Homeothermy

@article{laury1977corticotropin,
    author = "Laury, M. C. and Portet, R.",
    title = "Corticotropin and nonshivering thermogenesis",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Experientia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01918816",
    doi = "10.1007/bf01918816",
    number = "11",
    pages = "1474-1475",
    volume = "33"
}

@article{arieli1978indication,
    author = "Arieli, A. and Berman, A. and Meltzer, A.",
    title = "Indication for nonshivering thermogenesis in the adult fowl (Gallus domesticus)",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4492(78)90023-0",
    doi = "10.1016/0306-4492(78)90023-0",
    number = "1",
    pages = "33-36",
    volume = "60"
}

@article{arieli1978indication1,
    author = "Arieli, A. and Berman, A. and Meltzer, A",
    title = "Indication for nonshivering thermogenesis in the adult fowl",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biochemistry and Physiology, v. 60C, p. 33-36",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Arieli, A., Berman, A., and Meltzer, A., 1978, Indication for nonshivering thermogenesis in the adult fowl: Journal of Experimental Biochemistry and Physiology, v. 60C, p. 33-36.}"
}

Measurements with tracer microspheres of changes in tissue blood flow associated with noradrenaline (NA)-induced calorigenesis in warm-acclimated and in cold-acclimated (CA) rats revealed very large increases in flow to brown adipose tissue (BAT). The data on flow together with measurements of the arteriovenous difference in blood O2 across interscapular BAT indicate that BAT accounts for at least 60% of the NA-induced nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) of CA rats. Skeletal muscle was found to be only minimally, if at all, involved in this NST.

@article{doi101007978303485559416,
    author = "Foster, David O. and Frydman, M. Lorraine",
    title = "Brown Adipose Tissue: The Dominant Site of Nonshivering Thermogenesis in the Rat",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Polarization Phenomena in Nuclear Reactions",
    abstract = "Measurements with tracer microspheres of changes in tissue blood flow associated with noradrenaline (NA)-induced calorigenesis in warm-acclimated and in cold-acclimated (CA) rats revealed very large increases in flow to brown adipose tissue (BAT). The data on flow together with measurements of the arteriovenous difference in blood O2 across interscapular BAT indicate that BAT accounts for at least 60\% of the NA-induced nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) of CA rats. Skeletal muscle was found to be only minimally, if at all, involved in this NST.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-5559-4\_16",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-0348-5559-4\_16",
    openalex = "W194431739"
}

Cardiac output (CO) and the fractional distribution (FD) of γ-labeled plastic microspheres (15 ± 5 μm) injected into the left ventricle were used to calculate blood flow to organs and tissues of barbital-sedated warm-acclimated (WA) or cold-acclimated (CA) white rats at rest and then during their maximal calorigenic response to infused noradrenaline (NA). Flow to the major masses of brown adipose tissue (BAT) increased in WA rats from a mean of 0.81 ml/min (0.92% of CO) at rest to 13.5 ml/min (11.4% of CO) during calorigenesis; it increased in CA rats from 2.3 ml/min (2.6% of CO) to 57.2 ml/min (33.5% of CO). Flow to skeletal muscle increased in WA rats from 12.0 ml/min at rest to 15.1 ml/min during calorigenesis; it increased in CA rats from 9.9 ml/min to 14.5 ml/min. Flow to heart and to muscles involved in respiratory movements was two to five times greater during calorigenesis. Flow to most other tissues and organs increased or decreased by less than 40%.Arteriovenous differences in blood oxygen [Formula: see text] across interscapular BAT (IBAT) during rest and during calorigenesis together with measurements of blood flow established that IBAT alone accounted for 14% of the extra O 2 used by CA rats during NA-induced calorigenesis. If during calorigenesis other masses of BAT have an [Formula: see text] as great as that for IBAT, the major masses of BAT together would account for 60% of the calorigenic response of the CA rat. In contrast, even if the skeletal muscle of the CA rat used all the O 2 in the blood flowing through it during calorigenesis, it could not have been responsible for more than 12% of the calorigenic response.The rat, long considered to exemplify major participation of skeletal muscle in nonshivering thermogenesis (NST), now becomes just one of a growing list of species for which there is explicit or circumstantial evidence that NST occurs principally in BAT. It thus becomes reasonable to propose as a general principle that BAT is the primary anatomical site of the NST that is characteristic of many small mammals: CA adults, newborns, and hibernators alike.

@article{doi101139y78015,
    author = "Foster, David O. and Frydman, M. Lorraine",
    title = "Nonshivering thermogenesis in the rat. II. Measurements of blood flow with microspheres point to brown adipose tissue as the dominant site of the calorigenesis induced by noradrenaline",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology",
    abstract = "Cardiac output (CO) and the fractional distribution (FD) of γ-labeled plastic microspheres (15 ± 5 μm) injected into the left ventricle were used to calculate blood flow to organs and tissues of barbital-sedated warm-acclimated (WA) or cold-acclimated (CA) white rats at rest and then during their maximal calorigenic response to infused noradrenaline (NA). Flow to the major masses of brown adipose tissue (BAT) increased in WA rats from a mean of 0.81 ml/min (0.92\% of CO) at rest to 13.5 ml/min (11.4\% of CO) during calorigenesis; it increased in CA rats from 2.3 ml/min (2.6\% of CO) to 57.2 ml/min (33.5\% of CO). Flow to skeletal muscle increased in WA rats from 12.0 ml/min at rest to 15.1 ml/min during calorigenesis; it increased in CA rats from 9.9 ml/min to 14.5 ml/min. Flow to heart and to muscles involved in respiratory movements was two to five times greater during calorigenesis. Flow to most other tissues and organs increased or decreased by less than 40\%.Arteriovenous differences in blood oxygen [Formula: see text] across interscapular BAT (IBAT) during rest and during calorigenesis together with measurements of blood flow established that IBAT alone accounted for 14\% of the extra O 2 used by CA rats during NA-induced calorigenesis. If during calorigenesis other masses of BAT have an [Formula: see text] as great as that for IBAT, the major masses of BAT together would account for 60\% of the calorigenic response of the CA rat. In contrast, even if the skeletal muscle of the CA rat used all the O 2 in the blood flowing through it during calorigenesis, it could not have been responsible for more than 12\% of the calorigenic response.The rat, long considered to exemplify major participation of skeletal muscle in nonshivering thermogenesis (NST), now becomes just one of a growing list of species for which there is explicit or circumstantial evidence that NST occurs principally in BAT. It thus becomes reasonable to propose as a general principle that BAT is the primary anatomical site of the NST that is characteristic of many small mammals: CA adults, newborns, and hibernators alike.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/y78-015",
    doi = "10.1139/y78-015",
    openalex = "W1971352655"
}

@incollection{himmshagen1978biochemical,
    author = "Himms-Hagen, Jean",
    title = "BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF NONSHIVERING THERMOGENESIS",
    year = "1978",
    booktitle = "Strategies in Cold",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-734550-5.50022-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-734550-5.50022-3",
    pages = "595-617"
}

Radioactive microspheres (12–16 μm) were used to measure cardiac output (CO), its fractional distribution, and hence tissue blood flow in conscious, warm-acclimated (WA) or cold-acclimated (CA) white rats exposed to temperatures of 25, 21, 6, −6, and −19 °C, the objective being to assess the tissue distribution of cold-induced thermogenesis. Total oxygen consumption was also measured. CA rats at 25 °C (CA 25) had elevated arteriovenous shunting and other signs of heat stress. CA 21 proved more suitable controls for the CA group. The cold-induced changes in blood flow to total skeletal muscle not involved in respiratory movements (M) and to the major masses of brown adipose tissue (BAT) were quantitatively very different in the two acclimation groups: in WA 25 and CA 21 flows to M were 31 (0.24 CO) and 27 (0.17 CO) mL/min, respectively, while flows to BAT were 2.1 and 9.7 mL/min; in WA −19 and CA −19 flows to M were 62 (0.32 CO) and 35 (0.16 CO) mL/min, respectively, while flows to BAT were 25 and 56 mL/min. In contrast, the effects of cold exposure on flows to other tissues and organs were remarkably alike in the two acclimation groups: e.g., flows to heart, ribcage, and diaphragm increased about three times between 25 and −19 °C, flow to the skin fell about 50%, and flows to the hepatosplanchnic region and kidneys were little or not at all affected by cold exposure. Estimates of the contributions of different tissues and organs to cold-induced thermogenesis were made on the basis of the relative changes in blood flow. It is concluded that BAT is by far the dominant anatomical site of the increased heat production of cold-exposed CA rats, and that nonshivering thermogenesis in BAT supplements considerably the shivering thermogenesis of cold-exposed WA rats.

@article{doi101139y79039,
    author = "Foster, David O. and Frydman, M. Lorraine",
    title = "Tissue distribution of cold-induced thermogenesis in conscious warm- or cold-acclimated rats reevaluated from changes in tissue blood flow: The dominant role of brown adipose tissue in the replacement of shivering by nonshivering thermogenesis",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology",
    abstract = "Radioactive microspheres (12–16 μm) were used to measure cardiac output (CO), its fractional distribution, and hence tissue blood flow in conscious, warm-acclimated (WA) or cold-acclimated (CA) white rats exposed to temperatures of 25, 21, 6, −6, and −19 °C, the objective being to assess the tissue distribution of cold-induced thermogenesis. Total oxygen consumption was also measured. CA rats at 25 °C (CA 25) had elevated arteriovenous shunting and other signs of heat stress. CA 21 proved more suitable controls for the CA group. The cold-induced changes in blood flow to total skeletal muscle not involved in respiratory movements (M) and to the major masses of brown adipose tissue (BAT) were quantitatively very different in the two acclimation groups: in WA 25 and CA 21 flows to M were 31 (0.24 CO) and 27 (0.17 CO) mL/min, respectively, while flows to BAT were 2.1 and 9.7 mL/min; in WA −19 and CA −19 flows to M were 62 (0.32 CO) and 35 (0.16 CO) mL/min, respectively, while flows to BAT were 25 and 56 mL/min. In contrast, the effects of cold exposure on flows to other tissues and organs were remarkably alike in the two acclimation groups: e.g., flows to heart, ribcage, and diaphragm increased about three times between 25 and −19 °C, flow to the skin fell about 50\%, and flows to the hepatosplanchnic region and kidneys were little or not at all affected by cold exposure. Estimates of the contributions of different tissues and organs to cold-induced thermogenesis were made on the basis of the relative changes in blood flow. It is concluded that BAT is by far the dominant anatomical site of the increased heat production of cold-exposed CA rats, and that nonshivering thermogenesis in BAT supplements considerably the shivering thermogenesis of cold-exposed WA rats.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/y79-039",
    doi = "10.1139/y79-039",
    openalex = "W2168270522"
}

@article{cannon1980nonshivering,
    author = "Cannon, Barbara and Johansson, Bengt W.",
    title = "Nonshivering thermogenesis in the newborn",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Molecular Aspects of Medicine",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0098-2997(80)90001-1",
    doi = "10.1016/0098-2997(80)90001-1",
    number = "3",
    pages = "119-223",
    volume = "3"
}

@article{himmshagen1984nonshivering,
    author = "Himms-Hagen, Jean",
    title = "Nonshivering thermogenesis",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Brain Research Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-9230(84)90183-7",
    doi = "10.1016/0361-9230(84)90183-7",
    number = "2",
    pages = "151-160",
    volume = "12"
}

@article{doi1010160742841392901654,
    author = "MacLeod, M. G. and Watson, Amanda J.",
    title = "Fenfluramine-induced thermogenesis in adult domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus): Elimination by propranolol, a beta-blocker",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Comparative Pharmacology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-8413(92)90165-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0742-8413(92)90165-4",
    openalex = "W1995224654",
    references = "arieli1978indication, doi101007bf01067014, doi101016001346947190160x, doi1010160013469484902086, doi1010160301008286900110, doi1010160306449276900356, doi10108000071667808416461, doi10108000071668508416820, doi101152ajplegacy19682144908, openalexw2402059641"
}

@article{moayeri1993absence,
    author = "Moayeri, Azita and McGuire, Joseph and Hynson, James M. and Sessler, Daniel L.",
    title = "Absence of Nonshivering Thermogenesis in Anesthetized Adult Humans",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Anesthesiology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-199310000-00010",
    doi = "10.1097/00000542-199310000-00010",
    number = "4",
    pages = "695-703",
    volume = "79"
}

The ontogeny of shivering thermogenesis was investigated in the altricial red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Two indices of heat production ­ the rate of oxygen consumption (V(dot)O2) of the bird and the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the pectoralis (PECT) and gastrocnemius (GAST) muscles ­ were measured simultaneously in adult and nestling red-winged blackbirds as they were subjected first to thermoneutral temperatures and subsequently to progressively colder ambient temperatures (Ta). The ontogenetic changes in both indices indicated that the capability for thermogenesis in nestling red-winged blackbirds improved markedly with age. The metabolic rates of 3-day-old nestlings decreased during exposure to gradually falling ambient temperatures; at best, these nestlings were only able to maintain mass-specific V(dot)O2 at levels similar to or slightly above the resting metabolic rate at thermoneutral temperatures (RMR) for a short time before metabolic rates decreased with further cooling. Shivering was detected only in the PECT muscles and was of a relatively low intensity (maximum of sevenfold increase in intensity over basal levels). The 5-day-old nestlings increased mass-specific V(dot)O2 modestly (approximately 1.4-fold) above RMR and attained slightly higher maximal factorial increases in the EMG activity of the PECT (maximum of 18-fold basal levels) when exposed to the same experimental conditions. Shivering was also detected in the GAST muscles of these birds. The most striking improvements in both measures observed during the nestling period occurred between day 5 and day 8. Eight-day-old nestlings increased metabolic rates by approximately 2- to 2.5-fold over basal levels and sustained these elevated rates for longer before becoming hypothermic. Both the PECT and GAST muscles contributed significantly to shivering thermogenesis, and these older nestlings attained much higher factorial increases in the intensity of shivering (up to 72-fold) during exposure to cold temperatures. In addition, both the range and magnitude of the dominant frequencies of muscle activity in the PECT increased during postnatal development. The PECT muscles were a principal site of shivering thermogenesis in all nestling and adult red-winged blackbirds studied here. Shivering in these muscles was a 'first line defense' against cold; the threshold temperature for shivering in the PECT muscles coincided with the lower critical temperature for oxygen consumption (TLC), and the subsequent increases in EMG activity in this muscle with further cooling correlated well with the corresponding increases in mass-specific V(dot)O2.

@article{doi101242jeb191159,
    author = "Olson, John M.",
    title = "The Ontogeny of Shivering Thermogenesis in the Red-Winged Blackbird (Agelaius Phoeniceus)",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "The ontogeny of shivering thermogenesis was investigated in the altricial red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Two indices of heat production ­ the rate of oxygen consumption (V(dot)O2) of the bird and the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the pectoralis (PECT) and gastrocnemius (GAST) muscles ­ were measured simultaneously in adult and nestling red-winged blackbirds as they were subjected first to thermoneutral temperatures and subsequently to progressively colder ambient temperatures (Ta). The ontogenetic changes in both indices indicated that the capability for thermogenesis in nestling red-winged blackbirds improved markedly with age. The metabolic rates of 3-day-old nestlings decreased during exposure to gradually falling ambient temperatures; at best, these nestlings were only able to maintain mass-specific V(dot)O2 at levels similar to or slightly above the resting metabolic rate at thermoneutral temperatures (RMR) for a short time before metabolic rates decreased with further cooling. Shivering was detected only in the PECT muscles and was of a relatively low intensity (maximum of sevenfold increase in intensity over basal levels). The 5-day-old nestlings increased mass-specific V(dot)O2 modestly (approximately 1.4-fold) above RMR and attained slightly higher maximal factorial increases in the EMG activity of the PECT (maximum of 18-fold basal levels) when exposed to the same experimental conditions. Shivering was also detected in the GAST muscles of these birds. The most striking improvements in both measures observed during the nestling period occurred between day 5 and day 8. Eight-day-old nestlings increased metabolic rates by approximately 2- to 2.5-fold over basal levels and sustained these elevated rates for longer before becoming hypothermic. Both the PECT and GAST muscles contributed significantly to shivering thermogenesis, and these older nestlings attained much higher factorial increases in the intensity of shivering (up to 72-fold) during exposure to cold temperatures. In addition, both the range and magnitude of the dominant frequencies of muscle activity in the PECT increased during postnatal development. The PECT muscles were a principal site of shivering thermogenesis in all nestling and adult red-winged blackbirds studied here. Shivering in these muscles was a 'first line defense' against cold; the threshold temperature for shivering in the PECT muscles coincided with the lower critical temperature for oxygen consumption (TLC), and the subsequent increases in EMG activity in this muscle with further cooling correlated well with the corresponding increases in mass-specific V(dot)O2.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.191.1.59",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.191.1.59",
    openalex = "W1941749636",
    references = "arieli1978indication, doi10100797836427407876, doi101007bfb0027660, doi101090s00255718196501785861, doi101111j1469185x1973tb01115x, doi101136jnnp5081092a, doi101139y63250, doi101152jappl1957103388, doi101152physrev1963433397, doi101242jeb90117, doi1023071445582, openalexw53287739"
}

Background During halothane anesthesia, infants fail to increase oxygen consumption in response to a cold stimulus in the form of an increase in temperature gradient between body and environment. Based on recent observations with isolated brown-fat cells, it seemed feasible that this inability to respond could be due to an inhibition of nonshivering thermogenesis during halothane anesthesia. Methods The rate of oxygen consumption was measured in cold-acclimated hamsters and rats. The rate evoked by norepinephrine injection in hamsters at an environmental temperature of approximately 24 degrees C was used as a measure of the capacity for nonshivering thermogenesis. Anesthesia was induced by 3% halothane and maintained by 1.5% halothane. One experimental series with spontaneously breathing hamsters and a second control series with spontaneously breathing rats and with rats whose lungs were mechanically ventilated were conducted. Results Norepinephrine injection led to a fourfold increase in the rate of oxygen consumption in control hamsters; after this response had subsided, a second injection led to a similar effect. Halothane anesthesia caused an approximately 20% decrease in resting metabolic rate (P Conclusions A much diminished or abolished thermogenic response to injected norepinephrine was demonstrated in halothane-anesthetized animals. This implies that there would be a diminished ability to elicit nonshivering thermogenesis even when this process is physiologically induced. Such a diminished ability could in part explain the susceptibility of neonates and infants to hypothermia during halothane anesthesia.

@article{dicker1995halothane,
    author = "Dicker, Andrea and Ohlson, Kerstin B. E. and Johnson, Lennart and Cannon, Barbara and Lindahl, Sten G.E. and Nedergaard, Jan",
    title = "Halothane Selectively Inhibits Nonshivering Thermogenesis",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Anesthesiology",
    abstract = "Background During halothane anesthesia, infants fail to increase oxygen consumption in response to a cold stimulus in the form of an increase in temperature gradient between body and environment. Based on recent observations with isolated brown-fat cells, it seemed feasible that this inability to respond could be due to an inhibition of nonshivering thermogenesis during halothane anesthesia. Methods The rate of oxygen consumption was measured in cold-acclimated hamsters and rats. The rate evoked by norepinephrine injection in hamsters at an environmental temperature of approximately 24 degrees C was used as a measure of the capacity for nonshivering thermogenesis. Anesthesia was induced by 3\% halothane and maintained by 1.5\% halothane. One experimental series with spontaneously breathing hamsters and a second control series with spontaneously breathing rats and with rats whose lungs were mechanically ventilated were conducted. Results Norepinephrine injection led to a fourfold increase in the rate of oxygen consumption in control hamsters; after this response had subsided, a second injection led to a similar effect. Halothane anesthesia caused an approximately 20\% decrease in resting metabolic rate (P Conclusions A much diminished or abolished thermogenic response to injected norepinephrine was demonstrated in halothane-anesthetized animals. This implies that there would be a diminished ability to elicit nonshivering thermogenesis even when this process is physiologically induced. Such a diminished ability could in part explain the susceptibility of neonates and infants to hypothermia during halothane anesthesia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-199502000-00019",
    doi = "10.1097/00000542-199502000-00019",
    number = "2",
    pages = "491-501",
    volume = "82"
}

@article{lesná1999human,
    author = "Lesná, I and Vybı́ı́ral, S and Janský, L and Zeman, V",
    title = "Human nonshivering thermogenesis",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Journal of Thermal Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4565(98)00041-2",
    doi = "10.1016/s0306-4565(98)00041-2",
    number = "1",
    pages = "63-69",
    volume = "24"
}

Participation of brown adipose tissue [through the action of the uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1)] in adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis is recognized, but the existence of a response to adrenergic stimulation in UCP1-ablated mice implies that a mechanism for an alternative adaptive adrenergic thermogenesis may exist. Here, we have used UCP1-ablated mice to examine the existence of an alternative adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis, examined as the oxygen consumption response to systemically injected norepinephrine into anesthetized or conscious mice acclimated to different temperatures. We confirm that UCP1-dependent adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis is adaptive, but we demonstrate that the adrenergic UCP1-independent thermogenesis is not recruitable by cold acclimation. Thus, at least in the mouse, no other proteins or enzymatic pathways exist that can participate in or with time take over the UCP1 mediation of adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis, even in the total absence of UCP1. UCP1 is thus the only protein capable of mediating cold acclimation-recruited adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis.

@article{doi101152ajpendo003872005,
    author = "Golozoubova, Valeria and Cannon, Barbara and Nedergaard, Jan",
    title = "UCP1 is essential for adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism",
    abstract = "Participation of brown adipose tissue [through the action of the uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1)] in adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis is recognized, but the existence of a response to adrenergic stimulation in UCP1-ablated mice implies that a mechanism for an alternative adaptive adrenergic thermogenesis may exist. Here, we have used UCP1-ablated mice to examine the existence of an alternative adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis, examined as the oxygen consumption response to systemically injected norepinephrine into anesthetized or conscious mice acclimated to different temperatures. We confirm that UCP1-dependent adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis is adaptive, but we demonstrate that the adrenergic UCP1-independent thermogenesis is not recruitable by cold acclimation. Thus, at least in the mouse, no other proteins or enzymatic pathways exist that can participate in or with time take over the UCP1 mediation of adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis, even in the total absence of UCP1. UCP1 is thus the only protein capable of mediating cold acclimation-recruited adaptive adrenergic nonshivering thermogenesis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00387.2005",
    doi = "10.1152/ajpendo.00387.2005",
    openalex = "W2154358935",
    references = "dicker1995halothane"
}

The incidence of the metabolic syndrome has reached epidemic levels in the Western world. With respect to the energy balance, most attention has been given to reducing energy (food) intake. Increasing energy expenditure is an important alternative strategy. Facultative thermogenesis, which is the increase in energy expenditure in response to cold or diet, may be an effective way to affect the energy balance. The recent identification of functional brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult humans promoted a renewed interest in nonshivering thermogenesis (NST). The purpose of this review is to highlight the recent insight in NST, general aspects of its regulation, the major tissues involved, and its metabolic consequences. Sustainable NST in adult humans amounts to 15% of the average daily energy expenditure. Calculations based on the limited available literature show that BAT thermogenesis can amount to 5% of the basal metabolic rate. It is likely that at least a substantial part of NST can be attributed to BAT, but it is possible that other tissues contribute to NST. Several studies on mitochondrial uncoupling indicate that skeletal muscle is another potential contributor to facultative thermogenesis in humans. The general and synergistic role of the sympathetic nervous system and the thyroid axis in relation to NST is discussed. Finally, perspectives on BAT and skeletal muscle NST are given.

@article{doi101152ajpregu006522010,
    author = "van Marken Lichtenbelt, Wouter D. and Schrauwen, Patrick",
    title = "Implications of nonshivering thermogenesis for energy balance regulation in humans",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology",
    abstract = "The incidence of the metabolic syndrome has reached epidemic levels in the Western world. With respect to the energy balance, most attention has been given to reducing energy (food) intake. Increasing energy expenditure is an important alternative strategy. Facultative thermogenesis, which is the increase in energy expenditure in response to cold or diet, may be an effective way to affect the energy balance. The recent identification of functional brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult humans promoted a renewed interest in nonshivering thermogenesis (NST). The purpose of this review is to highlight the recent insight in NST, general aspects of its regulation, the major tissues involved, and its metabolic consequences. Sustainable NST in adult humans amounts to 15\% of the average daily energy expenditure. Calculations based on the limited available literature show that BAT thermogenesis can amount to 5\% of the basal metabolic rate. It is likely that at least a substantial part of NST can be attributed to BAT, but it is possible that other tissues contribute to NST. Several studies on mitochondrial uncoupling indicate that skeletal muscle is another potential contributor to facultative thermogenesis in humans. The general and synergistic role of the sympathetic nervous system and the thyroid axis in relation to NST is discussed. Finally, perspectives on BAT and skeletal muscle NST are given.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00652.2010",
    doi = "10.1152/ajpregu.00652.2010",
    openalex = "W2147907319",
    references = "lesná1999human"
}