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 151, p. 229-304",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Broecker, W. S., 1966, Absolute dating and the astronomical theory of glaciation: Science, v. 151, p. 229-304.}"
}

@misc{aleksandrowicz1967zaburzenia1,
    author = "Aleksandrowicz, S. F",
    title = "Zaburzenia glacitetoniczne utworow miocenskich w Turoszowie kolo Zgorzelca",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "Krakow, Wszechwiat",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Aleksandrowicz, S. F., 1967, Zaburzenia glacitetoniczne utworow miocenskich w Turoszowie kolo Zgorzelca: Krakow, Wszechwiat.}"
}

@book{flint1971glacial7,
    author = "Flint, R. F",
    title = "Glacial and Quaternary Geology",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "New York, John Wiley \& Sons, 892 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Flint, R. F., 1971, Glacial and Quaternary Geology: New York, John Wiley \& Sons, 892 p.}"
}

@book{openalexw1904021077,
    author = "Flint, Richard Foster",
    title = "Glacial and Quaternary geology",
    year = "1971",
    openalex = "W1904021077"
}

@article{lasca1972glacial,
    author = "Lasca, N. P.",
    title = "Glacial and Quaternary geology [book review]",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "American Journal of Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.272.1.94",
    doi = "10.2475/ajs.272.1.94",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2332129400",
    pages = "94-95",
    volume = "272"
}

@article{wright1972glacial,
    author = "Wright, H.E.",
    title = "Glacial and quaternary geology",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(72)90092-x",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(72)90092-x",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2030927624",
    pages = "239-241",
    volume = "8"
}

@article{na1973glacial,
    author = "\\\&NA;",
    title = "Glacial and Quaternary Geology",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Soil Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197302000-00012",
    doi = "10.1097/00010694-197302000-00012",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W4256649851",
    pages = "170",
    volume = "115"
}

Emerged coral reef terraces on the Huon Peninsula in New Guinea were reported in a reconnaissance dating study by Veeh and Chappell 1970. Age definition achieved was not good for several important terraces, and we report here a series of new 230 Th/ 234 U dates, which further clarify the history of late Quaternary eustatic sea level fluctuations. More than 20 reef complexes are present, ranging well beyond 250,000 yr old: we are concerned with the seven lowest complexes. Major reef-building episodes dated by 30 Th/ 234 U are reef complex I at 5–9 ka (kilo anno = 1000 yr), r.c. IIIb at 41 ka (four dates), r.c. IV at 61 ka (four dates), r.c. V at 85 ka (two dates), r.c. VI at 107 ka (two dates), and r.c. VII at 118–142 ka. Complex II was previously dated by 14 C at 29 ka: this age has not yet been confirmed, and may be only a lower limit. The reef crests were built during or immediately before intervals of sea level maxima, when rates of rising sea level and tectonic uplift briefly coincided. The culmination of each reef-building episode was only a few thousand years in duration, and multiple dates from the same reef complex generally group within the statistical errors of the individual dates. Several methods can be used to estimate the altitude of each sea level maximum relative to present sea level. The least complicated is to calculate mean tectonic uplift rate for each profile of the terraces, and use the mean rate to calculate the tectonic displacement of each dated reef complex on that profile. The difference between the present altitude of a reef complex and its calculated tectonic uplift gives the paleosea level at the time the reef grew. We estimate uplift rates for six surveyed sections by calibrating against published paleosea level estimates from Barbados and elsewhere, viz 125 ka, paleosea at +6 m; 103 ka, −15 m; 82 ka, −13 m. For each section the individual uplift rates for reefs V, VI, and VIIb are within 5% of their section means. Using the mean rates. paleosea level estimates for reef crests II, IIIB, and IV are made for each section. Consistency of estimates between sections is good, giving −28 m for the 60 ka paleosea level, around −38 m for the 42 ka level and −41 m for the 28 ka level (if the age is older the paleosea level would be lower. Using the mean uplift rates, the 82 ka and 103 ka paleosea levels are also estimated for each section: all individual estimates are plotted graphically, and a sea level curve drawn. The reef stratigraphy indicates sea level lowerings between each dated reef crest: the crests probably represent the interstadials of the Wisconsin (Würm, Weichsel) Glaciation, and intervening lower levels correspond to stadials. Since the last time of eustatic sea level higher than the present (about 125 ka), five sea level maxima occurred at roughly 20-ka intervals, none being as high as the present.

@article{doi1010160033589474900076,
    author = "Bloom, A. L. and Broecker, Wallace S. and Chappell, John and Matthews, R. K. and Mesolella, Kenneth J.",
    title = "Quaternary Sea Level Fluctuations on a Tectonic coast: New 230 Th/ 234 U Dates from the Huon Peninsula, New Guinea",
    year = "1974",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Emerged coral reef terraces on the Huon Peninsula in New Guinea were reported in a reconnaissance dating study by Veeh and Chappell 1970. Age definition achieved was not good for several important terraces, and we report here a series of new 230 Th/ 234 U dates, which further clarify the history of late Quaternary eustatic sea level fluctuations. More than 20 reef complexes are present, ranging well beyond 250,000 yr old: we are concerned with the seven lowest complexes. Major reef-building episodes dated by 30 Th/ 234 U are reef complex I at 5–9 ka (kilo anno = 1000 yr), r.c. IIIb at 41 ka (four dates), r.c. IV at 61 ka (four dates), r.c. V at 85 ka (two dates), r.c. VI at 107 ka (two dates), and r.c. VII at 118–142 ka. Complex II was previously dated by 14 C at 29 ka: this age has not yet been confirmed, and may be only a lower limit. The reef crests were built during or immediately before intervals of sea level maxima, when rates of rising sea level and tectonic uplift briefly coincided. The culmination of each reef-building episode was only a few thousand years in duration, and multiple dates from the same reef complex generally group within the statistical errors of the individual dates. Several methods can be used to estimate the altitude of each sea level maximum relative to present sea level. The least complicated is to calculate mean tectonic uplift rate for each profile of the terraces, and use the mean rate to calculate the tectonic displacement of each dated reef complex on that profile. The difference between the present altitude of a reef complex and its calculated tectonic uplift gives the paleosea level at the time the reef grew. We estimate uplift rates for six surveyed sections by calibrating against published paleosea level estimates from Barbados and elsewhere, viz 125 ka, paleosea at +6 m; 103 ka, −15 m; 82 ka, −13 m. For each section the individual uplift rates for reefs V, VI, and VIIb are within 5\% of their section means. Using the mean rates. paleosea level estimates for reef crests II, IIIB, and IV are made for each section. Consistency of estimates between sections is good, giving −28 m for the 60 ka paleosea level, around −38 m for the 42 ka level and −41 m for the 28 ka level (if the age is older the paleosea level would be lower. Using the mean uplift rates, the 82 ka and 103 ka paleosea levels are also estimated for each section: all individual estimates are plotted graphically, and a sea level curve drawn. The reef stratigraphy indicates sea level lowerings between each dated reef crest: the crests probably represent the interstadials of the Wisconsin (Würm, Weichsel) Glaciation, and intervening lower levels correspond to stadials. Since the last time of eustatic sea level higher than the present (about 125 ka), five sea level maxima occurred at roughly 20-ka intervals, none being as high as the present.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(74)90007-6",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(74)90007-6",
    openalex = "W1603555063",
    references = "chappell1974geology, doi1010160025322770900496, doi101017cbo9781107325098, doi101029jb077i005p00901, doi101029jz071i014p03379, doi101029rg008i001p00169, doi101086627434, doi101126science1593812297, doi101126science1673919862, doi101126science1834128959, doi10113000167606196778993phob20co2, doi102136sssaj197103615995003500040006x"
}

It has been suggested that during the last glaciation the Innuitian Ice Sheet existed over the eastern Queen Elizabeth Islands. This is based on the pattern of postglacial emergence over this area and the timing of driftwood penetration into the interisland channels. Alternative interpretations of both sets of data raise questions about the presence of the Innuitian Ice Sheet at this time. Field observations on northeastern Ellesmere Island, plus additional data pertaining to the presence of multiple tills and “old” radiometric dates on lacustrine deposits, shelly tills, and raised marine features suggest that the maximum glaciation over this region, equivalent to the Innuitian Ice Sheet, predates the last glaciation, Palaeoclimatic conditions are also discussed in relation to these data. It is suggested that during the last glaciation of the Queen Elizabeth Islands there was a convergent but not coalescent advance of the existing upland ice-fields. This noncontiguous ice cover over the Queen Elizabeth Islands is termed the Franklin Ice Complex. It is suggested that the term Innuitian Ice Sheet be reserved for contiguous older glaciations over this same area.

@article{doi1010160033589476900491,
    author = "England, John",
    title = "Late Quaternary Glaciation of the Eastern Queen Elizabeth Islands, N.W.T., Canada: Alternative Models",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "It has been suggested that during the last glaciation the Innuitian Ice Sheet existed over the eastern Queen Elizabeth Islands. This is based on the pattern of postglacial emergence over this area and the timing of driftwood penetration into the interisland channels. Alternative interpretations of both sets of data raise questions about the presence of the Innuitian Ice Sheet at this time. Field observations on northeastern Ellesmere Island, plus additional data pertaining to the presence of multiple tills and “old” radiometric dates on lacustrine deposits, shelly tills, and raised marine features suggest that the maximum glaciation over this region, equivalent to the Innuitian Ice Sheet, predates the last glaciation, Palaeoclimatic conditions are also discussed in relation to these data. It is suggested that during the last glaciation of the Queen Elizabeth Islands there was a convergent but not coalescent advance of the existing upland ice-fields. This noncontiguous ice cover over the Queen Elizabeth Islands is termed the Franklin Ice Complex. It is suggested that the term Innuitian Ice Sheet be reserved for contiguous older glaciations over this same area.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(76)90049-1",
    doi = "10.1016/0033-5894(76)90049-1",
    openalex = "W2015237511",
    references = "doi101139e70069, na1973glacial"
}

@misc{hays1976variations9,
    author = "Hays, J. D. and Imbrie, J. and Shackleton, N. J",
    title = "Variations in earth's orbit",
    year = "1976",
    howpublished = "pacemaker of ice ages: Science, v. 194, p. 1121-1132",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hays, J. D., Imbrie, J., and Shackleton, N. J., 1976, Variations in earth's orbit: pacemaker of ice ages: Science, v. 194, p. 1121-1132.}"
}

@misc{porter1977chronology12,
    author = "Porter, S. C. and Stuiver, M. and Yang, I. C",
    title = "Chronology of Hawaiian glaciers",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 195, p. 61-63",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Porter, S. C., Stuiver, M., and Yang, I. C., 1977, Chronology of Hawaiian glaciers: Science, v. 195, p. 61-63.}"
}

@misc{dillon1978late4,
    author = "Dillon, W. P. and Oldale, R. N",
    title = "Late Quaternary sea-level curve",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "reinterpretation based on glaciotectonic influence: Geology, v. 6, p. 56- 60",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dillon, W. P., and Oldale, R. N., 1978, Late Quaternary sea-level curve: reinterpretation based on glaciotectonic influence: Geology, v. 6, p. 56- 60.}"
}

@misc{gascoyne1979sealevel8,
    author = "Gascoyne, M. and Benjamin, G. J. and Schwartz, H. P",
    title = {Sea-level lowering during the Illinoin glaciation, evidence from a Bahama "blue hole},
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 205, p. 806-808",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gascoyne, M., Benjamin, G. J., and Schwartz, H. P., 1979, Sea-level lowering during the Illinoin glaciation, evidence from a Bahama "blue hole": Science, v. 205, p. 806-808.}}
}

@article{carroll1984glaciology3,
    author = "Carroll, A. V",
    title = "Glaciology and the Ice Age",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Journal of Geological Education, v. 32, p. 158-170",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Carroll, A. V., 1984, Glaciology and the Ice Age: Journal of Geological Education, v. 32, p. 158-170.}"
}

Satellite imagery and data from ground surveys are used to reconstruct the integrated pattern of the principal longitudinal and transverse features produced on a continent-wide scale by the last ice sheets in Europe and North America. From modern analogues, it is argued that most longitudinal features reflect flow in the outer zone of the ice sheet, and that most major transverse features reflect relatively stable ice-sheet margins. These principles are tested and, using them alone, detailed patterns for the decay of the last ice sheets in North America, Europe and the British Isles are produced, and periods during which they attained near steady-states identified. These patterns can be calibrated by dated sequences to yield deglaciation isochrons. Application of glaciological models to these geological reconstructions generates detailed prediction of net ablation for the period of ice-sheet decay and, by using evidence of last glaciation stratigraphy, models of the dynamic behaviour of the ice sheets throughout the last glacial period are constructed. These enable volumetric changes, oceanic isotopic changes and erratic dispersal pathways to be reconstructed. Erratic dispersal patterns give a good indication of the long-term distribution of centres of ice sheet mass. Discrepancies between predicted and empirical oceanic isotopic records indicate ways in which the conventional continental timescale of glacial change must be altered to fit the better-dated deep ocean record. In addition discrepancies between predicted and empirical erratic dispersal patterns suggest that conventional views of ice-sheet behaviour based on high latitude models may be inappropriate to the dynamically more active mid-latitude ice sheets based in large part on deformable sediment beds.

@article{boulton1985glacial,
    author = "Boulton, G. S. and Smith, G. D. and Jones, A. S. and Newsome, J.",
    title = "Glacial geology and glaciology of the last mid-latitude ice sheets",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "Satellite imagery and data from ground surveys are used to reconstruct the integrated pattern of the principal longitudinal and transverse features produced on a continent-wide scale by the last ice sheets in Europe and North America. From modern analogues, it is argued that most longitudinal features reflect flow in the outer zone of the ice sheet, and that most major transverse features reflect relatively stable ice-sheet margins. These principles are tested and, using them alone, detailed patterns for the decay of the last ice sheets in North America, Europe and the British Isles are produced, and periods during which they attained near steady-states identified. These patterns can be calibrated by dated sequences to yield deglaciation isochrons. Application of glaciological models to these geological reconstructions generates detailed prediction of net ablation for the period of ice-sheet decay and, by using evidence of last glaciation stratigraphy, models of the dynamic behaviour of the ice sheets throughout the last glacial period are constructed. These enable volumetric changes, oceanic isotopic changes and erratic dispersal pathways to be reconstructed. Erratic dispersal patterns give a good indication of the long-term distribution of centres of ice sheet mass. Discrepancies between predicted and empirical oceanic isotopic records indicate ways in which the conventional continental timescale of glacial change must be altered to fit the better-dated deep ocean record. In addition discrepancies between predicted and empirical erratic dispersal patterns suggest that conventional views of ice-sheet behaviour based on high latitude models may be inappropriate to the dynamically more active mid-latitude ice sheets based in large part on deformable sediment beds.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.142.3.0447",
    doi = "10.1144/gsjgs.142.3.0447",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W2111447011",
    pages = "447-474",
    volume = "142",
    references = "doi1010160012821x83901620, doi1010160031018281900973, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589484900851, doi101017s0022143000014623, doi101017s0022143000029713, doi101038266596a0, doi101098rstb19770112, doi101111j150238851979tb00789x, doi1023071550407"
}

@article{crossref1985glacial,
    title = "Glacial geology and glaciology of the last mid-latitude ice sheets",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Deep Sea Research Part B. Oceanographic Literature Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0254(85)93841-5",
    doi = "10.1016/0198-0254(85)93841-5",
    number = "12",
    openalex = "W4237662124",
    pages = "1023",
    volume = "32"
}

A new high resolution global model of late Pleistocene deglaciation is inferred on the basis of geophysical predictions of postglacial relative sea level variations in which the ice‐ocean‐solid Earth interaction is treated in a gravitationally self‐consistent fashion. For the purpose of these analyses the radial viscoelastic structure of the planet is assumed known on the basis of previously published sensitivity tests on solutions of the forward problem. Only radiocarbon controlled relative sea level histories from sites that were actually ice covered (with one or two additions) are employed to constrain the model, leaving relative sea level (RSL) data from sites that were not ice covered to be employed to confirm its consistency. Results for these confirmatory analyses are reported elsewhere. Here the new deglaciation model, referred to as ICE‐3G, is compared to previous models derived by several independent means and tested against a number of additional observations other than sea level histories, including geologically controlled retreat isochrones, oxygen‐isotope data from deep‐sea sedimentary cores, and coral terrace elevations. The latter two observations strongly constrain the net sea level rise that has occurred since the onset of deglaciation and therefore the mass of ice that melted during the last glacial‐interglacial transition.

@article{doi10102990jb01583,
    author = "Tushingham, A. M. and Peltier, W. R.",
    title = "Ice‐3G: A new global model of Late Pleistocene deglaciation based upon geophysical predictions of post‐glacial relative sea level change",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A new high resolution global model of late Pleistocene deglaciation is inferred on the basis of geophysical predictions of postglacial relative sea level variations in which the ice‐ocean‐solid Earth interaction is treated in a gravitationally self‐consistent fashion. For the purpose of these analyses the radial viscoelastic structure of the planet is assumed known on the basis of previously published sensitivity tests on solutions of the forward problem. Only radiocarbon controlled relative sea level histories from sites that were actually ice covered (with one or two additions) are employed to constrain the model, leaving relative sea level (RSL) data from sites that were not ice covered to be employed to confirm its consistency. Results for these confirmatory analyses are reported elsewhere. Here the new deglaciation model, referred to as ICE‐3G, is compared to previous models derived by several independent means and tested against a number of additional observations other than sea level histories, including geologically controlled retreat isochrones, oxygen‐isotope data from deep‐sea sedimentary cores, and coral terrace elevations. The latter two observations strongly constrain the net sea level rise that has occurred since the onset of deglaciation and therefore the mass of ice that melted during the last glacial‐interglacial transition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/90jb01583",
    doi = "10.1029/90jb01583",
    openalex = "W2018139159",
    references = "doi1010160012825272900384, doi1010160031920181900467, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589478900339, doi101029jb073i022p07089, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101038324137a0, doi101038342637a0, doi101038345405a0, doi101039jr9470000562, doi101086626295, doi101098rsta19750025, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01251x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01253x, doi101126science1673919862, doi101126science19442701121, doi101130mem145p449"
}

The retreat process of Tyndall Glaciers and the vegetation were surveyed in Mount Kenya (5, 199m). Tyndall Glacier have retreated since early in this century and is retreating at an average rate of 2.88m/yr in the last 35 years. The first colonist of new till is Senecio keniophytum, which occurs at a distance of 18m from the 1992 ice-front. The speed of advance of this plant (1958-1984.2.65m/yr, 1984-1992: 2.13m/yr) is similar to the retreat rate of the glacier. The next species encountered is Arabis alpina, at 37m. This species advance at rate of 4.38m/yr (1958-1984), 4.63m/yr (1984-1992). Moss and lichen are next, at 70m and its speed of advance is 3.47m/yr. The species growing near ice-front of Tyndall Glacier advance in connection with retreat of the glacier. The species growing at distance over 100m from ice-front colonize irregularly independently of retreat process of the glacier.Till age and stability of land surface are important environment factors controlling vegetation pattern around Tyndall Glacier. Till age is affected by the glacial fluctuation. Stability of land surface is governed by particle-size of surface materials. Former climatic condition affects both glacial fluctuation and particle-size of surface material, and landform controls particle-size of surface material. On new till, plants is restrained from colonizing because of poor soil condition even if the slope is stable. Species growing on such slope are restricted to a few species, as Senecio keniophytum and so on, and vegetation coverage is low. On old till, environmental factors affecting both vegetation coverage and growing species are stability of land surface governed by particle-size of surface materials. On stable slope covered by big debris, vegetation coverage is high and such large plants as Senecio keniodendron, Lobelia telekii and so on are distributed. Slope covered by fine-rubble is unstable and shows low vegetation coverage by the effect of needle ice creep and solifluction because diurnal range of temperature is large.Although time of snow release is important environment factor governing alpine vegetation pattern in Japan because of heavy snow in winter, that is not very important factor for Mt.Kenya without enough snow. Wind is not very important factor because wind in Mt. Kenyais not strong. Environment of Mt. Kenya is similar to that of alpine wind-blown slope of high mountains in Japan, because both Mt. Kenya and alpine wind-blown slope in Japan don't have enough snow which work for repression of thermal fluctuation. Therefore, stability of land surface affected by particle-size of surface materials, which is important environment factor controlling vegetation pattern on Japanese alpine wind-blown slope, is important factor for alpine vegetation pattern in Mt. Kenya.

@article{doi105026jgeography10316,
    author = "Mizuno, Kazuharu",
    title = "Succession and Environmental Conditions of Alpine Vegetation in Relation to Glacial Fluctuations of Tyndall Glacier of the Mt. Kenya",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi)",
    abstract = "The retreat process of Tyndall Glaciers and the vegetation were surveyed in Mount Kenya (5, 199m). Tyndall Glacier have retreated since early in this century and is retreating at an average rate of 2.88m/yr in the last 35 years. The first colonist of new till is Senecio keniophytum, which occurs at a distance of 18m from the 1992 ice-front. The speed of advance of this plant (1958-1984.2.65m/yr, 1984-1992: 2.13m/yr) is similar to the retreat rate of the glacier. The next species encountered is Arabis alpina, at 37m. This species advance at rate of 4.38m/yr (1958-1984), 4.63m/yr (1984-1992). Moss and lichen are next, at 70m and its speed of advance is 3.47m/yr. The species growing near ice-front of Tyndall Glacier advance in connection with retreat of the glacier. The species growing at distance over 100m from ice-front colonize irregularly independently of retreat process of the glacier.Till age and stability of land surface are important environment factors controlling vegetation pattern around Tyndall Glacier. Till age is affected by the glacial fluctuation. Stability of land surface is governed by particle-size of surface materials. Former climatic condition affects both glacial fluctuation and particle-size of surface material, and landform controls particle-size of surface material. On new till, plants is restrained from colonizing because of poor soil condition even if the slope is stable. Species growing on such slope are restricted to a few species, as Senecio keniophytum and so on, and vegetation coverage is low. On old till, environmental factors affecting both vegetation coverage and growing species are stability of land surface governed by particle-size of surface materials. On stable slope covered by big debris, vegetation coverage is high and such large plants as Senecio keniodendron, Lobelia telekii and so on are distributed. Slope covered by fine-rubble is unstable and shows low vegetation coverage by the effect of needle ice creep and solifluction because diurnal range of temperature is large.Although time of snow release is important environment factor governing alpine vegetation pattern in Japan because of heavy snow in winter, that is not very important factor for Mt.Kenya without enough snow. Wind is not very important factor because wind in Mt. Kenyais not strong. Environment of Mt. Kenya is similar to that of alpine wind-blown slope of high mountains in Japan, because both Mt. Kenya and alpine wind-blown slope in Japan don't have enough snow which work for repression of thermal fluctuation. Therefore, stability of land surface affected by particle-size of surface materials, which is important environment factor controlling vegetation pattern on Japanese alpine wind-blown slope, is important factor for alpine vegetation pattern in Mt. Kenya.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5026/jgeography.103.16",
    doi = "10.5026/jgeography.103.16",
    openalex = "W2326648213",
    references = "doi10108000040851197012003576, doi101127phyto161988433, doi101130spe136, doi101130spe136p1, doi1023071550306, doi1023071550336, doi1023071774261, doi1023073390, mahaney2021quaternary, openalexw1524866068, openalexw631661456"
}

@article{crossref1997quaternary,
    title = "Quaternary and glacial geology",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.35-0918",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.35-0918",
    number = "02",
    openalex = "W2030204827",
    pages = "35-0918-35-0918",
    volume = "35"
}

Northwestern Europe remains a key region for testing models of glacial isostasy because of the good geological record of crustal response to the glacial unloading since the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. Models for this rebound and associated sealevel change require a detailed knowledge of the ice-sheet geometry, including the ice thickness through time. Existing ice-sheet reconstructions are strongly model-dependent, and inversions of sea-level data for the mantle response may be a function of the model assumptions. Thus inverse solutions for the sea-level data are sought that include both ice-and earth-model parameters as unknowns. Sea-level data from Fennoscandia, the North Sea, the British Isles and the Atlantic and English Channel coasts have been evaluated and incorporated into the solutions. The starting ice sheet for Fennoscandia is based on a reconstruction of a model by Denton & Hughes (1981) that is characterized by quasi-parabolic cross-sections and symmetry about the load centre. Both global (northwestern Europe as a whole) and regional (subsets of the data) solutions have been made for earth-model parameters and ice-height scaling parameters.

@article{doi101046j1365246x199800541x,
    author = "Lambeck, Kurt and Smither, Catherine and Johnston, Paul",
    title = "Sea-level change, glacial rebound and mantle viscosity fornorthern Europe",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "Northwestern Europe remains a key region for testing models of glacial isostasy because of the good geological record of crustal response to the glacial unloading since the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. Models for this rebound and associated sealevel change require a detailed knowledge of the ice-sheet geometry, including the ice thickness through time. Existing ice-sheet reconstructions are strongly model-dependent, and inversions of sea-level data for the mantle response may be a function of the model assumptions. Thus inverse solutions for the sea-level data are sought that include both ice-and earth-model parameters as unknowns. Sea-level data from Fennoscandia, the North Sea, the British Isles and the Atlantic and English Channel coasts have been evaluated and incorporated into the solutions. The starting ice sheet for Fennoscandia is based on a reconstruction of a model by Denton \& Hughes (1981) that is characterized by quasi-parabolic cross-sections and symmetry about the load centre. Both global (northwestern Europe as a whole) and regional (subsets of the data) solutions have been made for earth-model parameters and ice-height scaling parameters.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00541.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00541.x",
    openalex = "W1964286915",
    references = "boulton1985glacial, doi1010160031920181900467, doi1010160277379187900035, doi101016104061829400057c, doi10102990jb01583, doi10102995jb03208, doi101126science2655169195, doi101126science27452901155, doi101144gsjgs14230447, doi101144gsjgs15230437, doi1023073673075, gutenberg1941changes"
}

Kazuharu Mizuno, Succession Processes of Alpine Vegetation in Response to Glacial Fluctuations of Tyndall Glacier, Mt. Kenya, Kenya, Arctic and Alpine Research, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Nov., 1998), pp. 340-348

@article{doi1023071552006,
    author = "Mizuno, Kazuharu",
    title = "Succession Processes of Alpine Vegetation in Response to Glacial Fluctuations of Tyndall Glacier, Mt. Kenya, Kenya",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Arctic and Alpine Research",
    abstract = "Kazuharu Mizuno, Succession Processes of Alpine Vegetation in Response to Glacial Fluctuations of Tyndall Glacier, Mt. Kenya, Kenya, Arctic and Alpine Research, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Nov., 1998), pp. 340-348",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1552006",
    doi = "10.2307/1552006",
    openalex = "W2491196200",
    references = "doi105026jgeography10316"
}

@article{mclaren1998quaternary,
    author = "McLaren, Sue and Ehlers, Jürgen and Ehlers, Jurgen",
    title = "Quaternary and Glacial Geology",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "The Geographical Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3060379",
    doi = "10.2307/3060379",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W4301851298",
    pages = "219",
    volume = "164"
}

Sea level change during the Quaternary is primarily a consequence of the cyclic growth and decay of ice sheets, resulting in a complex spatial and temporal pattern. Observations of this variability provide constraints on the timing, rates, and magnitudes of the changes in ice mass during a glacial cycle, as well as more limited information on the distribution of ice between the major ice sheets at any time. Observations of glacially induced sea level changes also provide information on the response of the mantle to surface loading on time scales of 10(3) to 10(5) years. Regional analyses indicate that the earth-response function is depth dependent as well as spatially variable. Comprehensive models of sea level change enable the migration of coastlines to be predicted during glacial cycles, including the anthropologically important period from about 60,000 to 20,000 years ago.

@article{doi101126science1059549,
    author = "Lambeck, Kurt and Chappell, John",
    title = "Sea Level Change Through the Last Glacial Cycle",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Sea level change during the Quaternary is primarily a consequence of the cyclic growth and decay of ice sheets, resulting in a complex spatial and temporal pattern. Observations of this variability provide constraints on the timing, rates, and magnitudes of the changes in ice mass during a glacial cycle, as well as more limited information on the distribution of ice between the major ice sheets at any time. Observations of glacially induced sea level changes also provide information on the response of the mantle to surface loading on time scales of 10(3) to 10(5) years. Regional analyses indicate that the earth-response function is depth dependent as well as spatially variable. Comprehensive models of sea level change enable the migration of coastlines to be predicted during glacial cycles, including the anthropologically important period from about 60,000 to 20,000 years ago.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059549",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1059549",
    openalex = "W2109459276",
    references = "doi1010160012821x96000623, doi10102990jb01583, doi10102995jb03208, doi101029jb089ib07p06003, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101038324137a0, doi101038342637a0, doi10103835021035, doi101038365143a0, doi101038382241a0, doi101046j1365246x199800541x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01252x, doi101111j1365246x1989tb06010x, doi101126science2655169195, doi101126science28854681033, doi101126science28954861897, doi101144gsjgs15230437, doi101146annurevea12050184001225, doi1023073673075, openalexw2260624936"
}

not available.

@article{hammer2001the,
    author = "Hammer, Claus",
    title = "The Hans Tausen Ice Cap. Glaciology and glacial geology: Contents",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Meddelelser om Grønland. Geoscience",
    abstract = "not available.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.7146/moggeosci.v39i.140231",
    doi = "10.7146/moggeosci.v39i.140231",
    openalex = "W4389136805",
    pages = "1-4",
    volume = "39"
}

Abundant glacial geologic evidence present throughout Tibet and the bordering mountains shows that glaciers have oscillated many times throughout the late Quaternary.Yet the timing and extent of glacial advances is still highly debated.Recent studies, however, suggest that glaciation was most extensive prior to the last glacial cycle.Furthermore, these studies show that in many regions of Tibet and the Himalaya glaciation was generally more extensive during the earlier part of the last glacial cycle and was limited in extent during the global Last Glacial Maximum (marine oxygen isotope stage 2).Holocene glacial advances were also limited in extent, with glaciers advancing just a few kilometers from their present ice margins.In the monsoon-influenced regions, glaciation appears to be strongly controlled by changes in insolation that govern the geographical extent of the monsoon and consequently precipitation distribution.Monsoonal precipitation distribution strongly influences glacier mass balances, allowing glaciers in high altitude regions to advance during times of increased precipitation, which are associated with insolation maxima during glacial times.Furthermore, there are strong topographic controls on glaciation, particular in regions where there are rainshadow effects.It is likely that glaciers, influenced by the different climatic systems, behaved differently at different times.However, more detailed geomorphic and geochronological studies are needed to fully explore regional variations.Changes in glacial ice volume in Tibet and the bordering mountains were relatively small after the global LGM as compared to the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets.It is therefore unlikely that meltwater draining from Tibet and the bordering mountains during the Lateglacial and early Holocene would have been sufficient to affect oceanic circulation.However, changes in surface albedo may have influenced the dynamics of monsoonal systems and this may have important implications for global climate change.Drainage development, including lake level changes on the Tibetan plateau and adjacent regions has been strongly controlled by climatic oscillations on centennial, decadal and especially millennial timescales.Since the Little Ice Age, and particularly during this century, glaciers have been progressively retreating.This pattern is likely to continue throughout the 21st century, exacerbated by human-induced global warming.

@article{doi10108003009480510012908,
    author = "Lehmkuhl, Frank and Owen, Lewis A.",
    title = "Late Quaternary glaciation of Tibet and the bordering mountains: a review",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Boreas",
    abstract = "Abundant glacial geologic evidence present throughout Tibet and the bordering mountains shows that glaciers have oscillated many times throughout the late Quaternary.Yet the timing and extent of glacial advances is still highly debated.Recent studies, however, suggest that glaciation was most extensive prior to the last glacial cycle.Furthermore, these studies show that in many regions of Tibet and the Himalaya glaciation was generally more extensive during the earlier part of the last glacial cycle and was limited in extent during the global Last Glacial Maximum (marine oxygen isotope stage 2).Holocene glacial advances were also limited in extent, with glaciers advancing just a few kilometers from their present ice margins.In the monsoon-influenced regions, glaciation appears to be strongly controlled by changes in insolation that govern the geographical extent of the monsoon and consequently precipitation distribution.Monsoonal precipitation distribution strongly influences glacier mass balances, allowing glaciers in high altitude regions to advance during times of increased precipitation, which are associated with insolation maxima during glacial times.Furthermore, there are strong topographic controls on glaciation, particular in regions where there are rainshadow effects.It is likely that glaciers, influenced by the different climatic systems, behaved differently at different times.However, more detailed geomorphic and geochronological studies are needed to fully explore regional variations.Changes in glacial ice volume in Tibet and the bordering mountains were relatively small after the global LGM as compared to the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets.It is therefore unlikely that meltwater draining from Tibet and the bordering mountains during the Lateglacial and early Holocene would have been sufficient to affect oceanic circulation.However, changes in surface albedo may have influenced the dynamics of monsoonal systems and this may have important implications for global climate change.Drainage development, including lake level changes on the Tibetan plateau and adjacent regions has been strongly controlled by climatic oscillations on centennial, decadal and especially millennial timescales.Since the Little Ice Age, and particularly during this century, glaciers have been progressively retreating.This pattern is likely to continue throughout the 21st century, exacerbated by human-induced global warming.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/03009480510012908",
    doi = "10.1080/03009480510012908",
    openalex = "W4234644832"
}

Dramatic changes are taking place in the glacier-covered high mountains of Africa. The glacial area on Mt Kilimanjaro is now only half as large as it was in the 1970s. The Tyndall Glacier on Mt Kenya, which retreated at approxi-retreated at approximately 3 m/yr from 1958 to 1997, retreated at about 10 m/yr from 1997 to 2002. Pioneer species such as Senecio keniophytum, Arabis alpina, mosses, lichen, and Agrostis trachyphylla have advanced over areas formerly covered by the glacier. The rate at which this vegetation migrated up the former bed of the glacier (2.1–4.6 m/yr from 1958 to 1997) is similar to the rate of glacial retreat (2.9 m/yr). In the interval from 1997 to 2002, pioneer species advanced at a rapid rate of 6.4–12.2 m/yr, while the glacier retreated at 9.8 m/yr. Rapid glacial retreat has been accompanied by rapid colonization by plants. Pioneer species improve soil conditions and make habitat suitable for other plants. If warming continues, alpine plant cover may extend all the way to mountain summits, and then eventually diminish as trees colonize the areas formerly occupied by alpine plants. Larger woody plants such as Senecio keniodendron and Lobelia telekii, which showed no obvious advance prior to 1997, have advanced quickly since that year.

@article{doi1016590276474120050250068gfavso20co2,
    author = "Mizuno, Kazuharu",
    title = "Glacial Fluctuation and Vegetation Succession on Tyndall Glacier, Mt Kenya",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Mountain Research and Development",
    abstract = "Dramatic changes are taking place in the glacier-covered high mountains of Africa. The glacial area on Mt Kilimanjaro is now only half as large as it was in the 1970s. The Tyndall Glacier on Mt Kenya, which retreated at approxi-retreated at approximately 3 m/yr from 1958 to 1997, retreated at about 10 m/yr from 1997 to 2002. Pioneer species such as Senecio keniophytum, Arabis alpina, mosses, lichen, and Agrostis trachyphylla have advanced over areas formerly covered by the glacier. The rate at which this vegetation migrated up the former bed of the glacier (2.1–4.6 m/yr from 1958 to 1997) is similar to the rate of glacial retreat (2.9 m/yr). In the interval from 1997 to 2002, pioneer species advanced at a rapid rate of 6.4–12.2 m/yr, while the glacier retreated at 9.8 m/yr. Rapid glacial retreat has been accompanied by rapid colonization by plants. Pioneer species improve soil conditions and make habitat suitable for other plants. If warming continues, alpine plant cover may extend all the way to mountain summits, and then eventually diminish as trees colonize the areas formerly occupied by alpine plants. Larger woody plants such as Senecio keniodendron and Lobelia telekii, which showed no obvious advance prior to 1997, have advanced quickly since that year.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0068:gfavso]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0068:gfavso]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2172612659",
    references = "doi105026jgeography10818, doi105026jgeography1124608"
}

Glacial and periglacial landforms are widespread in the mountains of the Mediterranean region. The evidence for glacial and periglacial activity has been studied for over 120 years and it is possible to identify three phases of development in this area of research. First, a pioneer phase characterized by initial descriptive observations of glacial landforms; second, a mapping phase whereby the detailed distribution of glacial landforms and sediments have been depicted on geomorphological maps; and, third, an advanced phase characterized by detailed understanding of the geochronology of glacial sequences using radiometric dating alongside detailed sedimentological and stratigraphical analyses. It is only relatively recently that studies of glaciated mountain terrains in the Mediterranean region have reached an advanced phase and it is now clear from radiometric dating programmes that the Mediterranean mountains have been glaciated during multiple glacial cycles. The most extensive phases of glaciation appear to have occurred during the Middle Pleistocene. This represents a major shift from earlier work whereby many glacial sequences were assumed to have formed during the last cold stage. Glacial and periglacial deposits from multiple Quaternary cold stages constitute a valuable palaeoclimatic record. This is especially so in the Mediterranean mountains, since mountain glaciers in this latitudinal zone would have been particularly sensitive to changes in the global climate system.

@article{doi1011910309133306pp481ra,
    author = "Hughes, Philip D. and Woodward, Jamie and Gibbard, Philip L.",
    title = "Quaternary glacial history of the Mediterranean mountains",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment",
    abstract = "Glacial and periglacial landforms are widespread in the mountains of the Mediterranean region. The evidence for glacial and periglacial activity has been studied for over 120 years and it is possible to identify three phases of development in this area of research. First, a pioneer phase characterized by initial descriptive observations of glacial landforms; second, a mapping phase whereby the detailed distribution of glacial landforms and sediments have been depicted on geomorphological maps; and, third, an advanced phase characterized by detailed understanding of the geochronology of glacial sequences using radiometric dating alongside detailed sedimentological and stratigraphical analyses. It is only relatively recently that studies of glaciated mountain terrains in the Mediterranean region have reached an advanced phase and it is now clear from radiometric dating programmes that the Mediterranean mountains have been glaciated during multiple glacial cycles. The most extensive phases of glaciation appear to have occurred during the Middle Pleistocene. This represents a major shift from earlier work whereby many glacial sequences were assumed to have formed during the last cold stage. Glacial and periglacial deposits from multiple Quaternary cold stages constitute a valuable palaeoclimatic record. This is especially so in the Mediterranean mountains, since mountain glaciers in this latitudinal zone would have been particularly sensitive to changes in the global climate system.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133306pp481ra",
    doi = "10.1191/0309133306pp481ra",
    openalex = "W2168408286",
    references = "crossref1997quaternary, doi101006qres20002169, doi1010079789401748414, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101017s0022143000002276, doi101126science1073083, doi1023072798828, doi1023073060377, openalexw1554451267, openalexw624929445, openalexw652853003"
}

Ice loss to the sea currently accounts for virtually all of the sea-level rise that is not attributable to ocean warming, and about 60% of the ice loss is from glaciers and ice caps rather than from the two ice sheets. The contribution of these smaller glaciers has accelerated over the past decade, in part due to marked thinning and retreat of marine-terminating glaciers associated with a dynamic instability that is generally not considered in mass-balance and climate modeling. This acceleration of glacier melt may cause 0.1 to 0.25 meter of additional sea-level rise by 2100.

@article{doi101126science1143906,
    author = "Meier, Mark F. and Dyurgerov, Mark B. and Rick, U. K. and O’Neel, S. and Pfeffer, W. T. and Anderson, Robert S. and Anderson, Suzanne P. and Glazovsky, A. F.",
    title = "Glaciers Dominate Eustatic Sea-Level Rise in the 21st Century",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Ice loss to the sea currently accounts for virtually all of the sea-level rise that is not attributable to ocean warming, and about 60\% of the ice loss is from glaciers and ice caps rather than from the two ice sheets. The contribution of these smaller glaciers has accelerated over the past decade, in part due to marked thinning and retreat of marine-terminating glaciers associated with a dynamic instability that is generally not considered in mass-balance and climate modeling. This acceleration of glacier melt may cause 0.1 to 0.25 meter of additional sea-level rise by 2100.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1143906",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1143906",
    openalex = "W2005873199"
}

In a recent INQUA project the extent of Pleistocene glaciations has been digitally mapped and the chronology of events reviewed. The onset of the present Ice Age in both hemispheres dates back to the Palaeogene. In Greenland, Iceland, North America and southernmost South America sizeable ice sheets formed well before 2.6 ka BP. In Alaska and on Tierra del Fuego the ice advanced further than in any later glaciations. Evidence for Early Pleistocene glaciation (2.6-0.78 Ma) has been reported from many parts of the world, but in most cases dating remains problematic, and the size of the glaciers and ice sheets is unknown. A number of Middle Pleistocene glaciations (0.78-0.13 Ma) have been identified, mostly correlated with MIS 16, 12 and 6, including the Donian, Elsterian and Saalian of Europe. The extent of the MIS 6 glaciations is well known. Especially in Eurasia the extent of the Late Pleistocene (0.13 Ma to present) glaciations had to be revised. Major ice advances are reported for 80-100 ka BP, ka BP, with the earlier glaciations being most extensive in the east. The very different shapes of the ice sheets-Donian vs Elsterian, Early vs Late Weichselian -are as yet difficult to explain and remain a challenge for climatic modellers.

@article{doi1018814epiiugs2008v31i2004,
    author = "Ehlers, Jϋrgen and Gibbard, Philip L.",
    title = "Extent and chronology of Quaternary glaciation",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Episodes",
    abstract = "In a recent INQUA project the extent of Pleistocene glaciations has been digitally mapped and the chronology of events reviewed. The onset of the present Ice Age in both hemispheres dates back to the Palaeogene. In Greenland, Iceland, North America and southernmost South America sizeable ice sheets formed well before 2.6 ka BP. In Alaska and on Tierra del Fuego the ice advanced further than in any later glaciations. Evidence for Early Pleistocene glaciation (2.6-0.78 Ma) has been reported from many parts of the world, but in most cases dating remains problematic, and the size of the glaciers and ice sheets is unknown. A number of Middle Pleistocene glaciations (0.78-0.13 Ma) have been identified, mostly correlated with MIS 16, 12 and 6, including the Donian, Elsterian and Saalian of Europe. The extent of the MIS 6 glaciations is well known. Especially in Eurasia the extent of the Late Pleistocene (0.13 Ma to present) glaciations had to be revised. Major ice advances are reported for 80-100 ka BP, ka BP, with the earlier glaciations being most extensive in the east. The very different shapes of the ice sheets-Donian vs Elsterian, Early vs Late Weichselian -are as yet difficult to explain and remain a challenge for climatic modellers.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2008/v31i2/004",
    doi = "10.18814/epiiugs/2008/v31i2/004",
    openalex = "W237126075",
    references = "doi101002jqs1123, doi101002jqs3390070209, doi101016s0277379197000723, doi101016s0277379197000760, doi101016s1571086604802094, doi10108003009480510012908, doi1012019781003077695, doi1037570bgsd19883601, doi105860choice444789, mclaren1998quaternary, openalexw1554451267"
}

The major cause of sea-level change during ice ages is the exchange of water between ice and ocean and the planet's dynamic response to the changing surface load. Inversion of ∼1,000 observations for the past 35,000 y from localities far from former ice margins has provided new constraints on the fluctuation of ice volume in this interval. Key results are: (i) a rapid final fall in global sea level of ∼40 m in <2,000 y at the onset of the glacial maximum ∼30,000 y before present (30 ka BP); (ii) a slow fall to -134 m from 29 to 21 ka BP with a maximum grounded ice volume of ∼52 × 10(6) km(3) greater than today; (iii) after an initial short duration rapid rise and a short interval of near-constant sea level, the main phase of deglaciation occurred from ∼16.5 ka BP to ∼8.2 ka BP at an average rate of rise of 12 m⋅ka(-1) punctuated by periods of greater, particularly at 14.5-14.0 ka BP at ≥40 mm⋅y(-1) (MWP-1A), and lesser, from 12.5 to 11.5 ka BP (Younger Dryas), rates; (iv) no evidence for a global MWP-1B event at ∼11.3 ka BP; and (v) a progressive decrease in the rate of rise from 8.2 ka to ∼2.5 ka BP, after which ocean volumes remained nearly constant until the renewed sea-level rise at 100-150 y ago, with no evidence of oscillations exceeding ∼15-20 cm in time intervals ≥200 y from 6 to 0.15 ka BP.

@article{doi101073pnas1411762111,
    author = "Lambeck, Kurt and Rouby, Hélène and Purcell, Anthony and Sun, Yiying and Sambridge, Malcolm",
    title = "Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The major cause of sea-level change during ice ages is the exchange of water between ice and ocean and the planet's dynamic response to the changing surface load. Inversion of ∼1,000 observations for the past 35,000 y from localities far from former ice margins has provided new constraints on the fluctuation of ice volume in this interval. Key results are: (i) a rapid final fall in global sea level of ∼40 m in <2,000 y at the onset of the glacial maximum ∼30,000 y before present (30 ka BP); (ii) a slow fall to -134 m from 29 to 21 ka BP with a maximum grounded ice volume of ∼52 × 10(6) km(3) greater than today; (iii) after an initial short duration rapid rise and a short interval of near-constant sea level, the main phase of deglaciation occurred from ∼16.5 ka BP to ∼8.2 ka BP at an average rate of rise of 12 m⋅ka(-1) punctuated by periods of greater, particularly at 14.5-14.0 ka BP at ≥40 mm⋅y(-1) (MWP-1A), and lesser, from 12.5 to 11.5 ka BP (Younger Dryas), rates; (iv) no evidence for a global MWP-1B event at ∼11.3 ka BP; and (v) a progressive decrease in the rate of rise from 8.2 ka to ∼2.5 ka BP, after which ocean volumes remained nearly constant until the renewed sea-level rise at 100-150 y ago, with no evidence of oscillations exceeding ∼15-20 cm in time intervals ≥200 y from 6 to 0.15 ka BP.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411762111",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1411762111",
    openalex = "W2094350389",
    references = "doi1010160012821x83901620, doi1010160277379187900035, doi101016s0277379101000713, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101017s0033822200034202, doi1010292003rg000128, doi1010292004pa001071, doi101029rg012i004p00649, doi101038324137a0, doi101038342637a0, doi10103835021035, doi101038nature01690, doi101038nature08686, doi101046j1365246x199800541x, doi101111j1365246x1976tb01251x, doi101126science1059549, doi1011300091761319970250483hciapw23co2, doi1023073673075, openalexw2070611029"
}

The highlands of Ethiopia show a great variety in present and past climate. The environments differ in altitude, latitude and local conditions. This has an influence on vegetation and geomorphologic processes. Present knowledge of past glacial and periglacial landforms concentrates around the highest mountain ranges of Ethiopia, the Semien Mountains, the Bale Mountains and the Arsi Mountains. Many intermediate mountains stay unexplored or just briefly discussed. No present glaciated mountains exist in Ethiopia but current periglacial processes occur on the highest peaks. The climate change sensitivity of the mountain environment can be assessed which can contribute to the study of the temperature sensitive treeline and land cover changes. Afro-alpine vegetation can be influenced by the presence of relict (peri)glacial landforms, which change the growing conditions by different soil properties. Further research will need to complement the existing observations by unexplored mountains and to establish altitudinal north-south trajects in Ethiopia regarding vegetation, geomorphological processes and landforms.

@article{doi1011270372885420140128,
    author = "Hendrickx, Hanne and Jacob, Miró and Frankl, Amaury and Guyassa, Etefa and Nyssen, Jan",
    title = "Quaternary glacial and periglacial processes in the Ethiopian Highlands in relation to the current afro-alpine vegetation",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie",
    abstract = "The highlands of Ethiopia show a great variety in present and past climate. The environments differ in altitude, latitude and local conditions. This has an influence on vegetation and geomorphologic processes. Present knowledge of past glacial and periglacial landforms concentrates around the highest mountain ranges of Ethiopia, the Semien Mountains, the Bale Mountains and the Arsi Mountains. Many intermediate mountains stay unexplored or just briefly discussed. No present glaciated mountains exist in Ethiopia but current periglacial processes occur on the highest peaks. The climate change sensitivity of the mountain environment can be assessed which can contribute to the study of the temperature sensitive treeline and land cover changes. Afro-alpine vegetation can be influenced by the presence of relict (peri)glacial landforms, which change the growing conditions by different soil properties. Further research will need to complement the existing observations by unexplored mountains and to establish altitudinal north-south trajects in Ethiopia regarding vegetation, geomorphological processes and landforms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2014/0128",
    doi = "10.1127/0372-8854/2014/0128",
    openalex = "W2077773868",
    references = "mclaren1998quaternary"
}

Abstract Ice volume during the last ten 100 ka glacial cycles was driven by solar radiation flux in the Northern Hemisphere. Early minima in solar radiation combined with critical levels of atmospheric CO 2 drove initial glacier expansion. Glacial cycles between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 24 and MIS 13, whilst at 100 ka periodicity, were irregular in amplitude, and the shift to the largest amplitude 100 ka glacial cycles occurred after MIS 16. Mountain glaciers in the mid-latitudes and Asia reached their maximum extents early in glacial cycles, then retreated as global climate became increasingly arid. In contrast, larger ice masses close to maritime moisture sources continued to build up and dominated global glacial maxima reflected in marine isotope and sea-level records. The effect of this pattern of glaciation on the state of the global atmosphere is evident in dust records from Antarctic ice cores, where pronounced double peaks in dust flux occur in all of the last eight glacial cycles. Glacier growth is strongly modulated by variations in solar radiation, especially in glacial inceptions. This external control accounts for ~50–60% of ice volume change through glacial cycles. Internal global glacier–climate dynamics account for the rest of the change, which is controlled by the geographic distributions of glaciers.

@article{doi101017qua201837,
    author = "Hughes, Philip D. and Gibbard, Philip L.",
    title = "Global glacier dynamics during 100 ka Pleistocene glacial cycles",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Quaternary Research",
    abstract = "Abstract Ice volume during the last ten 100 ka glacial cycles was driven by solar radiation flux in the Northern Hemisphere. Early minima in solar radiation combined with critical levels of atmospheric CO 2 drove initial glacier expansion. Glacial cycles between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 24 and MIS 13, whilst at 100 ka periodicity, were irregular in amplitude, and the shift to the largest amplitude 100 ka glacial cycles occurred after MIS 16. Mountain glaciers in the mid-latitudes and Asia reached their maximum extents early in glacial cycles, then retreated as global climate became increasingly arid. In contrast, larger ice masses close to maritime moisture sources continued to build up and dominated global glacial maxima reflected in marine isotope and sea-level records. The effect of this pattern of glaciation on the state of the global atmosphere is evident in dust records from Antarctic ice cores, where pronounced double peaks in dust flux occur in all of the last eight glacial cycles. Glacier growth is strongly modulated by variations in solar radiation, especially in glacial inceptions. This external control accounts for \textasciitilde 50–60\% of ice volume change through glacial cycles. Internal global glacier–climate dynamics account for the rest of the change, which is controlled by the geographic distributions of glaciers.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2018.37",
    doi = "10.1017/qua.2018.37",
    openalex = "W2806190135",
    references = "doi101098rsta20110315, doi1018814epiiugs2008v31i2004, openalexw3098442118"
}

@incollection{mahaney2021quaternary,
    author = "Mahaney, W.C.",
    title = "Quaternary glacial geology of Mount Kenya",
    year = "2021",
    booktitle = "Quaternary and Environmental Research on East African Mountains",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003211457-5",
    doi = "10.1201/9781003211457-5",
    openalex = "W3165293438",
    pages = "121-140"
}