Hackberry formation

The Vinton salt dome is a typical Gulf Coast salt dome. There is a mound at the surface with a central depression. The salt core is a little less than a mile in diameter. The north side is exceptional in that the salt dips downward to about 3,750 feet and then rises nearly 200 feet before dipping downward again. The lowest formation encountered is the Jackson. On the west and southwest sides of the dome the Oligocene has been pinched out by the Jackson due to the upward dragging effect of the salt core. Production is from the basal Fleming and Oligocene. The field has been one of the best paying fields in the Gulf Coast. The producing area is small with an enormous yield per acre.

@article{thompson1928vinton,
    author = "Thompson, S. A. and Eichelberger, O. H.",
    title = "Vinton Salt Dome, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana",
    year = "1928",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "The Vinton salt dome is a typical Gulf Coast salt dome. There is a mound at the surface with a central depression. The salt core is a little less than a mile in diameter. The north side is exceptional in that the salt dips downward to about 3,750 feet and then rises nearly 200 feet before dipping downward again. The lowest formation encountered is the Jackson. On the west and southwest sides of the dome the Oligocene has been pinched out by the Jackson due to the upward dragging effect of the salt core. Production is from the basal Fleming and Oligocene. The field has been one of the best paying fields in the Gulf Coast. The producing area is small with an enormous yield per acre.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/3d9327ec-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/3d9327ec-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W1978014244",
    pages = "385-394",
    volume = "12",
    references = "doi103133b212, doi103133b282, doi103133b429"
}

ABSTRACT The salt of the salt domes of some areas is known to be sedimentary. Geological observation of those domes and laboratory experimentation show that salt flows plastically under differential pressure. The German salt domes are known to have been formed by the plastic flowage of the Zechstein salt series. Any type of differential pressure should tend to produce plastic flowage of sedimentary salt whenever certain critical conditions such as those of pressure, temperature, and time have been exceeded. The plausible sources of pressure are two: (1) the static pressure of the overlying sediments; and (2) the dynamic pressure of tangential compression or thrust. Under (1), growth of the dome by upthrust can take place only if the available energy is sufficient both to overcome friction and to uplift the salt core and some sediments against gravity; growth of the dome by downbuilding can take place if the mother salt bed is sinking in earth space; the position of maximum uplift is below that of isostatic equilibrium of the salt core; and the form of the salt dome should evolve progressively through a characteristic series of forms. Under (2), the horizontal dynamic pressure will act indirectly upward through anticlines and downward through synclines in competent beds; and directly through horizontal squeezing of the salt in relatively upthrust cores. The static thrust of (1) will be active and may be more important than the dynamic thrust of (2); the position of maximum upthrust of the salt core may be far above its position of isostatic equilibrium; the form of the domes should be varied. The Gulf Coast domes have been formed by the plastic flowage of sedimentary salt intrusively into the overlying sediments. The evidence for that origin of the domes comes from the structure which is revealed by oil-field drilling, from algal remains in the salt, and from the close similarity of the American salt domes to the German salt domes. The age of the salt is greater than most of the Lower Cretaceous. The motive force of the formation of the domes has been the static weight of the sediments. Growth of the domes has taken place throughout the Tertiary and has taken place on a few domes in the most recent past. There was no dynamic tangential compression in the Gulf Coastal Plain area during the Tertiary and Quaternary; therefore, the motive force presumably must have been the static thrust of the sediments. Subsidence of the mother salt bed took place almost continuously through the Tertiary and into the Quaternary. The difference between the specific gravity of the salt and of the sediments is small; and the calculated force of upthrust is small, rather too small to overcome friction and to uplift the salt core and some sediments against gravity. Growth of the domes, therefore, must have been largely by downbuilding. Partially corroboratory evidence is given by the concomitant cessation of growth of the Clay Creek dome and cessation of the regional subsidence of the general surrounding area. But some actual upthrust has taken place on the Gulf Coast domes; and, as theoretically expectable, it tends to be greater on the domes of larger diameter. Growth has not continued into recent time on all the domes and has ceased finally at different times on different domes. The law holds crudely that the deeper the dome, the older the time of cessation of growth. The final cessation of growth in general may have been caused by exhaustion of the salt in the mother salt bed, attainment of isostatic equilibrium, frictional freezing of the salt core to the sediments, and, in the case of downbuilding, by cessation of the subsidence. The succession of retrograde movement of the salt core after the cessation of growth is suggested, inconclusively, by the Clay Creek dome. The presence of rim synclines has been suggested by the results of torsion-balance surveys, but has not been identified from geologic data. Rim synclines could be formed: (1) by solution of the flank of the salt, and (2) by the pushing-in of the deep flank of a flaring salt core in the growth of the dome. Overhang of the salt and cap is present in two types: (1) tilting of the vertical axis of the dome, and (2) mushrooming (Barbers Hill). Type (1) is produced perhaps by the seaward flowage of the deeper sediments. The explanations of type (2) are not satisfactory.

@article{doi1013063d932b9c16b111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Barton, Donald C.",
    title = "Mechanics of Formation of Salt Domes with Special Reference to Gulf Coast Salt Domes of Texas and Louisiana",
    year = "1933",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The salt of the salt domes of some areas is known to be sedimentary. Geological observation of those domes and laboratory experimentation show that salt flows plastically under differential pressure. The German salt domes are known to have been formed by the plastic flowage of the Zechstein salt series. Any type of differential pressure should tend to produce plastic flowage of sedimentary salt whenever certain critical conditions such as those of pressure, temperature, and time have been exceeded. The plausible sources of pressure are two: (1) the static pressure of the overlying sediments; and (2) the dynamic pressure of tangential compression or thrust. Under (1), growth of the dome by upthrust can take place only if the available energy is sufficient both to overcome friction and to uplift the salt core and some sediments against gravity; growth of the dome by downbuilding can take place if the mother salt bed is sinking in earth space; the position of maximum uplift is below that of isostatic equilibrium of the salt core; and the form of the salt dome should evolve progressively through a characteristic series of forms. Under (2), the horizontal dynamic pressure will act indirectly upward through anticlines and downward through synclines in competent beds; and directly through horizontal squeezing of the salt in relatively upthrust cores. The static thrust of (1) will be active and may be more important than the dynamic thrust of (2); the position of maximum upthrust of the salt core may be far above its position of isostatic equilibrium; the form of the domes should be varied. The Gulf Coast domes have been formed by the plastic flowage of sedimentary salt intrusively into the overlying sediments. The evidence for that origin of the domes comes from the structure which is revealed by oil-field drilling, from algal remains in the salt, and from the close similarity of the American salt domes to the German salt domes. The age of the salt is greater than most of the Lower Cretaceous. The motive force of the formation of the domes has been the static weight of the sediments. Growth of the domes has taken place throughout the Tertiary and has taken place on a few domes in the most recent past. There was no dynamic tangential compression in the Gulf Coastal Plain area during the Tertiary and Quaternary; therefore, the motive force presumably must have been the static thrust of the sediments. Subsidence of the mother salt bed took place almost continuously through the Tertiary and into the Quaternary. The difference between the specific gravity of the salt and of the sediments is small; and the calculated force of upthrust is small, rather too small to overcome friction and to uplift the salt core and some sediments against gravity. Growth of the domes, therefore, must have been largely by downbuilding. Partially corroboratory evidence is given by the concomitant cessation of growth of the Clay Creek dome and cessation of the regional subsidence of the general surrounding area. But some actual upthrust has taken place on the Gulf Coast domes; and, as theoretically expectable, it tends to be greater on the domes of larger diameter. Growth has not continued into recent time on all the domes and has ceased finally at different times on different domes. The law holds crudely that the deeper the dome, the older the time of cessation of growth. The final cessation of growth in general may have been caused by exhaustion of the salt in the mother salt bed, attainment of isostatic equilibrium, frictional freezing of the salt core to the sediments, and, in the case of downbuilding, by cessation of the subsidence. The succession of retrograde movement of the salt core after the cessation of growth is suggested, inconclusively, by the Clay Creek dome. The presence of rim synclines has been suggested by the results of torsion-balance surveys, but has not been identified from geologic data. Rim synclines could be formed: (1) by solution of the flank of the salt, and (2) by the pushing-in of the deep flank of a flaring salt core in the growth of the dome. Overhang of the salt and cap is present in two types: (1) tilting of the vertical axis of the dome, and (2) mushrooming (Barbers Hill). Type (1) is produced perhaps by the seaward flowage of the deeper sediments. The explanations of type (2) are not satisfactory.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/3d932b9c-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/3d932b9c-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1963550185"
}

@article{doi1013063d93314c16b111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Kornfeld, Moses Marion",
    title = "Hackberry Foraminiferal Zonation at Starks Field, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana: GEOLOGICAL NOTES",
    year = "1939",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/3d93314c-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/3d93314c-16b1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2020317138"
}

This study is concerned with the origin and meaning of Louisiana geographic names that derive from the various Romance languages* Local history and legend are given ade quate attention when they bear upon some aspect of the name: its origin, present pronunciation, or changes undergone* Two aspects of the procedure of research should be mentioned* First, names of early origin, whether they be transferred personal names or designations conferred by early explorers and settlers, have been identified, and their vari ant forms recorded, by reference to the many early maps treat ing of the present area of Louisiana, maps covering, for the most part, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, though some few seventeenth-century maps have been cited as well; by reference to early documents (travels, descriptions, mem oirs, etc*); by reference to early land surveys and the rec ords of the American State Papers; by reference to existing studies in the same field, including decisions of the United States Geographic Board; and, lastly, by reference to the standard histories dealing with the region under consideration Second, names of more recent origin,-generally, by the way, transferred personal names associated with proper ty ownership,--have been identified through more recent sur veys and State records, as well as through "local information, this latter by the invaluable cooperation of parish officials, X 1*0 General Remarks on Name-giving In Tew other respects do people leave a permanent record of their civilisation so clear-cut and enduring as In place-name-giving* The physical ruins of the ancient world are sporadically distributed, and generally limited to what were Important centers of those antique cultures. A Rosetta Stone, in addition to such architectural remains, la unique* But place-names partake of the democratic qualities of the population masses. Conferred, for the greater part, by the people, they possess an enduring folk-character; and, often adopted by conquerors and succeeding migration waves, such names frequently achieve an immortality denied to those who fashioned them. Everywhere the local names bear witness to races long departed or absorbed. The Phoenician trader Is a learned memory in the early history of the Mediterranean, but Malta is still "the refuge," and Catania, In Sicily, is "the little" harbor. Sevilla is not unlike a sta^e upon which whole civi lizations have played their several acts and gone their ways; but the trade-mark of that Phoenician yet remains; Sevilla Is still the city "on the plain." As Carthage was the "new town," so later was Spanish Carthagena^Carthago Nova, the "New Carthage." So too the Moor: Al&eclras. essentially the sarae as xl Algiers. "the Islands," signifies "the green Island"; Al manza. "the plain"; Almaden. "th mine"; Alcala, "the castle"; and Alhambra={Kalat) al Hamra is "the red (castle)*" In England particularly are the place-names uneven strata that bear witness to the history of that Island* From the British (Celtic) source Isca. "water," (identical with Old Irish esc. Irish ease, "water"), which became frEsca. whence 1 Old English Ssce and AEsce, are derived the names of the rivers Esk and (with metathesis) Axe in England, the T7sk in 2 Sales, and another Esk in Scotland* Kany of the towns and cities that developed near the sites of Homan fortifications bear, in their names, some form or variant of the Anglo-Saxon ceaster. Itself derived from Latin castra, "camp*" The forms In present us seem to show a marked degree of dialectal regularity* Thus, in the old West Saxon region the preference Is for forms in cheater, as in'Winchester. Chichester, and Dorchester* In the old Mercian -territory, cester Is preferred; for example, Gloucester. Wor cester, and Leicester* However, here we find as well Chester and Manchester* The old Anglian district prefers the form ^Ekwall, Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names. p* 163* tftilsc. a lateninth century form (js* &4) is also cited; compare 'the first element (Irish and Gaelic) ulsfre. "vater, In ulsgebeatha. "whiskey," 1* e*, "water of life." ^Similarly, the Gothic a^u a, also signifying "water," has given us the German Aachen and the French Alx-(la-Chapelle)* X X sufficlently Alive and widespread that the name or some honored figure of th past an he conferred meaningfully on some geographic feature with which he might or might not have had direct or indirect contact in his life* In its more refined aspects, the difference between this c lass if lea tion and the more primitive descriptive one Of the preceding section is readily evident, as in comparing the names Cannes Bruises, * the place of the burnt canes*9 * with the name Kenner, a personal-ownerahlp name which has replaced It, There are places, however, where the line of demarcation becomes obscure, and individual students wI13 disagree on the level of classification. Perhaps it is no more than personal feeling that would lead me to place such a name as Riviere dee Chetimachae, not here, but on the more primitive descriptive level along with such e name as Points aux Loupe, Here belongs, of course, that host of names derived from ownership of land, such as Brulbe St, Martin, Gonzales, Guilbeaux, Bayou Trepagnler, etc, the most sophisticated of all name-giving is that which consciously honors the name of some important figure in die history or traditions of the people* There are many examples of this type found, as elsewhere, in Louisiana* Though dealt with more fully below, mention here may be made of such names as those of the parishes of Lafayette, Iberville, Bienville, De Soto and La Salle* xxl 1*2 Classification of united states Geographic Board the united States Geographic Board In its comprehen sive report on American place-names has devised th follow ing classification concerning the characteristics of geograph ic n a m e s (1) Descriptive names; (2) Mon-descriptive names, (a) Personal names# (b) Transplanted geographic names, (c) Names commemorating an events (d) Religious names, (e) Casual and mhiaaieai names* (f) Metamorphosed names; (3) Mixed Types of Saafts Some discussion of all these types is paralleled under similar or identical headings in these introductory remarks* 1*21 Descriptive Names The vast number ef descriptive place-names of Romance origin* chiefly from the French* makes some attempt at sub division desirable* Therefore* those names that owe their origin to the presence of certain kinds of plant or animal life will be treated in the Immediately following sub-sections* properly designated. 1 should like to confine these present remarks to those names that refer to the configuration or some Inanimate feature of the locale.

@phdthesis{doi1031390gradschooldisstheses7852,
    author = "Reynolds, John V.",
    title = "Louisiana Placenames of Romance Origin.",
    year = "1942",
    abstract = {This study is concerned with the origin and meaning of Louisiana geographic names that derive from the various Romance languages* Local history and legend are given ade quate attention when they bear upon some aspect of the name: its origin, present pronunciation, or changes undergone* Two aspects of the procedure of research should be mentioned* First, names of early origin, whether they be transferred personal names or designations conferred by early explorers and settlers, have been identified, and their vari ant forms recorded, by reference to the many early maps treat ing of the present area of Louisiana, maps covering, for the most part, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, though some few seventeenth-century maps have been cited as well; by reference to early documents (travels, descriptions, mem oirs, etc*); by reference to early land surveys and the rec ords of the American State Papers; by reference to existing studies in the same field, including decisions of the United States Geographic Board; and, lastly, by reference to the standard histories dealing with the region under consideration Second, names of more recent origin,-generally, by the way, transferred personal names associated with proper ty ownership,--have been identified through more recent sur veys and State records, as well as through "local information, this latter by the invaluable cooperation of parish officials, X 1*0 General Remarks on Name-giving In Tew other respects do people leave a permanent record of their civilisation so clear-cut and enduring as In place-name-giving* The physical ruins of the ancient world are sporadically distributed, and generally limited to what were Important centers of those antique cultures. A Rosetta Stone, in addition to such architectural remains, la unique* But place-names partake of the democratic qualities of the population masses. Conferred, for the greater part, by the people, they possess an enduring folk-character; and, often adopted by conquerors and succeeding migration waves, such names frequently achieve an immortality denied to those who fashioned them. Everywhere the local names bear witness to races long departed or absorbed. The Phoenician trader Is a learned memory in the early history of the Mediterranean, but Malta is still "the refuge," and Catania, In Sicily, is "the little" harbor. Sevilla is not unlike a sta^e upon which whole civi lizations have played their several acts and gone their ways; but the trade-mark of that Phoenician yet remains; Sevilla Is still the city "on the plain." As Carthage was the "new town," so later was Spanish Carthagena^Carthago Nova, the "New Carthage." So too the Moor: Al\&eclras. essentially the sarae as xl Algiers. "the Islands," signifies "the green Island"; Al manza. "the plain"; Almaden. "th mine"; Alcala, "the castle"; and Alhambra=(Kalat) al Hamra is "the red (castle)*" In England particularly are the place-names uneven strata that bear witness to the history of that Island* From the British (Celtic) source Isca. "water," (identical with Old Irish esc. Irish ease, "water"), which became frEsca. whence 1 Old English Ssce and AEsce, are derived the names of the rivers Esk and (with metathesis) Axe in England, the T7sk in 2 Sales, and another Esk in Scotland* Kany of the towns and cities that developed near the sites of Homan fortifications bear, in their names, some form or variant of the Anglo-Saxon ceaster. Itself derived from Latin castra, "camp*" The forms In present us seem to show a marked degree of dialectal regularity* Thus, in the old West Saxon region the preference Is for forms in cheater, as in'Winchester. Chichester, and Dorchester* In the old Mercian -territory, cester Is preferred; for example, Gloucester. Wor cester, and Leicester* However, here we find as well Chester and Manchester* The old Anglian district prefers the form ^Ekwall, Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names. p* 163* tftilsc. a lateninth century form (js* \&4) is also cited; compare 'the first element (Irish and Gaelic) ulsfre. "vater, In ulsgebeatha. "whiskey," 1* e*, "water of life." ^Similarly, the Gothic a^u a, also signifying "water," has given us the German Aachen and the French Alx-(la-Chapelle)* X X sufficlently Alive and widespread that the name or some honored figure of th past an he conferred meaningfully on some geographic feature with which he might or might not have had direct or indirect contact in his life* In its more refined aspects, the difference between this c lass if lea tion and the more primitive descriptive one Of the preceding section is readily evident, as in comparing the names Cannes Bruises, * the place of the burnt canes*9 * with the name Kenner, a personal-ownerahlp name which has replaced It, There are places, however, where the line of demarcation becomes obscure, and individual students wI13 disagree on the level of classification. Perhaps it is no more than personal feeling that would lead me to place such a name as Riviere dee Chetimachae, not here, but on the more primitive descriptive level along with such e name as Points aux Loupe, Here belongs, of course, that host of names derived from ownership of land, such as Brulbe St, Martin, Gonzales, Guilbeaux, Bayou Trepagnler, etc, the most sophisticated of all name-giving is that which consciously honors the name of some important figure in die history or traditions of the people* There are many examples of this type found, as elsewhere, in Louisiana* Though dealt with more fully below, mention here may be made of such names as those of the parishes of Lafayette, Iberville, Bienville, De Soto and La Salle* xxl 1*2 Classification of united states Geographic Board the united States Geographic Board In its comprehen sive report on American place-names has devised th follow ing classification concerning the characteristics of geograph ic n a m e s (1) Descriptive names; (2) Mon-descriptive names, (a) Personal names\# (b) Transplanted geographic names, (c) Names commemorating an events (d) Religious names, (e) Casual and mhiaaieai names* (f) Metamorphosed names; (3) Mixed Types of Saafts Some discussion of all these types is paralleled under similar or identical headings in these introductory remarks* 1*21 Descriptive Names The vast number ef descriptive place-names of Romance origin* chiefly from the French* makes some attempt at sub division desirable* Therefore* those names that owe their origin to the presence of certain kinds of plant or animal life will be treated in the Immediately following sub-sections* properly designated. 1 should like to confine these present remarks to those names that refer to the configuration or some Inanimate feature of the locale.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.31390/gradschool\_disstheses.7852",
    doi = "10.31390/gradschool\_disstheses.7852",
    openalex = "W2800319664",
    references = "doi1023071787617"
}

@article{paine1966stratigraphy,
    author = "Paine, William R.",
    title = "Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of Hackberry Shale (Middle Oligocene) and Associated Beds of Southwestern Louisiana: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25b749-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25b749-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1998135407",
    volume = "50"
}

The subsurface Hackberry wedge of the middle part of the Oligocene(?) Frio Formation of southwestern Louisiana is one of the four major deeper water shale wedges in the post-Vicksburg Gulf Coast Tertiary section. The Hackberry can be divided into two parts. The upper section ranges in thickness from zero to more than 3,000 ft, and consists predominantly of shale containing an outer-neritic (deep-water) microfaunal assemblage. Some thin, erratically distributed sandstone bodies are present. The lower section ranges in thickness from zero to 700 ft and consists essentially of sandstone. In order to help the reader understand the geologic history of the Hackberry wedge, a discussion of the stratigraphy and structure of the entire Frio section is included. The complicated Frio stratigraphy of northern Jefferson Davis and Calcasieu Parishes is caused in part by a complex tectonic history during the early part of Frio deposition and in part by depositional variation within the Hackberry section. The geologic history of the area can be summarized in a sequence of eight stages. It should be emphasized that these eight stages are a sequence of events that probably overlap one another and may have occurred at slightly different times in different areas. Deposition of Vicksburg and lower Frio Textularia seligi zone. Development of lower unconformity (this may be a local unconformity). Deposition of the lower Frio and Hartburg sequences. Uplift, folding, erosion, and development of “pre-Hackberry unconformity.” Tilting of the unconformity surface and renewed erosion which formed channels. Filling of the channels with basal Hackberry sandstones to form a flat upper surface. Deposition of Hackberry shale sequence with “arenaceous” fauna at its base. Deposition of the remainder of the Frio Formation and the lower part of the Anahuac Formation. The earlier structural movements were accompanied by folds and faults. The structures thus formed were truncated by regional erosion. Large channels (600 ft or deeper) were cut into the pre-Hackberry erosional surface and later filled. The manner in which these channels were cut and filled is uncertain, but turbidity flows may have been the cause. The structural movements, history of erosion, and the complex stratigraphy of the Hackberry make exploration for Hackberry sandstone reservoirs a high-risk economic venture, but one which may pay high dividends.

@article{paine1968stratigraphy,
    author = "Paine, William R.",
    title = "Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of Subsurface Hackberry Wedge and Associated Beds of Southwestern Louisiana",
    year = "1968",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "The subsurface Hackberry wedge of the middle part of the Oligocene(?) Frio Formation of southwestern Louisiana is one of the four major deeper water shale wedges in the post-Vicksburg Gulf Coast Tertiary section. The Hackberry can be divided into two parts. The upper section ranges in thickness from zero to more than 3,000 ft, and consists predominantly of shale containing an outer-neritic (deep-water) microfaunal assemblage. Some thin, erratically distributed sandstone bodies are present. The lower section ranges in thickness from zero to 700 ft and consists essentially of sandstone. In order to help the reader understand the geologic history of the Hackberry wedge, a discussion of the stratigraphy and structure of the entire Frio section is included. The complicated Frio stratigraphy of northern Jefferson Davis and Calcasieu Parishes is caused in part by a complex tectonic history during the early part of Frio deposition and in part by depositional variation within the Hackberry section. The geologic history of the area can be summarized in a sequence of eight stages. It should be emphasized that these eight stages are a sequence of events that probably overlap one another and may have occurred at slightly different times in different areas. Deposition of Vicksburg and lower Frio Textularia seligi zone. Development of lower unconformity (this may be a local unconformity). Deposition of the lower Frio and Hartburg sequences. Uplift, folding, erosion, and development of “pre-Hackberry unconformity.” Tilting of the unconformity surface and renewed erosion which formed channels. Filling of the channels with basal Hackberry sandstones to form a flat upper surface. Deposition of Hackberry shale sequence with “arenaceous” fauna at its base. Deposition of the remainder of the Frio Formation and the lower part of the Anahuac Formation. The earlier structural movements were accompanied by folds and faults. The structures thus formed were truncated by regional erosion. Large channels (600 ft or deeper) were cut into the pre-Hackberry erosional surface and later filled. The manner in which these channels were cut and filled is uncertain, but turbidity flows may have been the cause. The structural movements, history of erosion, and the complex stratigraphy of the Hackberry make exploration for Hackberry sandstone reservoirs a high-risk economic venture, but one which may pay high dividends.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25c2d3-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25c2d3-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W1994989199",
    pages = "322-342",
    volume = "52",
    references = "bornhauser1960depositional, doi1013060bda5a8316bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013063d93314c16b111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25b72316c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25b76716c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c0f916c111d78645000102c1865d, openalexw1526438593, openalexw1565983386, openalexw2601390057"
}

@techreport{paine1968stratigraphy2,
    author = "Paine, R",
    title = "Stratigraphy and sedimentation of subsurface Hackberry wedge and associated beds of southwestern Louisiana",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 52, p. 322-342",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Paine, R., 1968, Stratigraphy and sedimentation of subsurface Hackberry wedge and associated beds of southwestern Louisiana: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 52, p. 322-342.}"
}

Louisiana is divisible into two major culture areas where the landscapes bear the imprint of two different cul ture groups. These areas have been called "Anglo-American Louisiana" and "French Louisiana." These culture areas have been systematically delimited by studies of religion, language, food preferences, folk housing, systems of enclo sure, and settlement pattern. Place names are a significant aspect of the cultural landscape. One of the most significant aspects of placename study involves the origin, spread, and present distribution of the generic parts of toponyms. Generic terms are persistent language forms originally associated with definite culture groups. Therefore, a systematic study of the areal and temporal distribution of the generic parts of toponyms is of diagnostic value in delimiting culture areas. It is essential to examine these language forms from their introduction into the landscape, through their develop ment and modifications, to their abandonment or incorporation into the present landscape. Maps presenting the distribution of generic terms at various periods from 1700-1968 assisted in assessing the diagnostic value of generic terms in the theoretical reconstruction of culture areas. In addition to xiv determining the diagnostic value of generic terms for delimi tation of culture areas, an understanding of the relationship between man and the landscape-in the names--was gained.

@phdthesis{doi1031390gradschooldisstheses1838,
    author = "Detro, Randall A.",
    title = "Generic Terms in the Place Names of Louisiana, an Index to the Cultural Landscape.",
    year = "1970",
    abstract = {Louisiana is divisible into two major culture areas where the landscapes bear the imprint of two different cul ture groups. These areas have been called "Anglo-American Louisiana" and "French Louisiana." These culture areas have been systematically delimited by studies of religion, language, food preferences, folk housing, systems of enclo sure, and settlement pattern. Place names are a significant aspect of the cultural landscape. One of the most significant aspects of placename study involves the origin, spread, and present distribution of the generic parts of toponyms. Generic terms are persistent language forms originally associated with definite culture groups. Therefore, a systematic study of the areal and temporal distribution of the generic parts of toponyms is of diagnostic value in delimiting culture areas. It is essential to examine these language forms from their introduction into the landscape, through their develop ment and modifications, to their abandonment or incorporation into the present landscape. Maps presenting the distribution of generic terms at various periods from 1700-1968 assisted in assessing the diagnostic value of generic terms in the theoretical reconstruction of culture areas. In addition to xiv determining the diagnostic value of generic terms for delimi tation of culture areas, an understanding of the relationship between man and the landscape-in the names--was gained.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.31390/gradschool\_disstheses.1838",
    doi = "10.31390/gradschool\_disstheses.1838",
    openalex = "W2920838151",
    references = "doi101017s0007680500019875, doi101093nqs7vi13339a, doi1023072921074, doi1023073031203, doi102307360776, doi102307410746, doi1031390gradschooldisstheses7852, openalexw1497841370, openalexw1518448329, openalexw1567025775, openalexw2315284189"
}

@article{benson1971geology,
    author = "Benson, Paul H.",
    title = "Geology of Oligocene Hackberry Trend, Gillis English Bayou--Manchester Area, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/819a3d44-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/819a3d44-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    volume = "55"
}

@article{benson1971geology1,
    author = "Benson, P. H",
    title = "Geology of the Oligocene Hackberry trend, Gillis English Bayou - Manchester area, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 21, p. 1-14",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Benson, P. H., 1971, Geology of the Oligocene Hackberry trend, Gillis English Bayou - Manchester area, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, v. 21, p. 1-14.}"
}

ABSTRACT Recent discoveries in the Hackberry of southwest Louisiana have created new interest in the high-risk, deep Hackberry section. Petrographic examination of three conventional cores and hundreds of sidewall cores, together with previously completed isopach studies, has established that the lower Hackberry sandstones are turbidites. Within the area, the lower Hackberry sandstone interval has two depositional patterns: an updip north-south channel pattern, and a downdip blanket-type sandstone pattern. Cores in the lower Hackberry have the following graded sequence from bottom to top: (1) coarse-grained conglomeratic sandstone which grades upward into finer laminated sandstones; (2) cross-bedded and convoluted sandstone; (3) siltstone; and (4) finely laminated shale. The sandstone is bimodal and trimodal, commonly containing 30-50% clay matrix. The microfaunal assemblage within the lower Hackberry cyclic sequence indicate depth ranges of 300 to 3000 feet (Zones 5 and 6). Because of the turbidite nature of the sediments, production within the channels has been small, except where the channels have been deflected around salt domes. In such channels, the turbidity currents lost velocity, and important sandstone bodies were deposited, reworked, and locally winnowed. In the downdip area where the channels spread out into a blanket pattern, production is controlled by the topographic and structural configuration of the unconformity surface on and around which the turbidity currents deposited sediments.

@article{openalexw1849800232,
    author = "Paine, William R.",
    title = "Petrology and Sedimentation of the Hackberry Sequence of Southwest Louisiana",
    year = "1971",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Recent discoveries in the Hackberry of southwest Louisiana have created new interest in the high-risk, deep Hackberry section. Petrographic examination of three conventional cores and hundreds of sidewall cores, together with previously completed isopach studies, has established that the lower Hackberry sandstones are turbidites. Within the area, the lower Hackberry sandstone interval has two depositional patterns: an updip north-south channel pattern, and a downdip blanket-type sandstone pattern. Cores in the lower Hackberry have the following graded sequence from bottom to top: (1) coarse-grained conglomeratic sandstone which grades upward into finer laminated sandstones; (2) cross-bedded and convoluted sandstone; (3) siltstone; and (4) finely laminated shale. The sandstone is bimodal and trimodal, commonly containing 30-50\% clay matrix. The microfaunal assemblage within the lower Hackberry cyclic sequence indicate depth ranges of 300 to 3000 feet (Zones 5 and 6). Because of the turbidite nature of the sediments, production within the channels has been small, except where the channels have been deflected around salt domes. In such channels, the turbidity currents lost velocity, and important sandstone bodies were deposited, reworked, and locally winnowed. In the downdip area where the channels spread out into a blanket pattern, production is controlled by the topographic and structural configuration of the unconformity surface on and around which the turbidity currents deposited sediments.",
    openalex = "W1849800232"
}

A 123 square mile area approximately 10 miles east of Lake Charles, Louisiana, has been studied to assess its potential geopressured-geothermal resources. Subsurface information was used to study the structure and stratigraphy of the area as they related to the development of geopressured aquifers. The Middle Frio Hackberry wedge was found to contain the geopressured-geothermal reservoir sand, as well as the shales responsible for the origin and sealing of the geopressured strata. The major reservoir within the wedge is the Hackberry massive A sand.

@misc{doi1021726979291,
    author = "Kurth, R.J.",
    title = "Subsurface evaluation of the geopressured-geothermal Chloe Prospect, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana",
    year = "1981",
    abstract = "A 123 square mile area approximately 10 miles east of Lake Charles, Louisiana, has been studied to assess its potential geopressured-geothermal resources. Subsurface information was used to study the structure and stratigraphy of the area as they related to the development of geopressured aquifers. The Middle Frio Hackberry wedge was found to contain the geopressured-geothermal reservoir sand, as well as the shales responsible for the origin and sealing of the geopressured strata. The major reservoir within the wedge is the Hackberry massive A sand.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2172/6979291",
    doi = "10.2172/6979291",
    openalex = "W2000299131",
    references = "bornhauser1960depositional, doi10108011035896209447314, doi101126science1603828609, doi1013060bda5f3316bd11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013063d933e1816b111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c59516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi1021725357846, doi1021726934141, openalexw193634149, openalexw2601390057"
}

ABSTRACT This paper reinterprets the stratigraphic position, depositional environments, and depositional systems in the middle Frio (Oligocene) Hackberry, and their relation to hydrocarbon accumulations. This stratigraphic unit is present in the subsurface of southeastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana, in an area known as the Hackberry embayment. The unit consists of a lower Hackberry sandstone-shale sequence, overlain by middle and upper Hackberry marine shale (the Hackberry shale “wedge”). The lower Hackberry sandstone sequence overlies a truncated lower Frio section, but in some interdomal areas and in downdip locations, lower Hackberry sediments rest conformably on lower Frio Nonion struma beds. Planktonic foraminifers indicate that the erosional surface between lower and middle Frio coincides with a worldwide relative sea level fall approximately 30 million Ma, in planktonic foraminiferal zone P 21. Dip-oriented submarine channel systems related to this erosional surface contain lower Hackberry reservoir sands in downdip positions. The marine shale wedge that overlies the lower Hackberry sandstones was deposited during a relative sea level rise, when rates of subsidence exceeded rates of deposition. Some strike-oriented discontinuous marine sand reservoirs are present within the shale wedge. Production is found in the updip lower Hackberry in structural traps in reservoirs related to near-shore and fluvio-deltaic deposition (traction-transport systems), and, in downdip locations, in stratigraphic-structural traps in submarine channel systems (gravity-transport systems). Unexplored objectives related to submarine channel-fan systems may be present downdip below thick growth-faulted younger Frio sections.

@incollection{doi105724gcs85040263,
    author = "Curtis, Doris M. and Echols, D J",
    title = "HABITAT OF OIL AND GAS IN THE MIDDLE FRIO (OLIGOCENE) HACKBERRY",
    year = "1985",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT This paper reinterprets the stratigraphic position, depositional environments, and depositional systems in the middle Frio (Oligocene) Hackberry, and their relation to hydrocarbon accumulations. This stratigraphic unit is present in the subsurface of southeastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana, in an area known as the Hackberry embayment. The unit consists of a lower Hackberry sandstone-shale sequence, overlain by middle and upper Hackberry marine shale (the Hackberry shale “wedge”). The lower Hackberry sandstone sequence overlies a truncated lower Frio section, but in some interdomal areas and in downdip locations, lower Hackberry sediments rest conformably on lower Frio Nonion struma beds. Planktonic foraminifers indicate that the erosional surface between lower and middle Frio coincides with a worldwide relative sea level fall approximately 30 million Ma, in planktonic foraminiferal zone P 21. Dip-oriented submarine channel systems related to this erosional surface contain lower Hackberry reservoir sands in downdip positions. The marine shale wedge that overlies the lower Hackberry sandstones was deposited during a relative sea level rise, when rates of subsidence exceeded rates of deposition. Some strike-oriented discontinuous marine sand reservoirs are present within the shale wedge. Production is found in the updip lower Hackberry in structural traps in reservoirs related to near-shore and fluvio-deltaic deposition (traction-transport systems), and, in downdip locations, in stratigraphic-structural traps in submarine channel systems (gravity-transport systems). Unexplored objectives related to submarine channel-fan systems may be present downdip below thick growth-faulted younger Frio sections.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5724/gcs.85.04.0263",
    doi = "10.5724/gcs.85.04.0263",
    openalex = "W2981063187",
    references = "doi101306m16371c20, doi1023867gc8407d, openalexw1490157941, openalexw1521644843, openalexw1557126528, openalexw1849800232, openalexw2106592328, openalexw2601390057, openalexw3160761443, paine1968stratigraphy"
}

ABSTRACT Gas and condensate production at the North Sabine Lake field is from sands of the Hackberry wedge of the Oligocene Frio Formation. These lower Hackberry sands were deposited in a preexisting submarine canyon. Multiple sand bodies are present, and five patterns of sand deposition are recognized from SP logs: (1) incised channel fill, (2) braided fan channel, (3) intermediate suprafan, (4) proximal suprafan, and (5) overbank. Although three faults surround the field, the primary trapping mechanism is stratigraphic. The development and production history of the field indicate that many small sand lenses have coalesced to form a single large reservoir; however, differences in permeability have caused variations in water influx and in the levels of gas-water contacts. Sand lenses that are not connected to the larger reservoir are of limited size and have produced small amounts of hydrocarbon. Development of the field has been complicated by casing damage probably caused by reservoir compaction.

@article{doi101306703c803d170711d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Eubanks, L. G.",
    title = "North Sabine Lake Field: Complex Deposition and Reservoir Morphology of Lower Hackberry (Oligocene), Southwest Louisiana",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Gas and condensate production at the North Sabine Lake field is from sands of the Hackberry wedge of the Oligocene Frio Formation. These lower Hackberry sands were deposited in a preexisting submarine canyon. Multiple sand bodies are present, and five patterns of sand deposition are recognized from SP logs: (1) incised channel fill, (2) braided fan channel, (3) intermediate suprafan, (4) proximal suprafan, and (5) overbank. Although three faults surround the field, the primary trapping mechanism is stratigraphic. The development and production history of the field indicate that many small sand lenses have coalesced to form a single large reservoir; however, differences in permeability have caused variations in water influx and in the levels of gas-water contacts. Sand lenses that are not connected to the larger reservoir are of limited size and have produced small amounts of hydrocarbon. Development of the field has been complicated by casing damage probably caused by reservoir compaction.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/703c803d-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/703c803d-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1986714408",
    references = "bornhauser1960depositional, doi1013062f9195d516ce11d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c2d316c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306a66337d416c011d78645000102c1865d, doi101306c1ea4f7c16c911d78645000102c1865d, doi1021183479ms, doi1023867gc8407d, openalexw1490157941, openalexw1526438593, openalexw2601390057"
}

ABSTRACT Well logs from the Bayou Hebert area in southwestern Louisiana show that most of the differential sedimentation associated with one zone of contemporaneous faults cannot be attributed to simple expansion. Rather, the lower Miocene sequence on the downthrown side of the fault zone has grown principally by the episodic deposition of sedimentary units that have no correlative counterparts on the upthrown side. Such units range up to about 2,000 ft (600 m) thick near faults, and most are laterally discontinuous over distances of several kilometers. The isolated downthrown intervals lie in different parts of the sequence at various places along the strike of the fault zone, indicating lateral and temporal variation in subsidence rates in the downthrown block. The intervals may represent times of erosion or sediment bypass updip of faults. Isolation of thick intervals on the downthrown block adds potential for unexpected reservoir units and may enhance the development of combination traps associated with the contemporaneous faulting and deposition characteristic of growth faults. Overlapping of the tapered edges of multiple laterally adjacent intervals may also create potential for small flexural structures in the areas of overlap.

@article{doi101306703c8ebb170711d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "McCulloh, Richard P.",
    title = "Differential Fault-Related Early Miocene Sedimentation, Bayou Hebert Area, Southwestern Louisiana",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Well logs from the Bayou Hebert area in southwestern Louisiana show that most of the differential sedimentation associated with one zone of contemporaneous faults cannot be attributed to simple expansion. Rather, the lower Miocene sequence on the downthrown side of the fault zone has grown principally by the episodic deposition of sedimentary units that have no correlative counterparts on the upthrown side. Such units range up to about 2,000 ft (600 m) thick near faults, and most are laterally discontinuous over distances of several kilometers. The isolated downthrown intervals lie in different parts of the sequence at various places along the strike of the fault zone, indicating lateral and temporal variation in subsidence rates in the downthrown block. The intervals may represent times of erosion or sediment bypass updip of faults. Isolation of thick intervals on the downthrown block adds potential for unexpected reservoir units and may enhance the development of combination traps associated with the contemporaneous faulting and deposition characteristic of growth faults. Overlapping of the tapered edges of multiple laterally adjacent intervals may also create potential for small flexural structures in the areas of overlap.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/703c8ebb-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/703c8ebb-1707-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2045054830",
    references = "bornhauser1960depositional, caughey1981deltaic, doi10100797814613336233, doi101111j174754571980tb00707x, doi101126science1603828609, doi10130683d90d6816c711d78645000102c1865d, doi10130683d9133516c711d78645000102c1865d, doi101306ad46142616f711d78645000102c1865d, openalexw1483571540, openalexw1577053220, openalexw1599441881, openalexw596100700"
}

ABSTRACT The Oligocene Hackberry sequence was deposited in a slope environment consisting of an irregular, updip slide scar, a rotational slide zone up to 4 mi (6.5 km) wide, and a downdip region more than 20 mi (32 km) wide where meandering submarine channels deposited thick turbiditic sands. The shelf margin slides probably began during the late stage of a relative fall in sea level and prior to a maximum flood event in the middle Oligocene. The slides probably were caused by a combination of salt withdrawal and an unstable shelf edge. The play has produced more than 374 million bbl of oil equivalent (BOE) up to December 1988. The first fields were discovered in structural/stratigraphic traps on the updip flanks of the salt domes, where channels were forced to meander around paleobathymetric highs. Other fields are located in the paleobathymetric lows many miles downdip of the salt domes. Statistical analysis of field data shows that 41 fields with more than 1 million BOE each and with a total estimated ultimate recovery of 117 million BOE remain to be discovered in the play. Interpretation in southwestern Louisiana has shown that new reserves could be discovered in three potential reservoir sands: (1) lower Frio shelf-edge sands preserved in large slide blocks, (2) onlapping, sandy “fill sequences” restricted to the lows between slide blocks, and (3) meandering, dip-oriented, sandy channel complexes less than 4500 ft (1400 m) wide. These three sandstones cannot be distinguished unless dipmeter, seismic, and paleontologic data are used in combination.

@article{doi101306bdff8876171811d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Cossey, Stephen P. J. and Jacobs, Richard E.",
    title = "Oligocene Hackberry Formation of Southwest Louisiana: Sequence Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Hydrocarbon Potential",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The Oligocene Hackberry sequence was deposited in a slope environment consisting of an irregular, updip slide scar, a rotational slide zone up to 4 mi (6.5 km) wide, and a downdip region more than 20 mi (32 km) wide where meandering submarine channels deposited thick turbiditic sands. The shelf margin slides probably began during the late stage of a relative fall in sea level and prior to a maximum flood event in the middle Oligocene. The slides probably were caused by a combination of salt withdrawal and an unstable shelf edge. The play has produced more than 374 million bbl of oil equivalent (BOE) up to December 1988. The first fields were discovered in structural/stratigraphic traps on the updip flanks of the salt domes, where channels were forced to meander around paleobathymetric highs. Other fields are located in the paleobathymetric lows many miles downdip of the salt domes. Statistical analysis of field data shows that 41 fields with more than 1 million BOE each and with a total estimated ultimate recovery of 117 million BOE remain to be discovered in the play. Interpretation in southwestern Louisiana has shown that new reserves could be discovered in three potential reservoir sands: (1) lower Frio shelf-edge sands preserved in large slide blocks, (2) onlapping, sandy “fill sequences” restricted to the lows between slide blocks, and (3) meandering, dip-oriented, sandy channel complexes less than 4500 ft (1400 m) wide. These three sandstones cannot be distinguished unless dipmeter, seismic, and paleontologic data are used in combination.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/bdff8876-1718-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/bdff8876-1718-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W1910609001",
    references = "doi101111j136530911983tb00702x, doi1013065d25c2d316c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306mth7510, doi10211815223pa, doi1023867gc8407d, doi105724gcs85040263, doi105724gcs90110151, openalexw1849800232, paine1968stratigraphy"
}

A methodology that combines high-resolution topographic mapping, field observations, subsurface evaluation, and geodetic data analysis has successfully located several fault-related geomorphic steps in an area of southwestern Louisiana once thought to be relatively devoid of such features. Comparison of height differences of benchmarks straddling these suspected fault-related steps shows that vertical displacement rates on faults in the study area ranged from about 2 mm/yr to as much as 6 mm/yr during the 1960’s and 1970’s. However, leveling data obtained as recently as January 2005 reveals that the majority of these faults are currently moving at rates of less than 1 mm/yr. This study identifies the presence of several previously mapped fault-related steps as well as some unidentified geomorphic features with the use of LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) digital elevation models and aerial photography. The majority of these topographic steps correlate well with upward projections of known subsurface faults, which suggests that they are of tectonic origin. Also, field observations have located offsets of roadways and damage to built structures due to the differential motion caused by active faulting. These lines of evidence, combined with the leveling data, suggest that the geomorphic features in the study area are the surface expressions of active faults that have moved during the past half-century. A possible cause for the accelerated fault slip rates computed for the 1960's and 1970's could be the substantial lowering of the piezometric surface that occurred due to increased subsurface fluid withdrawal. This suggests that in addition to the natural causes of faulting, anthropogenic activities may have also affected fault motion in this area of Louisiana.

@phdthesis{doi1031390gradschooltheses3177,
    author = "Heltz, Jordan",
    title = "Evidence of neotectonic activity in southwest Louisiana",
    year = "2005",
    abstract = "A methodology that combines high-resolution topographic mapping, field observations, subsurface evaluation, and geodetic data analysis has successfully located several fault-related geomorphic steps in an area of southwestern Louisiana once thought to be relatively devoid of such features. Comparison of height differences of benchmarks straddling these suspected fault-related steps shows that vertical displacement rates on faults in the study area ranged from about 2 mm/yr to as much as 6 mm/yr during the 1960’s and 1970’s. However, leveling data obtained as recently as January 2005 reveals that the majority of these faults are currently moving at rates of less than 1 mm/yr. This study identifies the presence of several previously mapped fault-related steps as well as some unidentified geomorphic features with the use of LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) digital elevation models and aerial photography. The majority of these topographic steps correlate well with upward projections of known subsurface faults, which suggests that they are of tectonic origin. Also, field observations have located offsets of roadways and damage to built structures due to the differential motion caused by active faulting. These lines of evidence, combined with the leveling data, suggest that the geomorphic features in the study area are the surface expressions of active faults that have moved during the past half-century. A possible cause for the accelerated fault slip rates computed for the 1960's and 1970's could be the substantial lowering of the piezometric surface that occurred due to increased subsurface fluid withdrawal. This suggests that in addition to the natural causes of faulting, anthropogenic activities may have also affected fault motion in this area of Louisiana.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.31390/gradschool\_theses.3177",
    doi = "10.31390/gradschool\_theses.3177",
    openalex = "W2802035962",
    references = "crossref1995cenozoic, doi101016001379527690017x, doi10103834097, doi101130dnaggnaj389, doi101130dnaggnaj73, doi1013060c9b29b1171011d78645000102c1865d, doi1013065d25c2e516c111d78645000102c1865d, doi101306bdff8876171811d78645000102c1865d, doi1021183730pa, openalexw596100700"
}

@article{custer2006contaminant,
    author = "Custer, Thomas W. and Custer, Christine M. and Goatcher, Buddy L. and Melancon, Mark J. and Matson, Cole W. and Bickham, John W.",
    title = "Contaminant Exposure of Barn Swallows Nesting on Bayou D'Inde, Calcasieu Estuary, Louisiana, USA",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Environmental Monitoring and Assessment",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-9153-x",
    doi = "10.1007/s10661-005-9153-x",
    number = "1-3",
    pages = "543-560",
    volume = "121"
}

Abstract Mass-transport complexes (MTCs) form a significant component of the stratigraphic record in ancient and modern deep-water basins worldwide. One such basin, the deep-marine margin of eastern offshore Trinidad, situated along the obliquely converging boundary of the Caribbean and South American plates and proximal to the mouth of the Orinoco River, is characterized by catastrophic shelf-margin processes, intrusive and extrusive mobile shales, active tectonics, and possible migration and sequestration of hydrocarbons. Major structural elements found in the deep-water slope regions include large transpressional fault zones (i.e., Darien Ridge, Central Range, Los Bajos), along which mobile shales extrude to form sea-floor ridges; fault-cored anticlinal structures overlain by extrusive sea-floor mud volcanoes; shallow-rooted sediment bypass grabens near the shelf break; and normal and counterregional faults. A total of 10,708 km2 (4134-mi2) of merged three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveys enable sub-sea-floor interpretation of several erosional surfaces that form the boundaries of enormous mass-transport complexes. The data show numerous episodes of MTC developments, which are characterized by chaotic, mounded seismic facies and fanlike geometry. Their extent (up to 2017 km2 [778 mi2]) and thickness (up to 250 m [820 ft]) is strongly influenced by sea-floor topography. Mass-transport flows show runout distances from the source area of 60–140 km (37–86 mi). Depositional architecture identified with these units includes (1) large-magnitude lateral erosional edges, (2) linear basal scours, and (3) side-wall failures. Mud volcanoes act as barriers to cross-slope mass sediment movements and form zones of shadowing on their downslope side that protect those regions from erosion. The subsequent erosional shadow remnants (ESRs) comprise preserved regions of older levee-channel complex sediments and are considered for the first time in this study as potential stratigraphic traps in deep-water deposits. Active tectonism in the region, high sedimentation rates associated with the Orinoco delta system, and abundant potential unstable hydrate suggest the viable presence of several higher frequency mechanisms at work for MTC generation than sea level fluctuations alone.

@article{doi10130602210605052,
    author = "Moscardelli, Lorena and Wood, Lesli J. and Mann, Paul",
    title = "Mass-transport complexes and associated processes in the offshore area of Trinidad and Venezuela",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Mass-transport complexes (MTCs) form a significant component of the stratigraphic record in ancient and modern deep-water basins worldwide. One such basin, the deep-marine margin of eastern offshore Trinidad, situated along the obliquely converging boundary of the Caribbean and South American plates and proximal to the mouth of the Orinoco River, is characterized by catastrophic shelf-margin processes, intrusive and extrusive mobile shales, active tectonics, and possible migration and sequestration of hydrocarbons. Major structural elements found in the deep-water slope regions include large transpressional fault zones (i.e., Darien Ridge, Central Range, Los Bajos), along which mobile shales extrude to form sea-floor ridges; fault-cored anticlinal structures overlain by extrusive sea-floor mud volcanoes; shallow-rooted sediment bypass grabens near the shelf break; and normal and counterregional faults. A total of 10,708 km2 (4134-mi2) of merged three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveys enable sub-sea-floor interpretation of several erosional surfaces that form the boundaries of enormous mass-transport complexes. The data show numerous episodes of MTC developments, which are characterized by chaotic, mounded seismic facies and fanlike geometry. Their extent (up to 2017 km2 [778 mi2]) and thickness (up to 250 m [820 ft]) is strongly influenced by sea-floor topography. Mass-transport flows show runout distances from the source area of 60–140 km (37–86 mi). Depositional architecture identified with these units includes (1) large-magnitude lateral erosional edges, (2) linear basal scours, and (3) side-wall failures. Mud volcanoes act as barriers to cross-slope mass sediment movements and form zones of shadowing on their downslope side that protect those regions from erosion. The subsequent erosional shadow remnants (ESRs) comprise preserved regions of older levee-channel complex sediments and are considered for the first time in this study as potential stratigraphic traps in deep-water deposits. Active tectonism in the region, high sedimentation rates associated with the Orinoco delta system, and abundant potential unstable hydrate suggest the viable presence of several higher frequency mechanisms at work for MTC generation than sea level fluctuations alone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/02210605052",
    doi = "10.1306/02210605052",
    openalex = "W2132214047",
    references = "doi101016s0264817299000112"
}

ABSTRACT The ∼380‐m‐thick mudstone–siltstone‐dominated Vischkuil Formation represents the initiation phase of a 1.3‐km‐thick prograding basin floor to slope to shelf succession that marks a significant increase in the rate of siliciclastic sediment supply to the early Karoo Basin in the Permian. In the upper Vischkuil Formation three well exposed, widespread (∼3000 km 2) 10–70‐m‐thick intervals of deformed strata are encased within undeformed sediments. Such chaotic mass movement deposits that are mappable over areas comparable with seismic‐scale mass transport deposits are commonly associated with submarine slope settings. However, the surrounding lithofacies and the correlation of distinctive marker beds indicate that these deformation intervals developed in a distal low gradient basin floor setting. The deformed intervals comprise a lower division of tight down‐flow verging folds dissected by thrust planes that sole out onto a highly sheared décollement surface that are interpreted as slides. The lower divisions are overlain by an upper division of chaotic lithofacies with large contorted clasts of sandstone supported by a fine‐grained matrix interpreted as a debrite. The juxtaposition of these lithofacies, the distribution of thickness of the divisions, and their close kinematic relationships indicate that the emplacement of the debris‐flows triggered and drove the underlying slide, in a low‐gradient distal setting. Individual beds in the deformed intervals can be mapped laterally into undeformed strata indicating limited movement of the slide. Therefore, widespread zones of syn‐sedimentary deformation in deep‐water settings do not necessarily indicate a slope setting and should not be used as single criterion to determine depositional setting. When associated with major debrites they may be developed on a flat basin floor.

@article{doi101111j13652117200900396x,
    author = "van der Merwe, Willem C. and Hodgson, David M. and Flint, Stephen S.",
    title = "Widespread syn‐sedimentary deformation on a muddy deep‐water basin‐floor: the Vischkuil Formation (Permian), Karoo Basin, South Africa",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Basin Research",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The ∼380‐m‐thick mudstone–siltstone‐dominated Vischkuil Formation represents the initiation phase of a 1.3‐km‐thick prograding basin floor to slope to shelf succession that marks a significant increase in the rate of siliciclastic sediment supply to the early Karoo Basin in the Permian. In the upper Vischkuil Formation three well exposed, widespread (∼3000 km 2) 10–70‐m‐thick intervals of deformed strata are encased within undeformed sediments. Such chaotic mass movement deposits that are mappable over areas comparable with seismic‐scale mass transport deposits are commonly associated with submarine slope settings. However, the surrounding lithofacies and the correlation of distinctive marker beds indicate that these deformation intervals developed in a distal low gradient basin floor setting. The deformed intervals comprise a lower division of tight down‐flow verging folds dissected by thrust planes that sole out onto a highly sheared décollement surface that are interpreted as slides. The lower divisions are overlain by an upper division of chaotic lithofacies with large contorted clasts of sandstone supported by a fine‐grained matrix interpreted as a debrite. The juxtaposition of these lithofacies, the distribution of thickness of the divisions, and their close kinematic relationships indicate that the emplacement of the debris‐flows triggered and drove the underlying slide, in a low‐gradient distal setting. Individual beds in the deformed intervals can be mapped laterally into undeformed strata indicating limited movement of the slide. Therefore, widespread zones of syn‐sedimentary deformation in deep‐water settings do not necessarily indicate a slope setting and should not be used as single criterion to determine depositional setting. When associated with major debrites they may be developed on a flat basin floor.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2009.00396.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2117.2009.00396.x",
    openalex = "W2045019697",
    references = "doi101306bdff8876171811d78645000102c1865d"
}

This study applied seismic-sedimentological workflow to deeply buried marine carbonate sequences in western China. The workflow aimed at integrating core, wire line log and 3D seismic data to investigate the paleogeomorphology qualitatively and reservoir thickness quantitatively in the carbonate systems. In Gaoshiti-Moxi area of Sichuan Basin, the Longwangmiao Formation was formed in sedimentary environment of carbonate platform facies. Lithofacies vary from dolomitized grainstone to mudstone, which formed shoal, lagoon, and deep shelf sub-facies. The high-porosity (porosity > 4%) reservoir rocks are related to shoal sub-facies. Seismic geomorphology was employed to restore paleostructure of Longwangmiao Formation in the study area by methods of cast and isopach, which were calibrated by well data. It was found that the paleogeomorphology and depositional facies were largely controlled by a syndepositional, en echelon fault system. Following the strategy of seismic lithology, quantitative distribution of reservoir rocks and sedimentary facies was assessed by applying principle component analysis on amplitude attributes generated from multiple frequency panels. Seismic prediction of diagenetic facies (selective dissolution) was achieved by interpreting similarity variance, a seismic geometric attribute. In summary, the procedure, combining seismic geomorphology and seismic lithology, is effective and can be used as a reference for seismic-sedimentological study in other carbonate basins in China and elsewhere.

@article{doi101016s1876380418300867,
    author = "Zeng, Hongliu and Zhao, Wenzhi and Xu, Zhaohui and Fu, Qilong and Hu, Suyun and Wang, Zecheng and Bo-hua, LI",
    title = "Carbonate seismic sedimentology: A case study of Cambrian Longwangmiao Formation, Gaoshiti-Moxi area, Sichuan Basin, China",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Petroleum Exploration and Development",
    abstract = "This study applied seismic-sedimentological workflow to deeply buried marine carbonate sequences in western China. The workflow aimed at integrating core, wire line log and 3D seismic data to investigate the paleogeomorphology qualitatively and reservoir thickness quantitatively in the carbonate systems. In Gaoshiti-Moxi area of Sichuan Basin, the Longwangmiao Formation was formed in sedimentary environment of carbonate platform facies. Lithofacies vary from dolomitized grainstone to mudstone, which formed shoal, lagoon, and deep shelf sub-facies. The high-porosity (porosity > 4\%) reservoir rocks are related to shoal sub-facies. Seismic geomorphology was employed to restore paleostructure of Longwangmiao Formation in the study area by methods of cast and isopach, which were calibrated by well data. It was found that the paleogeomorphology and depositional facies were largely controlled by a syndepositional, en echelon fault system. Following the strategy of seismic lithology, quantitative distribution of reservoir rocks and sedimentary facies was assessed by applying principle component analysis on amplitude attributes generated from multiple frequency panels. Seismic prediction of diagenetic facies (selective dissolution) was achieved by interpreting similarity variance, a seismic geometric attribute. In summary, the procedure, combining seismic geomorphology and seismic lithology, is effective and can be used as a reference for seismic-sedimentological study in other carbonate basins in China and elsewhere.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s1876-3804(18)30086-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s1876-3804(18)30086-7",
    openalex = "W2895707554",
    references = "doi1013065d25b72316c111d78645000102c1865d"
}