Gulf of mexico

Geostrophic contour-following bottom currents involved in the deep thermohaline circulation of the world ocean appear to be the principal agents which control the shape of the continental rise and other sediment bodies.

@article{doi101126science1523721502,
    author = "Heezen, Bruce C. and Hollister, Charles D. and Ruddiman, William F",
    title = "Shaping of the Continental Rise by Deep Geostrophic Contour Currents",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Geostrophic contour-following bottom currents involved in the deep thermohaline circulation of the world ocean appear to be the principal agents which control the shape of the continental rise and other sediment bodies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.152.3721.502",
    doi = "10.1126/science.152.3721.502",
    openalex = "W2050668705",
    references = "doi101130spe65p1"
}

Abstract During a sparker and core-drill program conducted by Shell, salt was cored on 10 prominent structures on the continental slope. Broad salt swells and pillows are typical structures in this region. The Sigsbee scarp appears to be the surface expression of a salt front. A zone of active down-to-the-ocean faults follows the Texas shelf edge. They appear to be related to the flow of salt at depth away from the advancing clastic wedge. Upper Cretaceous through Holocene deep-water sedimentary beds were cored on the continental slope. East of Brownsville the salt is overlain by redbeds of unknown age. Core holes at the shelf edge penetrated deltaic and shoreline deposits of the Pleistocene low-sea-level stages. Submarine slides and turbidity currents carried sediments down the slope and filled deep synclinal basins between the salt uplifts.

@article{doi1013065d25c96716c111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Lehner, Peter",
    title = "Salt Tectonics and Pleistocene Stratigraphy on Continental Slope of Northern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract During a sparker and core-drill program conducted by Shell, salt was cored on 10 prominent structures on the continental slope. Broad salt swells and pillows are typical structures in this region. The Sigsbee scarp appears to be the surface expression of a salt front. A zone of active down-to-the-ocean faults follows the Texas shelf edge. They appear to be related to the flow of salt at depth away from the advancing clastic wedge. Upper Cretaceous through Holocene deep-water sedimentary beds were cored on the continental slope. East of Brownsville the salt is overlain by redbeds of unknown age. Core holes at the shelf edge penetrated deltaic and shoreline deposits of the Pleistocene low-sea-level stages. Submarine slides and turbidity currents carried sediments down the slope and filled deep synclinal basins between the salt uplifts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25c967-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25c967-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2010280264",
    references = "doi10113000167606195566203totcsi20co2, doi1013060bda5a8316bd11d78645000102c1865d"
}

@article{antoine1970geology,
    author = "Antoine, John W.",
    title = "Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential, Deep Gulf of Mexico: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25ca45-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25ca45-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1995203215",
    volume = "54"
}

Miocene deltas and delta complexes of south Louisiana differ from each other in shape, distribution, and three-dimensional geometry. Such distinctions in morphology, as well as the temporal and spatial interrelation of sedimentation and gravity tectonics, are explained in terms of a conceptual model of a paralic basin in which rates of deposition and rates of subsidence vary.

@incollection{doi102110pec70110293,
    author = "Curtis, Doris M.",
    title = "Miocene Deltaic Sedimentation, Louisiana Gulf Coast 1",
    year = "1970",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "Miocene deltas and delta complexes of south Louisiana differ from each other in shape, distribution, and three-dimensional geometry. Such distinctions in morphology, as well as the temporal and spatial interrelation of sedimentation and gravity tectonics, are explained in terms of a conceptual model of a paralic basin in which rates of deposition and rates of subsidence vary.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.70.11.0293",
    doi = "10.2110/pec.70.11.0293",
    openalex = "W2217522540"
}

@techreport{davies1972deep3,
    author = "Davies, D. K",
    title = "Deep sea sediments and their sedimentation, Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2212-2239",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Davies, D. K., 1972, Deep sea sediments and their sedimentation, Gulf of Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 56, p. 2212-2239.}"
}

Abstract About 30,750 line-km of geophysical traverses (seismic reflection and refraction, magnetics, and gravity) were made in the Gulf of Guinea and vicinity aboard R/V Atlantis II during 1972 and 1973 as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration program. These traverses, supplemented by about 50,000 line-km of previous ones by other ships, provide a basis for mapping and understanding the geologic structure, history, and origin of the region. The deep indentation of the outline of western Africa is paralleled by a similar bend of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and by the prominent bulge of northeastern Brazil. These sharp bends are the result of left-lateral offsets by many transform faults in a belt of equatorial fracture zones. Some of the fracture zones continue eastward and intersect the entire length of the east-west coast of the Gulf of Guinea and penetrate the continent at the Benue trough or graben. The valleys of the fracture zones have been sites of sediment deposition, whereas the ridges have served as dams that force the sediment to move westward. Where enormous quantities of sediment have been delivered to the ocean by the Niger-Benue Rivers, a large delta has deeply buried the irregular topography of the fracture zones. In this entire belt of fractured ocean floor the structure, physiography, and stratigraphy have been controlled by lateral movement, or translation, of the ocean floor with respect to the continent. In contrast, the regions southeast and northwest of the belt of equatorial fractures have fewer large fracture zones, smoother topography, and simpler sediment wedges. These two regions owe their origin to simple divergence during sea-floor spreading, when new oceanic basement added at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge increased the distances between the African continent, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the American continents. Deposition of sediments along the margins of the originally narrow Atlantic Ocean was dominated early by coarse-grained and largely nonmarine sediments. South of the Gulf of Guinea these deposits were followed by evaporites as products of restricted water circulation in a long narrow arm of the ocean. There was little flow of water across the equator because of the sliding-valve nature of the region of translation between the two regions of divergence. As spreading continued, the ocean widened, and thick prisms of marine sediments were deposited on the continental margins. Large deltas in western Africa first began at the south, with the now submerged deltas of the Orange and the Congo lUvers being chiefly AAesozoic in age and having no present coastal projection. The Niger delta farther north is mosHy Cenozoic in age. Petroleum prospects appear to be far greater in the Niger delta and the region of divergence south of it than in the entire region west of the delta. The favorable continental margin contains thicker sediments, large ancient and modern deltas, and salt and mud diapirs.

@article{doi10130683d9224916c711d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Emery, K. O. and Uchupi, Elazar and Phillips, Joseph D. and Bowin, Carl and Mascle, J.",
    title = "Continental Margin Off Western Africa: Angola to Sierra Leone",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract About 30,750 line-km of geophysical traverses (seismic reflection and refraction, magnetics, and gravity) were made in the Gulf of Guinea and vicinity aboard R/V Atlantis II during 1972 and 1973 as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration program. These traverses, supplemented by about 50,000 line-km of previous ones by other ships, provide a basis for mapping and understanding the geologic structure, history, and origin of the region. The deep indentation of the outline of western Africa is paralleled by a similar bend of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and by the prominent bulge of northeastern Brazil. These sharp bends are the result of left-lateral offsets by many transform faults in a belt of equatorial fracture zones. Some of the fracture zones continue eastward and intersect the entire length of the east-west coast of the Gulf of Guinea and penetrate the continent at the Benue trough or graben. The valleys of the fracture zones have been sites of sediment deposition, whereas the ridges have served as dams that force the sediment to move westward. Where enormous quantities of sediment have been delivered to the ocean by the Niger-Benue Rivers, a large delta has deeply buried the irregular topography of the fracture zones. In this entire belt of fractured ocean floor the structure, physiography, and stratigraphy have been controlled by lateral movement, or translation, of the ocean floor with respect to the continent. In contrast, the regions southeast and northwest of the belt of equatorial fractures have fewer large fracture zones, smoother topography, and simpler sediment wedges. These two regions owe their origin to simple divergence during sea-floor spreading, when new oceanic basement added at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge increased the distances between the African continent, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the American continents. Deposition of sediments along the margins of the originally narrow Atlantic Ocean was dominated early by coarse-grained and largely nonmarine sediments. South of the Gulf of Guinea these deposits were followed by evaporites as products of restricted water circulation in a long narrow arm of the ocean. There was little flow of water across the equator because of the sliding-valve nature of the region of translation between the two regions of divergence. As spreading continued, the ocean widened, and thick prisms of marine sediments were deposited on the continental margins. Large deltas in western Africa first began at the south, with the now submerged deltas of the Orange and the Congo lUvers being chiefly AAesozoic in age and having no present coastal projection. The Niger delta farther north is mosHy Cenozoic in age. Petroleum prospects appear to be far greater in the Niger delta and the region of divergence south of it than in the entire region west of the delta. The favorable continental margin contains thicker sediments, large ancient and modern deltas, and salt and mud diapirs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/83d92249-16c7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/83d92249-16c7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2114977501"
}

Abstract Numerous large sediment slides and slumps have been discovered and surveyed on the continental margins of Northwest Africa, Southwest Africa, Brazil (Amazon Cone), the Mediterranean, the Gulf of Mexico, and North America over the past 10 years. The mass movements are of two primary types: (1) translational slides, and (2) rotational slumps. Translational slides are characterized by a slide scar and a downslope zone of debris flows, after traveling in some areas for several hundreds of kilometers on slopes of less than 0.5°. Rotational slumps are bounded by steep scarps, but they do not involve large‐scale translation of sediments, although seismic records indicate disturbance in the down‐dropped block. Many of the slides and slumps have occurred in water depths greater than 2000 m on initial slopes of less than 1.5°. The largest slide so far discovered is off Spanish Sahara; in this case, the slide scar is 18,000 km2 in area, at least 600 km3 in volume of translated sediments. No apparent consistent relationship has yet been observed between the presence of the slides and the sedimentary environment in which they occurred. The slides off Southwest Africa and Spanish Sahara occurred in pelagic sediments rich in planktonic organic matter. In contrast, the slides off North America, Senegal‐Mauritania, and Brazil (Amazon Cone) occurred in sediments containing a high percentage of terrigenous material from nearby landmasses. Large sediment slides have also occurred in pelagic sediments on isolated oceanic rises such as the Madeira Rise (East‐Central Atlantic) and the Ontong‐Java Plateau (Pacific), where sedimentation rates are less than 2 cm/1000 years. The failure mechanism of the slides initiated near the shelf edge can probably be explained by sediment overloading during low glacio‐eustatic sea level, which allowed rivers to debouch sediments directly onto the outer shelf or upper slope. Possible mechanisms of failure of the deepwater slides and slumps include earthquakes, undercutting of the slope by bottom currents, and changes in porewater pressures induced as a direct or indirect result of glacio‐eustatic changes in sea level.

@article{doi10108010641197709379780,
    author = "Embley, R. W. and Jacobi, Robert D.",
    title = "Distribution and morphology of large submarine sediment slides and slumps on Atlantic continental margins",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Marine Geotechnology",
    abstract = "Abstract Numerous large sediment slides and slumps have been discovered and surveyed on the continental margins of Northwest Africa, Southwest Africa, Brazil (Amazon Cone), the Mediterranean, the Gulf of Mexico, and North America over the past 10 years. The mass movements are of two primary types: (1) translational slides, and (2) rotational slumps. Translational slides are characterized by a slide scar and a downslope zone of debris flows, after traveling in some areas for several hundreds of kilometers on slopes of less than 0.5°. Rotational slumps are bounded by steep scarps, but they do not involve large‐scale translation of sediments, although seismic records indicate disturbance in the down‐dropped block. Many of the slides and slumps have occurred in water depths greater than 2000 m on initial slopes of less than 1.5°. The largest slide so far discovered is off Spanish Sahara; in this case, the slide scar is 18,000 km2 in area, at least 600 km3 in volume of translated sediments. No apparent consistent relationship has yet been observed between the presence of the slides and the sedimentary environment in which they occurred. The slides off Southwest Africa and Spanish Sahara occurred in pelagic sediments rich in planktonic organic matter. In contrast, the slides off North America, Senegal‐Mauritania, and Brazil (Amazon Cone) occurred in sediments containing a high percentage of terrigenous material from nearby landmasses. Large sediment slides have also occurred in pelagic sediments on isolated oceanic rises such as the Madeira Rise (East‐Central Atlantic) and the Ontong‐Java Plateau (Pacific), where sedimentation rates are less than 2 cm/1000 years. The failure mechanism of the slides initiated near the shelf edge can probably be explained by sediment overloading during low glacio‐eustatic sea level, which allowed rivers to debouch sediments directly onto the outer shelf or upper slope. Possible mechanisms of failure of the deepwater slides and slumps include earthquakes, undercutting of the slope by bottom currents, and changes in porewater pressures induced as a direct or indirect result of glacio‐eustatic changes in sea level.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/10641197709379780",
    doi = "10.1080/10641197709379780",
    openalex = "W2000251806",
    references = "crossref1978gulf"
}

@misc{bouma1978intraslope1,
    author = "Bouma, A. H. and Smith, L. B. and Sidner, B. R. and McKee, T. R",
    title = "Intraslope basin in Northwest Gulf of Mexico, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 289-302",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bouma, A. H., Smith, L. B., Sidner, B. R., and McKee, T. R., 1978, Intraslope basin in Northwest Gulf of Mexico, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 289-302.}"
}

@incollection{crossref1978gulf,
    title = "Gulf of Mexico Continental-Slope Sediments and Sedimentation",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "Framework, Facies, and Oil-Trapping Characteristics of the Upper Continental Margin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/st7399c6",
    doi = "10.1306/st7399c6",
    openalex = "W3127796881",
    pages = "117-137"
}

Abstract The Gulf of Mexico covers an area of more than 1,500,000sq km, has a maximum depth of about 3,700m, and includes many of the geomorphic features of large oceans.The continental shelf, slope, rise, and abyssal plain comprise the major physiographic provinces of the guldf and contain avariety of subprovinces distinguished by topographic character and geomorphic history. The gulf shelf is a relatively smooth, gently sloping surface marked locally bylow-relief featuresformed by sea-level fluctuation during the Pleistocene, reef growth, near-surface movement of diapiric salt and mud, and faulting. Shelf width varies from about 280km off the Florida and Yucatan Peninsulas to less than 10km at the Mississippi Delta. The continental slope consists of a considerable variety of physiographic subprovinces and individual features that encircle the deep gulf floor. The distinctive subprovinces of the gulf slope have evolved in response to reef building and constructional sedimentation on the Florida and Yucatan carbonate platforms; erosion, nondeposition, slumping, and fault ing in the Straits of Florida and Yucatan Channel; salt diapirism and differential sedimentation in the region off Texas and Louisiana; the largeaccumulation of mainly Pleistocene sediment on a former continental slope seaward of the Mississippi Delta; tectonic uplift and diapirism in theGolfo de Campeche; and shale mobilization of feastern Mexico. In contrast to the greatly varied, irregular topography of the continental slope,thedeep seafloor of the gulf (composed of continental rise and abyssal plainprovinces) is an almost featureless plain smoothed by turbidite and pelagic sedimentation and marked locally bylow-relief knolls, sedimentary aprons, and small-leveed channels.

@book{doi101306st7399,
    title = "Framework, Facies, and Oil-Trapping Characteristics of the Upper Continental Margin",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists eBooks",
    abstract = "Abstract The Gulf of Mexico covers an area of more than 1,500,000sq km, has a maximum depth of about 3,700m, and includes many of the geomorphic features of large oceans.The continental shelf, slope, rise, and abyssal plain comprise the major physiographic provinces of the guldf and contain avariety of subprovinces distinguished by topographic character and geomorphic history. The gulf shelf is a relatively smooth, gently sloping surface marked locally bylow-relief featuresformed by sea-level fluctuation during the Pleistocene, reef growth, near-surface movement of diapiric salt and mud, and faulting. Shelf width varies from about 280km off the Florida and Yucatan Peninsulas to less than 10km at the Mississippi Delta. The continental slope consists of a considerable variety of physiographic subprovinces and individual features that encircle the deep gulf floor. The distinctive subprovinces of the gulf slope have evolved in response to reef building and constructional sedimentation on the Florida and Yucatan carbonate platforms; erosion, nondeposition, slumping, and fault ing in the Straits of Florida and Yucatan Channel; salt diapirism and differential sedimentation in the region off Texas and Louisiana; the largeaccumulation of mainly Pleistocene sediment on a former continental slope seaward of the Mississippi Delta; tectonic uplift and diapirism in theGolfo de Campeche; and shale mobilization of feastern Mexico. In contrast to the greatly varied, irregular topography of the continental slope,thedeep seafloor of the gulf (composed of continental rise and abyssal plainprovinces) is an almost featureless plain smoothed by turbidite and pelagic sedimentation and marked locally bylow-relief knolls, sedimentary aprons, and small-leveed channels.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/st7399",
    doi = "10.1306/st7399",
    openalex = "W1800349056"
}

@article{lund1978preplatform5,
    author = "Lund, J. W. and King, J. S. and Berlitz, R. and Gilreath, J. A",
    title = "Pre-platform exploration of High Island, Blocks A-560 and A-561",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 28, p. 273-294",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lund, J. W., King, J. S., Berlitz, R., and Gilreath, J. A., 1978, Pre-platform exploration of High Island, Blocks A-560 and A-561: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 28, p. 273-294.}"
}

@article{mcmillen1978late,
    author = "McMillen, Kenneth J.",
    title = "Late Quaternary Sedimentation on Upper Continental Slope, Northeast Gulf of Mexico: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/c1ea4c11-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/c1ea4c11-16c9-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1967239483",
    volume = "62"
}

@misc{woodbury1978gulf7,
    author = "Woodbury, H. O. and Spotts, J. H. and Akers, W. H",
    title = "Gulf of Mexico continental-slope sediments and sedimentation, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "p. 117-137",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Woodbury, H. O., Spotts, J. H., and Akers, W. H., 1978, Gulf of Mexico continental-slope sediments and sedimentation, in, 7 of AAPG Studies in Geology: p. 117-137.}"
}

@techreport{buffler1979miocene2,
    author = "Buffler, R. T. and McMillen, K. J",
    title = "Miocene submarine fans in deep western Gulf of Mexico as interpreted from seismic reflection profiles",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 426",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Buffler, R. T., and McMillen, K. J., 1979, Miocene submarine fans in deep western Gulf of Mexico as interpreted from seismic reflection profiles: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 63, p. 426.}"
}

@misc{moore1979investigation6,
    author = "Moore, G. T. and Woodbury, H. O. and Worzel, J. L. and Watkins, J. S. and Starke, G. W",
    title = "Investigation of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico, in Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins, 29 of AAPG Memoirs",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "p. 383-402",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Moore, G. T., Woodbury, H. O., Worzel, J. L., Watkins, J. S., and Starke, G. W., 1979, Investigation of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico, in Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins, 29 of AAPG Memoirs: p. 383-402.}"
}

@article{doi101007bf02463328,
    author = "Bouma, Arnold H.",
    title = "Depositional sequences in clastic continental slope deposits, Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Geo-Marine Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02463328",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02463328",
    openalex = "W2068408050"
}

ABSTRACT Data on oil reserves in the Niger Delta basin show a bimodal lognormal distribution with the break in slope reflecting variation in exploration maturity, quality of prospect, and distribution of giant oil fields. Several areas of anomalous reserves are defined by the selected threshold oil-reserves density of 200,000 bbl/km2. Five major prolific centers (with reserves contrast > 3) are aligned in an arcuate belt (prolific belt) which is an image of the present coastline. The prolific belt marks the transition zone between oceanic and continental crusts, a zone of weakness characterized by increased tectonic activity. During passage through the belt, the Niger Delta system was predominantly constructive and consisted of at least five delta complexes which now define the prolific centers. Beyond the prolific belt, predominance of destructive processes resulted in merging of the delta complexes. In these areas, the distribution of zones of major concentration of reserves developed in response to alternate channel switching and extension superimposed on growth-fault activity. The prolific belt and offshore zone coincide with a hot geothermal belt that frames a geothermal minimum at the delta center. The coincidence, together with the progressively younger sediments from north to south, suggests that the maturity per unit depth is less in the offshore zone and central delta nose than in the prolific belt. Implied are deeper levels of hydrocarbon occurrence as well as a lesser amount of generated hydrocarbons offshore and on the central delta nose than in the prolific belt. These factors and the relatively shallow depth of investigation probably account for the present absence of prolific centers south of the prolific belt.

@article{doi10130603b5962016d111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Ejedawe, J. E.",
    title = "Patterns of Incidence of Oil Reserves in Niger Delta Basin",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Data on oil reserves in the Niger Delta basin show a bimodal lognormal distribution with the break in slope reflecting variation in exploration maturity, quality of prospect, and distribution of giant oil fields. Several areas of anomalous reserves are defined by the selected threshold oil-reserves density of 200,000 bbl/km2. Five major prolific centers (with reserves contrast \> 3) are aligned in an arcuate belt (prolific belt) which is an image of the present coastline. The prolific belt marks the transition zone between oceanic and continental crusts, a zone of weakness characterized by increased tectonic activity. During passage through the belt, the Niger Delta system was predominantly constructive and consisted of at least five delta complexes which now define the prolific centers. Beyond the prolific belt, predominance of destructive processes resulted in merging of the delta complexes. In these areas, the distribution of zones of major concentration of reserves developed in response to alternate channel switching and extension superimposed on growth-fault activity. The prolific belt and offshore zone coincide with a hot geothermal belt that frames a geothermal minimum at the delta center. The coincidence, together with the progressively younger sediments from north to south, suggests that the maturity per unit depth is less in the offshore zone and central delta nose than in the prolific belt. Implied are deeper levels of hydrocarbon occurrence as well as a lesser amount of generated hydrocarbons offshore and on the central delta nose than in the prolific belt. These factors and the relatively shallow depth of investigation probably account for the present absence of prolific centers south of the prolific belt.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/03b59620-16d1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/03b59620-16d1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1984077191"
}

Abstract Eight types of reflections are interpreted from 3,800 km of 3.5 kHz profiles taken over a 25,000 km2 area of the upper continental slope and shelf in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico off Panama City, Florida. The corresponding sediments in five of the reflection types were sampled in 77 piston cores from which data were obtained on in situ acoustic velocities (V), bulk densities (gr), sediment texture (mean grain size = Mz), CaCO3 content (C), sedimentary structures, and gross sediment composition. A distinct bottom echo with numerous subbottom reflectors (Type I) is observed in deeper areas where terrigenous clay or lutite (Mgi = 9.9 to, gr = 1.4 g/cc, porosity (P) = 74 percent, C = 28 percent, and V (upper 2 m) = 1,435 m/s) predominates. Type I reflection grades upslope into Type IV, which shows a distinct bottom echo with fewer subbottom reflectors, and the corresponding sediment is a foraminiferal silty clay (mz = 9.4 to, gr = 1.43 g/cc, P = 73 percent, V = 1,447 m/s, and C = 37 percent). The uppermost slope gives indistinct, semiprolonged bottom echoes with faint subbottoms (Type VI) where calcareous silt (Mz = 6.6 to, gr = 1.57 g/cc, P = 65 percent, C = 70 percent, and V = 1,482 m/s) is the main sediment type. The shelf sediments (gr = 1.66 g/cc, P = 58 percent, V = sl1,530 m/ s), varying from coarse silt (Mz = 5.3 to) to very coarse sand (Mz = ‐0.3 to) and 25 to 100 percent carbonate, show indistinct, semiprolonged bottom echoes with intermittent or mushy subbottoms (Type VII). Prolonged echoes with no subbottoms (Type VIII) are observed in areas where algal sands of variable grain size (Mz ‐ ‐0.9 to 2.7 to, gr = 1.66 g/cc, P = 59 percent, V = 1,530 to 1,690 m/s) occur. The major trends in reflection types (loss in depth of penetration, loss in number of reflectors, and prolongation of initial bottom reflections) follow gradients of sedimentary and physical properties of the sediments, which are increases in mean grain size, bulk density, in situ acoustic velocity, CaCO3 content, and decrease in porosity. Increases in the reflection coefficient and attenuation of the sound energy in the shelf sediments are probably important factors in the observed decrease in the depth of penetration of the sound energy in the shelf sediments.

@article{doi10108010641198209379835,
    author = "Addy, Sunit K. and Behrens, E. William and Haines, Trent R. and Shirley, Donald J. and Worzel, J. Lamar",
    title = "High‐frequency subbottom reflection types and lithologic and physical properties of sediments",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Marine Geotechnology",
    abstract = "Abstract Eight types of reflections are interpreted from 3,800 km of 3.5 kHz profiles taken over a 25,000 km2 area of the upper continental slope and shelf in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico off Panama City, Florida. The corresponding sediments in five of the reflection types were sampled in 77 piston cores from which data were obtained on in situ acoustic velocities (V), bulk densities (gr), sediment texture (mean grain size = Mz), CaCO3 content (C), sedimentary structures, and gross sediment composition. A distinct bottom echo with numerous subbottom reflectors (Type I) is observed in deeper areas where terrigenous clay or lutite (Mgi = 9.9 to, gr = 1.4 g/cc, porosity (P) = 74 percent, C = 28 percent, and V (upper 2 m) = 1,435 m/s) predominates. Type I reflection grades upslope into Type IV, which shows a distinct bottom echo with fewer subbottom reflectors, and the corresponding sediment is a foraminiferal silty clay (mz = 9.4 to, gr = 1.43 g/cc, P = 73 percent, V = 1,447 m/s, and C = 37 percent). The uppermost slope gives indistinct, semiprolonged bottom echoes with faint subbottoms (Type VI) where calcareous silt (Mz = 6.6 to, gr = 1.57 g/cc, P = 65 percent, C = 70 percent, and V = 1,482 m/s) is the main sediment type. The shelf sediments (gr = 1.66 g/cc, P = 58 percent, V = sl1,530 m/ s), varying from coarse silt (Mz = 5.3 to) to very coarse sand (Mz = ‐0.3 to) and 25 to 100 percent carbonate, show indistinct, semiprolonged bottom echoes with intermittent or mushy subbottoms (Type VII). Prolonged echoes with no subbottoms (Type VIII) are observed in areas where algal sands of variable grain size (Mz ‐ ‐0.9 to 2.7 to, gr = 1.66 g/cc, P = 59 percent, V = 1,530 to 1,690 m/s) occur. The major trends in reflection types (loss in depth of penetration, loss in number of reflectors, and prolongation of initial bottom reflections) follow gradients of sedimentary and physical properties of the sediments, which are increases in mean grain size, bulk density, in situ acoustic velocity, CaCO3 content, and decrease in porosity. Increases in the reflection coefficient and attenuation of the sound energy in the shelf sediments are probably important factors in the observed decrease in the depth of penetration of the sound energy in the shelf sediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/10641198209379835",
    doi = "10.1080/10641198209379835",
    openalex = "W2094035849"
}

Abstract Large diapiric and nondiapiric masses of Jurassic salt and Tertiary shale underlie the northern Gulf of Mexico continental slope and adjacent outer continental shelf. These masses show evidence of being structurally active at present and in the very recent geologic past. Local steepening of the sea floor in response to the vertical growth of these structures is a serious concern to those involved in the site selection and the construction of future oil and gas production and transportation facilities in this frontier petroleum province. The seabed of the northern Gulf slope is hummocky and consists of many hillocks, knolls, and ridges interspersed by topographic depressions and canyon systems. Topographic highs and lows relate respectively to vertical diapiric growth and to withdrawal of large volumes of salt and shale. Topographic highs vary considerably in shape and size, but all have very limited areas of nearly flat sea floor. Intraslope topographic lows consist of three principal types: (1) remnants of submarine canyons blocked by diapiric uplift that terminated active downslope sediment transport common during stages of low sea level; (2) closed depressions formed by subsidence in response to salt and shale withdrawal and flow into surrounding diapiric uplifts; and (3) small collapse basins formed by faulting in strata arched over structural crests of diapirs. Distribution patterns of both diapiric features and sediment accumulations on the slope are the result of the complex relationship that exists between sediment loading and diapirism. Diapiric activity is proportional to the thickness of salt or underconsolidated shale available for mobilization, and to the sedimentary load distribution on these highly plastic deposits. Variations in overburden load, in turn, are dependent on rates, volumes, and bulk densities of depo‐sitional influx; proximity to sources of supply, erosion, and distribution of sediments; and topographic control of sediment accumulation. Sediment capture in diapirically controlled interdomal basins and canyon systems localizes overburden load, thus inducing further diapiric growth, and complex structural and stratigraphic patterns are induced throughout the continental slope region. Drill cores in the slope province indicate that most of the slope sediments are fine‐grained muds; appreciable quantities of sand‐size sediment are present principally in canyon axes. Turbidite sand layers drilled on a topographic high adjacent to the Gyre Basin reflect uplift far above their original deposition level, and calculations yield rates of uplift that average 2 to 4 m per 100 years. Seismic reflection profiles provide considerable evidence of “fresh”; slumps and ero‐sional surfaces on the flanks of many topographic highs not yet blanketed by a veneer of young sediments. This evidence thus supports our conclusion that the present continental slope region of the northern Gulf of Mexico is undergoing active diapirism and consequent slope steepening. Because most of the sediment on the flanks of diapiric structures consists of underconsolidated muds, slumping will take place regularly in response to further diapiric movement.

@article{doi10108010641198209379837,
    author = "Martin, Ray G. and Bouma, Arnold H.",
    title = "Active diapirism and slope steepening, northern gulf of Mexico continental slope",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Marine Geotechnology",
    abstract = "Abstract Large diapiric and nondiapiric masses of Jurassic salt and Tertiary shale underlie the northern Gulf of Mexico continental slope and adjacent outer continental shelf. These masses show evidence of being structurally active at present and in the very recent geologic past. Local steepening of the sea floor in response to the vertical growth of these structures is a serious concern to those involved in the site selection and the construction of future oil and gas production and transportation facilities in this frontier petroleum province. The seabed of the northern Gulf slope is hummocky and consists of many hillocks, knolls, and ridges interspersed by topographic depressions and canyon systems. Topographic highs and lows relate respectively to vertical diapiric growth and to withdrawal of large volumes of salt and shale. Topographic highs vary considerably in shape and size, but all have very limited areas of nearly flat sea floor. Intraslope topographic lows consist of three principal types: (1) remnants of submarine canyons blocked by diapiric uplift that terminated active downslope sediment transport common during stages of low sea level; (2) closed depressions formed by subsidence in response to salt and shale withdrawal and flow into surrounding diapiric uplifts; and (3) small collapse basins formed by faulting in strata arched over structural crests of diapirs. Distribution patterns of both diapiric features and sediment accumulations on the slope are the result of the complex relationship that exists between sediment loading and diapirism. Diapiric activity is proportional to the thickness of salt or underconsolidated shale available for mobilization, and to the sedimentary load distribution on these highly plastic deposits. Variations in overburden load, in turn, are dependent on rates, volumes, and bulk densities of depo‐sitional influx; proximity to sources of supply, erosion, and distribution of sediments; and topographic control of sediment accumulation. Sediment capture in diapirically controlled interdomal basins and canyon systems localizes overburden load, thus inducing further diapiric growth, and complex structural and stratigraphic patterns are induced throughout the continental slope region. Drill cores in the slope province indicate that most of the slope sediments are fine‐grained muds; appreciable quantities of sand‐size sediment are present principally in canyon axes. Turbidite sand layers drilled on a topographic high adjacent to the Gyre Basin reflect uplift far above their original deposition level, and calculations yield rates of uplift that average 2 to 4 m per 100 years. Seismic reflection profiles provide considerable evidence of “fresh”; slumps and ero‐sional surfaces on the flanks of many topographic highs not yet blanketed by a veneer of young sediments. This evidence thus supports our conclusion that the present continental slope region of the northern Gulf of Mexico is undergoing active diapirism and consequent slope steepening. Because most of the sediment on the flanks of diapiric structures consists of underconsolidated muds, slumping will take place regularly in response to further diapiric movement.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/10641198209379837",
    doi = "10.1080/10641198209379837",
    openalex = "W2051065209",
    references = "doi10113000167606195566203totcsi20co2"
}

Concentrations in Gulf of Mexico slope sediment of material soluble in methanol and benzene as high as 4.5 percent are shown to be attributable to biodegraded petroleum. Associated carbonate deposits and organic sulfur are the products of the microbial oxidation of petroleum and sulfate reduction. The results of chemical and carbon isotope analyses indicate that high concentrations of hydrocarbon gases, from methane to pentane, are petroleum rather than microbiologically derived. These hydrocarbons, believed to have been produced thermally at depth, probably reached the surface through faults and fractures associated with salt diapirs.

@article{doi101126science2224624619,
    author = "Anderson, Robert K. and Scalan, R.S. and Parker, Patrick L. and Behrens, Erik",
    title = "Seep Oil and Gas in Gulf of Mexico Slope Sediment",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Concentrations in Gulf of Mexico slope sediment of material soluble in methanol and benzene as high as 4.5 percent are shown to be attributable to biodegraded petroleum. Associated carbonate deposits and organic sulfur are the products of the microbial oxidation of petroleum and sulfate reduction. The results of chemical and carbon isotope analyses indicate that high concentrations of hydrocarbon gases, from methane to pentane, are petroleum rather than microbiologically derived. These hydrocarbons, believed to have been produced thermally at depth, probably reached the surface through faults and fractures associated with salt diapirs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.222.4624.619",
    doi = "10.1126/science.222.4624.619",
    openalex = "W2029292501",
    references = "doi1010160012821x76900959, doi1010160016703753900015, doi101016001670378190171x, doi1010160146638080900066, doi101021ac50058a063, doi10130683d90e9416c711d78645000102c1865d"
}

@misc{jackson1983geometry4,
    author = "Jackson, M. P. A. and Seni, S. J",
    title = "Geometry and evolution of salt structures in a marginal rift basin of the Gulf of Mexico, east Texas",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 11, p. 131-135",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Jackson, M. P. A., and Seni, S. J., 1983, Geometry and evolution of salt structures in a marginal rift basin of the Gulf of Mexico, east Texas: Geology, v. 11, p. 131-135.}"
}

Thermogenic gas hydrates were recovered from the upper few meters of bottom sediments in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The hydrates were associated with oil-stained cores at a water depth of 530 meters. The hydrates apparently occur sporadically in seismic "wipeout" zones of sediments in a region of the Gulf continental slope at least several hundred square kilometers in area.

@article{doi101126science2254660409,
    author = "Brooks, John M. and Kennicutt, M.C. and Fay, Roger and McDonald, Tom and Sassen, Roger",
    title = "Thermogenic Gas Hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Thermogenic gas hydrates were recovered from the upper few meters of bottom sediments in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. The hydrates were associated with oil-stained cores at a water depth of 530 meters. The hydrates apparently occur sporadically in seismic "wipeout" zones of sediments in a region of the Gulf continental slope at least several hundred square kilometers in area.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.225.4660.409",
    doi = "10.1126/science.225.4660.409",
    openalex = "W1993332115"
}

Summary Based on a large amount of published data and stimulated by the papers and discussion at the International Workshop on Fine-Grained Sediments held in Halifax, Canada in August 1982, we have attempted a synthesis of deep-water fine-grained sediment facies. Three main facies groups related to depositional processes can be identified: turbidites, contourites and pelagites/hemipelagites. There is a continuum between the different processes and hence a continuum between facies. Nevertheless, it is possible to define several distinct facies models within each of these groups on the basis of sedimentary structures, texture and composition, and to provisionally interpret these in terms of depositional hydrodynamics. Patterns of horizontal and vertical facies distribution can be related to depositional subenvironments. There is much variability within and departure from the facies models we propose, and many interesting and problematic areas of research remain in the quest for better understanding of deep-water fine-grained sediments.

@article{doi101144gslsp19840150138,
    author = "Stow, Dorrik A. V. and Piper, David J. W.",
    title = "Deep-water fine-grained sediments: facies models",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Summary Based on a large amount of published data and stimulated by the papers and discussion at the International Workshop on Fine-Grained Sediments held in Halifax, Canada in August 1982, we have attempted a synthesis of deep-water fine-grained sediment facies. Three main facies groups related to depositional processes can be identified: turbidites, contourites and pelagites/hemipelagites. There is a continuum between the different processes and hence a continuum between facies. Nevertheless, it is possible to define several distinct facies models within each of these groups on the basis of sedimentary structures, texture and composition, and to provisionally interpret these in terms of depositional hydrodynamics. Patterns of horizontal and vertical facies distribution can be related to depositional subenvironments. There is much variability within and departure from the facies models we propose, and many interesting and problematic areas of research remain in the quest for better understanding of deep-water fine-grained sediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1984.015.01.38",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.1984.015.01.38",
    openalex = "W2040337214",
    references = "doi1010079783642758294, doi1010160025322767900515, doi1010160025322776900839, doi1010160025322778900944, doi1010160025322779900860, doi1010160037073880900524, doi10108000288306196910420225, doi101086627725, doi101306c1ea4f7716c911d78645000102c1865d"
}

ABSTRACT A comparison of clay diagenesis data obtained from a study of Tertiary shales from the Brazos-Colorado River system of Texas, the Mississippi River system of Louisiana, and the Niger River system of Nigeria illustrates significant differences in temperature intervals over which smectite diagenesis occurs. The threshold temperature required to initiate diagenesis ranges from about 160°F (71°C) in Mississippi River sediments to more than 300°F (150°C) in the Niger delta. Water expelled from smectite into the pore system of the host shale during the process of diagenesis may migrate out of the shale early or may be totally or partially trapped and released slowly through time. In either situation, the water can act as a vehicle for hydrocarbon migration provided hydrocarbons are present in a form and in sufficient quantities to be transported. Observations from the northern Gulf of Mexico basin indicate a close relation between buildup of high fluid pressure and the smectite-illite transformation process. Abnormal pressures exert partial control on the type and quantity of hydrocarbons accumulated because pressure potential determines the direction of fluid flow, and overpressuring partly controls the geometry of growth faults and related folds in basins where shale structures are the dominant type formed. The depths to which growth faults can penetrate and the angle of dip that these faults assume at depth are largely dependent on fluid pressure in the sedimentary section at the time of faulting. Dips of some faults in Texas have been observed to change abruptly within the interval of smectite diagenesis, and some faults formed in the overpressured Miocene and younger sections become beddingplane types at depths where the temperature is near that required for thermal generation of petroleum. Although these faults may be important for fluid redistribution in shallow sandstone-shale sections, they are a minor factor in moving hydrocarbons out of shale below the faults in much of the Texas offshore area. Fluid movement upward through microfracture systems in the deeply buried overpressured section overlying and extending upward from fault trends in the sub-Tertiary sectionis proposed as a mechanism for flushing hydrocarbons from the deeper portion of the northern Gulf of Mexico basin. This flushing process would be enhanced by smectite diagenesis because water derived from smectite that was trapped during basin subsidence would cause the flushing process to continue for longer periods of time and to extend to greater depths than could be attained if only remnants of original pore water were present. Shale tectonism is also the primary mechanism for structural development in the Tertiary section of the Niger delta; however, seismic data indicate that the rate of dip change of seaward-dipping listric growth faults is commonly less than that observed in Texas where dips as low as 10°-15° can occur at depths as shallow as 10,000-15,000 ft (3,048-4,572 m). Syndepositional faults in Nigeria are formed in sandstone-shale sections where the clay composition of shale is primarily kaolinite and where little water of smectite diagenesis has been added to the pore system of the host sedimentary section. Subtle differences in structural styles in the Tertiary sections of Texas and Nigeria are probably the result of differences in clay composition of the shaly sections being deformed.

@article{doi101306ad46136316f711d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Bruce, Clemont H.",
    title = "Smectite Dehydration—Its Relation to Structural Development and Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Northern Gulf of Mexico Basin",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT A comparison of clay diagenesis data obtained from a study of Tertiary shales from the Brazos-Colorado River system of Texas, the Mississippi River system of Louisiana, and the Niger River system of Nigeria illustrates significant differences in temperature intervals over which smectite diagenesis occurs. The threshold temperature required to initiate diagenesis ranges from about 160°F (71°C) in Mississippi River sediments to more than 300°F (150°C) in the Niger delta. Water expelled from smectite into the pore system of the host shale during the process of diagenesis may migrate out of the shale early or may be totally or partially trapped and released slowly through time. In either situation, the water can act as a vehicle for hydrocarbon migration provided hydrocarbons are present in a form and in sufficient quantities to be transported. Observations from the northern Gulf of Mexico basin indicate a close relation between buildup of high fluid pressure and the smectite-illite transformation process. Abnormal pressures exert partial control on the type and quantity of hydrocarbons accumulated because pressure potential determines the direction of fluid flow, and overpressuring partly controls the geometry of growth faults and related folds in basins where shale structures are the dominant type formed. The depths to which growth faults can penetrate and the angle of dip that these faults assume at depth are largely dependent on fluid pressure in the sedimentary section at the time of faulting. Dips of some faults in Texas have been observed to change abruptly within the interval of smectite diagenesis, and some faults formed in the overpressured Miocene and younger sections become beddingplane types at depths where the temperature is near that required for thermal generation of petroleum. Although these faults may be important for fluid redistribution in shallow sandstone-shale sections, they are a minor factor in moving hydrocarbons out of shale below the faults in much of the Texas offshore area. Fluid movement upward through microfracture systems in the deeply buried overpressured section overlying and extending upward from fault trends in the sub-Tertiary sectionis proposed as a mechanism for flushing hydrocarbons from the deeper portion of the northern Gulf of Mexico basin. This flushing process would be enhanced by smectite diagenesis because water derived from smectite that was trapped during basin subsidence would cause the flushing process to continue for longer periods of time and to extend to greater depths than could be attained if only remnants of original pore water were present. Shale tectonism is also the primary mechanism for structural development in the Tertiary section of the Niger delta; however, seismic data indicate that the rate of dip change of seaward-dipping listric growth faults is commonly less than that observed in Texas where dips as low as 10°-15° can occur at depths as shallow as 10,000-15,000 ft (3,048-4,572 m). Syndepositional faults in Nigeria are formed in sandstone-shale sections where the clay composition of shale is primarily kaolinite and where little water of smectite diagenesis has been added to the pore system of the host sedimentary section. Subtle differences in structural styles in the Tertiary sections of Texas and Nigeria are probably the result of differences in clay composition of the shaly sections being deformed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/ad461363-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/ad461363-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2011143265",
    references = "doi1013060bda5a8316bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi101306c1ea47ed16c911d78645000102c1865d"
}

@article{hardin1984western,
    author = "Hardin, N. S.",
    title = "Western Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope Geology, Hazards, and Processes Atlas: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/ad460db9-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/ad460db9-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2084758622",
    volume = "68"
}

ABSTRACT Interpretations of 35,000 km (21,900 mi) of single-channel, high-resolution, seismic profiles traversing the continental shelf and upper continental slope of the northwest Gulf of Mexico indicate the existence of five late Wisconsinan shelf margin deltas, including the Rio Grande and Mississippi deltas. The deltas were recognized by geomorphic pattern, high-angle clinoform seismic reflections, and association with buried river systems. Isopach patterns show that the deltas range in size up to 5,000 km2 (1,900 mi2) and reach thicknesses of over 180 m (590 ft). The deposits are elongate parallel with depositional strike, indicating subsidence of the shelf margin as a whole. Internal reflection patterns show the deltas to be fluvially dominated. Multilobate structure resulted from both short-term eustatic sea level fluctuations and delta switching. The late Quaternary shelf-margin deltas provide models for analogous deposits in the ancient record. They are primary indicators of the position of ancient shelf margins, and are important for predicting sand occurrence in that environment as well as farther downslope. As exploration moves to the shelf edge and beyond, instability hazards posed by late Wisconsinan deltas, as well as older deposits, must be understood and dealt with.

@article{doi101306ad461b9216f711d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Suter, John R. and Berryhill, Henry L.",
    title = "Late Quaternary Shelf-Margin Deltas, Northwest Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Interpretations of 35,000 km (21,900 mi) of single-channel, high-resolution, seismic profiles traversing the continental shelf and upper continental slope of the northwest Gulf of Mexico indicate the existence of five late Wisconsinan shelf margin deltas, including the Rio Grande and Mississippi deltas. The deltas were recognized by geomorphic pattern, high-angle clinoform seismic reflections, and association with buried river systems. Isopach patterns show that the deltas range in size up to 5,000 km2 (1,900 mi2) and reach thicknesses of over 180 m (590 ft). The deposits are elongate parallel with depositional strike, indicating subsidence of the shelf margin as a whole. Internal reflection patterns show the deltas to be fluvially dominated. Multilobate structure resulted from both short-term eustatic sea level fluctuations and delta switching. The late Quaternary shelf-margin deltas provide models for analogous deposits in the ancient record. They are primary indicators of the position of ancient shelf margins, and are important for predicting sand occurrence in that environment as well as farther downslope. As exploration moves to the shelf edge and beyond, instability hazards posed by late Wisconsinan deltas, as well as older deposits, must be understood and dealt with.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/ad461b92-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/ad461b92-16f7-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2129077209",
    references = "doi10130603b59a5816d111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306ce15408"
}

Regional Geologic Setting Circulation, Hydrography and Distribution of Suspended Sediment on the Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Mexico A Summary of Hard- Bottom Biotic Communities in the Gulf of Mexico Geology of the Flower Garden Banks Flow, Boundary Layers and Suspended Sediment at the Flower Garden Banks Zonation, Abundance and Growth of Reefbuilders at the Flower Garden Banks Classification and Characterization of Banks References Appendix Author and Subject Indexes

@book{openalexw1587330383,
    author = "Rezak, Richard and Bright, Thomas J. and McGrail, David W.",
    title = "Reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico: Their geological, biological, and physical dynamics",
    year = "1985",
    abstract = "Regional Geologic Setting Circulation, Hydrography and Distribution of Suspended Sediment on the Continental Shelves in the Gulf of Mexico A Summary of Hard- Bottom Biotic Communities in the Gulf of Mexico Geology of the Flower Garden Banks Flow, Boundary Layers and Suspended Sediment at the Flower Garden Banks Zonation, Abundance and Growth of Reefbuilders at the Flower Garden Banks Classification and Characterization of Banks References Appendix Author and Subject Indexes",
    openalex = "W1587330383"
}

This DOI is not currently attached to any metadata records. DOIs can’t actually ever be deleted (they’re persistent), but sometimes our members create DOIs in error. We do have a process to approximate deletion which we follow only in rare cases where the DOI has been genuinely created in error, and most crucially, if the DOI has never been published anywhere online or in print and never otherwise distributed to or communicated with anyone (authors, readers, reviewers, etc.

@article{doi10130694886b96170411d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Roberts, Indra B. Singh Harry H.",
    title = "Distal Shelf and Upper Slope Sediments Deposited During Rising Sea Level, North-Central Gulf of Mexico: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "This DOI is not currently attached to any metadata records. DOIs can’t actually ever be deleted (they’re persistent), but sometimes our members create DOIs in error. We do have a process to approximate deletion which we follow only in rare cases where the DOI has been genuinely created in error, and most crucially, if the DOI has never been published anywhere online or in print and never otherwise distributed to or communicated with anyone (authors, readers, reviewers, etc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/94886b96-1704-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/94886b96-1704-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2126190129"
}

An oil gas seep was documented by replicate sampling with piston corer, abundant high-resolution and sparse multichannel seismic reflection profiling, and chemical and isotopic analyses. The seep occurs on the upper continental slope over a salt ridge interpreted to split and plunge eastward, northeastward, and northward. The relatively shallow diapir over which the seepage occurs is manifested at the surface by a graben in strike section and by a half-graben in dip section. Faulting over the crest is commonly associated with loss of reflected energy or acoustic wipeouts. Most cores taken in wipeouts with prolonged bottom echoes contain oil and gas. The cores also commonly contain secondary carbonate derived from microbial degradation of hydrocarbons. The isotopic lightness of the carbonate and its negative correlation with porosity may be subtle indicators of seepage at sites where oil and gas are not obvious. The seepage demonstrates the existence of source rocks and maturation at this site.

@article{behrens1988geology,
    author = "Behrens, E. William",
    title = "Geology of a Continental Slope Oil Seep, Northern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "An oil gas seep was documented by replicate sampling with piston corer, abundant high-resolution and sparse multichannel seismic reflection profiling, and chemical and isotopic analyses. The seep occurs on the upper continental slope over a salt ridge interpreted to split and plunge eastward, northeastward, and northward. The relatively shallow diapir over which the seepage occurs is manifested at the surface by a graben in strike section and by a half-graben in dip section. Faulting over the crest is commonly associated with loss of reflected energy or acoustic wipeouts. Most cores taken in wipeouts with prolonged bottom echoes contain oil and gas. The cores also commonly contain secondary carbonate derived from microbial degradation of hydrocarbons. The isotopic lightness of the carbonate and its negative correlation with porosity may be subtle indicators of seepage at sites where oil and gas are not obvious. The seepage demonstrates the existence of source rocks and maturation at this site.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/703c825e-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/703c825e-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2148813499",
    pages = "105-114",
    volume = "72",
    references = "doi101007bf02463328, doi1010160025322778900944, doi1010160025322780901188, doi1010160146638080900066, doi10108010641198209379835, doi10112111909101, doi101126science2224624619, doi10130603b59a5816d111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013062f9181b716ce11d78645000102c1865d"
}

ABSTARCT The continental slope of the Gulf of Mexico covers an area of more than 500,000 sq km. Consisting of smooth and gently sloping surfaces, prominent escarpments, knolls, intraslope basins, and submarine canyons and channels, it is an area of extremely diverse topographic and sedimentologic conditions. The slope extends from the shelf break, roughly at the 200-m isobath, to the upper limit of the continental rise at a depth of 2,800 m. The most complex province in the basin, and the one of most interest to the petroleum industry, is the Louisiana- Texas slope, which occupies 120,000 sq km and in which bottom slopes range from less than 1 degree to greater than 20 degrees around knolls and basins. In the past few years, numerous high-resolution seismic surveys, foundation borings, and drop cores have been acquired on the continental slope. They form the basis the interpretation of the nearsurface geologic framework. INTRODUCTION The complex Gulf of Mexico Basin was characterized during the Tertiary by an extremely large introduction of clastic sediment, mobilization of large salt masses, and formation of highly active penecontemporaneous or growth faulting. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments are estimated to attain a total thickness in excess of 15,000 m, the maximum zone of thickness trending east-west near the present day coastal plain of Louisiana and west Texas. Rapid subsidence associated with sediment loading has been responsible for such thick localized sedimentary accumulations. The Gulf Basin has been dominated, from the beginning of the Tertiary to present times, by the sediment yield of the Mississippi River (Martin and Bouma, 1978 Bouma et al., 1978). The submerge part of the Gulf Basin can be divided into several major regions or provinces the northeastern and eastern Gulf (Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi), the central Gulf (offshore Louisiana and Texas), the western Gulf (offshore west Texas and Mexico), and the Golfo and Banco de Campeche, along the southern rim of the Gulf (Figure 1). The Sigsbee Escarpment is the most prominent feature at the base of the slope, This escarpment is nearly continuous along the entire base of the slope from the western Gulf to De Soto Canyon. The scarp is the expression of the lobate frontal edge of the northern Gulf diapiric province and is underlain throughout its length by a complex system of salt ridges, overthrust tongues, and steepsided massifs (Humphries, 1978 Martin 1978, 1984). The continuity of the escarpment is broken locally by diapiric outliers and large, pronounced reentrant of several large interlobal canyons such as the Alaminos and Keathley. The nearsurface geology and topography of the slope is a function of the interplay between episodes of rapid shelf edge and slope progradation and contemporaneous modification of the depositional sequence by diapirism and mass-movement processes during late Wisconsin glaciation and lowered sea level.

@inproceedings{coleman1989nearsurface,
    author = "Coleman, J.M. and Bouma, A.H. and Prior, D.B. and Roberts, H.H.",
    title = "Nearsurface Geology of the Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope",
    year = "1989",
    booktitle = "Offshore Technology Conference",
    abstract = "ABSTARCT The continental slope of the Gulf of Mexico covers an area of more than 500,000 sq km. Consisting of smooth and gently sloping surfaces, prominent escarpments, knolls, intraslope basins, and submarine canyons and channels, it is an area of extremely diverse topographic and sedimentologic conditions. The slope extends from the shelf break, roughly at the 200-m isobath, to the upper limit of the continental rise at a depth of 2,800 m. The most complex province in the basin, and the one of most interest to the petroleum industry, is the Louisiana- Texas slope, which occupies 120,000 sq km and in which bottom slopes range from less than 1 degree to greater than 20 degrees around knolls and basins. In the past few years, numerous high-resolution seismic surveys, foundation borings, and drop cores have been acquired on the continental slope. They form the basis the interpretation of the nearsurface geologic framework. INTRODUCTION The complex Gulf of Mexico Basin was characterized during the Tertiary by an extremely large introduction of clastic sediment, mobilization of large salt masses, and formation of highly active penecontemporaneous or growth faulting. Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments are estimated to attain a total thickness in excess of 15,000 m, the maximum zone of thickness trending east-west near the present day coastal plain of Louisiana and west Texas. Rapid subsidence associated with sediment loading has been responsible for such thick localized sedimentary accumulations. The Gulf Basin has been dominated, from the beginning of the Tertiary to present times, by the sediment yield of the Mississippi River (Martin and Bouma, 1978 Bouma et al., 1978). The submerge part of the Gulf Basin can be divided into several major regions or provinces the northeastern and eastern Gulf (Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi), the central Gulf (offshore Louisiana and Texas), the western Gulf (offshore west Texas and Mexico), and the Golfo and Banco de Campeche, along the southern rim of the Gulf (Figure 1). The Sigsbee Escarpment is the most prominent feature at the base of the slope, This escarpment is nearly continuous along the entire base of the slope from the western Gulf to De Soto Canyon. The scarp is the expression of the lobate frontal edge of the northern Gulf diapiric province and is underlain throughout its length by a complex system of salt ridges, overthrust tongues, and steepsided massifs (Humphries, 1978 Martin 1978, 1984). The continuity of the escarpment is broken locally by diapiric outliers and large, pronounced reentrant of several large interlobal canyons such as the Alaminos and Keathley. The nearsurface geology and topography of the slope is a function of the interplay between episodes of rapid shelf edge and slope progradation and contemporaneous modification of the depositional sequence by diapirism and mass-movement processes during late Wisconsin glaciation and lowered sea level.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4043/5951-ms",
    doi = "10.4043/5951-ms",
    openalex = "W2004724675"
}

A large crater has been discovered on the sea floor, Gulf of Mexico, in a water depth of 2176 meters. Deep-tow high-resolution imagery shows that the crater is cut into a low hill surrounded by near-surface concentric faults. Approximately 2 million cubic meters of ejected sediment forms a peripheral debris field. The low hill and faults may be related to mud diapirism or intrusion of gas hydrates into near-surface sediments. A recent eruption evacuated sediments from the crater, apparently because of release of overpressured petrogenic gas.

@article{doi101126science2434890517,
    author = "Prior, David B. and Doyle, E.H. and Kaluza, Michael J.",
    title = "Evidence for Sediment Eruption on Deep Sea Floor, Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "A large crater has been discovered on the sea floor, Gulf of Mexico, in a water depth of 2176 meters. Deep-tow high-resolution imagery shows that the crater is cut into a low hill surrounded by near-surface concentric faults. Approximately 2 million cubic meters of ejected sediment forms a peripheral debris field. The low hill and faults may be related to mud diapirism or intrusion of gas hydrates into near-surface sediments. A recent eruption evacuated sediments from the crater, apparently because of release of overpressured petrogenic gas.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.243.4890.517",
    doi = "10.1126/science.243.4890.517",
    openalex = "W2080541754"
}

ABSTRACT Rapid deposition of organic rich sediments onto thick Jurassic salt deposits created conditions conducive to the formation and entrapment of large volumes of oil and gas as well as active salt diapirism. Resulting hydrocarbon seepage, brine seepage, hydrate formation and decomposition, methane oxidation, oil degradation, and authigenic carbonate precipitation have significantly effected the geology, geochemistry, and morphology of the continental slope of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Regional topography is largely controlled by salt diapirism and slumping, and is characterized by pock marks, mud volcanoes, disrupted sediments, and large accumulations of carbonate. Sediment chemistry is driven by the influx of oil, gas and brine seepage and secondarily altered by the enhanced microbial and benthic biology. INTRODUCTION The active formation of salt diapirs on the Louisiana slope has created a geographically complex region characterized by hummocky topography, large mounds, basins, and troughs1,2. The growth of salt diapirs has also caused extensive faulting, slumping and mass sediment movement 3, 4. Sediments between diapirs are as thick as 30,000 ft. and consist of interbedded shales and sand. The Louisiana slope is an active oil producing province with several large oil fields presently being developed in the Green Canyon lease area and other deep water locations5. Until recently, most reports of oil and gas seepage in the Gulf of Mexico were restricted to continental shelf locations. Seepage of gas is a common occurrence and acoustical methods have been extensively used to locate gas seeps6–8. Many of these seeps are associated with faulting 9- 11. By contrast, Wilson et al. 12 reported that the Gulf of Mexico was not a region of extensive oil seepage because the Gulf coast is young and not extensively deformed by folding12. Although Link13 located numerous onshore oil seeps within 100 mi. of the Texas-Louisiana shelf, it was only recently that offshore liquid petroleum seeps have been directly sampled and characterized13 - 15. Extensive coring on the Louisiana slope indicates that oil and gas seepage is a widespread regional phenomenon on the northern Gulf of Mexico slope16. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hydrocarbon Seepage Natural seepage has long been recognized as a source of petroleum to the environment In the Gulf of Mexico region asphalt usage in pre-Colombian pottery suggests that beach tars existed for thousands of years prior to the advent of a petroleum based economy18. Oil seepage has only recently been extensively documented in the offshore regions of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Several cores containing as much as 4% oil, by weight, were recovered on the northwestern continental slope in 1983 by Anderson et al. 14 Subsequently extensive seepage was reported at several locations in the Green Canyon lease area15.

@article{doi1040435952ms,
    author = "Kennicutt, M.E. and Brooks, John M. and Burke, R. A.",
    title = "Hydrocarbon Seepage, Gas Hydrates, and Authigenic Carbonate in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Offshore Technology Conference",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Rapid deposition of organic rich sediments onto thick Jurassic salt deposits created conditions conducive to the formation and entrapment of large volumes of oil and gas as well as active salt diapirism. Resulting hydrocarbon seepage, brine seepage, hydrate formation and decomposition, methane oxidation, oil degradation, and authigenic carbonate precipitation have significantly effected the geology, geochemistry, and morphology of the continental slope of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Regional topography is largely controlled by salt diapirism and slumping, and is characterized by pock marks, mud volcanoes, disrupted sediments, and large accumulations of carbonate. Sediment chemistry is driven by the influx of oil, gas and brine seepage and secondarily altered by the enhanced microbial and benthic biology. INTRODUCTION The active formation of salt diapirs on the Louisiana slope has created a geographically complex region characterized by hummocky topography, large mounds, basins, and troughs1,2. The growth of salt diapirs has also caused extensive faulting, slumping and mass sediment movement 3, 4. Sediments between diapirs are as thick as 30,000 ft. and consist of interbedded shales and sand. The Louisiana slope is an active oil producing province with several large oil fields presently being developed in the Green Canyon lease area and other deep water locations5. Until recently, most reports of oil and gas seepage in the Gulf of Mexico were restricted to continental shelf locations. Seepage of gas is a common occurrence and acoustical methods have been extensively used to locate gas seeps6–8. Many of these seeps are associated with faulting 9- 11. By contrast, Wilson et al. 12 reported that the Gulf of Mexico was not a region of extensive oil seepage because the Gulf coast is young and not extensively deformed by folding12. Although Link13 located numerous onshore oil seeps within 100 mi. of the Texas-Louisiana shelf, it was only recently that offshore liquid petroleum seeps have been directly sampled and characterized13 - 15. Extensive coring on the Louisiana slope indicates that oil and gas seepage is a widespread regional phenomenon on the northern Gulf of Mexico slope16. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hydrocarbon Seepage Natural seepage has long been recognized as a source of petroleum to the environment In the Gulf of Mexico region asphalt usage in pre-Colombian pottery suggests that beach tars existed for thousands of years prior to the advent of a petroleum based economy18. Oil seepage has only recently been extensively documented in the offshore regions of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Several cores containing as much as 4\% oil, by weight, were recovered on the northwestern continental slope in 1983 by Anderson et al. 14 Subsequently extensive seepage was reported at several locations in the Green Canyon lease area15.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4043/5952-ms",
    doi = "10.4043/5952-ms",
    openalex = "W2050599354"
}

@article{doi101007bf02431066,
    author = "Bouma, Arnold H. and Roberts, Harry H. and Coleman, James M.",
    title = "Acoustical and geological characteristics of near-surface sediments, upper continental slope of northern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geo-Marine Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02431066",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02431066",
    openalex = "W2044433465",
    references = "coleman1989nearsurface, doi101007bf02330967, doi101007bf02431043, doi1010160146638086900252, doi10108010641198209379837, doi101126science2254660409, doi101127zfg231979415, doi101306st7399, openalexw1587330383, openalexw2114037889"
}

ABSTRACT The Mississippi Fan is a large, mud-dominated submarine fan over 4 km thick that was deposited in the deep Gulf of Mexico during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Analysis of 19000 km of multifold seismic data across the fan defined 17 seismic sequences, each characterized by a series of channel, levee, and associated overbank deposits, along with other mass transport deposits. At the base of nine sequences are a series of seismic facies consisting of mounded, hummocky, chaotic, and subparallel reflections, which constitute 10–20% of the sediments in the sequence. These facies are externally mounded in cross section and occur in two general regions of the fan. In the upper and middle fan, they occur below channels and are elongated in shape, mimicking the channel’s distribution. In the middle to lower fan, they have a fan-shaped distribution, increasing in width downfan. These facies are interpreted to have formed as disorganized slides, debris flows, and turbidites, and are informally called mass transport complexes. Overlying this basal interval and characteristic of all sequences are well-developed channel-levee systems, which constitute 80–90% of the fan’s sediments. Channels consist of high-amplitude, subparallel reflections. Levee sediments have subparallel reflections that have moderate to high amplitudes at the base changing upward to low amplitude. The vertical change in amplitude may reflect a decrease in the grain size and bed thickness of the levee sediments. Overbank sediments consist of interbedded subparallel to hummocky and mounded reflections, suggesting both turbidites derived from the channel, as well as slides and debris flows derived from the slope. Pliocene–Pleistocene eustatic cycles are interpreted to have been the major factor controlling the timing and style of sedimentation in the fan. Mass transport complexes are interpreted to have formed during a lowering of sea level, and reflect sediments derived from retrogressive slumping during the formation of submarine canyons in the upper slope and outer shelf. Channel-levee systems were deposited when sea level was near its lowest position and sediment derived from deltas was transported into the deep basin via submarine canyons. During highstands in sea level, a thin layer of hemipelagic sediment was deposited on the fan surface. The Mississippi Fan serves as an exploration model for mud-dominated submarine fans and has four prospective reservoir facies: channel sands with linear trends, unchannelized sands beyond the downdip terminus of the channel (possible lobes), potentially sand-prone levees immediately adjacent to initial channels deposited in some sequences, and limited parts of mass transport complexes.

@article{doi1013060c9b2321171011d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Weimer, Paul",
    title = "Sequence Stratigraphy, Facies Geometries, and Depositional History of the Mississippi Fan, Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The Mississippi Fan is a large, mud-dominated submarine fan over 4 km thick that was deposited in the deep Gulf of Mexico during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Analysis of 19000 km of multifold seismic data across the fan defined 17 seismic sequences, each characterized by a series of channel, levee, and associated overbank deposits, along with other mass transport deposits. At the base of nine sequences are a series of seismic facies consisting of mounded, hummocky, chaotic, and subparallel reflections, which constitute 10–20\% of the sediments in the sequence. These facies are externally mounded in cross section and occur in two general regions of the fan. In the upper and middle fan, they occur below channels and are elongated in shape, mimicking the channel’s distribution. In the middle to lower fan, they have a fan-shaped distribution, increasing in width downfan. These facies are interpreted to have formed as disorganized slides, debris flows, and turbidites, and are informally called mass transport complexes. Overlying this basal interval and characteristic of all sequences are well-developed channel-levee systems, which constitute 80–90\% of the fan’s sediments. Channels consist of high-amplitude, subparallel reflections. Levee sediments have subparallel reflections that have moderate to high amplitudes at the base changing upward to low amplitude. The vertical change in amplitude may reflect a decrease in the grain size and bed thickness of the levee sediments. Overbank sediments consist of interbedded subparallel to hummocky and mounded reflections, suggesting both turbidites derived from the channel, as well as slides and debris flows derived from the slope. Pliocene–Pleistocene eustatic cycles are interpreted to have been the major factor controlling the timing and style of sedimentation in the fan. Mass transport complexes are interpreted to have formed during a lowering of sea level, and reflect sediments derived from retrogressive slumping during the formation of submarine canyons in the upper slope and outer shelf. Channel-levee systems were deposited when sea level was near its lowest position and sediment derived from deltas was transported into the deep basin via submarine canyons. During highstands in sea level, a thin layer of hemipelagic sediment was deposited on the fan surface. The Mississippi Fan serves as an exploration model for mud-dominated submarine fans and has four prospective reservoir facies: channel sands with linear trends, unchannelized sands beyond the downdip terminus of the channel (possible lobes), potentially sand-prone levees immediately adjacent to initial channels deposited in some sequences, and limited parts of mass transport complexes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/0c9b2321-1710-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/0c9b2321-1710-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2121411543",
    references = "doi1010079781461251149, doi10100797814684827684, doi10100797894009324181, doi10100797894017280964, doi101007bf02431072, doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160031018288900089, doi10113000167606198798728qcosdc20co2, doi10130603b59a5816d111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306703c9109170711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306703c910e170711d78645000102c1865d, doi10130694887889170411d78645000102c1865d, doi1040435695ms"
}

Natural oil seepage in the Gulf of Mexico causes persistent surface slicks that are visible from space in predictable locations. A photograph of the sun glint pattern offshore from Louisiana taken from the space shuttle Atlantis on May 5, 1989, shows at least 124 slicks in an area of about 15,000 km 2; a thematic mapper (TM) image collected by the Landsat orbiter on July 31, 1991, shows at least 66 slicks in a cloud‐free area of 8200 km 2 that overlaps the area of the photograph. Samples and descriptions made from a surface ship, from aircraft, and from a submarine confirmed the presence of crude oil in floating slicks. The imagery data show surface slicks near eight locations where chemosynthetic communities dependent upon seeping hydrocarbons are known to occur on the seafloor. Additionally, a large surface slick above the location of an active mud volcano was evident in the TM image. In one location the combined set of observations confirmed the presence of a flourishing chemosynthetic community, active seafloor oil and gas seepage, crude oil on the sea surface, and slick features that were visible in both images. We derived an analytical expression for the formation of floating slicks based on a parameterization of seafloor flow rate, downstream movement on the surface, half‐life of floating oil, and threshold thickness for detection. Applying this equation to the lengths of observed slicks suggested that the slicks in the Atlantis photograph and in the TM image represent seepage rates of 2.2–30 m 3 1000 km −2 d −1 and 1.4–18 m 3 1000 km −2 d −1, respectively. Generalizing to an annual rate suggests that total natural seepage in this region is of the order of at least 20,000 m 3 yr −1 (120,000 barrels yr −1).

@article{doi10102993jc01289,
    author = "MacDonald, Ian R. and Guinasso, Norman L. and Ackleson, Steven G. and Amos, John F. and Duckworth, R. and Sassen, Roger and Brooks, John M.",
    title = "Natural oil slicks in the Gulf of Mexico visible from space",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Natural oil seepage in the Gulf of Mexico causes persistent surface slicks that are visible from space in predictable locations. A photograph of the sun glint pattern offshore from Louisiana taken from the space shuttle Atlantis on May 5, 1989, shows at least 124 slicks in an area of about 15,000 km 2; a thematic mapper (TM) image collected by the Landsat orbiter on July 31, 1991, shows at least 66 slicks in a cloud‐free area of 8200 km 2 that overlaps the area of the photograph. Samples and descriptions made from a surface ship, from aircraft, and from a submarine confirmed the presence of crude oil in floating slicks. The imagery data show surface slicks near eight locations where chemosynthetic communities dependent upon seeping hydrocarbons are known to occur on the seafloor. Additionally, a large surface slick above the location of an active mud volcano was evident in the TM image. In one location the combined set of observations confirmed the presence of a flourishing chemosynthetic community, active seafloor oil and gas seepage, crude oil on the sea surface, and slick features that were visible in both images. We derived an analytical expression for the formation of floating slicks based on a parameterization of seafloor flow rate, downstream movement on the surface, half‐life of floating oil, and threshold thickness for detection. Applying this equation to the lengths of observed slicks suggested that the slicks in the Atlantis photograph and in the TM image represent seepage rates of 2.2–30 m 3 1000 km −2 d −1 and 1.4–18 m 3 1000 km −2 d −1, respectively. Generalizing to an annual rate suggests that total natural seepage in this region is of the order of at least 20,000 m 3 yr −1 (120,000 barrels yr −1).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/93jc01289",
    doi = "10.1029/93jc01289",
    openalex = "W2152721409",
    references = "behrens1988geology"
}

Hydrocarbon seeps in surficial marine sediments are of two types: active and passive. Active seeps occur where gas bubbles, pockmarks, or bright spots are visible on seismic profiles and where chemosynthetic communities are present in conjunction with large concentrations of migrated hydrocarbons (macroseeps). These generally occur where generation and migration of hydrocarbons from source rocks are ongoing today (at maximum burial) or where significant migration pathways have developed from recent tectonic activity. Passive seeps occur where concentrations of migrated hydrocarbons are usually low (microseeps) with few or no geophysical anomalies. These occur typically in areas where generation and expulsion is relict (no longer at maximum burial) or regional seals prevent significant vertical migration.The type of seepage controls the distribution of migrated hydrocarbons in the near-surface sediments and should dictate the sampling equipment and approach used to detect seeps. Active seeps are usually detected near the water-sediment interface, in the water column or at the sea surface, and at relatively large distances from major leak points. Most conventional sediment and water samplers can capture active seeps. The Gulf of Mexico, Santa Barbara Channel, and parts of the North Sea have active hydrocarbon seeps.Passive seeps can only be detected relatively far below the water-sediment interface and require samples to be collected near leak points. Sampling equipment must penetrate the zone of maximum disturbance or any shallow migration barriers. In areas where surficial sediments are coarse grained or compacted, conventional gravity corers will not work. Other options for subsurface sampling include vibracores, jet cores, and rotary cores. Precise location of samples (site-specific) using seismic profiles to locate leak points is critical to detect passive hydrocarbon seeps. The Beaufort and Bering seas, offshore Alaska, and parts of the North Sea contain passive seeps.

@incollection{doi101306m66606c3,
    author = "MacDonald, Ian R. and Reilly, James F. and Best, S. E. and Venkataramaiah, R. and Sassen, Roger and Guinasso, Norman L. and Amos, John F.",
    title = "Remote Sensing Inventory of Active Oil Seeps and Chemosynthetic Communities in the Northern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1996",
    booktitle = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists eBooks",
    abstract = "Hydrocarbon seeps in surficial marine sediments are of two types: active and passive. Active seeps occur where gas bubbles, pockmarks, or bright spots are visible on seismic profiles and where chemosynthetic communities are present in conjunction with large concentrations of migrated hydrocarbons (macroseeps). These generally occur where generation and migration of hydrocarbons from source rocks are ongoing today (at maximum burial) or where significant migration pathways have developed from recent tectonic activity. Passive seeps occur where concentrations of migrated hydrocarbons are usually low (microseeps) with few or no geophysical anomalies. These occur typically in areas where generation and expulsion is relict (no longer at maximum burial) or regional seals prevent significant vertical migration.The type of seepage controls the distribution of migrated hydrocarbons in the near-surface sediments and should dictate the sampling equipment and approach used to detect seeps. Active seeps are usually detected near the water-sediment interface, in the water column or at the sea surface, and at relatively large distances from major leak points. Most conventional sediment and water samplers can capture active seeps. The Gulf of Mexico, Santa Barbara Channel, and parts of the North Sea have active hydrocarbon seeps.Passive seeps can only be detected relatively far below the water-sediment interface and require samples to be collected near leak points. Sampling equipment must penetrate the zone of maximum disturbance or any shallow migration barriers. In areas where surficial sediments are coarse grained or compacted, conventional gravity corers will not work. Other options for subsurface sampling include vibracores, jet cores, and rotary cores. Precise location of samples (site-specific) using seismic profiles to locate leak points is critical to detect passive hydrocarbon seeps. The Beaufort and Bering seas, offshore Alaska, and parts of the North Sea contain passive seeps.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/m66606c3",
    doi = "10.1306/m66606c3",
    openalex = "W1606461777"
}

ABSTRACT The late Pleistocene Brazes-Trinity Fan, a structurally ponded fan completely exposed and undisturbed on the seafloor, was mapped with a combination of conventional and high-resolution seismic data, This fan occupies three salt-withdrawal mini basins (I, II, IV) and a graben (111), each filled with an On lapping package consisting of alternating bedded and non-bedded units evident on high-resolution data. Basins 1-111are filled to their topographic spill point. the or dap-fill succession of each is incised by a channel system which bypassed sediment to the next basin(s) downdip. Seismic continuity generally increses distally in the system and within individual basins, believed to reflect the increasing prevalence of turbidity currents over high-density sediment gravity flows. Introduction A late Pleistocene submarine fan system linked to a shelf margin delta of the Brazes and Trinity Rivers (Fig. 1) was ponded on the upper Texas continental slope during the last glacio-eustatic lowstand of sea level by three salt-withdrawal mini-basins (Fig. 2, 3). Such ponded fan systems are abundant in the subsurface of the Gulf of Mexico continental slope, but only the Brazes-Trinity fan is still exposed intact on the seafloor. Shell Development Company and Shell Offshore, Inc. conducted a high-resolution seismic stratigraphic study of theBrazes-Trinity fan to provide an analog for more deeply buried and less well-imaged ponded fans. The Brazes-Trinity fan was previously recognized by Gardiner' and Satterfield and Behrens2on the basis of seafloor fan channels seen on seismic profiles. Earlier studies34 had depicted this system simply as chaotic fill, similar to the chaotic facies comprising the East Breaks Slides associated with the late Pleistocene Colorado River and shelf-margin delta (Fig, l). Published seafloor maps are insufficiently detailed to show these channels, but they are apparent on recent NOAA multibeam data (Fig. 4). Paleogeography of the eastern Texas continental shelf and slope during the last glacio-eustatic lowering of sea level was compiled from several sources and summarized in Fig. 1, From the Ingleside strandline of the preceding highstand?, the shoreline migrated 75-200 miles southward to the shelf edge. The Trinity, Neches, Sabine, and Calcasieu (not shown) Rivers became entrenched and joined on the inner shelf to form a single river which extended southward toward the shelf margin. shelf margin, this ‘greater Trinity’ river was joined by the Brazes River'4. This combined river system ultimately built a deltaic complex at the shelf margin and Berryhill mapped two discrete shelf margin deltas (‘A’ and ‘B’ in Fig. 1), whereas this study recognized a single, continuous shelf-margin delta complex whose maximum progradational extent occurs at the head of the Brazes-Trinity fan system (Fig. 1). Prior to high-resolution seismic acquisition, gross features of the fan system Fig. 3) were mapped using conventional 2D seismic profiles (Fig. 5, 6).

@article{doi1040438024ms,
    author = "Winker, Charles D.",
    title = "High-Resolution Seismic Stratigraphy of a Late Pleistocene Submarine Fan Ponded by Salt-Withdrawal Mini-Basins on the Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Offshore Technology Conference",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The late Pleistocene Brazes-Trinity Fan, a structurally ponded fan completely exposed and undisturbed on the seafloor, was mapped with a combination of conventional and high-resolution seismic data, This fan occupies three salt-withdrawal mini basins (I, II, IV) and a graben (111), each filled with an On lapping package consisting of alternating bedded and non-bedded units evident on high-resolution data. Basins 1-111are filled to their topographic spill point. the or dap-fill succession of each is incised by a channel system which bypassed sediment to the next basin(s) downdip. Seismic continuity generally increses distally in the system and within individual basins, believed to reflect the increasing prevalence of turbidity currents over high-density sediment gravity flows. Introduction A late Pleistocene submarine fan system linked to a shelf margin delta of the Brazes and Trinity Rivers (Fig. 1) was ponded on the upper Texas continental slope during the last glacio-eustatic lowstand of sea level by three salt-withdrawal mini-basins (Fig. 2, 3). Such ponded fan systems are abundant in the subsurface of the Gulf of Mexico continental slope, but only the Brazes-Trinity fan is still exposed intact on the seafloor. Shell Development Company and Shell Offshore, Inc. conducted a high-resolution seismic stratigraphic study of theBrazes-Trinity fan to provide an analog for more deeply buried and less well-imaged ponded fans. The Brazes-Trinity fan was previously recognized by Gardiner' and Satterfield and Behrens2on the basis of seafloor fan channels seen on seismic profiles. Earlier studies34 had depicted this system simply as chaotic fill, similar to the chaotic facies comprising the East Breaks Slides associated with the late Pleistocene Colorado River and shelf-margin delta (Fig, l). Published seafloor maps are insufficiently detailed to show these channels, but they are apparent on recent NOAA multibeam data (Fig. 4). Paleogeography of the eastern Texas continental shelf and slope during the last glacio-eustatic lowering of sea level was compiled from several sources and summarized in Fig. 1, From the Ingleside strandline of the preceding highstand?, the shoreline migrated 75-200 miles southward to the shelf edge. The Trinity, Neches, Sabine, and Calcasieu (not shown) Rivers became entrenched and joined on the inner shelf to form a single river which extended southward toward the shelf margin. shelf margin, this ‘greater Trinity’ river was joined by the Brazes River'4. This combined river system ultimately built a deltaic complex at the shelf margin and Berryhill mapped two discrete shelf margin deltas (‘A’ and ‘B’ in Fig. 1), whereas this study recognized a single, continuous shelf-margin delta complex whose maximum progradational extent occurs at the head of the Brazes-Trinity fan system (Fig. 1). Prior to high-resolution seismic acquisition, gross features of the fan system Fig. 3) were mapped using conventional 2D seismic profiles (Fig. 5, 6).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4043/8024-ms",
    doi = "10.4043/8024-ms",
    openalex = "W1991196423",
    references = "crossref1978gulf"
}

ABSTRACT Seismic facies in Gulf of Mexico intraslope basins reflect the interplay of a variety of deep-water depositional processes and the evolution of accommodation space on the slope. This interplay of processes results in a transition from an early, sand-prone ponded basin-fill succession (ponded facies assemblage) to a later shale-prone, slope-bypass succession (bypass facies assemblage). Convergent-baselapping facies in combination with localized chaotic and draping facies dominate the ponded facies assemblage. Stratigraphic relationships among these three units illustrate how fill-and-spill depositional processes occur within ponded-basin accommodation space. Convergent-thinning facies with widespread chaotic and draping facies dominate the bypass facies assemblage. These units represent filling of different types of slope accommodation space. The transition from ponded to bypass facies assemblages can be sharp or gradational over hundreds of meters. Transitions occured across the central Gulf of Mexico during the late Pliocene between 2.0 and 1.8 Ma, and in the early Pleistocene between 1.2 and 1.0 Ma. Nearly synchronous transitions throughout basins in the upper to middle slope suggest that increased sediment supply, resulting from a second-order sea level fall, and capture of large drainage areas by the Mississippi River during the Pleistocene are the primary controls on development of this large-scale stratigraphic architecture.

@article{doi1013061d9bc5d9172d11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Prather, Bradford E. and Booth, J. R. and Steffens, G. S. and Craig, P. A.",
    title = "Classification, Lithologic Calibration, and Stratigraphic Succession of Seismic Facies of Intraslope Basins, Deep-Water Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Seismic facies in Gulf of Mexico intraslope basins reflect the interplay of a variety of deep-water depositional processes and the evolution of accommodation space on the slope. This interplay of processes results in a transition from an early, sand-prone ponded basin-fill succession (ponded facies assemblage) to a later shale-prone, slope-bypass succession (bypass facies assemblage). Convergent-baselapping facies in combination with localized chaotic and draping facies dominate the ponded facies assemblage. Stratigraphic relationships among these three units illustrate how fill-and-spill depositional processes occur within ponded-basin accommodation space. Convergent-thinning facies with widespread chaotic and draping facies dominate the bypass facies assemblage. These units represent filling of different types of slope accommodation space. The transition from ponded to bypass facies assemblages can be sharp or gradational over hundreds of meters. Transitions occured across the central Gulf of Mexico during the late Pliocene between 2.0 and 1.8 Ma, and in the early Pleistocene between 1.2 and 1.0 Ma. Nearly synchronous transitions throughout basins in the upper to middle slope suggest that increased sediment supply, resulting from a second-order sea level fall, and capture of large drainage areas by the Mississippi River during the Pleistocene are the primary controls on development of this large-scale stratigraphic architecture.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/1d9bc5d9-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/1d9bc5d9-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1951460972",
    references = "crossref1978gulf, crossref1995cenozoic, doi10100797814684827687, doi1010160025322771900533, doi10108000206817809471524, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi101126science23547931156, doi1011300091761319940220511sranmf23co2, doi101130dnaggnaa97, doi10130603b59a5816d111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013060c9b2321171011d78645000102c1865d, doi101306ad461b9216f711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bdff8e16171811d78645000102c1865d, doi101306m65604c6, doi102110pec83060121"
}

This DOI is not currently attached to any metadata records. DOIs can’t actually ever be deleted (they’re persistent), but sometimes our members create DOIs in error. We do have a process to approximate deletion which we follow only in rare cases where the DOI has been genuinely created in error, and most crucially, if the DOI has never been published anywhere online or in print and never otherwise distributed to or communicated with anyone (authors, readers, reviewers, etc.

@article{doi1013061d9bd03d172d11d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "WEIMER, PAUL and ROWAN, MARK G.",
    title = "Abstract: Subsurface Controls on Seafloor Vent/Seep-Related Geology, Deepwater Gulf of Mexico: Initial Results",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "This DOI is not currently attached to any metadata records. DOIs can’t actually ever be deleted (they’re persistent), but sometimes our members create DOIs in error. We do have a process to approximate deletion which we follow only in rare cases where the DOI has been genuinely created in error, and most crucially, if the DOI has never been published anywhere online or in print and never otherwise distributed to or communicated with anyone (authors, readers, reviewers, etc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/1d9bd03d-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/1d9bd03d-172d-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2139944859"
}

@incollection{doi105724gcs00150016,
    author = "Badalini, G. and Kneller, Ben and Winker, Charles D.",
    title = "Architecture and Processes in the Late Pleistocene Brazos-Trinity Turbidite System, Gulf of Mexico Continental Slope",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC PALEONTOLOGISTS AND MINERALOGISTS eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5724/gcs.00.15.0016",
    doi = "10.5724/gcs.00.15.0016",
    openalex = "W2476649593"
}

@incollection{doi105724gcs00151059,
    author = "Winker, Charles D. and Booth, James R.",
    title = "Sedimentary Dynamics of the Salt-Dominated Continental Slope, Gulf of Mexico: Integration of Observations from the Seafloor, Near-Surface, and Deep Subsurface",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC PALEONTOLOGISTS AND MINERALOGISTS eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5724/gcs.00.15.1059",
    doi = "10.5724/gcs.00.15.1059",
    openalex = "W2330416411"
}

Correlation between natural oil and gas seeps at the sea surface, and potential subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs has driven interest in quantifying the frequency and abundance of hydrocarbon seeps. The subsequent discovery of abundant continental margin fluid seeps realized impacts to both oceanography and the atmospheric sciences. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) generated by these unusual sources may be significant in the determination of ozone formation, as well as other air quality factors. The Minerals Mangement Service (MMS), an Interior Department agency, is currently conducting an emission inventory of the northern Gulf of Mexico (NGOM). The inventory will include the effects of geogenic inputs on the air quality of the surrounding airshed, with emphasis on the coastal counties. Methodology assumptions are discussed, including the results of field studies of fluid seep rates from around the globe. Calculated VOC emissions range from 987089 to 8478539 tons annually, averaging 26,000 tons per year for the study area.

@article{openalexw2188102699,
    author = "Marse, Todd J. and Tsoflias, Sarah L.",
    title = "Geogenic Inputs to the Northern Gulf of Mexico Airshed",
    year = "2000",
    abstract = "Correlation between natural oil and gas seeps at the sea surface, and potential subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs has driven interest in quantifying the frequency and abundance of hydrocarbon seeps. The subsequent discovery of abundant continental margin fluid seeps realized impacts to both oceanography and the atmospheric sciences. Emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) generated by these unusual sources may be significant in the determination of ozone formation, as well as other air quality factors. The Minerals Mangement Service (MMS), an Interior Department agency, is currently conducting an emission inventory of the northern Gulf of Mexico (NGOM). The inventory will include the effects of geogenic inputs on the air quality of the surrounding airshed, with emphasis on the coastal counties. Methodology assumptions are discussed, including the results of field studies of fluid seep rates from around the globe. Calculated VOC emissions range from 987089 to 8478539 tons annually, averaging 26,000 tons per year for the study area.",
    openalex = "W2188102699",
    references = "coleman1989nearsurface, doi1010291999jc900148, doi10102993jc01289, doi1013061d9bd03d172d11d78645000102c1865d, doi10130664ed9d1c172411d78645000102c1865d, doi101306m66606c3, doi1040435952ms"
}

Analyses of 3-D seismic data in predominantly basin-floor settings offshore Indonesia, Nigeria, and the Gulf of Mexico, reveal the extensive presence of gravity-flow depositional elements. Five key elements were observed: (1) turbidity-flow leveed channels, (2) channel-overbank sediment waves and levees, (3) frontal splays or distributary-channel complexes, (4) crevasse-splay complexes, and (5) debris-flow channels, lobes, and sheets. Each depositional element displays a unique morphology and seismic expression. The reservoir architecture of each of these depositional elements is a function of the interaction between sedimentary process, sea-floor morphology, and sediment grain-size distribution. (1) Turbidity-flow leveed-channel widths range from greater than 3 km to less than 200 m. Sinuosity ranges from moderate to high, and channel meanders in most instances migrate down-system. The high-amplitude reflection character that commonly characterizes these features suggests the presence of sand within the channels. In some instances, high-sinuosity channels are associated with (2) channel-overbank sediment-wave development in proximal overbank levee settings, especially in association with outer channel bends. These sediment waves reach heights of 20 m and spacings of 2-3 km. The crests of these sediment waves are oriented normal to the inferred transport direction of turbidity flows, and the waves have migrated in an up-flow direction. Channel-margin levee thickness decreases systematically down-system. Where levee thickness can no longer be resolved seismically, high-sinuosity channels feed (3) frontal splays or low-sinuosity, distributary-channel complexes. Low-sinuosity distributary-channel complexes are expressed as lobate sheets up to 5-10 km wide and tens of kilometers long that extend to the distal edges of these systems. They likely comprise sheet-like sandstone units consisting of shallow channelized and associated sand-rich overbank deposits. Also observed are (4) crevasse-splay deposits, which form as a result of the breaching of levees, commonly at channel bends. Similar to frontal splays, but smaller in size, these deposits commonly are characterized by sheet-like turbidites. (5) Debris-flow deposits comprise low-sinuosity channel fills, narrow elongate lobes, and sheets and are characterized seismically by contorted, chaotic, low-amplitude reflection patterns. These deposits commonly overlie striated or grooved pavements that can be up to tens of kilometers long, 15 m deep, and 25 m wide. Where flows are unconfined, striation patterns suggest that divergent flow is common. Debris-flow deposits extend as far basinward as turbidites, and individual debris-flow units can reach 80 m in thickness and commonly are marked by steep edges. Transparent to chaotic seismic reflection character suggest that these deposits are mud-rich. Stratigraphically, deep-water basin-floor successions commonly are characterized by mass-transport deposits at the base, overlain by turbidite frontal-splay deposits and subsequently by leveed-channel deposits. Capping this succession is another mass-transport unit ultimately overlain and draped by condensed-section deposits. This succession can be related to a cycle of relative sea-level change and associated events at the corresponding shelf edge. Commonly, deposition of a deep-water sequence is initiated with the onset of relative sea-level fall and ends with subsequent rapid relative sea-level rise.

@article{doi101306111302730367,
    author = "Posamentier, Henry W. and Kolla, V.",
    title = "Seismic Geomorphology and Stratigraphy of Depositional Elements in Deep-Water Settings",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Analyses of 3-D seismic data in predominantly basin-floor settings offshore Indonesia, Nigeria, and the Gulf of Mexico, reveal the extensive presence of gravity-flow depositional elements. Five key elements were observed: (1) turbidity-flow leveed channels, (2) channel-overbank sediment waves and levees, (3) frontal splays or distributary-channel complexes, (4) crevasse-splay complexes, and (5) debris-flow channels, lobes, and sheets. Each depositional element displays a unique morphology and seismic expression. The reservoir architecture of each of these depositional elements is a function of the interaction between sedimentary process, sea-floor morphology, and sediment grain-size distribution. (1) Turbidity-flow leveed-channel widths range from greater than 3 km to less than 200 m. Sinuosity ranges from moderate to high, and channel meanders in most instances migrate down-system. The high-amplitude reflection character that commonly characterizes these features suggests the presence of sand within the channels. In some instances, high-sinuosity channels are associated with (2) channel-overbank sediment-wave development in proximal overbank levee settings, especially in association with outer channel bends. These sediment waves reach heights of 20 m and spacings of 2-3 km. The crests of these sediment waves are oriented normal to the inferred transport direction of turbidity flows, and the waves have migrated in an up-flow direction. Channel-margin levee thickness decreases systematically down-system. Where levee thickness can no longer be resolved seismically, high-sinuosity channels feed (3) frontal splays or low-sinuosity, distributary-channel complexes. Low-sinuosity distributary-channel complexes are expressed as lobate sheets up to 5-10 km wide and tens of kilometers long that extend to the distal edges of these systems. They likely comprise sheet-like sandstone units consisting of shallow channelized and associated sand-rich overbank deposits. Also observed are (4) crevasse-splay deposits, which form as a result of the breaching of levees, commonly at channel bends. Similar to frontal splays, but smaller in size, these deposits commonly are characterized by sheet-like turbidites. (5) Debris-flow deposits comprise low-sinuosity channel fills, narrow elongate lobes, and sheets and are characterized seismically by contorted, chaotic, low-amplitude reflection patterns. These deposits commonly overlie striated or grooved pavements that can be up to tens of kilometers long, 15 m deep, and 25 m wide. Where flows are unconfined, striation patterns suggest that divergent flow is common. Debris-flow deposits extend as far basinward as turbidites, and individual debris-flow units can reach 80 m in thickness and commonly are marked by steep edges. Transparent to chaotic seismic reflection character suggest that these deposits are mud-rich. Stratigraphically, deep-water basin-floor successions commonly are characterized by mass-transport deposits at the base, overlain by turbidite frontal-splay deposits and subsequently by leveed-channel deposits. Capping this succession is another mass-transport unit ultimately overlain and draped by condensed-section deposits. This succession can be related to a cycle of relative sea-level change and associated events at the corresponding shelf edge. Commonly, deposition of a deep-water sequence is initiated with the onset of relative sea-level fall and ends with subsequent rapid relative sea-level rise.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/111302730367",
    doi = "10.1306/111302730367",
    openalex = "W1483157968",
    references = "doi101007978146848276818, doi10100797814684827684, doi101086629747, doi101086648221, doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi1013061d9bc5d9172d11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013062dc4091c0e4711d78643000102c1865d, doi1013062f9182e316ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25cc7916c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306a25fe3bf171b11d78645000102c1865d, doi101306m26490c5, doi102110csp9907, doi105724gcs00150782, nardin1979a, normark1978fan, openalexw1570283708, openalexw3120543430, openalexw362631153"
}

@article{doi101016jchemgeo200312019,
    author = "Joye, Samantha B. and Boëtius, Antje and Orcutt, Beth N. and Montoya, Joseph P. and Schulz, Heide N. and Erickson, Matthew and Lugo, Samantha K",
    title = "The anaerobic oxidation of methane and sulfate reduction in sediments from Gulf of Mexico cold seeps",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Chemical Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2003.12.019",
    doi = "10.1016/j.chemgeo.2003.12.019",
    openalex = "W2009948133",
    references = "behrens1988geology, doi101016001670379390347y, doi101126science2224624619"
}

Abstract Halokinetic and slope-instability processes have sculpted numerous morphological features on the flanks of the intraslope basins in the Bryant Canyon area. High-resolution geophysical data and long sediment cores (as much as 20 m [66 ft] long) were used to define the time and spatial evolution of sediment failures and their relationship to halokinetic processes. Two episodes of increased salt-tectonic activity are defined: (1) The first acted at the beginning of interglacial oxygen isotope stage 5 as salt adjusted to the abandoned environments of the Bryant and Eastern Canyon systems, and (2) the second occurred during the last glacial period and is characterized by the seaward propagation of salt masses. Three types of slopes are recognized in the intraslope basins: (1) highly inclined slopes with low-relief morphologic features resulting from shallow, translational slump complexes, (2) highly inclined slopes with high-relief morphologic features resulting from deep, rotational slump complexes, and (3) highly inclined slopes dissected by high-relief canyonlike landslide troughs resulting from channelized rotational slumps. The first two slope types occur mainly on the northern flanks of the basins, whereas the third type occurs on the southern flanks. We propose that the slump complexes on types 1 and 2 slopes were triggered by the oversteepening of the flanks by the seaward mobilization of underlying salt masses. The channelized rotational slumps on type 3 slopes are interpreted to result from the development of salt diapir bulges that lead to locally increased gradients on the basin flanks. Most of the sediment failures have been transformed into debris flows and led to the most recent phase of infilling of the basin floors.

@article{doi10130601260403106,
    author = "Tripsanas, Efthymios and Bryant, William R. and Phaneuf, Brett A.",
    title = "Slope-instability processes caused by salt movements in a complex deep-water environment, Bryant Canyon area, northwest Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Halokinetic and slope-instability processes have sculpted numerous morphological features on the flanks of the intraslope basins in the Bryant Canyon area. High-resolution geophysical data and long sediment cores (as much as 20 m [66 ft] long) were used to define the time and spatial evolution of sediment failures and their relationship to halokinetic processes. Two episodes of increased salt-tectonic activity are defined: (1) The first acted at the beginning of interglacial oxygen isotope stage 5 as salt adjusted to the abandoned environments of the Bryant and Eastern Canyon systems, and (2) the second occurred during the last glacial period and is characterized by the seaward propagation of salt masses. Three types of slopes are recognized in the intraslope basins: (1) highly inclined slopes with low-relief morphologic features resulting from shallow, translational slump complexes, (2) highly inclined slopes with high-relief morphologic features resulting from deep, rotational slump complexes, and (3) highly inclined slopes dissected by high-relief canyonlike landslide troughs resulting from channelized rotational slumps. The first two slope types occur mainly on the northern flanks of the basins, whereas the third type occurs on the southern flanks. We propose that the slump complexes on types 1 and 2 slopes were triggered by the oversteepening of the flanks by the seaward mobilization of underlying salt masses. The channelized rotational slumps on type 3 slopes are interpreted to result from the development of salt diapir bulges that lead to locally increased gradients on the basin flanks. Most of the sediment failures have been transformed into debris flows and led to the most recent phase of infilling of the basin floors.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/01260403106",
    doi = "10.1306/01260403106",
    openalex = "W2164691679",
    references = "doi101007bf02431066"
}

@article{behrmann2006rapid,
    author = "Behrmann, H. and Jan, Flemings and B., Peter and John, M. and Cédric, the IODP Expedtion 308 Scientists",
    title = "Rapid Sedimentation, Overpressure and Focused Fluid Flow, Gulf of Mexico Continental Margin",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Scientific Drilling",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2204/iodp.sd.3.03.2006",
    doi = "10.2204/iodp.sd.3.03.2006",
    number = "3, Sept 2006",
    openalex = "W2128668439",
    references = "doi101016s0376736108x70025, doi101046j14688123200200026x, doi101126science1126090, doi101126science2895477288, doi10113000167606195970167rofpim20co2, doi1011300091761320020300223tdsiop20co2, doi102475ajs30210827, doi1040438024ms, doi105724gcs00150016, doi105724gcs00151059"
}

Down core concentration gradients of dissolved methane and sulfate; isotope gradients of methane, dissolved inorganic carbon, and authigenic carbonate; and organic matter elemental ratios are incorporated into a vent evolution model to describe spatial and temporal variability of sedimentary microbial activity overlying acoustic wipeout zones at Mississippi Canyon (MC) 118, Gulf of Mexico. We tested the hypothesis that these zones indicate areas where sediments are exposed to elevated fluid flux and therefore should contain saturated methane concentrations and enhanced microbial activity from sulfate reduction (SR), anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM), and methanogenesis (MP). Thirty surficial cores (between 22 and 460 cm deep) were collected from sediments overlying and outside the wipeout zones and analyzed for pore water and solid phase constituents. Outside the wipeout zones, sulfate and methane concentrations were similar to overlying‐water values and did not vary with depth; indicating low microbial activity. Above the wipeouts, nine cores showed moderate activity with gently sloping sulfate and methane concentration gradients, methane concentrations <20 μ M, and isotope depth gradients indicative of organic matter oxidation. In stark contrast to this moderate activity, four cores showed high microbial activity where sulfate concentrations were depleted by ∼50 cm below seafloor, maximum methane concentrations in the decompressed cores were above 4 mM, and down core profiles of δ 13 C‐CH 4 and δ 13 C‐dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) indicated distinct depth zones of SR, AOM, and MP. Bulk organic matter analysis suggested that the high activity was supported by an organic source that was enriched in carbon (C:N ∼15) and depleted in δ 15 N and δ 13 C compared to other activity groups, possibly due to the influx of petroleum or chemosynthetically fixed carbon. Within high activity cores, the δ 13 C‐DIC values were similar to the δ 13 C‐CaCO 3 values, a result expected for authigenic carbonate recently precipitated. However, these values were dissimilar in moderate activity cores, suggesting that microbial activity was higher in the past. This study provides evidence that the fluid flux at MC 118 varies over time and that the microbial activity responds to such variability. It also suggests that sediments overlying wipeout zones are not always saturated with respect to methane, which has implications for the formation and detection of gas hydrate.

@article{doi1010292008gc001944,
    author = "Lapham, L. and Chanton, Jeffrey P. and Martens, Christopher S. and Sleeper, K. and Woolsey, J. Robert",
    title = "Microbial activity in surficial sediments overlying acoustic wipeout zones at a Gulf of Mexico cold seep",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Down core concentration gradients of dissolved methane and sulfate; isotope gradients of methane, dissolved inorganic carbon, and authigenic carbonate; and organic matter elemental ratios are incorporated into a vent evolution model to describe spatial and temporal variability of sedimentary microbial activity overlying acoustic wipeout zones at Mississippi Canyon (MC) 118, Gulf of Mexico. We tested the hypothesis that these zones indicate areas where sediments are exposed to elevated fluid flux and therefore should contain saturated methane concentrations and enhanced microbial activity from sulfate reduction (SR), anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM), and methanogenesis (MP). Thirty surficial cores (between 22 and 460 cm deep) were collected from sediments overlying and outside the wipeout zones and analyzed for pore water and solid phase constituents. Outside the wipeout zones, sulfate and methane concentrations were similar to overlying‐water values and did not vary with depth; indicating low microbial activity. Above the wipeouts, nine cores showed moderate activity with gently sloping sulfate and methane concentration gradients, methane concentrations <20 μ M, and isotope depth gradients indicative of organic matter oxidation. In stark contrast to this moderate activity, four cores showed high microbial activity where sulfate concentrations were depleted by ∼50 cm below seafloor, maximum methane concentrations in the decompressed cores were above 4 mM, and down core profiles of δ 13 C‐CH 4 and δ 13 C‐dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) indicated distinct depth zones of SR, AOM, and MP. Bulk organic matter analysis suggested that the high activity was supported by an organic source that was enriched in carbon (C:N ∼15) and depleted in δ 15 N and δ 13 C compared to other activity groups, possibly due to the influx of petroleum or chemosynthetically fixed carbon. Within high activity cores, the δ 13 C‐DIC values were similar to the δ 13 C‐CaCO 3 values, a result expected for authigenic carbonate recently precipitated. However, these values were dissimilar in moderate activity cores, suggesting that microbial activity was higher in the past. This study provides evidence that the fluid flux at MC 118 varies over time and that the microbial activity responds to such variability. It also suggests that sediments overlying wipeout zones are not always saturated with respect to methane, which has implications for the formation and detection of gas hydrate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2008gc001944",
    doi = "10.1029/2008gc001944",
    openalex = "W1510763230",
    references = "doi101007bf02431066"
}

Shortly after the discovery of chemosynthetic ecosystems at deep-sea hydrothermal vents, similar ecosystems were found at cold seeps in the Gulf of Mexico. Over the past two decades, these sites have become model systems for understanding the physiology of the symbiont-containing megafauna and the ecology of seep communities worldwide. Symbiont-containing bi-valves and siboglinid polychaetes dominate the communities, including five bathymodiolin mussel species and six vestimentiferan (siboglinid polychaete) species in the Gulf of Mexico. The mussels include the first described examples of methanotrophic symbiosis and dual methanotrophic/thiotrophic symbiosis. Studies with the vestimentiferans have demonstrated their potential for extreme longevity and their ability to use posterior structures for subsurface exchange of dissolved metabolites. Ecological investigations have demonstrated that the vestimentiferans function as ecosystem engineers and identified a community succession sequence from a specialized high-biomass endemic community to a low-biomass community of background fauna over the life of a hydrocarbon seep site.

@article{doi101146annurevmarine010908163912,
    author = "Cordes, Erik E. and Bergquist, Derk C. and Fisher, Charles R.",
    title = "Macro-Ecology of Gulf of Mexico Cold Seeps",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Annual Review of Marine Science",
    abstract = "Shortly after the discovery of chemosynthetic ecosystems at deep-sea hydrothermal vents, similar ecosystems were found at cold seeps in the Gulf of Mexico. Over the past two decades, these sites have become model systems for understanding the physiology of the symbiont-containing megafauna and the ecology of seep communities worldwide. Symbiont-containing bi-valves and siboglinid polychaetes dominate the communities, including five bathymodiolin mussel species and six vestimentiferan (siboglinid polychaete) species in the Gulf of Mexico. The mussels include the first described examples of methanotrophic symbiosis and dual methanotrophic/thiotrophic symbiosis. Studies with the vestimentiferans have demonstrated their potential for extreme longevity and their ability to use posterior structures for subsurface exchange of dissolved metabolites. Ecological investigations have demonstrated that the vestimentiferans function as ecosystem engineers and identified a community succession sequence from a specialized high-biomass endemic community to a low-biomass community of background fauna over the life of a hydrocarbon seep site.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163912",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163912",
    openalex = "W2128582604",
    references = "doi101126science2224624619"
}

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Niger DeltaDuring the Cenozoic, until the Middle Miocene, the Niger Delta grew through pulses of sedimentation over an oceanward-dipping continental basement into the Gulf of Guinea; thereafter progradation took place over a landward-dipping oceanic basement. A 12,000 m thick succession of overall regressive, offlapping sediments resulted that is composed of three diachronous siliciclastic units: the deep-marine pro-delta Akata Group, the shallow-marine delta-front Agbada Group and the continental, delta-top Benin Group.Regionally, sediment dispersal was controlled by marine transgressive/regressive cycles related to eustatic sea-level changes with varying duration. Differential subsidence locally influenced sediment accumulation. Collectively, these controls resulted in eleven chronostratigraphically confined delta-wide mega-sequences with considerable internal lithological variation.The various sea-level cycles were in or out of phase with each other and with local subsidence, and interfered with each other and thus influenced the depositional processes. At the high inflection points of the long-term eustatic sea-level curve, floodings took place that resulted in delta-wide shale markers. At the low inflection points, erosional channels were formed that are often associated, downdip, with turbidites in low-stand sediments (LSTs). The megasequences contain regional transgressive claystone units (TST) followed by a range of heterogeneous fine-to-coarse progradational or aggradational siliciclastic (para)sequence sets

@article{doi102478v1011801100083,
    author = "Reijers, T.J.A.",
    title = "Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Niger Delta",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Geologos",
    abstract = "Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Niger DeltaDuring the Cenozoic, until the Middle Miocene, the Niger Delta grew through pulses of sedimentation over an oceanward-dipping continental basement into the Gulf of Guinea; thereafter progradation took place over a landward-dipping oceanic basement. A 12,000 m thick succession of overall regressive, offlapping sediments resulted that is composed of three diachronous siliciclastic units: the deep-marine pro-delta Akata Group, the shallow-marine delta-front Agbada Group and the continental, delta-top Benin Group.Regionally, sediment dispersal was controlled by marine transgressive/regressive cycles related to eustatic sea-level changes with varying duration. Differential subsidence locally influenced sediment accumulation. Collectively, these controls resulted in eleven chronostratigraphically confined delta-wide mega-sequences with considerable internal lithological variation.The various sea-level cycles were in or out of phase with each other and with local subsidence, and interfered with each other and thus influenced the depositional processes. At the high inflection points of the long-term eustatic sea-level curve, floodings took place that resulted in delta-wide shale markers. At the low inflection points, erosional channels were formed that are often associated, downdip, with turbidites in low-stand sediments (LSTs). The megasequences contain regional transgressive claystone units (TST) followed by a range of heterogeneous fine-to-coarse progradational or aggradational siliciclastic (para)sequence sets",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2478/v10118-011-0008-3",
    doi = "10.2478/v10118-011-0008-3",
    openalex = "W1995963722",
    references = "doi1010160037073891901395, doi1010160168962285900508, doi1011300016760619637493sitcio20co2, doi1013065d25c0cf16c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306703c9af5170711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306c1ea47ed16c911d78645000102c1865d, doi102110csp9907, doi102110pec88010071, doi102307634028, openalexw561894087"
}

Abstract. The South Atlantic rift basin evolved as a branch of a large Jurassic–Cretaceous intraplate rift zone between the African and South American plates during the final break-up of western Gondwana. While the relative motions between South America and Africa for post-break-up times are well resolved, many issues pertaining to the fit reconstruction and particularly the relation between kinematics and lithosphere dynamics during pre-break-up remain unclear in currently published plate models. We have compiled and assimilated data from these intraplated rifts and constructed a revised plate kinematic model for the pre-break-up evolution of the South Atlantic. Based on structural restoration of the conjugate South Atlantic margins and intracontinental rift basins in Africa and South America, we achieve a tight-fit reconstruction which eliminates the need for previously inferred large intracontinental shear zones, in particular in Patagonian South America. By quantitatively accounting for crustal deformation in the Central and West African Rift Zones, we have been able to indirectly construct the kinematic history of the pre-break-up evolution of the conjugate west African–Brazilian margins. Our model suggests a causal link between changes in extension direction and velocity during continental extension and the generation of marginal structures such as the enigmatic pre-salt sag basin and the São Paulo High. We model an initial E–W-directed extension between South America and Africa (fixed in present-day position) at very low extensional velocities from 140 Ma until late Hauterivian times (≈126 Ma) when rift activity along in the equatorial Atlantic domain started to increase significantly. During this initial ≈14 Myr-long stretching episode the pre-salt basin width on the conjugate Brazilian and west African margins is generated. An intermediate stage between ≈126 Ma and base Aptian is characterised by strain localisation, rapid lithospheric weakening in the equatorial Atlantic domain, resulting in both progressively increasing extensional velocities as well as a significant rotation of the extension direction to NE–SW. From base Aptian onwards diachronous lithospheric break-up occurred along the central South Atlantic rift, first in the Sergipe–Alagoas/Rio Muni margin segment in the northernmost South Atlantic. Final break-up between South America and Africa occurred in the conjugate Santos–Benguela margin segment at around 113 Ma and in the equatorial Atlantic domain between the Ghanaian Ridge and the Piauí-Ceará margin at 103 Ma. We conclude that such a multi-velocity, multi-directional rift history exerts primary control on the evolution of these conjugate passive-margin systems and can explain the first-order tectonic structures along the South Atlantic and possibly other passive margins.

@article{doi105194se42152013,
    author = "Heine, Christian and Zoethout, J. and Müller, R. Dietmar",
    title = "Kinematics of the South Atlantic rift",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Abstract. The South Atlantic rift basin evolved as a branch of a large Jurassic–Cretaceous intraplate rift zone between the African and South American plates during the final break-up of western Gondwana. While the relative motions between South America and Africa for post-break-up times are well resolved, many issues pertaining to the fit reconstruction and particularly the relation between kinematics and lithosphere dynamics during pre-break-up remain unclear in currently published plate models. We have compiled and assimilated data from these intraplated rifts and constructed a revised plate kinematic model for the pre-break-up evolution of the South Atlantic. Based on structural restoration of the conjugate South Atlantic margins and intracontinental rift basins in Africa and South America, we achieve a tight-fit reconstruction which eliminates the need for previously inferred large intracontinental shear zones, in particular in Patagonian South America. By quantitatively accounting for crustal deformation in the Central and West African Rift Zones, we have been able to indirectly construct the kinematic history of the pre-break-up evolution of the conjugate west African–Brazilian margins. Our model suggests a causal link between changes in extension direction and velocity during continental extension and the generation of marginal structures such as the enigmatic pre-salt sag basin and the São Paulo High. We model an initial E–W-directed extension between South America and Africa (fixed in present-day position) at very low extensional velocities from 140 Ma until late Hauterivian times (≈126 Ma) when rift activity along in the equatorial Atlantic domain started to increase significantly. During this initial ≈14 Myr-long stretching episode the pre-salt basin width on the conjugate Brazilian and west African margins is generated. An intermediate stage between ≈126 Ma and base Aptian is characterised by strain localisation, rapid lithospheric weakening in the equatorial Atlantic domain, resulting in both progressively increasing extensional velocities as well as a significant rotation of the extension direction to NE–SW. From base Aptian onwards diachronous lithospheric break-up occurred along the central South Atlantic rift, first in the Sergipe–Alagoas/Rio Muni margin segment in the northernmost South Atlantic. Final break-up between South America and Africa occurred in the conjugate Santos–Benguela margin segment at around 113 Ma and in the equatorial Atlantic domain between the Ghanaian Ridge and the Piauí-Ceará margin at 103 Ma. We conclude that such a multi-velocity, multi-directional rift history exerts primary control on the evolution of these conjugate passive-margin systems and can explain the first-order tectonic structures along the South Atlantic and possibly other passive margins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5194/se-4-215-2013",
    doi = "10.5194/se-4-215-2013",
    openalex = "W1992192773",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900717, doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jprecamres200704021, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292007gc001743, doi10102998eo00426, doi101029jb094ib06p07685, doi101126science23547931156, doi101144sp2902, doi102110pec95040129, openalexw2989049194"
}

@article{doi101016jearscirev201510014,
    author = "Anderson, John B. and Wallace, Davin J. and Simms, Alexander R. and Rodriguez, Antonio B. and Weight, Robert William Reed and Taha, Z. Patrick",
    title = "Recycling sediments between source and sink during a eustatic cycle: Systems of late Quaternary northwestern Gulf of Mexico Basin",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.10.014",
    doi = "10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.10.014",
    openalex = "W1919711403",
    references = "crossref1978gulf, crossref1987the, doi1010160012821x96000623, doi1010160277379187900035, doi101016jearscirev201511001, doi101038342637a0, doi101038346456a0, doi101038nature08686, doi101046j13652117200100150x, doi101046j13653091200000008x, doi101086509246, doi101086629606, doi102307210739, doi102307211375"
}

@article{doi101016jmarpetgeo201510004,
    author = "Daigle, Hugh and Cook, Ann E. and Malinverno, Alberto",
    title = "Permeability and porosity of hydrate-bearing sediments in the northern Gulf of Mexico",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.10.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.10.004",
    openalex = "W2186372108",
    references = "behrmann2006rapid"
}

Normark in the early 1970s when I was revising my first paper on Amazon Fan based on the excellent review he had just provided. He had already become one of the foremost authorities on modern fans. After that, I had the good fortune to interact with Bill numerous times during his career including at meetings, collaboration on publications, and describing Amazon Fan cores together during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 155. Early on

@article{doi101130ges010901,
    author = "Damuth, John E. and Olson, Hilary Clement",
    title = "Latest Quaternary sedimentation in the northern Gulf of Mexico Intraslope Basin Province: I. Sediment facies and depositional processes",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Geosphere",
    abstract = "Normark in the early 1970s when I was revising my first paper on Amazon Fan based on the excellent review he had just provided. He had already become one of the foremost authorities on modern fans. After that, I had the good fortune to interact with Bill numerous times during his career including at meetings, collaboration on publications, and describing Amazon Fan cores together during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 155. Early on",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/ges01090.1",
    doi = "10.1130/ges01090.1",
    openalex = "W2194143925",
    references = "crossref1978gulf, doi101086627725"
}

The Gulf of Mexico Basin is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon-producing basins in the world, with an estimated endowment of 200 billion barrels of oil equivalent. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the basin, spanning the US, Mexico and Cuba. Topics covered include conventional and unconventional reservoirs, source rocks and associated tectonics, basin evolution from the Mesozoic to Cenozoic Era, and different regions of the basin from mature onshore fields to deep-water subsalt plays. Cores, well logs and seismic lines are all discussed providing local, regional and basin-scale insights. The scientific implications of seminal events in the basin's history are also covered, including sedimentary effects of the Chicxulub Impact. Containing over 200 color illustrations and 50 stratigraphic cross-sections and paleogeographic maps, this is an invaluable resource for petroleum industry professionals, as well as graduate students and researchers interested in basin analysis, sedimentology, stratigraphy, tectonics and petroleum geology.

@book{openalexw3000352402,
    author = "Snedden, John W. and Galloway, William E.",
    title = "The Gulf of Mexico Sedimentary Basin: Depositional Evolution and Petroleum Applications",
    year = "2019",
    abstract = "The Gulf of Mexico Basin is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon-producing basins in the world, with an estimated endowment of 200 billion barrels of oil equivalent. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the basin, spanning the US, Mexico and Cuba. Topics covered include conventional and unconventional reservoirs, source rocks and associated tectonics, basin evolution from the Mesozoic to Cenozoic Era, and different regions of the basin from mature onshore fields to deep-water subsalt plays. Cores, well logs and seismic lines are all discussed providing local, regional and basin-scale insights. The scientific implications of seminal events in the basin's history are also covered, including sedimentary effects of the Chicxulub Impact. Containing over 200 color illustrations and 50 stratigraphic cross-sections and paleogeographic maps, this is an invaluable resource for petroleum industry professionals, as well as graduate students and researchers interested in basin analysis, sedimentology, stratigraphy, tectonics and petroleum geology.",
    openalex = "W3000352402",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201604002, doi101016jsedgeo201806007, doi101130ges013741, doi10130607081312187, doi105724gcs84050109"
}

Abstract Deep‐water mudstones overlying basin‐floor and slope sandstone‐prone deposits are often interpreted as hemipelagic drapes deposited during sand starvation periods. However, mud transport and depositional processes, and resulting facies and architecture of mudstones in deep‐water environments, remain poorly understood. This study documents the sedimentology and stratigraphy of basin‐floor and slope mudstones intercalated with sandstone‐prone deposits of the Laingsburg depocentre (Karoo Basin, South Africa). Sedimentologic and stratigraphic criteria are presented here to distinguish between slope and basin‐floor mudstones, which provide a tool to refine palaeogeographical reconstructions of other deep‐water successions. Several mudstone units were mapped at outcrop for 2500 km 2 and investigated using macroscopic and microscopic core descriptions from two research boreholes. Basin‐floor mudstones exhibit a repeated and predictable alternation of bedsets dominated by low‐density turbidites, and massive packages dominated by debrites, with evidence of turbulent‐to‐laminar flow transformations. Slope mudstones exhibit a similar facies assemblage, but the proportion of low‐density turbidites is higher, and no repeated or predictable facies organisation is recognised. The well‐ordered and predictable facies organisation of basin‐floor mudstones suggest local point sources from active slope conduits, responsible for deposition of compensationally stacked muddy lobes. The lack of predictable facies organisation in slope mudstones suggests deposition took place in a more variable range of sub‐environments (i.e. ponded accommodation, minor gully/channel‐fills, levees). However, regional mapping of three mudstone units evidence basinward tapering and similar thicknesses across depositional strike. This geometry is consistent with the distal part of basin margin clinothems, and suggests laterally extensive mud delivery across the shelf edge combined with along‐margin transport processes. Therefore, the sedimentology and geometry of mudstones suggests that mud can be delivered to deep‐water dominantly by sediment gravity flows through point source and distributed regionally, during periods of up‐dip sand storage. These findings challenge the common attribution of deep‐water mudstones to periods of basin‐floor sediment starvation.

@article{doi101002dep2191,
    author = "Boulesteix, Kévin and Poyatos‐Moré, Miquel and Flint, Stephen S. and Hodgson, David M. and Taylor, Kevin G. and Brunt, Rufus L.",
    title = "Sedimentologic and stratigraphic criteria to distinguish between basin‐floor and slope mudstones: Implications for the delivery of mud to deep‐water environments",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "The Depositional Record",
    abstract = "Abstract Deep‐water mudstones overlying basin‐floor and slope sandstone‐prone deposits are often interpreted as hemipelagic drapes deposited during sand starvation periods. However, mud transport and depositional processes, and resulting facies and architecture of mudstones in deep‐water environments, remain poorly understood. This study documents the sedimentology and stratigraphy of basin‐floor and slope mudstones intercalated with sandstone‐prone deposits of the Laingsburg depocentre (Karoo Basin, South Africa). Sedimentologic and stratigraphic criteria are presented here to distinguish between slope and basin‐floor mudstones, which provide a tool to refine palaeogeographical reconstructions of other deep‐water successions. Several mudstone units were mapped at outcrop for 2500 km 2 and investigated using macroscopic and microscopic core descriptions from two research boreholes. Basin‐floor mudstones exhibit a repeated and predictable alternation of bedsets dominated by low‐density turbidites, and massive packages dominated by debrites, with evidence of turbulent‐to‐laminar flow transformations. Slope mudstones exhibit a similar facies assemblage, but the proportion of low‐density turbidites is higher, and no repeated or predictable facies organisation is recognised. The well‐ordered and predictable facies organisation of basin‐floor mudstones suggest local point sources from active slope conduits, responsible for deposition of compensationally stacked muddy lobes. The lack of predictable facies organisation in slope mudstones suggests deposition took place in a more variable range of sub‐environments (i.e. ponded accommodation, minor gully/channel‐fills, levees). However, regional mapping of three mudstone units evidence basinward tapering and similar thicknesses across depositional strike. This geometry is consistent with the distal part of basin margin clinothems, and suggests laterally extensive mud delivery across the shelf edge combined with along‐margin transport processes. Therefore, the sedimentology and geometry of mudstones suggests that mud can be delivered to deep‐water dominantly by sediment gravity flows through point source and distributed regionally, during periods of up‐dip sand storage. These findings challenge the common attribution of deep‐water mudstones to periods of basin‐floor sediment starvation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.191",
    doi = "10.1002/dep2.191",
    openalex = "W4224251143",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201604002"
}

Abstract We investigated the source rock potential, sequence stratigraphy, and characterized hydrocarbon reservoirs at Otumara field, Niger delta, using integrated 3D seismic, wireline log analysis, and basin modeling. The burial history and thermal maturity were modeled, the reservoirs were delineated, and the petrophysical parameters were also estimated from the wireline logs. The Passey “ΔLog R ” method for estimating the preliminary evaluations of the total organic carbon (TOC) from integrating sonic, neutron, and density with resistivity has been used. The results indicate that the primary source rock of hydrocarbons is the Upper Akata Formation, despite a higher TOC percentage in the Agbada Formation. Based on sequence stratigraphy analysis, TA4, TB1, TB2, and TB3 second-order supercycles were obtained in the studied well TD46. The results also revealed that the field has two large net pays with high-quality reservoir facies: a deltaic slope fan at the upper shoreface and a river mouth sandbar at the lower shoreface. Furthermore, the reservoirs were faulted by a series of growing faults that faulted the basin slope. The reservoir facies are characterized by an average of 18% porosity, 1200 mD permeability, 16% volume of shale, and high hydrocarbon saturation of about 85%. Finally, the petroleum system elements have been defined for improved hydrocarbon exploration. In the absence of complete or partial core samples, this case study emphasizes the importance of using wireline logs to estimate organic richness and investigate sequence stratigraphy in clastic sediments.

@article{doi101007s13202022015484,
    author = "Diab, Ahmed and Sanuade, Oluseun Adetola and Radwan, Ahmed E.",
    title = "An integrated source rock potential, sequence stratigraphy, and petroleum geology of (Agbada-Akata) sediment succession, Niger delta: application of well logs aided by 3D seismic and basin modeling",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology",
    abstract = "Abstract We investigated the source rock potential, sequence stratigraphy, and characterized hydrocarbon reservoirs at Otumara field, Niger delta, using integrated 3D seismic, wireline log analysis, and basin modeling. The burial history and thermal maturity were modeled, the reservoirs were delineated, and the petrophysical parameters were also estimated from the wireline logs. The Passey “ΔLog R ” method for estimating the preliminary evaluations of the total organic carbon (TOC) from integrating sonic, neutron, and density with resistivity has been used. The results indicate that the primary source rock of hydrocarbons is the Upper Akata Formation, despite a higher TOC percentage in the Agbada Formation. Based on sequence stratigraphy analysis, TA4, TB1, TB2, and TB3 second-order supercycles were obtained in the studied well TD46. The results also revealed that the field has two large net pays with high-quality reservoir facies: a deltaic slope fan at the upper shoreface and a river mouth sandbar at the lower shoreface. Furthermore, the reservoirs were faulted by a series of growing faults that faulted the basin slope. The reservoir facies are characterized by an average of 18\% porosity, 1200 mD permeability, 16\% volume of shale, and high hydrocarbon saturation of about 85\%. Finally, the petroleum system elements have been defined for improved hydrocarbon exploration. In the absence of complete or partial core samples, this case study emphasizes the importance of using wireline logs to estimate organic richness and investigate sequence stratigraphy in clastic sediments.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-022-01548-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s13202-022-01548-4",
    openalex = "W4289520341",
    references = "doi1010079781402046025, doi1010079783540926856, doi101016jcoal201705012, doi101021jacs7b02677, doi101038nature09826, doi10119011438493, doi102118950105g, doi102478v1011801100083, doi105860choice444462, openalexw2269710820"
}

Investigating the primary influencing factors that regulate the enrichment of shallow gas not only deepens our understanding of the rules governing shallow gas enrichment in deep-ocean environments but also has the potential to enhance the success rate of locating shallow gas reservoirs. Recent drilling activities in the LS36 gas field located in the central Qiongdongnan Basin have revealed a substantial shallow gas reserve within the sediments of the Quaternary Ledong Formation, marking it as the first shallow gas reservoir discovered in the offshore region of China with confirmed natural gas geological reserves surpassing 100 billion cubic meters. However, the formation mechanism and influencing factors of shallow gas enrichment remain elusive due to the limited availability of 3D seismic and well data. This study employs seismic interpretation and digital simulation to decipher the dynamics of shallow gas accumulation and utilizes the carbon isotope composition of methane to ascertain the origin of the shallow gas. Our results show that the shallow gas is primarily concentrated within a large-scale submarine fan, covering a distribution region of up to 2800 km2, situated in the deep-sea plain. The δ13 C1 methane carbon isotope data ranges from −69.7‰ to −45.2‰ and all δ13 C2 values are above −28‰, suggesting that the shallow gas within the Ledong Formation is derived from a mix of biogenic gas produced in shallow strata and thermogenic gas generated in deeper source rocks. The results of gas sources, seismic profiles, and digital simulations suggest that thermogenic gas originating from the Lingshui and Beijiao sags was transported to the Quaternary submarine fan via a complex system that includes faults, gas chimneys, and channel sands. The mass-transported deposits (MTDs) in the upper reaches of the submarine fan have effectively acted as a seal, preventing the escape of shallow gas from the fan. Therefore, the factors contributing to the enrichment of shallow gas in the Qiongdongnan Basin include the presence of favorable submarine fan reservoirs, the availability of two distinct gas sources, the effective sealing of MTDs, and the presence of two efficient transport pathways. A conceptual model for the accumulation of shallow gas is developed, illuminating the complex formation–migration–accumulation process. This study underscores the importance of aligning multiple influencing factors in the process of shallow gas accumulation, and the suggested accumulation model may be pertinent to shallow gas exploration in other marginal sea basins.

@article{doi103390jmse12111928,
    author = "Pei, Jianxiang and Liu, Entao and Song, Peng and Yan, Detian and Luo, Wei and Zhan, Junming and Wang, Zhenzhen and Li, Gupan and Uysal, I. Tonguç and Yang, Peifeng",
    title = "Influencing Factors and Model of Shallow Gas Enrichment in the Quaternary Sediments of the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Journal of Marine Science and Engineering",
    abstract = "Investigating the primary influencing factors that regulate the enrichment of shallow gas not only deepens our understanding of the rules governing shallow gas enrichment in deep-ocean environments but also has the potential to enhance the success rate of locating shallow gas reservoirs. Recent drilling activities in the LS36 gas field located in the central Qiongdongnan Basin have revealed a substantial shallow gas reserve within the sediments of the Quaternary Ledong Formation, marking it as the first shallow gas reservoir discovered in the offshore region of China with confirmed natural gas geological reserves surpassing 100 billion cubic meters. However, the formation mechanism and influencing factors of shallow gas enrichment remain elusive due to the limited availability of 3D seismic and well data. This study employs seismic interpretation and digital simulation to decipher the dynamics of shallow gas accumulation and utilizes the carbon isotope composition of methane to ascertain the origin of the shallow gas. Our results show that the shallow gas is primarily concentrated within a large-scale submarine fan, covering a distribution region of up to 2800 km2, situated in the deep-sea plain. The δ13 C1 methane carbon isotope data ranges from −69.7‰ to −45.2‰ and all δ13 C2 values are above −28‰, suggesting that the shallow gas within the Ledong Formation is derived from a mix of biogenic gas produced in shallow strata and thermogenic gas generated in deeper source rocks. The results of gas sources, seismic profiles, and digital simulations suggest that thermogenic gas originating from the Lingshui and Beijiao sags was transported to the Quaternary submarine fan via a complex system that includes faults, gas chimneys, and channel sands. The mass-transported deposits (MTDs) in the upper reaches of the submarine fan have effectively acted as a seal, preventing the escape of shallow gas from the fan. Therefore, the factors contributing to the enrichment of shallow gas in the Qiongdongnan Basin include the presence of favorable submarine fan reservoirs, the availability of two distinct gas sources, the effective sealing of MTDs, and the presence of two efficient transport pathways. A conceptual model for the accumulation of shallow gas is developed, illuminating the complex formation–migration–accumulation process. This study underscores the importance of aligning multiple influencing factors in the process of shallow gas accumulation, and the suggested accumulation model may be pertinent to shallow gas exploration in other marginal sea basins.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12111928",
    doi = "10.3390/jmse12111928",
    openalex = "W4403839891",
    references = "doi101016jdsr2023104101, doi101016jearscirev2024104912"
}

@article{doi101016jmarpetgeo2025107330,
    author = "Dafov, Laura N. and Burton, Zachary F.M. and Haines, Seth S. and Scheirer, Allegra Hosford and Masurek, Nicole and Boswell, Ray and Frye, Matthew and Seol, Yongkoo and Graham, Stephan A.",
    title = "Terrebonne Basin, Gulf of Mexico gas hydrate resource evaluation and 3-D modeling of basin-scale sedimentation, salt tectonics, and hydrate system evolution since the early Miocene",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2025.107330",
    doi = "10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2025.107330",
    openalex = "W4407381891",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev2024104912"
}