Hot springs

@book{openalexw1480683458,
    author = "Allen, E. T.",
    title = "Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park",
    year = "1935",
    booktitle = "Carnegie Institution of Washington eBooks",
    openalex = "W1480683458"
}

@misc{copeland1936yellowstone1,
    author = "Copeland, J. J",
    title = "Yellowstone thermal myxophyceae",
    year = "1936",
    howpublished = "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 36, p. 1-232",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Copeland, J. J., 1936, Yellowstone thermal myxophyceae: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 36, p. 1-232.}"
}

@article{doi101016s0016003236906555,
    author = "Elkinton, H.W.",
    title = "Hot springs of the Yellowstone National Park",
    year = "1936",
    journal = "Journal of the Franklin Institute",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0016-0032(36)90655-5",
    doi = "10.1016/s0016-0032(36)90655-5",
    openalex = "W279848853"
}

Thermal springs are classified as: (1) non‐volcanic (heat and water supply are not immediately related to volcanism); (2) intermediate (excess heat is due to abnormally high geothermal gradients resulting from volcanism, but the water is entirely meteoric); (3) volcanic (excess heat, much of the mineral content, and part of the water are from a volcanic source). Lines of evidence indicating the origin of a thermal spring system are (1) temperature relations, including surface temperatures of springs, geothermal gradients of the spring system, and possible sources of excess heat; (2) mineral content of the thermal water and its possible sources, with attention focused on the more soluble components that are seldom deposited in veins (Chlorine, boron, and to a lesser extent sulphur and carbon dioxide in their various chemical combinations are critical indicators, particularly when considered together.); (3) composition of associated gases; (4) variations in spring discharges and water levels, as related to variations in meteoric water supply; (5) isotopic composition of spring and meteoric waters; and (6) regional and local geology, and in particular the age and extent of any volcanic rocks. These lines of evidence, when applied to Steamboat Springs and evaluated, definitely indicate a volcanic origin. The three‐dimensional picture of the Steamboat Springs system is described. Meteoric water migrates downward and toward the core of the system, with stratigraphic and structural control, and mixes with rising volcanic water. This migration is caused by differences in density related largely to temperature; artesian conditions are not essential.

@article{doi101029tr031i004p00566,
    author = "White, Donald E. and Brannock, Walter Wallace",
    title = "The sources of heat and water supply of thermal springs, with particular reference to Steamboat Springs, Nevada",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Transactions American Geophysical Union",
    abstract = "Thermal springs are classified as: (1) non‐volcanic (heat and water supply are not immediately related to volcanism); (2) intermediate (excess heat is due to abnormally high geothermal gradients resulting from volcanism, but the water is entirely meteoric); (3) volcanic (excess heat, much of the mineral content, and part of the water are from a volcanic source). Lines of evidence indicating the origin of a thermal spring system are (1) temperature relations, including surface temperatures of springs, geothermal gradients of the spring system, and possible sources of excess heat; (2) mineral content of the thermal water and its possible sources, with attention focused on the more soluble components that are seldom deposited in veins (Chlorine, boron, and to a lesser extent sulphur and carbon dioxide in their various chemical combinations are critical indicators, particularly when considered together.); (3) composition of associated gases; (4) variations in spring discharges and water levels, as related to variations in meteoric water supply; (5) isotopic composition of spring and meteoric waters; and (6) regional and local geology, and in particular the age and extent of any volcanic rocks. These lines of evidence, when applied to Steamboat Springs and evaluated, definitely indicate a volcanic origin. The three‐dimensional picture of the Steamboat Springs system is described. Meteoric water migrates downward and toward the core of the system, with stratigraphic and structural control, and mixes with rising volcanic water. This migration is caused by differences in density related largely to temperature; artesian conditions are not essential.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/tr031i004p00566",
    doi = "10.1029/tr031i004p00566",
    openalex = "W1977709129"
}

@article{doi1010160009254172900010,
    author = "Boström, Kürt and Arquharson, Bruce F and Eyl, William",
    title = "Submarine hot springs as a source of active ridge sediments",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Chemical Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(72)90001-0",
    doi = "10.1016/0009-2541(72)90001-0",
    openalex = "W2001046514",
    references = "doi101016001174716890051x, doi1010160012821x69900934, doi1010160016703755900429, doi1010160016703758900462, doi1010160016703769901537, doi1010160025322769900164, doi101029jb074i012p03261, doi101029jz068i014p04209, doi101126science15437561542, doi102113gsecongeo6171258"
}

@misc{ross1972red3,
    author = "Ross, D. A",
    title = "Red Sea hot brine area revisited",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 175, p. 1455- 1457",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ross, D. A., 1972, Red Sea hot brine area revisited: Science, v. 175, p. 1455- 1457.}"
}

The DNA of 13 yellow-pigmented strains of the genus Thermus, isolated from hot springs in Iceland, had a mean base composition of 60·5 to 65·1 mol % GC. In their growth characteristics and sensitivity to antibiotics, these strains resembled Thermus aquaticus strain yti. Glutamate, acetate and sucrose, with ammonium ions as a nitrogen source, supported growth. The enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle were present and the glyoxylate cycle was constitutive. The stability of malate dehydrogenase in crude extracts was similar to that of strain yti.

@article{doi101099002212871022375,
    author = "PASK-HUGHES, R. A. and Williams, R. A. D.",
    title = "Yellow-pigmented Strains of Thermus spp. from Icelandic Hot Springs",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Journal of General Microbiology",
    abstract = "The DNA of 13 yellow-pigmented strains of the genus Thermus, isolated from hot springs in Iceland, had a mean base composition of 60·5 to 65·1 mol \% GC. In their growth characteristics and sensitivity to antibiotics, these strains resembled Thermus aquaticus strain yti. Glutamate, acetate and sucrose, with ammonium ions as a nitrogen source, supported growth. The enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle were present and the glyoxylate cycle was constitutive. The stability of malate dehydrogenase in crude extracts was similar to that of strain yti.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-102-2-375",
    doi = "10.1099/00221287-102-2-375",
    openalex = "W2138872912"
}

@article{doi101038272156a0,
    author = "Jenkins, William J. and Edmond, John M. and Corliss, John B.",
    title = "Excess 3He and 4He in Galapagos submarine hydrothermal waters",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/272156a0",
    doi = "10.1038/272156a0",
    openalex = "W2038406288"
}

The Kosaka mine is a productive Cu-Pb-Zn-Au-Ag mine in Japan and is located at the eastern margin of the Hokuroku mining district in northeast Honshu Island. The ore deposits of the mine are divided into three main groups from north to south, namely, the Motoyama, Uchinotai, and Uwamuki ore deposits. Each ore deposit has both massive stratiform and underlying network or disseminated, siliceous orebodies. The geologic features of each deposit are described.The iron content of sphalerite coexisting with pyrite from the Uchinotai-nishi and Uwamuki No. 4 ore deposits never exceeds 5 mole percent FeS. The iron content of sphalerite from the latter and two other Kuroko deposits decreases gradually upward from stockwork to stratiform orebodies. This vertical zoning may be a common feature of the Kuroko deposits, although those from the Uchinotai-nishi ore deposit show a minimum iron content at the boundary between the black and yellow ore zones.Mixing of sea water with the ascending hydrothermal solution causes an increase in oxygen fugacity and a simultaneous temperature decrease in the ore-forming environment. They are the main causes of ore deposition. Deposition of barite is likely to be the result of an increase in activity of metastable sulfate ions which are added from sea water to the reducing ore-forming system.A magmatic origin of the ore-forming fluid is also proposed on the basis of fluid inclusion data and geologic evidence.

@article{doi102113gsecongeo732161,
    author = "Urabe, T. and Satō, Tsutomu",
    title = "Kuroko deposits of the Kosaka Mine, Northeast Honshu, Japan; products of submarine hot springs on Miocene sea floor",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Economic Geology",
    abstract = "The Kosaka mine is a productive Cu-Pb-Zn-Au-Ag mine in Japan and is located at the eastern margin of the Hokuroku mining district in northeast Honshu Island. The ore deposits of the mine are divided into three main groups from north to south, namely, the Motoyama, Uchinotai, and Uwamuki ore deposits. Each ore deposit has both massive stratiform and underlying network or disseminated, siliceous orebodies. The geologic features of each deposit are described.The iron content of sphalerite coexisting with pyrite from the Uchinotai-nishi and Uwamuki No. 4 ore deposits never exceeds 5 mole percent FeS. The iron content of sphalerite from the latter and two other Kuroko deposits decreases gradually upward from stockwork to stratiform orebodies. This vertical zoning may be a common feature of the Kuroko deposits, although those from the Uchinotai-nishi ore deposit show a minimum iron content at the boundary between the black and yellow ore zones.Mixing of sea water with the ascending hydrothermal solution causes an increase in oxygen fugacity and a simultaneous temperature decrease in the ore-forming environment. They are the main causes of ore deposition. Deposition of barite is likely to be the result of an increase in activity of metastable sulfate ions which are added from sea water to the reducing ore-forming system.A magmatic origin of the ore-forming fluid is also proposed on the basis of fluid inclusion data and geologic evidence.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.73.2.161",
    doi = "10.2113/gsecongeo.73.2.161",
    openalex = "W2156857030"
}

@misc{snyder1978manganese4,
    author = "Snyder, W. S",
    title = "Manganese deposited by submarine hot springs in chert- greenstone complexes, western United States",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Geology, v. 6, p. 741-744",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Snyder, W. S., 1978, Manganese deposited by submarine hot springs in chert- greenstone complexes, western United States: Geology, v. 6, p. 741-744.}"
}

The submarine hydrothermal activity on and near the Galápagos Rift has been explored with the aid of the deep submersible Alvin. Analyses of water samples from hydrothermal vents reveal that hydrothermal activity provides significant or dominant sources and sinks for several components of seawater; studies of conductive and convective heat transfer suggest that two-thirds of the heat lost from new oceanic lithosphere at the Galápagos Rift in the first million years may be vented from thermal springs, predominantly along the axial ridge within the rift valley. The vent areas are populated by animal communities. They appear to utilize chemosynthesis by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria to derive their entire energy supply from reactions between the seawater and the rocks at high temperatures, rather than photosynthesis.

@article{doi101126science20343851073,
    author = "Corliss, John B. and Dymond, Jack and Gordon, Louis and Edmond, John M. and Herzen, Richard P. Von and Ballard, Robert D. and Green, Kenneth and Williams, D. A. and Bainbridge, A. E. and Crane, K. and van Andel, Tjeerd H.",
    title = "Submarine Thermal Springs on the Galápagos Rift",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The submarine hydrothermal activity on and near the Galápagos Rift has been explored with the aid of the deep submersible Alvin. Analyses of water samples from hydrothermal vents reveal that hydrothermal activity provides significant or dominant sources and sinks for several components of seawater; studies of conductive and convective heat transfer suggest that two-thirds of the heat lost from new oceanic lithosphere at the Galápagos Rift in the first million years may be vented from thermal springs, predominantly along the axial ridge within the rift valley. The vent areas are populated by animal communities. They appear to utilize chemosynthesis by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria to derive their entire energy supply from reactions between the seawater and the rocks at high temperatures, rather than photosynthesis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.203.4385.1073",
    doi = "10.1126/science.203.4385.1073",
    openalex = "W2136412446",
    references = "doi101029jb082i005p00803, doi101086628195, doi101111j1365246x1972tb05766x, doi102113gsecongeo6171258"
}

Hydrothermal vents jetting out water at 380 degrees +/- 30 degrees C have been discovered on the axis of the East Pacific Rise. The hottest waters issue from mineralized chimneys and are blackened by sulfide precipitates. These hydrothermal springs are the sites of actively forming massive sulfide mineral deposits. Cooler springs are clear to milky and support exotic benthic communities of giant tube worms, clams, and crabs similar to those found at the Galápagos spreading center. Four prototype geophysical experiments were successfully conducted in and near the vent area: seismic refraction measurements with both source (thumper) and receivers on the sea floor, on-bottom gravity measurements, in situ magnetic gradiometer measurements from the submersible Alvin over a sea-floor magnetic reversal boundary, and an active electrical sounding experiment. These high-resolution determinations of crustal properties along the spreading center were made to gain knowledge of the source of new oceanic crust and marine magnetic anomalies, the nature of the axial magma chamber, and the depth of hydrothermal circulation.

@article{doi101126science20744381421,
    author = "Spiess, F. N. and Macdonald, Ken C. and Atwater, Tanya and Ballard, R. D. and Carranza, Arturo and Córdoba, Diego and Cox, C. and García, Valdéz and Francheteau, Jean and Guerrero, J. and Hawkins, James W. and Haymon, Rachel M. and Hessler, Robert R. and Juteau, T. and Kastner, Miriam and Larson, Roger L. and Luyendyk, Bruce P. and MacDougall, J. D. and Miller, Stephen P. and Normark, William R. and Orcutt, John A. and Rangin, Claude",
    title = "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Hydrothermal vents jetting out water at 380 degrees +/- 30 degrees C have been discovered on the axis of the East Pacific Rise. The hottest waters issue from mineralized chimneys and are blackened by sulfide precipitates. These hydrothermal springs are the sites of actively forming massive sulfide mineral deposits. Cooler springs are clear to milky and support exotic benthic communities of giant tube worms, clams, and crabs similar to those found at the Galápagos spreading center. Four prototype geophysical experiments were successfully conducted in and near the vent area: seismic refraction measurements with both source (thumper) and receivers on the sea floor, on-bottom gravity measurements, in situ magnetic gradiometer measurements from the submersible Alvin over a sea-floor magnetic reversal boundary, and an active electrical sounding experiment. These high-resolution determinations of crustal properties along the spreading center were made to gain knowledge of the source of new oceanic crust and marine magnetic anomalies, the nature of the axial magma chamber, and the depth of hydrothermal circulation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.207.4438.1421",
    doi = "10.1126/science.207.4438.1421",
    openalex = "W2013943493",
    references = "doi101007bf00371276"
}

@phdthesis{corliss1981an2,
    author = "Corliss, J. B. and Baross, J. A. and Hoffman, S. E",
    title = "An hypothesis concerning the relationship between submarine hot springs and the origin of life on Earth",
    year = "1981",
    publisher = "Oceanologica Acta NoSP, p. 59-69",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Corliss, J. B., Baross, J. A., and Hoffman, S. E., 1981, An hypothesis concerning the relationship between submarine hot springs and the origin of life on Earth: Oceanologica Acta NoSP, p. 59-69.}"
}

A diverse set of observations from Archaean fossil-bearing rocks, modern submarine hydrothermal systems, experimental and theoretical work on the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules and primitive organized structures, and on water-rock interactions suggests that submarine hot springs were the site for the synthesis of organic compounds leading to the first living organisms on earth. These systems are characterized by high fluxes of thermal energy, highly reducing conditions, abundant and appropriate catalytic surface areas (Fe-Mg clay minerals), significant concentrations of CH sub(4), NH sub(3), H sub(2), metals, etc., and a continuous convective flow which removes products from the site of reaction upward through a mixing gradient of temperature and composition. It is hypothesized that the sequence of reactions CH sub(4), NH sub(3), H sub(2) arrow right amino acids arrow right proteins arrow right complex polymers arrow right metabolizing organized structures arrow right living organisms could occur within and/or adjacent to these systems. Microorganisms found in carefully preserved samples of sulfide chimneys from the East Pacific Rise may be counterparts of Archaean fossil organisms.

@article{openalexw287848292,
    author = "Corliss, John B. and Baross, Ja and Hoffman, Se",
    title = "An Hypothesis Concerning the Relationships Between Submarine Hot Springs and the Origin of Life on Earth",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Institutional Archive of Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)",
    abstract = "A diverse set of observations from Archaean fossil-bearing rocks, modern submarine hydrothermal systems, experimental and theoretical work on the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules and primitive organized structures, and on water-rock interactions suggests that submarine hot springs were the site for the synthesis of organic compounds leading to the first living organisms on earth. These systems are characterized by high fluxes of thermal energy, highly reducing conditions, abundant and appropriate catalytic surface areas (Fe-Mg clay minerals), significant concentrations of CH sub(4), NH sub(3), H sub(2), metals, etc., and a continuous convective flow which removes products from the site of reaction upward through a mixing gradient of temperature and composition. It is hypothesized that the sequence of reactions CH sub(4), NH sub(3), H sub(2) arrow right amino acids arrow right proteins arrow right complex polymers arrow right metabolizing organized structures arrow right living organisms could occur within and/or adjacent to these systems. Microorganisms found in carefully preserved samples of sulfide chimneys from the East Pacific Rise may be counterparts of Archaean fossil organisms.",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W287848292",
    openalex = "W287848292"
}

The observations of hydrothermal systems along midoceanic spreading centers by the deep‐diving submarine, Alvin, have led to numerous geological theories to explain phenomena ranging from heat flow to the formation of massive sulfide deposits. Unusual life in the forms of giant tube worms and mussels (Eos, Dec. 29, 1981) have been found to live along the submarine hot springs in chemically reducing and normally toxic sulfurous environments. Analyses of data over the past year or two have formed the basis of new life‐evolution schemes. J.B. Corliss, J.A. Baross, and S.E. Hoffman have outlined a process by which concentrations of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and metals may have reacted, in several steps, to produce living organisms within or adjacent to submarine hydrothermal systems (Oceanol. Acta, 59–69, 1981).

@article{bell1982submarine,
    author = "Bell, Peter M.",
    title = "Submarine hot springs: Origin of life?",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union",
    abstract = "The observations of hydrothermal systems along midoceanic spreading centers by the deep‐diving submarine, Alvin, have led to numerous geological theories to explain phenomena ranging from heat flow to the formation of massive sulfide deposits. Unusual life in the forms of giant tube worms and mussels (Eos, Dec. 29, 1981) have been found to live along the submarine hot springs in chemically reducing and normally toxic sulfurous environments. Analyses of data over the past year or two have formed the basis of new life‐evolution schemes. J.B. Corliss, J.A. Baross, and S.E. Hoffman have outlined a process by which concentrations of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and metals may have reacted, in several steps, to produce living organisms within or adjacent to submarine hydrothermal systems (Oceanol. Acta, 59–69, 1981).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/eo063i012p00201-04",
    doi = "10.1029/eo063i012p00201-04",
    number = "12",
    openalex = "W2022827068",
    pages = "201-201",
    volume = "63"
}

@article{doi101038297187a0,
    author = "Edmond, John M. and Damm, K. L. Von and McDuff, Russell E. and Measures, C. I.",
    title = "Chemistry of hot springs on the East Pacific Rise and their effluent dispersal",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/297187a0",
    doi = "10.1038/297187a0",
    openalex = "W2076981416"
}

@article{doi101038300258a0,
    author = "Stetter, Karl O.",
    title = "Ultrathin mycelia-forming organisms from submarine volcanic areas having an optimum growth temperature of 105 °C",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/300258a0",
    doi = "10.1038/300258a0",
    openalex = "W2046218914"
}

The growth range in nature of bacteria belonging to the genus Thermus was investigated by sampling 55 different hot springs in Iceland. The springs ranged in temperature from 32 to 99 degrees C, and in pH from 2.1 to 10.1. Viable counts of Thermus spp. ranging from 10 to 10 CFU/100 ml of spring water were found in 27 of the springs sampled. The temperature range for these bacteria was found to be 55 to 85 degrees C, and the pH range was from about 6.5 to above 10. Thermus spp. were found in springs containing up to 1 mM dissolved sulfide and having conductivity up to 2,000 muS/cm. The distribution of Thermus spp. in a hot spring thermal gradient was also investigated and found to agree well with the overall distribution in individual springs.

@article{doi101128aem456178517891983,
    author = "Kristjánsson, Jakob K. and Alfreðsson, Guðni Á.",
    title = "Distribution of Thermus spp. in Icelandic Hot Springs and a Thermal Gradient",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "The growth range in nature of bacteria belonging to the genus Thermus was investigated by sampling 55 different hot springs in Iceland. The springs ranged in temperature from 32 to 99 degrees C, and in pH from 2.1 to 10.1. Viable counts of Thermus spp. ranging from 10 to 10 CFU/100 ml of spring water were found in 27 of the springs sampled. The temperature range for these bacteria was found to be 55 to 85 degrees C, and the pH range was from about 6.5 to above 10. Thermus spp. were found in springs containing up to 1 mM dissolved sulfide and having conductivity up to 2,000 muS/cm. The distribution of Thermus spp. in a hot spring thermal gradient was also investigated and found to agree well with the overall distribution in individual springs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.45.6.1785-1789.1983",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.45.6.1785-1789.1983",
    openalex = "W1587671622"
}

@article{doi1010160016703785902224,
    author = "Damm, K. L. Von and Edmond, John M. and Grant, B. and Measures, C. I. and Walden, B. and Weiss, Ray F.",
    title = "Chemistry of submarine hydrothermal solutions at 21 °N, East Pacific Rise",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(85)90222-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7037(85)90222-4",
    openalex = "W2091429053",
    references = "doi1010160016703778902223, doi101029jb074i012p03261, doi101086628195, doi102113gsecongeo6171258"
}

@article{doi1010160016703785902236,
    author = "Damm, K. L. Von and Edmond, John M. and Measures, C. I. and Grant, B.",
    title = "Chemistry of submarine hydrothermal solutions at Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(85)90223-6",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7037(85)90223-6",
    openalex = "W2014108978",
    references = "doi1010160016703778902223, doi101038283441a0"
}

Thermophilic, aerobic bacteria of the genus Thermus were isolated from submarine alkaline hot springs in Iceland. Five submarine hot springs were sampled, and all had viable counts of Thermus spp. of about 10 CFU/ml. All submarine strains grew in the presence of NaCl at 3% or higher, but no strains from terrestrial hot springs would grow at concentrations higher than 1% NaCl. The growth rate of submarine Thermus strains was not stimulated by NaCl and was reduced at NaCl concentrations higher than 1%. The pattern of growth of these isolates on single carbon sources was similar to that of terrestrial isolates.

@article{doi101128aem526131313161986,
    author = "Kristjánsson, Jakob K. and Hreggviðsson, Guðmundur Ó. and Alfreðsson, Guðni Á.",
    title = "Isolation of Halotolerant Thermus spp. from Submarine Hot Springs in Iceland",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "Thermophilic, aerobic bacteria of the genus Thermus were isolated from submarine alkaline hot springs in Iceland. Five submarine hot springs were sampled, and all had viable counts of Thermus spp. of about 10 CFU/ml. All submarine strains grew in the presence of NaCl at 3\% or higher, but no strains from terrestrial hot springs would grow at concentrations higher than 1\% NaCl. The growth rate of submarine Thermus strains was not stimulated by NaCl and was reduced at NaCl concentrations higher than 1\%. The pattern of growth of these isolates on single carbon sources was similar to that of terrestrial isolates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.52.6.1313-1316.1986",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.52.6.1313-1316.1986",
    openalex = "W1588367334",
    references = "doi1010079781461262848, doi101007bf00402307, doi101007bf00408732, doi101038300258a0, doi10109900207713241102, doi10109900207713344498, doi101099002212871022375, doi101128aem456178517891983, doi101128jb10325275281970, openalexw3082176544"
}

@article{doi101038334609a0,
    author = "Miller, Stanley L. and Bada, Jeffrey L.",
    title = "Submarine hot springs and the origin of life",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/334609a0",
    doi = "10.1038/334609a0",
    openalex = "W2053209359",
    references = "doi101007bf01660244, doi1010160012821x80901636, doi1010160016003251909593, doi1010160026265x73901124, doi101016s0047248478800529, doi101038201335a0, doi101038297187a0, doi101038331612a0, doi101073pnas84134398, doi101146annurevbi55070186003123, doi101146annurevbiochem551599, openalexw3193853653"
}

@article{doi101038336117a0,
    author = "Russell, Michael J. and Hall, A. J. and Cairns-Smith, A. G. and Braterman, Paul S.",
    title = "Submarine hot springs and the origin of life",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/336117a0",
    doi = "10.1038/336117a0",
    openalex = "W2983163638",
    references = "doi1010079781461579755, doi101007bf00202742, doi101038306545a0, doi101038327223a0, doi101038331184a0, doi101038334609a0, doi101126science663639, openalexw1593907479, openalexw2074397232"
}

Thermophilic, reddish-coloured heterotrophic bacteria different from Thermus were isolated from submarine alkaline hot springs in Iceland. The bacteria were obligately aerobic, moderately halophilic, Gram-negative rods, about 0.5 m in diameter and 2-2.5 m long. Neither spores, flagella nor lipid granules were observed, but a slime capsule was formed on carbohydrate-rich medium. Optimum growth was at 65C, pH 7.0, and at about 2% (w/v) NaCl. The bacteria were oxidase negative, catalase positive and contained a carotenoid pigment with the main absorbance peak at 476 nm and shoulders at 456 and 502 nm. The GC content of the DNA was about 64 mol%. Electron micrographs clearly showed an outer membrane, about 9 nm thick, and the cytoplasmic membrane together with the peptidoglycan layer was about 14 nm in thickness. The isolates were nutritionally different from Thermus. They utilized several common sugars but glutamate and aspartate were the only amino acids that most strains used. These bacteria are considered to represent a new genus which we name Rhodothermus, with the type species Rhodothermus marinus.

@article{doi101099002212871342299,
    author = "Alfreðsson, Guðni Á. and Kristjánsson, Jakob K. and Hjörleifsdóttir, Sigríður and Stetter, Karl O.",
    title = "Rhodothermus marinus, gen. nov., sp. nov., a Thermophilic, Halophilic Bacterium from Submarine Hot Springs in Iceland",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Microbiology",
    abstract = "Thermophilic, reddish-coloured heterotrophic bacteria different from Thermus were isolated from submarine alkaline hot springs in Iceland. The bacteria were obligately aerobic, moderately halophilic, Gram-negative rods, about 0.5 m in diameter and 2-2.5 m long. Neither spores, flagella nor lipid granules were observed, but a slime capsule was formed on carbohydrate-rich medium. Optimum growth was at 65C, pH 7.0, and at about 2\% (w/v) NaCl. The bacteria were oxidase negative, catalase positive and contained a carotenoid pigment with the main absorbance peak at 476 nm and shoulders at 456 and 502 nm. The GC content of the DNA was about 64 mol\%. Electron micrographs clearly showed an outer membrane, about 9 nm thick, and the cytoplasmic membrane together with the peptidoglycan layer was about 14 nm in thickness. The isolates were nutritionally different from Thermus. They utilized several common sugars but glutamate and aspartate were the only amino acids that most strains used. These bacteria are considered to represent a new genus which we name Rhodothermus, with the type species Rhodothermus marinus.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-134-2-299",
    doi = "10.1099/00221287-134-2-299",
    openalex = "W2061479782",
    references = "doi101007bf00446886, doi101016s0022283662800667, doi10109900207713241102, doi101099002212871022375, doi1010990022128713261677, openalexw2410619223"
}

@article{doi1010160012821x92900676,
    author = "Chan, Lai Wah and Edmond, John M. and Thompson, G. and Gillis, K. M.",
    title = "Lithium isotopic composition of submarine basalts: implications for the lithium cycle in the oceans",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(92)90067-6",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-821x(92)90067-6",
    openalex = "W1991442438",
    references = "doi1010160016703778902223"
}

Here we argue that life emerged on Earth from a redox and pH front at c. 4.2 Ga. This front occurred where hot (c. 150 degrees C), extremely reduced, alkaline, bisulphide-bearing, submarine seepage waters interfaced with the acid, warm (c. 90 degrees C), iron-hearing Hadean ocean. The low pH of the ocean was imparted by the ten bars of CO2 considered to dominate the Hadean atmosphere/hydrosphere. Disequilibrium between the two solutions was maintained by the spontaneous precipitation of a colloidal FeS membrane. Iron monosulphide bubbles comprising this membrane were inflated by the hydrothermal solution upon sulphide mounds at the seepage sites. Our hypothesis is that the FeS membrane, laced with nickel, acted as a semipermeable catalytic boundary between the two fluids, encouraging synthesis of organic anions by hydrogenation and carboxylation of hydrothermal organic primers. The ocean provided carbonate, phosphate, iron, nickel and protons; the hydrothermal solution was the source of ammonia, acetate, HS-, H2 and tungsten, as well as minor concentrations of organic sulphides and perhaps cyanide and acetaldehyde. The mean redox potential (delta Eh) across the membrane, with the energy to drive synthesis, would have approximated to 300 millivolts. The generation of organic anions would have led to an increase in osmotic pressure within the FeS bubbles. Thus osmotic pressure could take over from hydraulic pressure as the driving force for distension, budding and reproduction of the bubbles. Condensation of the organic molecules to polymers, particularly organic sulphides, was driven by pyrophosphate hydrolysis. Regeneration of pyrophosphate from the monophosphate in the membrane was facilitated by protons contributed from the Hadean ocean. This was the first use by a metabolizing system of protonmotive force (driven by natural delta pH) which also would have amounted to c. 300 millivolts. Protonmotive force is the universal energy transduction mechanism of life. Taken together with the redox potential across the membrane, the total electrochemical and chemical energy available for protometabolism amounted to a continuous supply at more than half a volt. The role of the iron sulphide membrane in keeping the two solutions separated was appropriated by the newly synthesized organic sulphide polymers. This organic take-over of the membrane material led to the miniaturization of the metabolizing system. Information systems to govern replication could have developed penecontemporaneously in this same milieu. But iron, sulphur and phosphate, inorganic components of earliest life, continued to be involved in metabolism.

@article{doi101144gsjgs15430377,
    author = "Russell, Michael J. and Hall, A. J.",
    title = "The emergence of life from iron monosulphide bubbles at a submarine hydrothermal redox and pH front",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "Here we argue that life emerged on Earth from a redox and pH front at c. 4.2 Ga. This front occurred where hot (c. 150 degrees C), extremely reduced, alkaline, bisulphide-bearing, submarine seepage waters interfaced with the acid, warm (c. 90 degrees C), iron-hearing Hadean ocean. The low pH of the ocean was imparted by the ten bars of CO2 considered to dominate the Hadean atmosphere/hydrosphere. Disequilibrium between the two solutions was maintained by the spontaneous precipitation of a colloidal FeS membrane. Iron monosulphide bubbles comprising this membrane were inflated by the hydrothermal solution upon sulphide mounds at the seepage sites. Our hypothesis is that the FeS membrane, laced with nickel, acted as a semipermeable catalytic boundary between the two fluids, encouraging synthesis of organic anions by hydrogenation and carboxylation of hydrothermal organic primers. The ocean provided carbonate, phosphate, iron, nickel and protons; the hydrothermal solution was the source of ammonia, acetate, HS-, H2 and tungsten, as well as minor concentrations of organic sulphides and perhaps cyanide and acetaldehyde. The mean redox potential (delta Eh) across the membrane, with the energy to drive synthesis, would have approximated to 300 millivolts. The generation of organic anions would have led to an increase in osmotic pressure within the FeS bubbles. Thus osmotic pressure could take over from hydraulic pressure as the driving force for distension, budding and reproduction of the bubbles. Condensation of the organic molecules to polymers, particularly organic sulphides, was driven by pyrophosphate hydrolysis. Regeneration of pyrophosphate from the monophosphate in the membrane was facilitated by protons contributed from the Hadean ocean. This was the first use by a metabolizing system of protonmotive force (driven by natural delta pH) which also would have amounted to c. 300 millivolts. Protonmotive force is the universal energy transduction mechanism of life. Taken together with the redox potential across the membrane, the total electrochemical and chemical energy available for protometabolism amounted to a continuous supply at more than half a volt. The role of the iron sulphide membrane in keeping the two solutions separated was appropriated by the newly synthesized organic sulphide polymers. This organic take-over of the membrane material led to the miniaturization of the metabolizing system. Information systems to govern replication could have developed penecontemporaneously in this same milieu. But iron, sulphur and phosphate, inorganic components of earliest life, continued to be involved in metabolism.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.154.3.0377",
    doi = "10.1144/gsjgs.154.3.0377",
    openalex = "W2145198797",
    references = "darwin2009the, doi10100797894015805408, doi101007bf00032643, doi101007bf01140180, doi101007bf01808177, doi1010160003986161900339, doi1010160016703789901506, doi1010160016703794902887, doi1010160020711x94901198, doi1010160076687987550236, doi1010161074552195900314, doi101016s0022283667800378, doi101038191144a0, doi101038319618a0, doi101038331612a0, doi101038336117a0, doi101038343129a0, doi101038355125a0, doi101073pnas87124576, doi101111j174966321936tb56976x, doi101126science1173046528, doi101128br4111001801977, doi101130001676061951621111ghosw20co2, doi1023073514674, fox1995thermal, openalexw1491459594, openalexw1882072473, openalexw1986779979, openalexw2139291338"
}

Oligomerization of a peptide was attempted in a flow reactor that simulated a submarine hydrothermal system. When fluid containing glycine repeatedly circulated through the hot and cold regions in the reactor, oligopeptides were made from glycine. When divalent ions (such as copper ions) were added under acidic conditions, oligoglycine was elongated up to hexaglycine. This observation suggests that prebiotic monomers could have oligomerized in the vicinity of submarine hydrothermal vents on primitive Earth.

@article{doi101126science2835403831,
    author = "Imai, Eiichi and Honda, H. and Hatori, Kuniyuki and Brack, André and Matsuno, Koichiro",
    title = "Elongation of Oligopeptides in a Simulated Submarine Hydrothermal System",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Oligomerization of a peptide was attempted in a flow reactor that simulated a submarine hydrothermal system. When fluid containing glycine repeatedly circulated through the hot and cold regions in the reactor, oligopeptides were made from glycine. When divalent ions (such as copper ions) were added under acidic conditions, oligoglycine was elongated up to hexaglycine. This observation suggests that prebiotic monomers could have oligomerized in the vicinity of submarine hydrothermal vents on primitive Earth.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5403.831",
    doi = "10.1126/science.283.5403.831",
    openalex = "W2093335630",
    references = "doi101038336117a0"
}

With the submersible JAGO and by scuba diving we discovered three remarkable geothermal cones, rising 33, 25, and 45 m from the seafloor at a depth of 65 m in Eyjafjordur, northern Iceland. The greatest geothermal activity was on the highest cone, which discharged up to 50 liters of freshwater per s at 72 degrees C and pH 10.0. The cones were built up from precipitated smectite, formed by mixing of the hot SiO2-rich geothermal fluid with the cold Mg-rich seawater. By connecting a rubber hose to one outflow, about 240 liters of pure geothermal fluids was concentrated through a 0.2-microm-pore-size filter. Among 50 thermophilic isolates, we found members of Bacillus and Thermonema and a new unidentified low-G+C gram-positive member of the Bacteria as well as one member of the Archaea, Desulfurococcus mobilis. Analysis of small-subunit rRNA genes PCR amplified and cloned directly from environmental DNA showed that 41 out of 45 Bacteria sequences belonged to members of the Aquificales, whereas all of the 10 Archaea sequences belonged to the Korarchaeota. The physiological characteristics of isolates from different parts of the cones indicate a completely freshwater habitat, supporting the possibility of subterranean transmittance of terrestrial organisms.

@article{doi101128aem6728278332001,
    author = "Marteinsson, V. and Kristjánsson, Jakob K. and Kristmannsdóttir, Hrefna and Dahlkvist, Maria and Sæmundsson, Kristján and Hannington, Mark D. and Pétursdóttir, Sólveig K. and Geptner, A. R. and Stoffers, P.",
    title = "Discovery and Description of Giant Submarine Smectite Cones on the Seafloor in Eyjafjordur, Northern Iceland, and a Novel Thermal Microbial Habitat",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "With the submersible JAGO and by scuba diving we discovered three remarkable geothermal cones, rising 33, 25, and 45 m from the seafloor at a depth of 65 m in Eyjafjordur, northern Iceland. The greatest geothermal activity was on the highest cone, which discharged up to 50 liters of freshwater per s at 72 degrees C and pH 10.0. The cones were built up from precipitated smectite, formed by mixing of the hot SiO2-rich geothermal fluid with the cold Mg-rich seawater. By connecting a rubber hose to one outflow, about 240 liters of pure geothermal fluids was concentrated through a 0.2-microm-pore-size filter. Among 50 thermophilic isolates, we found members of Bacillus and Thermonema and a new unidentified low-G+C gram-positive member of the Bacteria as well as one member of the Archaea, Desulfurococcus mobilis. Analysis of small-subunit rRNA genes PCR amplified and cloned directly from environmental DNA showed that 41 out of 45 Bacteria sequences belonged to members of the Aquificales, whereas all of the 10 Archaea sequences belonged to the Korarchaeota. The physiological characteristics of isolates from different parts of the cones indicate a completely freshwater habitat, supporting the possibility of subterranean transmittance of terrestrial organisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.67.2.827-833.2001",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.67.2.827-833.2001",
    openalex = "W2145844816",
    references = "doi101128aem526131313161986"
}

@article{doi101016jbse200309005,
    author = "Lutnæs, Bjart Frode and Strand, A. H. and Pétursdóttir, Sólveig K. and Liaaen‐Jensen, Synnøve",
    title = "Carotenoids of thermophilic bacteria—Rhodothermus marinus from submarine Icelandic hot springs",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Biochemical Systematics and Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2003.09.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.bse.2003.09.005",
    openalex = "W2065349593",
    references = "doi1010079789401148382, doi101007bf00402307, doi10109900207713522485, doi101128aem667305230572000, doi101128mmbr5522883021991, doi101128mr5522883021991, doi101146annurevmi41100187001505, doi1073260003481911154487, doi1073260003481911253913, openalexw599588592"
}

The microbial diversity of intertidal hot springs on the seashore of northwest Iceland was examined by combining directed in situ enrichments, artificial support colonization, and mat sampling. Analysis of 16S rRNA genes revealed the presence of clones related to both marine and terrestrial, thermophilic, mesophilic, and psychrophilic microorganisms scattered among 11 bacterial divisions. No archaea were found. The species composition of the enrichments was affected by the length of the hot periods experienced at low tide and was very different from those found in the biomass. A total of 36 chitinase genes were detected by molecular screening of the samples with degenerate primers for glycoside hydrolase family 18. The chitinase gene diversity was at least twofold higher in the enrichment samples than in the controls, indicating that a much higher diversity of hydrolytic genes can be accessed with this approach.

@article{doi101128aem715277127762005,
    author = "Hobel, Cédric F.V. and Marteinsson, V. and Hreggviðsson, Guðmundur Ó. and Kristjánsson, Jakob K.",
    title = "Investigation of the Microbial Ecology of Intertidal Hot Springs by Using Diversity Analysis of 16S rRNA and Chitinase Genes",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "The microbial diversity of intertidal hot springs on the seashore of northwest Iceland was examined by combining directed in situ enrichments, artificial support colonization, and mat sampling. Analysis of 16S rRNA genes revealed the presence of clones related to both marine and terrestrial, thermophilic, mesophilic, and psychrophilic microorganisms scattered among 11 bacterial divisions. No archaea were found. The species composition of the enrichments was affected by the length of the hot periods experienced at low tide and was very different from those found in the biomass. A total of 36 chitinase genes were detected by molecular screening of the samples with degenerate primers for glycoside hydrolase family 18. The chitinase gene diversity was at least twofold higher in the enrichment samples than in the controls, indicating that a much higher diversity of hydrolytic genes can be accessed with this approach.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.71.5.2771-2776.2005",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.71.5.2771-2776.2005",
    openalex = "W2170868946",
    references = "doi101128aem526131313161986"
}

@article{doi101016jchemgeo200806030,
    author = "Dai, Shifeng and Ren, Deyi and Zhou, Yiping and Chou, Chen‐Lin and Wang, Xibo and Zhao, Lei and Zhu, Xingwei",
    title = "Mineralogy and geochemistry of a superhigh-organic-sulfur coal, Yanshan Coalfield, Yunnan, China: Evidence for a volcanic ash component and influence by submarine exhalation",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Chemical Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2008.06.030",
    doi = "10.1016/j.chemgeo.2008.06.030",
    openalex = "W2069532814",
    references = "doi1010160009254173900491"
}

@article{doi101016jgca201105029,
    author = "Burwicz, Ewa and Rüpke, Lars and Wallmann, Klaus",
    title = "Estimation of the global amount of submarine gas hydrates formed via microbial methane formation based on numerical reaction-transport modeling and a novel parameterization of Holocene sedimentation",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2011.05.029",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gca.2011.05.029",
    openalex = "W2118500026",
    references = "doi101029sp044"
}

@article{doi101016jgca201502016,
    author = "McDermott, Jill M. and Ono, Shuhei and Tivey, Margaret K. and Seewald, Jeffrey S. and Shanks, Wayne C. and Solow, Andrew R.",
    title = "Identification of sulfur sources and isotopic equilibria in submarine hot-springs using multiple sulfur isotopes",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.02.016",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gca.2015.02.016",
    openalex = "W2088831824",
    references = "doi1010160009254186900781, doi1010160012821x7990061x, doi1010160012825273900287, doi1010160016703785902224, doi1010160883292795000088, doi101038382127a0, doi101039jr9470000562, doi10109900221287342195, doi101146annurevearth241191, doi105382rev07"
}

© The Author(s), 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 228 (2018): 95-118, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2018.01.021.

@article{doi101016jgca201801021,
    author = "McDermott, Jill M. and Sylva, Sean P. and Ono, Shuhei and German, Christopher R. and Seewald, Jeffrey S.",
    title = "Geochemistry of fluids from Earth’s deepest ridge-crest hot-springs: Piccard hydrothermal field, Mid-Cayman Rise",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    abstract = "© The Author(s), 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 228 (2018): 95-118, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2018.01.021.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2018.01.021",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gca.2018.01.021",
    openalex = "W2789259052",
    references = "doi101016jgca201502016"
}

@article{doi101016jbiomaterials2020120414,
    author = "Sheng, Lili and Zhang, Zhaowenbin and Zhang, Yu and Wang, Endian and Ma, Bing and Xu, Q. N. and Ma, Lingling and Zhang, Meng and Ge, Pei and Chang, Jiang",
    title = "A novel “hot spring”-mimetic hydrogel with excellent angiogenic properties for chronic wound healing",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Biomaterials",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120414",
    doi = "10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120414",
    openalex = "W3087185081",
    references = "doi101038336117a0"
}

@article{doi101016jgca202105047,
    author = "Falkenberg, Jan J. and Keith, Manuel and Haase, Karsten M. and Bach, Wolfgang and Klemd, Reiner and Strauß, Harald and Yeo, Isobel and Rubin, K. H. and Storch, Bettina and Anderson, Melissa O.",
    title = "Effects of fluid boiling on Au and volatile element enrichment in submarine arc-related hydrothermal systems",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2021.05.047",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gca.2021.05.047",
    openalex = "W3172375810",
    references = "doi101016jgca201502016"
}

@article{doi101016jmineng2022107441,
    author = "Toro, Norman and Gálvez, Edelmira D. and Saldaña, Manuel and Jeldres, Ricardo I.",
    title = "Submarine mineral resources: A potential solution to political conflicts and global warming",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Minerals Engineering",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2022.107441",
    doi = "10.1016/j.mineng.2022.107441",
    openalex = "W4283391336",
    references = "doi102113gsecongeo732161"
}