Human behavior

@book{freedman1958evolution1,
    author = "Freedman, L. Z. and Roe, A",
    title = "Evolution and Human Behavior, in Roe, A., and Simpson, G. G., eds., Behavior in Evolution",
    year = "1958",
    publisher = "New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, p. 455-479; 557 pp",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Freedman, L. Z., and Roe, A., 1958, Evolution and Human Behavior, in Roe, A., and Simpson, G. G., eds., Behavior in Evolution: New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, p. 455-479; 557 pp.}"
}

@misc{waddington1960the5,
    author = "Waddington, C. H",
    title = "The Ethical Animal",
    year = "1960",
    howpublished = "London, Allen and Unwin, 231 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Waddington, C. H., 1960, The Ethical Animal: London, Allen and Unwin, 231 p.}"
}

@article{doi101126science1090005,
    author = "King, Mary‐Claire and Wilson, Allan C.",
    title = "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1090005",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1090005",
    openalex = "W2128969076",
    references = "doi101007bf00485780, doi101016002228367190324x, doi101016s002192581861823x, doi1010179781316276259010, doi101038224149a0, doi101073pnas581142, doi101073pnas6341088, doi101073pnas7183028, doi101093genetics701113, doi101126science15838051200, doi1023073001850, doi1043249781315081083, sarich1967immunological"
}

Multivarate techniques can be used to condense the information for a large number of loci and alleles into one or a few synthetic variables. The geographic distribution of synthetic variables can be plotted by the same technique used in mapping the gene frequency of a single allele. Synthetic maps were constructed for Europe and the Near East, with the use of principal components to condense the information of 38 independent alleles from ten loci. The first principal component summarizes close to 30% of the total information and shows gradients. Maps thus constructed show clines in remarkable agreement with those expected on the basis of the spread of early farming in Europe, thus supporting the hypothesis that this spread was a demic spread rather than a cultural diffusion of farming technology.

@article{doi101126science356262,
    author = "Menozzi, Paolo and Piazza, Alberto and Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca",
    title = "Synthetic Maps of Human Gene Frequencies in Europeans",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Multivarate techniques can be used to condense the information for a large number of loci and alleles into one or a few synthetic variables. The geographic distribution of synthetic variables can be plotted by the same technique used in mapping the gene frequency of a single allele. Synthetic maps were constructed for Europe and the Near East, with the use of principal components to condense the information of 38 independent alleles from ten loci. The first principal component summarizes close to 30\% of the total information and shows gradients. Maps thus constructed show clines in remarkable agreement with those expected on the basis of the spread of early farming in Europe, thus supporting the hypothesis that this spread was a demic spread rather than a cultural diffusion of farming technology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.356262",
    doi = "10.1126/science.356262",
    openalex = "W2072706575"
}

@misc{smith1978the4,
    author = "Smith, J. M",
    title = "The evolution of human behavior",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 239, no. 3, p. 176-191",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Smith, J. M., 1978, The evolution of human behavior: Scientific American, v. 239, no. 3, p. 176-191.}"
}

@article{doi1010160006899379903494,
    author = "R., Huttenlocher Peter",
    title = "Synaptic density in human frontal cortex — Developmental changes and effects of aging",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Brain Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(79)90349-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0006-8993(79)90349-4",
    openalex = "W2113359311",
    references = "doi101002ar1090940210"
}

Human mitochondrial DNA was obtained from peripheral blood platelets donated by the members of several independent families. The samples were screened for nucleotide sequence polymorphisms between individuals within these families. In each family in which we were able to detect a distinctly different restriction endonuclease cleavage pattern between the parents, the progeny exhibited the maternal cleavage pattern. Informative polymorphisms were detected for Hae II (PuGCGCPy) in a three-generation family composed of 33 members, for HincII (GTPyPuAC) in a two-generation family composed of four members, and for Hae III(GGCC) in a two-generation family composed of four members. The Hae II polymorphism was analyzed through all three generations in both the maternal and paternal lines. The results of this study demonstrate that human mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited. The techniques described for using peripheral blood platelets as a source of human mitochondrial DNA represent a convenient way to obtain data on mitochondrial DNA variation in both individuals and populations.

@article{doi101073pnas77116715,
    author = "Giles, Richard E. and Blanc, Hugues and Cann, Howard M. and Wallace, Darion",
    title = "Maternal inheritance of human mitochondrial DNA.",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Human mitochondrial DNA was obtained from peripheral blood platelets donated by the members of several independent families. The samples were screened for nucleotide sequence polymorphisms between individuals within these families. In each family in which we were able to detect a distinctly different restriction endonuclease cleavage pattern between the parents, the progeny exhibited the maternal cleavage pattern. Informative polymorphisms were detected for Hae II (PuGCGCPy) in a three-generation family composed of 33 members, for HincII (GTPyPuAC) in a two-generation family composed of four members, and for Hae III(GGCC) in a two-generation family composed of four members. The Hae II polymorphism was analyzed through all three generations in both the maternal and paternal lines. The results of this study demonstrate that human mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited. The techniques described for using peripheral blood platelets as a source of human mitochondrial DNA represent a convenient way to obtain data on mitochondrial DNA variation in both individuals and populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.77.11.6715",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.77.11.6715",
    openalex = "W2079640584"
}

@book{openalexw567542833,
    author = "Lockard, Joan S.",
    title = "The Evolution of Human Social Behavior",
    year = "1980",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W567542833",
    openalex = "W567542833"
}

@article{doi101038290457a0,
    author = "Anderson, Stephen K. and Bankier, Alan T. and Barrell, B. G. and de Bruijn, M.H.L. and Coulson, Alan and Drouin, Jacques and Eperon, Ian C. and Nierlich, Donald P. and Roe, B.A. and Sanger, Frederick and Schreier, Peter and Smith, Andrew J.H. and Staden, Rodger and Young, Ian G.",
    title = "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/290457a0",
    doi = "10.1038/290457a0",
    openalex = "W2109291482",
    references = "doi101038282189a0, doi101073pnas74125463"
}

@article{doi1010160162309583900274,
    author = "Thornhill, Randy and Thornhill, Nancy Wilmsen",
    title = "Human rape: An evolutionary analysis",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Ethology and Sociobiology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(83)90027-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0162-3095(83)90027-4",
    openalex = "W1978730459",
    references = "doi1010160092867481900428, doi1010160191886980900744, doi101111j1469185x1970tb01176x, doi101126science327542, doi101146annureves05110174001545, doi101537ase188722495, doi102307582736, doi1038171276030237, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi105962bhltitle27468, openalexw567542833"
}

@article{doi1010160278416583900089,
    author = "Shipman, Pat and Rose, Jennie J.",
    title = "Early hominid hunting, butchering, and carcass-processing behaviors: Approaches to the fossil record",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Journal of Anthropological Archaeology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(83)90008-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0278-4165(83)90008-9",
    openalex = "W2002557964",
    references = "doi101016b9780120031047500132, doi101017s0094837300005820, doi101038scientificamerican096062, doi102113gsrocky8specialpaper11, doi1023072798801, doi105962bhlpart22969, openalexw1974359478"
}

@misc{smith1985ancestral3,
    author = "Smith, C. G",
    title = "Ancestral Views",
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Languages and the Evolution of Consciousness: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 178 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Smith, C. G., 1985, Ancestral Views: Languages and the Evolution of Consciousness: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 178 p.}"
}

@article{doi101038325031a0,
    author = "Cann, Rebecca L. and Stoneking, Mark and Wilson, Allan C.",
    title = "Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/325031a0",
    doi = "10.1038/325031a0",
    openalex = "W2115688047",
    references = "doi101002jcp1041360316, doi101007bf01734101, doi101016s0002929707629541, doi101038290457a0, doi101073pnas77116715, doi101086282802, doi101111j109583121985tb02048x, doi101126science1090005, doi101126science15838051200, doi101126science3125610, sarich1967immunological"
}

@article{doi1023072803365,
    author = "Reynolds, Vernon and Kinzey, Warren G.",
    title = "The Evolution of Human Behavior: Primate Models.",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Man",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2803365",
    doi = "10.2307/2803365",
    openalex = "W625208179"
}

The origin of living Homo sapiens has once again been the subject of much debate. Genetic data on present human population relationships and data from the Pleistocene fossil hominid record are used to compare two contrasting models for the origin of modern humans. Both genetics and paleontology support a recent African origin for modern humans rather than a long period of multiregional evolution accompanied by gene flow.

@article{doi101126science3125610,
    author = "Stringer, C. B. and Andrews, Peter",
    title = "Genetic and Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Modern Humans",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The origin of living Homo sapiens has once again been the subject of much debate. Genetic data on present human population relationships and data from the Pleistocene fossil hominid record are used to compare two contrasting models for the origin of modern humans. Both genetics and paleontology support a recent African origin for modern humans rather than a long period of multiregional evolution accompanied by gene flow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3125610",
    doi = "10.1126/science.3125610",
    openalex = "W1980704858",
    references = "doi101038331614a0"
}

Editorial - the Machiavellian intelligence hypotheses. The origins of the idea what primates know about social relationships social complexity - the effect of a third party are primates mind-readers? deception - including tactical deception in baboons, deception and social manipulation in symbol-using apes, the ontogeny of tactical deception in humans social or non-social origins of intelligence? exploiting the expertise of others taking stock - including the experimental context of intellect, the evolution of purpose. References. Index.

@book{openalexw79275703,
    author = "Byrne, Richard W. and Whiten, Andrew",
    title = "Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes, and Humans",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    abstract = "Editorial - the Machiavellian intelligence hypotheses. The origins of the idea what primates know about social relationships social complexity - the effect of a third party are primates mind-readers? deception - including tactical deception in baboons, deception and social manipulation in symbol-using apes, the ontogeny of tactical deception in humans social or non-social origins of intelligence? exploiting the expertise of others taking stock - including the experimental context of intellect, the evolution of purpose. References. Index.",
    openalex = "W79275703"
}

@article{doi1010160010027789900231,
    author = "Cosmides, Leda",
    title = "The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Cognition",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(89)90023-1",
    doi = "10.1016/0010-0277(89)90023-1",
    openalex = "W2045163169",
    references = "crossref1975sexual, doi101007978146847862422, doi1010160010028573900339, doi1010160022249683900305, doi1010160022519364900384, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi10103710034000, doi101086406755, doi1012019780429492594, doi1023072803365, doi10432497813151292667, doi107551mitpress97802625146200010001, openalexw1969787028, openalexw2330340155, pines2018emerging"
}

Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00023992,
    author = "Buss, David M.",
    title = "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    openalex = "W2157338817",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi1010160022519364900384, doi1010160022519366901846, doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi101016s0065260122x00026, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi101017s0140525x00010128, doi10103711774000, doi10103712293000, doi101038246015a0, doi101038369716c0, doi101086284064, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101126science327542, doi1011425786, doi1011770022022190211001, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072393017, doi1023072412191, doi1023072485224, doi1023072576242, doi1023075530, doi102307582242, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi1043249781410606266, doi105962bhltitle27468, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, openalexw1649242647, openalexw2000871817"
}

@article{doi101016016953479090104l,
    author = "Delson, Eric",
    title = "The human revolution: Behavioural and biological perspectives in the origins of modern humans",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(90)90104-l",
    doi = "10.1016/0169-5347(90)90104-l",
    openalex = "W2094759712"
}

The concept of a universal human nature, based on a species-typical collection of complex psychological adaptations, is defended as valid, despite the existence of substantial genetic variation that makes each human genetically and biochemically unique. These apparently contradictory facts can be reconciled by considering that (a) complex adaptations necessarily require many genes to regulate their development, and (b) sexual recombination makes it improbable that all the necessary genes for a complex adaptation would be together at once in the same individual, if genes coding for complex adaptations varied substantially between individuals. Selection, interacting with sexual recombination, tends to impose relative uniformity at the functional level in complex adaptive designs, suggesting that most heritable psychological differences are not themselves likely to be complex psychological adaptations. Instead, they are mostly evolutionary by-products, such as concomitants of parasite-driven selection for biochemical individuality. An evolutionary approach to psychological variation reconceptualizes traits as either the output of species-typical, adaptively designed development and psychological mechanisms, or as the result of genetic noise creating perturbations in these mechanisms.

@article{doi101111j146764941990tb00907x,
    author = "Tooby, John and Cosmides, Leda",
    title = "On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Personality",
    abstract = "The concept of a universal human nature, based on a species-typical collection of complex psychological adaptations, is defended as valid, despite the existence of substantial genetic variation that makes each human genetically and biochemically unique. These apparently contradictory facts can be reconciled by considering that (a) complex adaptations necessarily require many genes to regulate their development, and (b) sexual recombination makes it improbable that all the necessary genes for a complex adaptation would be together at once in the same individual, if genes coding for complex adaptations varied substantially between individuals. Selection, interacting with sexual recombination, tends to impose relative uniformity at the functional level in complex adaptive designs, suggesting that most heritable psychological differences are not themselves likely to be complex psychological adaptations. Instead, they are mostly evolutionary by-products, such as concomitants of parasite-driven selection for biochemical individuality. An evolutionary approach to psychological variation reconceptualizes traits as either the output of species-typical, adaptively designed development and psychological mechanisms, or as the result of genetic noise creating perturbations in these mechanisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x",
    openalex = "W2145198619",
    references = "doi1010160040580978900394, doi1010160162309589900137, doi101038369716c0, doi1023072803365, doi1023073544435, openalexw1523843460"
}

The brain's default mode network consists of discrete, bilateral and symmetrical cortical areas, in the medial and lateral parietal, medial prefrontal, and medial and lateral temporal cortices of the human, nonhuman primate, cat, and rodent brains. Its...Read More

@article{doi101146annurevne13030190000325,
    author = "Posner, Michael I. and Petersen, Steven E.",
    title = "The Attention System of the Human Brain",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Annual Review of Neuroscience",
    abstract = "The brain's default mode network consists of discrete, bilateral and symmetrical cortical areas, in the medial and lateral parietal, medial prefrontal, and medial and lateral temporal cortices of the human, nonhuman primate, cat, and rodent brains. Its...Read More",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325",
    openalex = "W2156761163",
    references = "doi1010160010028577900123"
}

@misc{polmin1990the2,
    author = "Polmin, R",
    title = "The role of inheritance in behavior",
    year = "1990",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 248, p. 183- 188",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Polmin, R., 1990, The role of inheritance in behavior: Science, v. 248, p. 183- 188.}"
}

Extracting nutrients is of upmost importance to the survival of any individual or species. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the order Primates is the vast range of nutritional adaptations it exhibits. Within our own species all manner of adaptations are practiced and it has been a major focus of research to determine when and where these various patterns originated. We present one method based on stable isotope analysis in human tissues and discuss its contributions. The ratios of 13C/12C and 15N/14N vary among various pools (i.e., the atmosphere, the oceans, plant communities, trophic levels). These differences are transferred to humans via the foods they eat. The major differences in carbon occur between two photosynthetic pathways (C3 and C4), which in the New World permits tracing the introduction of maize (a C4 plant) and in Asia permits tracing the introduction of millet (also a C4 plant). The marine and terrestrial systems have distinctive isotope ratios of both carbon and nitrogen. Thus, the dependence on marine resources has been traced throughout several areas of the New and Old Worlds. We discuss several potential sources of variation including sex, age, nutritional status, among others. We conclude with some suggestions for future research.

@article{doi101002ajpa1330340613,
    author = "Schwarcz, Henry P. and Schoeninger, Margaret J.",
    title = "Stable isotope analyses in human nutritional ecology",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Extracting nutrients is of upmost importance to the survival of any individual or species. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the order Primates is the vast range of nutritional adaptations it exhibits. Within our own species all manner of adaptations are practiced and it has been a major focus of research to determine when and where these various patterns originated. We present one method based on stable isotope analysis in human tissues and discuss its contributions. The ratios of 13C/12C and 15N/14N vary among various pools (i.e., the atmosphere, the oceans, plant communities, trophic levels). These differences are transferred to humans via the foods they eat. The major differences in carbon occur between two photosynthetic pathways (C3 and C4), which in the New World permits tracing the introduction of maize (a C4 plant) and in Asia permits tracing the introduction of millet (also a C4 plant). The marine and terrestrial systems have distinctive isotope ratios of both carbon and nitrogen. Thus, the dependence on marine resources has been traced throughout several areas of the New and Old Worlds. We discuss several potential sources of variation including sex, age, nutritional status, among others. We conclude with some suggestions for future research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330340613",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.1330340613",
    openalex = "W2118948946",
    references = "openalexw1974359478, openalexw2097385721"
}

@article{doi101016s0272494405800027,
    author = "Parsons, Russ",
    title = "The potential influences of environmental perception on human health",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Journal of Environmental Psychology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80002-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80002-7",
    openalex = "W2154166871",
    references = "openalexw567542833"
}

Abstract During the first two years of human life a common neural substrate (roughly Broca's area) underlies the hierarchical organization of elements in the development of speech as well as the capacity to combine objects manually, including tool use. Subsequent cortical differentiation, beginning at age two, creates distinct, relatively modularized capacities for linguistic grammar and more complex combination of objects. An evolutionary homologue of the neural substrate for language production and manual action is hypothesized to have provided a foundation for the evolution of language before the divergence of the hominids and the great apes. Support comes from the discovery of a Broca's area homologue and related neural circuits in contemporary primates. In addition, chimpanzees have an identical constraint on hierarchical complexity in both tool use and symbol combination. Their performance matches that of the two-year-old child who has not yet developed the neural circuits for complex grammar and complex manual combination of objects.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00071235,
    author = "Greenfield, Patricia M.",
    title = "Language, tools and brain: The ontogeny and phylogeny of hierarchically organized sequential behavior",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract During the first two years of human life a common neural substrate (roughly Broca's area) underlies the hierarchical organization of elements in the development of speech as well as the capacity to combine objects manually, including tool use. Subsequent cortical differentiation, beginning at age two, creates distinct, relatively modularized capacities for linguistic grammar and more complex combination of objects. An evolutionary homologue of the neural substrate for language production and manual action is hypothesized to have provided a foundation for the evolution of language before the divergence of the hominids and the great apes. Support comes from the discovery of a Broca's area homologue and related neural circuits in contemporary primates. In addition, chimpanzees have an identical constraint on hierarchical complexity in both tool use and symbol combination. Their performance matches that of the two-year-old child who has not yet developed the neural circuits for complex grammar and complex manual combination of objects.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00071235",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00071235",
    openalex = "W2120056193",
    references = "doi101017s0140525x00047695, doi101111j174966321976tb25504x, doi1023072412825, doi105860choice285725"
}

@article{doi101111j155856461991tb04425x,
    author = "McHenry, Henry M.",
    title = "THE HUMAN CAREER: HUMAN BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ORIGINS",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04425.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04425.x",
    openalex = "W1975141628",
    references = "doi101016016953479090104l"
}

The proposal that all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) types in contemporary humans stem from a common ancestor present in an African population some 200,000 years ago has attracted much attention. To study this proposal further, two hypervariable segments of mtDNA were sequenced from 189 people of diverse geographic origin, including 121 native Africans. Geographic specificity was observed in that identical mtDNA types are shared within but not between populations. A tree relating these mtDNA sequences to one another and to a chimpanzee sequence has many deep branches leading exclusively to African mtDNAs. An African origin for human mtDNA is supported by two statistical tests. With the use of the chimpanzee and human sequences to calibrate the rate of mtDNA evolution, the age of the common human mtDNA ancestor is placed between 166,000 and 249,000 years. These results thus support and extend the African origin hypothesis of human mtDNA evolution.

@article{doi101126science1840702,
    author = "Vigilant, Linda and Stoneking, Mark and Harpending, Henry and Hawkes, Kristen and Wilson, Allan C.",
    title = "African Populations and the Evolution of Human Mitochondrial DNA",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The proposal that all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) types in contemporary humans stem from a common ancestor present in an African population some 200,000 years ago has attracted much attention. To study this proposal further, two hypervariable segments of mtDNA were sequenced from 189 people of diverse geographic origin, including 121 native Africans. Geographic specificity was observed in that identical mtDNA types are shared within but not between populations. A tree relating these mtDNA sequences to one another and to a chimpanzee sequence has many deep branches leading exclusively to African mtDNAs. An African origin for human mtDNA is supported by two statistical tests. With the use of the chimpanzee and human sequences to calibrate the rate of mtDNA evolution, the age of the common human mtDNA ancestor is placed between 166,000 and 249,000 years. These results thus support and extend the African origin hypothesis of human mtDNA evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1840702",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1840702",
    openalex = "W2072889251",
    references = "doi101007bf01734101, doi101038325031a0, doi101038scientificamerican117998, doi101073pnas7641967, doi101073pnas77116715, doi101073pnas85166002, doi101126science147365368, doi101126science3125610, doi101146annurevge22120188002513, doi102307530156"
}

This major interdisciplinary work developed from an international conference held at Cambridge University in 1987. Fifty-five of the world's leading authorities from the fields of anthropology, archaeology, human evolution, and genetics met for the first time to discuss all aspects of the biological and behavioural origins of modern human populations. The volume brings together their papers, revised and updated in the light of discussion at the conference itself.The book features the results of new work by geneticists working on mitochondrial DNA, globin polymorphisms, and a Y-chromosome DNA phylogeny, and there are general reviews of the genetic evidence for the evolution of modern humans. Other topics covered include palaeoecological models of human origins; sophisticated modeling of population expansions and replacements; changes in technology, subsistence and social patterns; and the origins of human language and other unique aspects of human behaviour. This is the only book which integrates the remarkable new genetic evidence with the more conventional approaches of archaeologists and anthropologists. No other work provides such an exhaustive and wide-ranging account of modern human origins on a world-wide scale.

@article{doi102307530156,
    author = "Binford, Lewis R. and Mellars, Paul and Stringer, Chris",
    title = "The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Journal of Field Archaeology",
    abstract = "This major interdisciplinary work developed from an international conference held at Cambridge University in 1987. Fifty-five of the world's leading authorities from the fields of anthropology, archaeology, human evolution, and genetics met for the first time to discuss all aspects of the biological and behavioural origins of modern human populations. The volume brings together their papers, revised and updated in the light of discussion at the conference itself.The book features the results of new work by geneticists working on mitochondrial DNA, globin polymorphisms, and a Y-chromosome DNA phylogeny, and there are general reviews of the genetic evidence for the evolution of modern humans. Other topics covered include palaeoecological models of human origins; sophisticated modeling of population expansions and replacements; changes in technology, subsistence and social patterns; and the origins of human language and other unique aspects of human behaviour. This is the only book which integrates the remarkable new genetic evidence with the more conventional approaches of archaeologists and anthropologists. No other work provides such an exhaustive and wide-ranging account of modern human origins on a world-wide scale.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/530156",
    doi = "10.2307/530156",
    openalex = "W2056466252"
}

Introduction 1. Brain Structure, Behavior, and Circuitry 2. Human Speech 3. A Thoroughly Modern Human Brain 4. The Brain's Dictionary 5. Learning to Talk and Think 6. Culture and Selfless Behavior Notes References Index

@article{doi105860choice285725,
    title = "Uniquely human: the evolution of speech, thought, and selfless behavior",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "Introduction 1. Brain Structure, Behavior, and Circuitry 2. Human Speech 3. A Thoroughly Modern Human Brain 4. The Brain's Dictionary 5. Learning to Talk and Think 6. Culture and Selfless Behavior Notes References Index",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.28-5725",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.28-5725",
    openalex = "W2009197889"
}

We present here a framework for the study of molecular variation within a single species. Information on DNA haplotype divergence is incorporated into an analysis of variance format, derived from a matrix of squared-distances among all pairs of haplotypes. This analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) produces estimates of variance components and F-statistic analogs, designated here as phi-statistics, reflecting the correlation of haplotypic diversity at different levels of hierarchical subdivision. The method is flexible enough to accommodate several alternative input matrices, corresponding to different types of molecular data, as well as different types of evolutionary assumptions, without modifying the basic structure of the analysis. The significance of the variance components and phi-statistics is tested using a permutational approach, eliminating the normality assumption that is conventional for analysis of variance but inappropriate for molecular data. Application of AMOVA to human mitochondrial DNA haplotype data shows that population subdivisions are better resolved when some measure of molecular differences among haplotypes is introduced into the analysis. At the intraspecific level, however, the additional information provided by knowing the exact phylogenetic relations among haplotypes or by a nonlinear translation of restriction-site change into nucleotide diversity does not significantly modify the inferred population genetic structure. Monte Carlo studies show that site sampling does not fundamentally affect the significance of the molecular variance components. The AMOVA treatment is easily extended in several different directions and it constitutes a coherent and flexible framework for the statistical analysis of molecular data.

@article{doi101093genetics1312479,
    author = "Excoffier, Laurent and Smouse, Peter E. and Quattro, Joseph M.",
    title = "Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes: application to human mitochondrial DNA restriction data.",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Genetics",
    abstract = "We present here a framework for the study of molecular variation within a single species. Information on DNA haplotype divergence is incorporated into an analysis of variance format, derived from a matrix of squared-distances among all pairs of haplotypes. This analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) produces estimates of variance components and F-statistic analogs, designated here as phi-statistics, reflecting the correlation of haplotypic diversity at different levels of hierarchical subdivision. The method is flexible enough to accommodate several alternative input matrices, corresponding to different types of molecular data, as well as different types of evolutionary assumptions, without modifying the basic structure of the analysis. The significance of the variance components and phi-statistics is tested using a permutational approach, eliminating the normality assumption that is conventional for analysis of variance but inappropriate for molecular data. Application of AMOVA to human mitochondrial DNA haplotype data shows that population subdivisions are better resolved when some measure of molecular differences among haplotypes is introduced into the analysis. At the intraspecific level, however, the additional information provided by knowing the exact phylogenetic relations among haplotypes or by a nonlinear translation of restriction-site change into nucleotide diversity does not significantly modify the inferred population genetic structure. Monte Carlo studies show that site sampling does not fundamentally affect the significance of the molecular variance components. The AMOVA treatment is easily extended in several different directions and it constitutes a coherent and flexible framework for the statistical analysis of molecular data.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/131.2.479",
    doi = "10.1093/genetics/131.2.479",
    openalex = "W1919772617",
    references = "doi101002j153873051957tb01515x, doi101007bf01734101, doi1010160040580975900209, doi101038290457a0, doi101038325031a0, doi101073pnas70123321, doi101073pnas7641967, doi101111j146918091949tb02451x, doi101111j155856461984tb05657x, doi101111jbi14281, doi101146annurevge22120188002513, doi1023072408641"
}

Abstract Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00032325,
    author = "Dunbar, Robin",
    title = "Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60\% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00032325",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00032325",
    openalex = "W2137391072",
    references = "doi1010079781468441482, doi1010160022519364900384, doi1010160047248487900224, doi101016004724849290081j, doi101016s0022519389801699, doi101017s0140525x00081061, doi101086284325, doi101093oso97801985464120010001, doi101098rstb19890106, doi101111j143903101963tb01161x, doi101152physrev1992721165, doi1023071367778, doi1023071438156, doi1023072063068, doi1023072185913, doi1023072407154, doi1043249780203037416, doi1043249781315132129, doi105860choice295104, falk1983cerebral, openalexw1659631989, openalexw1996270497"
}

Examining the pattern of nucleotide substitution for the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in humans and chimpanzees, we developed a new mathematical method for estimating the number of transitional and transversional substitutions per site, as well as the total number of nucleotide substitutions. In this method, excess transitions, unequal nucleotide frequencies, and variation of substitution rate among different sites are all taken into account. Application of this method to human and chimpanzee data suggested that the transition/transversion ratio for the entire control region was approximately 15 and nearly the same for the two species. The 95% confidence interval of the age of the common ancestral mtDNA was estimated to be 80,000-480,000 years in humans and 0.57-2.72 Myr in common chimpanzees.

@article{doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040023,
    author = "Tamura, Koichiro and Nei, M",
    title = "Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees.",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Molecular Biology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Examining the pattern of nucleotide substitution for the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in humans and chimpanzees, we developed a new mathematical method for estimating the number of transitional and transversional substitutions per site, as well as the total number of nucleotide substitutions. In this method, excess transitions, unequal nucleotide frequencies, and variation of substitution rate among different sites are all taken into account. Application of this method to human and chimpanzee data suggested that the transition/transversion ratio for the entire control region was approximately 15 and nearly the same for the two species. The 95\% confidence interval of the age of the common ancestral mtDNA was estimated to be 80,000-480,000 years in humans and 0.57-2.72 Myr in common chimpanzees.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040023",
    doi = "10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040023",
    openalex = "W2144775551",
    references = "doi101007bf01731581, doi101007bf01734101, doi101007bf02101694, doi101093genetics1052437, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040410, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040454, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040752, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040771, doi101126science1840702, doi1023073213548"
}

The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes, Pongidae) among all other living species, is our closest relation, with whom we last shared a common ancestor less than five million years \nago. These African apes make and use a rich and varied kit of tools. Of the primates, and even of the other Great Apes, they are the only consistent and habitual tool-users. \nChimpanzees meet the criteria of working definitions of culture as originally devised for human beings in socio-cultural anthropology. They show sex differences in \nusing tools to obtain and to process a variety of plant and animal foods. The technological gap between chimpanzees and \nhuman societies living by foraging (hunter-gatherers) is surprisingly narrow, at least for food-getting. Different communities of chimpanzees have different tool-kits, and not \nall of this regional and local variation can be explained by the varied physical and biotic environments in which they live. Some differences are likely customs based on \nnon-functionally derived and symbolically encoded traditions. Chimpanzees serve as heuristic, referential models for the reconstruction of cultural evolution in apes \nand humans from an ancestral hominoid. However, chimpanzees are not humans, and key differences exist between them, though many of these apparent contrasts remain to be \nexplored empirically and theoretically.

@article{doi105860choice310304,
    author = "McGrew, William C.",
    title = "Chimpanzee material culture: implications for human evolution",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes, Pongidae) among all other living species, is our closest relation, with whom we last shared a common ancestor less than five million years \nago. These African apes make and use a rich and varied kit of tools. Of the primates, and even of the other Great Apes, they are the only consistent and habitual tool-users. \nChimpanzees meet the criteria of working definitions of culture as originally devised for human beings in socio-cultural anthropology. They show sex differences in \nusing tools to obtain and to process a variety of plant and animal foods. The technological gap between chimpanzees and \nhuman societies living by foraging (hunter-gatherers) is surprisingly narrow, at least for food-getting. Different communities of chimpanzees have different tool-kits, and not \nall of this regional and local variation can be explained by the varied physical and biotic environments in which they live. Some differences are likely customs based on \nnon-functionally derived and symbolically encoded traditions. Chimpanzees serve as heuristic, referential models for the reconstruction of cultural evolution in apes \nand humans from an ancestral hominoid. However, chimpanzees are not humans, and key differences exist between them, though many of these apparent contrasts remain to be \nexplored empirically and theoretically.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.31-0304",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.31-0304",
    openalex = "W1970852128"
}

Abstract Despite a massive endeavour, the problem of modern human origins not only remains unresolved, but is usually reduced to “Out of Africa” versus multiregional evolution. Not all would agree, but evidence for a single recent origin is accumulating. Here, we want to go beyond this debate and explore within the “Out of Africa” framework an issue that has not been fully addressed: the mechanism by which modern human diversity has developed. We believe there is no clear rubicon of modern Homo sapiens, and that multiple dispersals occurred from a morphologically variable population in Africa. Pre‐existing African diversity is thus crucial to the way human diversity developed outside Africa. The pattern of diversity—behavioural, linguistic, morphological and genetic—can be interpreted as the result of dispersals, colonisation, differentiation and subsequent dispersals overlaid on former population ranges. The first dispersals would have originated in Africa from where two different geographical routes were possible, one through Ethiopia/Arabia towards South Asia, and one through North Africa/Middle East towards Eurasia.

@article{doi101002evan1360030206,
    author = "Lahr, Marta Mìrazón and Foley, Robert",
    title = "Multiple dispersals and modern human origins",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    abstract = "Abstract Despite a massive endeavour, the problem of modern human origins not only remains unresolved, but is usually reduced to “Out of Africa” versus multiregional evolution. Not all would agree, but evidence for a single recent origin is accumulating. Here, we want to go beyond this debate and explore within the “Out of Africa” framework an issue that has not been fully addressed: the mechanism by which modern human diversity has developed. We believe there is no clear rubicon of modern Homo sapiens, and that multiple dispersals occurred from a morphologically variable population in Africa. Pre‐existing African diversity is thus crucial to the way human diversity developed outside Africa. The pattern of diversity—behavioural, linguistic, morphological and genetic—can be interpreted as the result of dispersals, colonisation, differentiation and subsequent dispersals overlaid on former population ranges. The first dispersals would have originated in Africa from where two different geographical routes were possible, one through Ethiopia/Arabia towards South Asia, and one through North Africa/Middle East towards Eurasia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.1360030206",
    doi = "10.1002/evan.1360030206",
    openalex = "W2137029932",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330380609, doi101038331614a0"
}

@incollection{doi10100797836427878291,
    author = "Piazza, Alberto",
    title = "History and Geography of Human Genes",
    year = "1994",
    booktitle = "Advances in forensic haemogenetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-78782-9\_1",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-78782-9\_1",
    openalex = "W2001587667",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330830107, doi101038scientificamerican0390110, doi101086203472, doi101086284597, doi101126science356262, doi102307530156, doi102307jctt1vgwb5m11, openalexw1970370510, openalexw580871551"
}

@incollection{doi101016b9780122089305500064,
    author = "Bjorklund, David F. and Harnishfeger, Katherine Kipp",
    title = "The evolution of inhibition mechanisms and their role in human cognition and behavior",
    year = "1995",
    booktitle = "Elsevier eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012208930-5/50006-4",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-012208930-5/50006-4",
    openalex = "W1477037488",
    references = "doi101007bf02928399, doi1010160006899379903494, doi101016c20090622091, doi101016s0079742108600419, doi101017s0140525x00076512, doi10103711494000, doi101093oso97801950602320030002, doi1023071415632, openalexw1659631989, openalexw1796738135, pickering1983darwin"
}

@article{doi101016s0092867400803104,
    author = "Krings, Matthias and Stone, Anne C. and Schmitz, Ralf W. and Krainitzki, Heike and Stoneking, Mark and Pääbo, Svante",
    title = "Neandertal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Cell",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80310-4",
    doi = "10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80310-4",
    openalex = "W2130460780",
    references = "doi1010160076687987550236, doi101038290457a0, doi101038325031a0, doi101038362709a0, doi101073pnas8661939, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040023, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040454, doi101126science1840702, doi107312nei92038"
}

The origins of modern humans have been the central debate in palaeoanthropology during the last decade. We examine the problem in the context of the history of anthropology, the accumulating evidence for a recent African origin, and evolutionary mechanisms. Using a historical perspective, we show that the current controversy is a continuation of older conflicts and as such relates to questions of both origins and diversity. However, a better fossil sample, improved dates, and genetic data have introduced new perspectives, and we argue that evolutionary geography, which uses spatial distributions of populations as the basis for integrating contingent, adaptive, and demographic aspects of microevolutionary change, provides an appropriate theoretical framework. Evolutionary geography is used to explore two events: the evolution of the Neanderthal lineage and the relationship between an ancestral bottleneck with the evolution of anatomically modern humans and their diversity. We argue that the Neanderthal and modern lineages share a common ancestor in an African population between 350,000 and 250,000 years ago rather than in the earlier Middle Pleistocene; this ancestral population, which developed mode 3 technology (Levallois/Middle Stone Age), dispersed across Africa and western Eurasia in a warmer period prior to independent evolution towards Neanderthals and modern humans in stage 6. Both lineages would thus share a common large-brained ancestry, a technology, and a history of dispersal. They differ in the conditions under which they subsequently evolved and their ultimate evolutionary fate. Both lineages illustrate the repeated interactions of the glacial cycles, the role of cold-arid periods in producing fragmentation of populations, bottlenecks, and isolation, and the role of warmer periods in producing trans-African dispersals. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 41:137–176, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

@article{doi101002sici10968644199810727137aidajpa630co2q,
    author = "Lahr, Marta Mìrazón and Foley, Robert",
    title = "Towards a theory of modern human origins: Geography, demography, and diversity in recent human evolution",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "The origins of modern humans have been the central debate in palaeoanthropology during the last decade. We examine the problem in the context of the history of anthropology, the accumulating evidence for a recent African origin, and evolutionary mechanisms. Using a historical perspective, we show that the current controversy is a continuation of older conflicts and as such relates to questions of both origins and diversity. However, a better fossil sample, improved dates, and genetic data have introduced new perspectives, and we argue that evolutionary geography, which uses spatial distributions of populations as the basis for integrating contingent, adaptive, and demographic aspects of microevolutionary change, provides an appropriate theoretical framework. Evolutionary geography is used to explore two events: the evolution of the Neanderthal lineage and the relationship between an ancestral bottleneck with the evolution of anatomically modern humans and their diversity. We argue that the Neanderthal and modern lineages share a common ancestor in an African population between 350,000 and 250,000 years ago rather than in the earlier Middle Pleistocene; this ancestral population, which developed mode 3 technology (Levallois/Middle Stone Age), dispersed across Africa and western Eurasia in a warmer period prior to independent evolution towards Neanderthals and modern humans in stage 6. Both lineages would thus share a common large-brained ancestry, a technology, and a history of dispersal. They differ in the conditions under which they subsequently evolved and their ultimate evolutionary fate. Both lineages illustrate the repeated interactions of the glacial cycles, the role of cold-arid periods in producing fragmentation of populations, bottlenecks, and isolation, and the role of warmer periods in producing trans-African dispersals. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 41:137–176, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<137::aid-ajpa6>3.0.co;2-q",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<137::aid-ajpa6>3.0.co;2-q",
    openalex = "W2039111605",
    references = "doi101038170405e0, doi101038331614a0"
}

@article{doi101006jhev19980219,
    author = "Ambrose, Stanley H.",
    title = "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1998.0219",
    doi = "10.1006/jhev.1998.0219",
    openalex = "W2062056129",
    references = "doi101007978146849063314, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101038325031a0, doi101038364218a0, doi101073pnas842508, doi101093genetics1292555, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040727, doi101111j155856461975tb00807x, doi101126science27853411257, doi1023073037993, doi102307jctv301gjp, openalexw3135630760"
}

"Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world"--Jacket. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)

@book{doi10103710370000,
    author = "Geary, David C.",
    title = "Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences.",
    year = "1998",
    booktitle = "American Psychological Association eBooks",
    abstract = {"Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world"--Jacket. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/10370-000",
    doi = "10.1037/10370-000",
    openalex = "W1981402013",
    references = "doi1010160162309579900049, doi101016b9780122089305500064, doi101016s0070215321x00026, doi101017s0140525x00029939, doi101017s0140525x98001228, doi101038336435a0, doi101038350033a0, doi101073pnas87166349, doi101073pnas8793566, doi101086284064, doi101098rspb19790081, doi101126science2114480341, doi1023073544435, doi105860choice310304, openalexw1515814298, openalexw595961698"
}

Long postmenopausal lifespans distinguish humans from all other primates. This pattern may have evolved with mother-child food sharing, a practice that allowed aging females to enhance their daughters' fertility, thereby increasing selection against senescence. Combined with Charnov's dimensionless assembly rules for mammalian life histories, this hypothesis also accounts for our late maturity, small size at weaning, and high fertility. It has implications for past human habitat choice and social organization and for ideas about the importance of extended learning and paternal provisioning in human evolution.

@article{doi101073pnas9531336,
    author = "Hawkes, Kristen and O’Connell, Jerome and Jones, Nicholas and Alvarez, Helen and Charnov, Eric L.",
    title = "Grandmothering, menopause, and the evolution of human life histories",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Long postmenopausal lifespans distinguish humans from all other primates. This pattern may have evolved with mother-child food sharing, a practice that allowed aging females to enhance their daughters' fertility, thereby increasing selection against senescence. Combined with Charnov's dimensionless assembly rules for mammalian life histories, this hypothesis also accounts for our late maturity, small size at weaning, and high fertility. It has implications for past human habitat choice and social organization and for ideas about the importance of extended learning and paternal provisioning in human evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.3.1336",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.95.3.1336",
    openalex = "W2049107009",
    references = "doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi1023072803365"
}

Many cognitive and physical features must have undergone change for the evolution of fully modern human language. One neglected aspect is the evolution of increased breathing control. Evidence presented herein shows that modern humans and Neanderthals have an expanded thoracic vertebral canal compared with australopithecines and Homo ergaster, who had canals of the same relative size as extant nonhuman primates. Based on previously published analyses, these results demonstrate that there was an increase in thoracic innervation during human evolution. Possible explanations for this increase include postural control for bipedalism, increased difficulty of parturition, respiration for endurance running, an aquatic phase, and choking avoidance. These can all be ruled out, either because of their evolutionary timing, or because they are insufficiently demanding neurologically. The remaining possible functional cause is increased control of breathing for speech. The main muscles involved in the fine control of human speech breathing are the intercostals and a set of abdominal muscles which are all thoracically innervated. Modifications to quiet breathing are essential for modern human speech, enabling the production of long phrases on single expirations punctuated with quick inspirations at meaningful linguistic breaks. Other linguistically important features affected by variation in subglottal air pressure include emphasis of particular sound units, and control of pitch and intonation. Subtle, complex muscle movements, integrated with cognitive factors, are involved. The vocalizations of nonhuman primates involve markedly less respiratory control. Without sophisticated breath control, early hominids would only have been capable of short, unmodulated utterances, like those of extant nonhuman primates. Fine respiratory control, a necessary component for fully modern language, evolved sometime between 1.6 Mya and 100,000 ya.

@article{doi101002sici109686441999071093341aidajpa530co22,
    author = "MacLarnon, Ann and Hewitt, Gwen",
    title = "The evolution of human speech: The role of enhanced breathing control",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Many cognitive and physical features must have undergone change for the evolution of fully modern human language. One neglected aspect is the evolution of increased breathing control. Evidence presented herein shows that modern humans and Neanderthals have an expanded thoracic vertebral canal compared with australopithecines and Homo ergaster, who had canals of the same relative size as extant nonhuman primates. Based on previously published analyses, these results demonstrate that there was an increase in thoracic innervation during human evolution. Possible explanations for this increase include postural control for bipedalism, increased difficulty of parturition, respiration for endurance running, an aquatic phase, and choking avoidance. These can all be ruled out, either because of their evolutionary timing, or because they are insufficiently demanding neurologically. The remaining possible functional cause is increased control of breathing for speech. The main muscles involved in the fine control of human speech breathing are the intercostals and a set of abdominal muscles which are all thoracically innervated. Modifications to quiet breathing are essential for modern human speech, enabling the production of long phrases on single expirations punctuated with quick inspirations at meaningful linguistic breaks. Other linguistically important features affected by variation in subglottal air pressure include emphasis of particular sound units, and control of pitch and intonation. Subtle, complex muscle movements, integrated with cognitive factors, are involved. The vocalizations of nonhuman primates involve markedly less respiratory control. Without sophisticated breath control, early hominids would only have been capable of short, unmodulated utterances, like those of extant nonhuman primates. Fine respiratory control, a necessary component for fully modern language, evolved sometime between 1.6 Mya and 100,000 ya.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199907)109:3<341::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-2",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199907)109:3<341::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-2",
    openalex = "W2149308461",
    references = "doi1010160047248487900224, doi105860choice285725"
}

@article{doi101086302680,
    author = "Su, Bing and Xiao, Junhua and Underhill, Peter A. and Deka, Ranjan and Zhang, Weiling and Akey, Joshua M. and Huang, Wei and Shen, Di and Lu, Daru and Luo, Jingchun and Chu, Jiayou and Tan, Jiazhen and Shen, Peidong and Davis, Ron and Cavalli‐Sforza, L. L. and Chakraborty, Ranajit and Xiong, Momiao and Du, Ruofu and Oefner, Peter J. and Chen, Zhu and Li, Jin",
    title = "Y-Chromosome Evidence for a Northward Migration of Modern Humans into Eastern Asia during the Last Ice Age",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "The American Journal of Human Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/302680",
    doi = "10.1086/302680",
    openalex = "W2112533859"
}

The Hata Member of the Bouri Formation is defined for Pliocene sedimentary outcrops in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia. The Hata Member is dated to 2.5 million years ago and has produced a new species of Australopithecus and hominid postcranial remains not currently assigned to species. Spatially associated zooarchaeological remains show that hominids acquired meat and marrow by 2.5 million years ago and that they are the near contemporary of Oldowan artifacts at nearby Gona. The combined evidence suggests that behavioral changes associated with lithic technology and enhanced carnivory may have been coincident with the emergence of the Homo clade from Australopithecus afarensis in eastern Africa.

@article{doi101126science2845414625,
    author = "de Heinzelin, Jean and Clark, J. Desmond and White, Tim D. and Hart, William K. and Renne, Paul R. and WoldeGabriel, Giday and Beyene, Yonas and Vrba, Elisabeth S.",
    title = "Environment and Behavior of 2.5-Million-Year-Old Bouri Hominids",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The Hata Member of the Bouri Formation is defined for Pliocene sedimentary outcrops in the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia. The Hata Member is dated to 2.5 million years ago and has produced a new species of Australopithecus and hominid postcranial remains not currently assigned to species. Spatially associated zooarchaeological remains show that hominids acquired meat and marrow by 2.5 million years ago and that they are the near contemporary of Oldowan artifacts at nearby Gona. The combined evidence suggests that behavioral changes associated with lithic technology and enhanced carnivory may have been coincident with the emergence of the Homo clade from Australopithecus afarensis in eastern Africa.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5414.625",
    doi = "10.1126/science.284.5414.625",
    openalex = "W1591355705",
    references = "doi101006jhev19951046, doi1010160012821x9190082s, doi101016s0009254197001599, doi10102995tc02292, doi101038385333a0, doi101126science2845414629, doi1015159781400852925, doi102307282345, doi1023073889220, openalexw1974359478"
}

▪ Abstract Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not, as evidenced most clearly by the fact that only human cultural traditions accumulate modifications over historical time (the ratchet effect). The key adaptation is one that enables individuals to understand other individuals as intentional agents like the self. This species-unique form of social cognition emerges in human ontogeny at approximately 1 year of age, as infants begin to engage with other persons in various kinds of joint attentional activities involving gaze following, social referencing, and gestural communication. Young children's joint attentional skills then engender some uniquely powerful forms of cultural learning, enabling the acquisition of language, discourse skills, tool-use practices, and other conventional activities. These novel forms of cultural learning allow human beings to, in effect, pool their cognitive resources both contemporaneously and over historical time in ways that are unique in the animal kingdom.

@article{doi101146annurevanthro281509,
    author = "Tomasello, Michael",
    title = "The Human Adaptation for Culture",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not, as evidenced most clearly by the fact that only human cultural traditions accumulate modifications over historical time (the ratchet effect). The key adaptation is one that enables individuals to understand other individuals as intentional agents like the self. This species-unique form of social cognition emerges in human ontogeny at approximately 1 year of age, as infants begin to engage with other persons in various kinds of joint attentional activities involving gaze following, social referencing, and gestural communication. Young children's joint attentional skills then engender some uniquely powerful forms of cultural learning, enabling the acquisition of language, discourse skills, tool-use practices, and other conventional activities. These novel forms of cultural learning allow human beings to, in effect, pool their cognitive resources both contemporaneously and over historical time in ways that are unique in the animal kingdom.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509",
    openalex = "W2150953907",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511565519"
}

The Stone Age is now beginning to be recognised as vital in establishing who we are and where we have come from. This period has long been neglected.

@article{doi1023073889297,
    author = "Klein, Richard G. and Deacon, H. J. and Deacon, Janette",
    title = "Human Beginnings in South Africa: Uncovering the Secrets of the Stone Age",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "The South African Archaeological Bulletin",
    abstract = "The Stone Age is now beginning to be recognised as vital in establishing who we are and where we have come from. This period has long been neglected.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3889297",
    doi = "10.2307/3889297",
    openalex = "W2049891385"
}

Human life histories, as compared to those of other primates and mammals, have at least four distinctive characteristics: an exceptionally long lifespan, an extended period of juvenile dependence, support of reproduction by older post-reproductive individuals, and male support of reproduction through the provisioning of females and their offspring. Another distinctive feature of our species is a large brain, with its associated psychological attributes: increased capacities for learning, cognition, and insight. In this paper, we propose a theory that unites and organizes these observations and generates many theoretical and empirical predictions. We present some tests of those predictions and outline new predictions that can be tested in future research by comparative biologists, archeologists, paleontologists, biological anthropologists, demographers, geneticists, and cultural anthropologists.

@article{doi10100215206505200094156aidevan530co27,
    author = "Kaplan, Hillard and Hill, Kim and Lancaster, Jane B. and Hurtado, A. Magdalena",
    title = "A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    abstract = "Human life histories, as compared to those of other primates and mammals, have at least four distinctive characteristics: an exceptionally long lifespan, an extended period of juvenile dependence, support of reproduction by older post-reproductive individuals, and male support of reproduction through the provisioning of females and their offspring. Another distinctive feature of our species is a large brain, with its associated psychological attributes: increased capacities for learning, cognition, and insight. In this paper, we propose a theory that unites and organizes these observations and generates many theoretical and empirical predictions. We present some tests of those predictions and outline new predictions that can be tested in future research by comparative biologists, archeologists, paleontologists, biological anthropologists, demographers, geneticists, and cultural anthropologists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::aid-evan5>3.0.co;2-7",
    doi = "10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::aid-evan5>3.0.co;2-7",
    openalex = "W2088277595",
    references = "doi101002sici15206505199865178aidevan530co28, doi10103821415, doi101086204350, doi101086282637, doi1023072407154, doi105860choice334591, openalexw1538443123, openalexw2001431842, openalexw2330340155, openalexw3044348100"
}

@article{doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a,
    author = "Klein, Richard G.",
    title = "Archeology and the evolution of human behavior",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(2000)9:1<17::aid-evan3>3.0.co;2-a",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(2000)9:1<17::aid-evan3>3.0.co;2-a",
    openalex = "W2006433999",
    references = "doi10100797836427878291, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101017cbo9780511565519, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi1023074613021, doi102307jctv301gjp, doi105860choice310304, openalexw1974359478, openalexw3135630760"
}

@article{doi101006jhev20000435,
    author = "McBrearty, Sally and Brooks, Alison S.",
    title = "The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2000.0435",
    doi = "10.1006/jhev.2000.0435",
    openalex = "W2004510715",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101006jhev19980219, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101017chol9780521222150003, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi10102992jb01202, doi101038202007a0, doi101038325031a0, doi101038331614a0, doi101038366223a0, doi101086200619, doi101086300102, doi101126science1840702, doi101126science2074434943, doi101126science7638599, doi101146annureven10010165000525, doi1023072803270, doi1023073037993, doi104159harvard9780674865327, doi1043249781315081083, doi105860choice351500, doi107208chicago97802262185260010001, openalexw1974359478, openalexw2020861622, openalexw3135630760, openalexw3207143292"
}

During human evolutionary history, there were "trade-offs" between expending time and energy on child-rearing and mating, so both men and women evolved conditional mating strategies guided by cues signaling the circumstances. Many short-term matings might be successful for some men; others might try to find and keep a single mate, investing their effort in rearing her offspring. Recent evidence suggests that men with features signaling genetic benefits to offspring should be preferred by women as short-term mates, but there are trade-offs between a mate's genetic fitness and his willingness to help in child-rearing. It is these circumstances and the cues that signal them that underlie the variation in short- and long-term mating strategies between and within the sexes.

@article{doi101017s0140525x0000337x,
    author = "Gangestad, Steven W. and Simpson, Jeffry A.",
    title = "The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = {During human evolutionary history, there were "trade-offs" between expending time and energy on child-rearing and mating, so both men and women evolved conditional mating strategies guided by cues signaling the circumstances. Many short-term matings might be successful for some men; others might try to find and keep a single mate, investing their effort in rearing her offspring. Recent evidence suggests that men with features signaling genetic benefits to offspring should be preferred by women as short-term mates, but there are trade-offs between a mate's genetic fitness and his willingness to help in child-rearing. It is these circumstances and the cues that signal them that underlie the variation in short- and long-term mating strategies between and within the sexes.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x0000337x",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x0000337x",
    openalex = "W2106905070",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi1010160028393264900107, doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi1010160198971590900504, doi101017s0031182000055360, doi101017s0140525x00023992, doi101017s0140525x00029939, doi101017s0140525x98001228, doi101038350033a0, doi101086282697, doi101126science7123238, doi1023072089062, doi102307429816, doi1023074613021, doi1023075403, doi1023075530, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi105962bhltitle27468, openalexw1484864026, openalexw2330340155, openalexw2624262714"
}

@article{doi10103835011048,
    author = "Walter, Robert C. and Buffler, Richard T. and Bruggemann, J. Henrich and Guillaume, Mireille M. M. and Berhe, S. M. and Negassi, Berhane and Libsekal, Yoseph and Cheng, Hai and Edwards, R. Lawrence and von Cosel, Rudo and Néraudeau, Didier and Gagnon, Mario",
    title = "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35011048",
    doi = "10.1038/35011048",
    openalex = "W2058364914"
}

@article{doi10103835047064,
    author = "Ingman, Max and Kaessmann, Henrik and Pääbo, Svante and Gyllensten, Ulf",
    title = "Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35047064",
    doi = "10.1038/35047064",
    openalex = "W1765516395",
    references = "doi10103831927, doi101038325031a0, doi101073pnas7641967, doi101093genetics1233585, doi101093genetics1333693, doi101093genetics49149, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva025664, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040023, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040454, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040727, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi101126science17940781144, doi101126science1840702"
}

@article{doi10103881685,
    author = "Underhill, Peter A. and Shen, Peidong and Lin, Alice and Li, Jin and Passarino, Giuseppe and Yang, Wei and Kauffman, Erin E. and Bonné‐Tamir, Batsheva and Bertranpetit, Jaume and Francalacci, Paolo and Ibrahim, Muntaser E. and Jenkins, Trefor and Kidd, Judith R. and Mehdi, S. Qasim and Seielstad, Mark and Wells, R. Spencer and Piazza, Alberto and Davis, Ronald W. and Feldman, Marcus W. and Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Oefner, Peter J.",
    title = "Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/81685",
    doi = "10.1038/81685",
    openalex = "W1523562895"
}

@article{doi101006jhev20010515,
    author = "Henshilwood, Christopher S. and d’Errico, Francesco and Marean, Curtis W. and Milo, Richard G. and Yates, Royden",
    title = "An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2001.0515",
    doi = "10.1006/jhev.2001.0515",
    openalex = "W2049701169",
    references = "doi101006jasc19960047"
}

In recent years there has been a major growth of interest in exploring the analogies between the genetic transmission of information from one generation to the next and the processes of cultural transmission, in an attempt to obtain a greater understanding of how culture change occurs. This article uses computer simulation to explore the implications of a specific model of the relationship between demography and innovation within an evolutionary framework. The consequences of innovation appear far more successful in larger populations than in smaller ones. In conclusion, it is suggested that the model has major implications for the origins of modern human culture in the last 50,000 years, which may be seen not as the result of genetic mutations leading to improved cognitive capacities of individuals, but as a population consequence of the demographic growth and increased contact range which are evident at this time. It is also proposed that the model may be of general relevance for understanding the process of cultural evolution in modern and pre-modern humans.

@article{doi101017s0959774301000014,
    author = "Shennan, Stephen",
    title = "Demography and Cultural Innovation: a Model and its Implications for the Emergence of Modern Human Culture",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Cambridge Archaeological Journal",
    abstract = "In recent years there has been a major growth of interest in exploring the analogies between the genetic transmission of information from one generation to the next and the processes of cultural transmission, in an attempt to obtain a greater understanding of how culture change occurs. This article uses computer simulation to explore the implications of a specific model of the relationship between demography and innovation within an evolutionary framework. The consequences of innovation appear far more successful in larger populations than in smaller ones. In conclusion, it is suggested that the model has major implications for the origins of modern human culture in the last 50,000 years, which may be seen not as the result of genetic mutations leading to improved cognitive capacities of individuals, but as a population consequence of the demographic growth and increased contact range which are evident at this time. It is also proposed that the model may be of general relevance for understanding the process of cultural evolution in modern and pre-modern humans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0959774301000014",
    doi = "10.1017/s0959774301000014",
    openalex = "W2127150322",
    references = "doi101006jhev19980219"
}

The human genome holds an extraordinary trove of information about human development, physiology, medicine and evolution. Here we report the results of an international collaboration to produce and make freely available a draft sequence of the human genome. We also present an initial analysis of the data, describing some of the insights that can be gleaned from the sequence.

@article{doi10103835057062,
    author = "Lander, Eric S. and Linton, Lauren and Birren, Bruce W. and Nusbaum, Chad and Zody, Michael C. and Baldwin, Jennifer and Devon, Keri and Dewar, Ken and Doyle, Michael P. and Fitzhugh, William W. and Funke, Roel and Gage, Diane and Harris, Katrina L. and Heaford, Andrew and Howland, John G. and Kann, Lisa and Lehoczky, Jessica A. and Levine, R Paul and McEwan, Paul and McKernan, Kevin and Meldrim, James C. and Mesirov, Jill P. and Miranda, Cher and Morris, William and Naylor, Jerome W. and Raymond, Christina and Rosetti, Mark and Santos, Ralph and Sheridan, Andrew and Sougnez, Carrie and Stange-Thomann, Nicole and Stojanović, Nikola M. and Subramanian, Aravind and Wyman, Dudley and Rogers, Jane and Sulston, John and Ainscough, R. and Beck, Stephan and Bentley, David and Burton, John H. and Clee, Christopher and Carter, Nigel and Coulson, Alan and Deadman, Rebecca and Deloukas, Panos and Dunham, Andrew and Dunham, Ian and Durbin, Richard and French, Lisa and Grafham, Darren and Gregory, Simon G. and Hubbard, Tim and Humphray, Sean and Hunt, Adrienne and Jones, Matthew C. and Lloyd, Christine and McMurray, Amanda A. and Matthews, Lucy and Mercer, Simon and Milne, Sarah and Mullikin, James C. and Mungall, Andrew J. and Plumb, R. W. and Ross, Mark T. and Shownkeen, R. and Sims, Sarah and Waterston, R and Wilson, Richard K. and Hillier, LaDeana W. and McPherson, John D. and Marra, Marco A. and Mardis, Elaine R. and Fulton, Lucinda A. and Chinwalla, Asif and Pepin, Kymberlie and Gish, Warren and Chissoe, Stephanie L. and Wendl, Michael C. and Delehaunty, Kim D. and Miner, Tracie L. and Delehaunty, Andrew and Kramer, Jason and Cook, Lisa L. and Fulton, Robert S. and Johnson, D. and Minx, Patrick and Clifton, Sandra W. and Hawkins, Trevor and Branscomb, Elbert and Predki, Paul and Richardson, Paul and Wenning, Sarah and Slezak, Tom and Doggett, Norman A. and Cheng, Jan‐Fang and Olsen, Anne S. and Lucas, Susan and Elkin, Christopher J. and Uberbacher, Edward C. and Frazier, M.E.",
    title = "Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = "The human genome holds an extraordinary trove of information about human development, physiology, medicine and evolution. Here we report the results of an international collaboration to produce and make freely available a draft sequence of the human genome. We also present an initial analysis of the data, describing some of the insights that can be gleaned from the sequence.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35057062",
    doi = "10.1038/35057062",
    openalex = "W2168909179",
    references = "doi101006jmbi19970951, doi1010160022283681900875, doi101038290457a0, doi101038375754a0, doi101073pnas742560, doi101093nar25173389, doi101093nar301276, doi101126science1058040, doi101126science17940781144, doi101126science28754612204, doi101126science7542800, doi1023071441916, openalexw1803375514"
}

@article{doi10103835075590,
    author = "Reich, David and Cargill, Michele and Bolk, Stacey and Ireland, James and Sabeti, Pardis C. and Richter, Daniel J. and Lavery, Thomas and Kouyoumjian, Rose and Farhadian, Shelli and Ward, Ryk and Lander, Eric S.",
    title = "Linkage disequilibrium in the human genome",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/35075590",
    doi = "10.1038/35075590",
    openalex = "W2025306791",
    references = "doi10103835047064, doi1023072409372"
}

Although molecular genetic evidence continues to accumulate that is consistent with a recent common African ancestry of modern humans, its ability to illuminate regional histories remains incomplete. A set of unique event polymorphisms associated with the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome (NRY) addresses this issue by providing evidence concerning successful migrations originating from Africa, which can be interpreted as subsequent colonizations, differentiations and migrations overlaid upon previous population ranges. A total of 205 markers identified by denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC), together with 13 taken from the literature, were used to construct a parsimonious genealogy. Ancestral allelic states were deduced from orthologous great ape sequences. A total of 131 unique haplotypes were defined which trace the microevolutionary trajectory of global modern human genetic diversification. The genealogy provides a detailed phylogeographic portrait of contemporary global population structure that is emblematic of human origins, divergence and population history that is consistent with climatic, paleoanthropological and other genetic knowledge.

@article{doi101046j1469180920016510043x,
    author = "Underhill, P. A. and Passarino, Giuseppe and Lin, Ashleigh and Shen, P and Lahr, Marta Mìrazón and Foley, Robert and Oefner, Peter J. and Cavalli‐Sforza, L. L.",
    title = "The phylogeography of Y chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Annals of Human Genetics",
    abstract = "Although molecular genetic evidence continues to accumulate that is consistent with a recent common African ancestry of modern humans, its ability to illuminate regional histories remains incomplete. A set of unique event polymorphisms associated with the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome (NRY) addresses this issue by providing evidence concerning successful migrations originating from Africa, which can be interpreted as subsequent colonizations, differentiations and migrations overlaid upon previous population ranges. A total of 205 markers identified by denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC), together with 13 taken from the literature, were used to construct a parsimonious genealogy. Ancestral allelic states were deduced from orthologous great ape sequences. A total of 131 unique haplotypes were defined which trace the microevolutionary trajectory of global modern human genetic diversification. The genealogy provides a detailed phylogeographic portrait of contemporary global population structure that is emblematic of human origins, divergence and population history that is consistent with climatic, paleoanthropological and other genetic knowledge.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-1809.2001.6510043.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1469-1809.2001.6510043.x",
    openalex = "W2109734312",
    references = "doi101002evan1360030206, doi101002sici10968644199810727137aidajpa630co2q, doi101016s0002929707629541, doi10103870550, doi10103881685, doi101046j1469180919986230241x, doi101086302204, doi101086302680, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi102307jctv301gjp"
}

Objective. To develop an evolutionary model that integrates human parenting and family formation with ideas about the evolved functions of distinctive human characteristics, such as concealed ovulation and sophisticated sociocognitive competencies. Design. Theoretical and empirical research across scientific disciplines is reviewed. The emphasis is on ecological and social conditions that covary, across species, with parenting, family formation, and potentially coevolving characteristics, such as a long developmental period. Results. For humans, social competition through coalition formation emerges as the key selective pressure that readily explains the coevolution of a constellation of characteristics that covary with parenting and family formation, including a lengthy developmental period, reduced sexual dimorphism, concealed ovulation, menopause, complex kinship networks, large brains, and sophisticated sociocognitive competencies. Individual and cross-cultural variations in patterns of parenting dynamics and family formation are viewed as adaptive phenotypic responses to different ecological and historical conditions. Conclusions. Human parenting and family formation are features of a coevolving suite of distinctive human characteristics, the evolutionary function of which is to facilitate the formation of kin-based coalitions for competition with other coalitions for resource control. In this view, a central function of human parenting and the human family is to provide a context for the development of sociocompetitive competencies appropriate to the local ecology.

@article{doi1010801529519220019681209,
    author = "Geary, David C. and Flinn, Mark V.",
    title = "Evolution of Human Parental Behavior and the Human Family",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Parenting",
    abstract = "Objective. To develop an evolutionary model that integrates human parenting and family formation with ideas about the evolved functions of distinctive human characteristics, such as concealed ovulation and sophisticated sociocognitive competencies. Design. Theoretical and empirical research across scientific disciplines is reviewed. The emphasis is on ecological and social conditions that covary, across species, with parenting, family formation, and potentially coevolving characteristics, such as a long developmental period. Results. For humans, social competition through coalition formation emerges as the key selective pressure that readily explains the coevolution of a constellation of characteristics that covary with parenting and family formation, including a lengthy developmental period, reduced sexual dimorphism, concealed ovulation, menopause, complex kinship networks, large brains, and sophisticated sociocognitive competencies. Individual and cross-cultural variations in patterns of parenting dynamics and family formation are viewed as adaptive phenotypic responses to different ecological and historical conditions. Conclusions. Human parenting and family formation are features of a coevolving suite of distinctive human characteristics, the evolutionary function of which is to facilitate the formation of kin-based coalitions for competition with other coalitions for resource control. In this view, a central function of human parenting and the human family is to provide a context for the development of sociocompetitive competencies appropriate to the local ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2001.9681209",
    doi = "10.1080/15295192.2001.9681209",
    openalex = "W2118740949",
    references = "doi1010160022519364900384, doi101038246015a0, doi101086406755, doi1010970000684219721100000011, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101126science327542, doi1015159780691207278, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072485224, doi10432497813151292667"
}

Human biological and cultural evolution are closely linked to technological innovations. Direct evidence for tool manufacture and use is absent before 2.5 million years ago (Ma), so reconstructions of australopithecine technology are based mainly on the behavior and anatomy of chimpanzees. Stone tool technology, robust australopithecines, and the genus Homo appeared almost simultaneously 2.5 Ma. Once this adaptive threshold was crossed, technological evolution was accompanied by increased brain size, population size, and geographical range. Aspects of behavior, economy, mental capacities, neurological functions, the origin of grammatical language, and social and symbolic systems have been inferred from the archaeological record of Paleolithic technology.

@article{doi101126science1059487,
    author = "Ambrose, Stanley H.",
    title = "Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Human biological and cultural evolution are closely linked to technological innovations. Direct evidence for tool manufacture and use is absent before 2.5 million years ago (Ma), so reconstructions of australopithecine technology are based mainly on the behavior and anatomy of chimpanzees. Stone tool technology, robust australopithecines, and the genus Homo appeared almost simultaneously 2.5 Ma. Once this adaptive threshold was crossed, technological evolution was accompanied by increased brain size, population size, and geographical range. Aspects of behavior, economy, mental capacities, neurological functions, the origin of grammatical language, and social and symbolic systems have been inferred from the archaeological record of Paleolithic technology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059487",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1059487",
    openalex = "W2091879643",
    references = "doi101006jhev19980219, doi101017cbo9780511565519, doi101038196409a0, doi10103819959, doi101126science1864167892, doi101126science2845414625, falk1983cerebral"
}

An attempt to define the field of evolutionary developmental psychology - the application of the principle of natural selection to explain contemporary human development. The authors point out that an evolutionary-developmental perspective allows one to view gene-environment interactions, the significance of individual differences, and the role of behaviour and development in evolution in much greater depth. The authors also focus on how an evolutionary perspective can foster a better understanding of human development and how developmental processes may have influenced the course of human evolution. There are chapters that explore factors influencing parenting and other aspects of family life; the role of play; and the interacting roles of an extended juvenile period, a big brain, and a complex social structure in human cognitive evolution. The authors present a hybrid approach to evolution and development, pointing out that though underlying assumptions held by evolutionary and developmental psychologists have been at odds, each field has much to offer the other.

@book{doi10103710425000,
    author = "Bjorklund, David F. and Pellegrini, Anthony D.",
    title = "The origins of human nature: Evolutionary developmental psychology.",
    year = "2002",
    booktitle = "American Psychological Association eBooks",
    abstract = "An attempt to define the field of evolutionary developmental psychology - the application of the principle of natural selection to explain contemporary human development. The authors point out that an evolutionary-developmental perspective allows one to view gene-environment interactions, the significance of individual differences, and the role of behaviour and development in evolution in much greater depth. The authors also focus on how an evolutionary perspective can foster a better understanding of human development and how developmental processes may have influenced the course of human evolution. There are chapters that explore factors influencing parenting and other aspects of family life; the role of play; and the interacting roles of an extended juvenile period, a big brain, and a complex social structure in human cognitive evolution. The authors present a hybrid approach to evolution and development, pointing out that though underlying assumptions held by evolutionary and developmental psychologists have been at odds, each field has much to offer the other.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/10425-000",
    doi = "10.1037/10425-000",
    openalex = "W1492431562",
    references = "doi1010801529519220019681209, doi1011111467872100068, doi105860choice296574"
}

@article{doi101038415137a,
    author = "Fehr, Ernst and Gächter, Simon",
    title = "Altruistic punishment in humans",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/415137a",
    doi = "10.1038/415137a",
    openalex = "W2129135549",
    references = "doi101006jtbi20002111, doi1010160022519364900384, doi101046j14390310199900372x, doi101086406755, doi102307257983"
}

Human mtDNA shows striking regional variation, traditionally attributed to genetic drift. However, it is not easy to account for the fact that only two mtDNA lineages (M and N) left Africa to colonize Eurasia and that lineages A, C, D, and G show a 5-fold enrichment from central Asia to Siberia. As an alternative to drift, natural selection might have enriched for certain mtDNA lineages as people migrated north into colder climates. To test this hypothesis we analyzed 104 complete mtDNA sequences from all global regions and lineages. African mtDNA variation did not significantly deviate from the standard neutral model, but European, Asian, and Siberian plus Native American variations did. Analysis of amino acid substitution mutations (nonsynonymous, Ka) versus neutral mutations (synonymous, Ks) (kaks) for all 13 mtDNA protein-coding genes revealed that the ATP6 gene had the highest amino acid sequence variation of any human mtDNA gene, even though ATP6 is one of the more conserved mtDNA proteins. Comparison of the kaks ratios for each mtDNA gene from the tropical, temperate, and arctic zones revealed that ATP6 was highly variable in the mtDNAs from the arctic zone, cytochrome b was particularly variable in the temperate zone, and cytochrome oxidase I was notably more variable in the tropics. Moreover, multiple amino acid changes found in ATP6, cytochrome b, and cytochrome oxidase I appeared to be functionally significant. From these analyses we conclude that selection may have played a role in shaping human regional mtDNA variation and that one of the selective influences was climate.

@article{doi101073pnas0136972100,
    author = "Mishmar, Dan and Ruiz‐Pesini, Eduardo and Golik, Paweł and Macaulay, Vincent and Clark, Andrew G. and Hosseini, Seyed Vali and Brandon, Martin and Easley, Kirk A. and Chen, Estella and Brown, Michael D. and Sukernik, R. I. and Olckers, Antonel and Wallace, Douglas C.",
    title = "Natural selection shaped regional mtDNA variation in humans",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Human mtDNA shows striking regional variation, traditionally attributed to genetic drift. However, it is not easy to account for the fact that only two mtDNA lineages (M and N) left Africa to colonize Eurasia and that lineages A, C, D, and G show a 5-fold enrichment from central Asia to Siberia. As an alternative to drift, natural selection might have enriched for certain mtDNA lineages as people migrated north into colder climates. To test this hypothesis we analyzed 104 complete mtDNA sequences from all global regions and lineages. African mtDNA variation did not significantly deviate from the standard neutral model, but European, Asian, and Siberian plus Native American variations did. Analysis of amino acid substitution mutations (nonsynonymous, Ka) versus neutral mutations (synonymous, Ks) (kaks) for all 13 mtDNA protein-coding genes revealed that the ATP6 gene had the highest amino acid sequence variation of any human mtDNA gene, even though ATP6 is one of the more conserved mtDNA proteins. Comparison of the kaks ratios for each mtDNA gene from the tropical, temperate, and arctic zones revealed that ATP6 was highly variable in the mtDNAs from the arctic zone, cytochrome b was particularly variable in the temperate zone, and cytochrome oxidase I was notably more variable in the tropics. Moreover, multiple amino acid changes found in ATP6, cytochrome b, and cytochrome oxidase I appeared to be functionally significant. From these analyses we conclude that selection may have played a role in shaping human regional mtDNA variation and that one of the selective influences was climate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0136972100",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0136972100",
    openalex = "W2010421268",
    references = "doi10103835047064"
}

In the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic after about 35,000 years ago, abstract or depictional images provide evidence for cognitive abilities considered integral to modern human behavior. Here we report on two abstract representations engraved on pieces of red ochre recovered from the Middle Stone Age layers at Blombos Cave in South Africa. A mean date of 77,000 years was obtained for the layers containing the engraved ochres by thermoluminescence dating of burnt lithics, and the stratigraphic integrity was confirmed by an optically stimulated luminescence age of 70,000 years on an overlying dune. These engravings support the emergence of modern human behavior in Africa at least 35,000 years before the start of the Upper Paleolithic.

@article{doi101126science1067575,
    author = "Henshilwood, Christopher S. and d’Errico, Francesco and Yates, Royden and Jacobs, Zenobia and Tribolo, Chantal and Duller, G.A.T. and Mercier, Norbert and Sealy, Judith and Valladas, Hélène and Watts, Ian and Wintle, A.G.",
    title = "Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "In the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic after about 35,000 years ago, abstract or depictional images provide evidence for cognitive abilities considered integral to modern human behavior. Here we report on two abstract representations engraved on pieces of red ochre recovered from the Middle Stone Age layers at Blombos Cave in South Africa. A mean date of 77,000 years was obtained for the layers containing the engraved ochres by thermoluminescence dating of burnt lithics, and the stratigraphic integrity was confirmed by an optically stimulated luminescence age of 70,000 years on an overlying dune. These engravings support the emergence of modern human behavior in Africa at least 35,000 years before the start of the Upper Paleolithic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1067575",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1067575",
    openalex = "W2130956984",
    references = "doi101006jasc20000638, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101006jhev20010515, doi101016s1350448700000391, doi101016s135044879900253x, doi10103830718, doi10103835011048, doi10103835047064, doi101126science7725100, doi1023073889297"
}

Haplotype-based methods offer a powerful approach to disease gene mapping, based on the association between causal mutations and the ancestral haplotypes on which they arose. As part of The SNP Consortium Allele Frequency Projects, we characterized haplotype patterns across 51 autosomal regions (spanning 13 megabases of the human genome) in samples from Africa, Europe, and Asia. We show that the human genome can be parsed objectively into haplotype blocks: sizable regions over which there is little evidence for historical recombination and within which only a few common haplotypes are observed. The boundaries of blocks and specific haplotypes they contain are highly correlated across populations. We demonstrate that such haplotype frameworks provide substantial statistical power in association studies of common genetic variation across each region. Our results provide a foundation for the construction of a haplotype map of the human genome, facilitating comprehensive genetic association studies of human disease.

@article{doi101126science1069424,
    author = "Gabriel, Stacey and Schaffner, S. F. and Nguyen, Huy and Moore, Jamie and Roy, Jessica and Blumenstiel, Brendan and Higgins, John M. and DeFelice, Matthew and Lochner, Amy L. and Faggart, Maura and Liu-Cordero, Shau Neen and Rotimi, Charles N. and Adeyemo, Adebowale and Cooper, Richard and Ward, Ryk and Lander, Eric S. and Daly, Mark J. and Altshuler, David",
    title = "The Structure of Haplotype Blocks in the Human Genome",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Haplotype-based methods offer a powerful approach to disease gene mapping, based on the association between causal mutations and the ancestral haplotypes on which they arose. As part of The SNP Consortium Allele Frequency Projects, we characterized haplotype patterns across 51 autosomal regions (spanning 13 megabases of the human genome) in samples from Africa, Europe, and Asia. We show that the human genome can be parsed objectively into haplotype blocks: sizable regions over which there is little evidence for historical recombination and within which only a few common haplotypes are observed. The boundaries of blocks and specific haplotypes they contain are highly correlated across populations. We demonstrate that such haplotype frameworks provide substantial statistical power in association studies of common genetic variation across each region. Our results provide a foundation for the construction of a haplotype map of the human genome, facilitating comprehensive genetic association studies of human disease.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1069424",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1069424",
    openalex = "W2152664025",
    references = "doi10103835047064, doi102307jctv301gjp"
}

We studied human population structure using genotypes at 377 autosomal microsatellite loci in 1056 individuals from 52 populations. Within-population differences among individuals account for 93 to 95% of genetic variation; differences among major groups constitute only 3 to 5%. Nevertheless, without using prior information about the origins of individuals, we identified six main genetic clusters, five of which correspond to major geographic regions, and subclusters that often correspond to individual populations. General agreement of genetic and predefined populations suggests that self-reported ancestry can facilitate assessments of epidemiological risks but does not obviate the need to use genetic information in genetic association studies.

@article{doi101126science1078311,
    author = "Rosenberg, Noah A. and Pritchard, Jonathan K. and Weber, James L. and Cann, Howard M. and Kídd, Kenneth K. and Zhivotovsky, Lev A. and Feldman, Marcus W.",
    title = "Genetic Structure of Human Populations",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "We studied human population structure using genotypes at 377 autosomal microsatellite loci in 1056 individuals from 52 populations. Within-population differences among individuals account for 93 to 95\% of genetic variation; differences among major groups constitute only 3 to 5\%. Nevertheless, without using prior information about the origins of individuals, we identified six main genetic clusters, five of which correspond to major geographic regions, and subclusters that often correspond to individual populations. General agreement of genetic and predefined populations suggests that self-reported ancestry can facilitate assessments of epidemiological risks but does not obviate the need to use genetic information in genetic association studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1078311",
    openalex = "W2141042406",
    references = "doi101006tpbi20011543, doi101038368455a0, doi101038ng761, doi101073pnas9494516, doi101086302825, doi101086339929, doi101093genetics1552945, doi101093genetics1592699, doi101126science2965566261b, doi101186gb200237comment2007"
}

Great apes, our closest living relatives, live longer and mature later than most other mammals and modern humans are even later-maturing and potentially longer-lived. Evolutionary life-history theory seeks to explain cross-species differences in these variables and the covariation between them. That provides the foundation for a hypothesis that a novel role for grandmothers underlies the shift from an ape-like ancestral pattern to one more like our own in the first widely successful members of genus Homo. This hypothesis links four distinctive features of human life histories: 1). our potential longevity, 2). our late maturity, 3). our midlife menopause, and 4). our early weaning with next offspring produced before the previous infant can feed itself. I discuss the problem, then, using modern humans and chimpanzees to represent, respectively, genus Homo and australopithecines, I focus on two corollaries of this grandmother hypothesis: 1). that ancestral age-specific fertility declines persisted in our genus, while 2). senescence in other aspects of physiological performance slowed down. The data are scanty but they illustrate similarities in age-specific fertility decline and differences in somatic durability that are consistent with the hypothesis that increased longevity in our genus is a legacy of the "reproductive" role of ancestral grandmothers.

@article{doi101002ajhb10156,
    author = "Hawkes, Kristen",
    title = "Grandmothers and the evolution of human longevity",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "American Journal of Human Biology",
    abstract = {Great apes, our closest living relatives, live longer and mature later than most other mammals and modern humans are even later-maturing and potentially longer-lived. Evolutionary life-history theory seeks to explain cross-species differences in these variables and the covariation between them. That provides the foundation for a hypothesis that a novel role for grandmothers underlies the shift from an ape-like ancestral pattern to one more like our own in the first widely successful members of genus Homo. This hypothesis links four distinctive features of human life histories: 1). our potential longevity, 2). our late maturity, 3). our midlife menopause, and 4). our early weaning with next offspring produced before the previous infant can feed itself. I discuss the problem, then, using modern humans and chimpanzees to represent, respectively, genus Homo and australopithecines, I focus on two corollaries of this grandmother hypothesis: 1). that ancestral age-specific fertility declines persisted in our genus, while 2). senescence in other aspects of physiological performance slowed down. The data are scanty but they illustrate similarities in age-specific fertility decline and differences in somatic durability that are consistent with the hypothesis that increased longevity in our genus is a legacy of the "reproductive" role of ancestral grandmothers.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.10156",
    doi = "10.1002/ajhb.10156",
    openalex = "W2160394440",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330780410, doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi10103835041687, doi10103835084063, doi101038scientificamerican096062, doi101093geronj113298, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101146annurevphysiol621207, doi101152physrev1998782547, doi1015159781400881376, doi101525aa198688102a00020, doi102307493157, doi1023075403, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, johanson1979a, openalexw1974359478"
}

Within anthropology and human biology, there is growing interest in immune function and its importance to the ecology of human health and development. Biomedical research currently dominates our understanding of immunology, and this paper seeks to highlight the potential contribution of a population-based, ecological approach to the study of human immune function. Concepts from life-history theory are applied to highlight the major challenges and demands that are likely to shape immune function in a range of ecological contexts. Immune function is a major component of maintenance effort, and since resources are limited, trade-offs are expected between investment in maintenance and other critical life-history functions involving growth and reproduction. An adaptationist, life-history perspective helps make sense of the unusual developmental trajectory of immune tissues, and emphasizes that this complex system is designed to incorporate information from the surrounding ecology to guide its development. As a result, there is substantial population variation in immune development and function that is not considered by current biomedical approaches. In an attempt to construct a framework for understanding this variation, immune development is considered in relation to the competing life-history demands that define gestation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each life stage poses a unique set of adaptive challenges, and a series of hypotheses is proposed regarding their implications for immune development and function. Research in human ecological immunology is in its earliest stages, but this is a promising area of exploration, and one in which anthropology is well-positioned to make important contributions.

@article{doi101002ajpa10398,
    author = "McDade, Thomas W.",
    title = "Life history theory and the immune system: Steps toward a human ecological immunology",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Within anthropology and human biology, there is growing interest in immune function and its importance to the ecology of human health and development. Biomedical research currently dominates our understanding of immunology, and this paper seeks to highlight the potential contribution of a population-based, ecological approach to the study of human immune function. Concepts from life-history theory are applied to highlight the major challenges and demands that are likely to shape immune function in a range of ecological contexts. Immune function is a major component of maintenance effort, and since resources are limited, trade-offs are expected between investment in maintenance and other critical life-history functions involving growth and reproduction. An adaptationist, life-history perspective helps make sense of the unusual developmental trajectory of immune tissues, and emphasizes that this complex system is designed to incorporate information from the surrounding ecology to guide its development. As a result, there is substantial population variation in immune development and function that is not considered by current biomedical approaches. In an attempt to construct a framework for understanding this variation, immune development is considered in relation to the competing life-history demands that define gestation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each life stage poses a unique set of adaptive challenges, and a series of hypotheses is proposed regarding their implications for immune development and function. Research in human ecological immunology is in its earliest stages, but this is a promising area of exploration, and one in which anthropology is well-positioned to make important contributions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10398",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.10398",
    openalex = "W2138399295",
    references = "doi101002ajhb10156"
}

@article{doi101038nature01722,
    author = "Skaletsky, Helen and Kuroda-Kawaguchi, Tomoko and Minx, Patrick and Cordum, Holland S. and Hillier, LaDeana and Brown, Laura G. and Repping, Sjoerd and Pyntikova, Tatyana and Ali, Johar and Bieri, Tamberlyn and Chinwalla, Asif and Delehaunty, Andrew and Delehaunty, Kim D. and Du, Hui and Fewell, Ginger and Fulton, Lucinda A. and Fulton, Robert S. and Graves, Tina and Hou, Shunfang and Latrielle, Philip and Leonard, Shawn and Mardis, Elaine R. and Maupin, Rachel and McPherson, John D. and Miner, Tracie L. and Nash, William E. and Nguyen, Christine and Ozersky, Philip and Pepin, Kymberlie and Rock, Susan M. and Rohlfing, Tracy and Scott, Kelsi and Schultz, Brian and Strong, Cindy and Tin-Wollam, Aye Mon and Yang, Shiaw‐Pyng and Waterston, R and Wilson, Richard K. and Rozen, Steve and Page, David C.",
    title = "The male-specific region of the human Y chromosome is a mosaic of discrete sequence classes",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01722",
    doi = "10.1038/nature01722",
    openalex = "W2078075583",
    references = "doi1010079783642881787"
}

@article{doi101038nature01723,
    author = "Rozen, Steve and Skaletsky, Helen and Marszalek, Janet D. and Minx, Patrick and Cordum, Holland S. and Waterston, R and Wilson, Richard K. and Page, David C.",
    title = "Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01723",
    doi = "10.1038/nature01723",
    openalex = "W2021998028",
    references = "doi101046j1469180920016510043x"
}

@article{doi101038ng1113,
    author = "Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca and Feldman, Marcus W.",
    title = "The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1113",
    doi = "10.1038/ng1113",
    openalex = "W2094063883",
    references = "doi101046j1469180920016510043x"
}

@article{doi101038nrg1124,
    author = "Jobling, Mark A. and Tyler‐Smith, Chris",
    title = "The human Y chromosome: an evolutionary marker comes of age",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Nature Reviews Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg1124",
    doi = "10.1038/nrg1124",
    openalex = "W2006431749",
    references = "doi101038331614a0, doi10103835047064, doi101038nature00879"
}

Archaeology's main contribution to the debate over the origins of modern humans has been investigating where and when modern human behavior is first recognized in the archaeological record. Most of this debate has been over the empirical record for the appearance and distribution of a set of traits that have come to be accepted as indicators of behavioral modernity. This debate has resulted in a series of competing models that we explicate here, and the traits are typically used as the test implications for these models. However, adequate tests of hypotheses and models rest on robust test implications, and we argue here that the current set of test implications suffers from three main problems: (1) Many are empirically derived from and context-specific to the richer European record, rendering them problematic for use in the primarily tropical and subtropical African continent. (2) They are ambiguous because other processes can be invoked, often with greater parsimony, to explain their character. (3) Many lack theoretical justification. In addition, there are severe taphonomic problems in the application of these test implications across differing spans of time. To provide adequate tests of these models, archaeologists must first subject these test implications to rigorous discussion, which is initiated here.

@article{doi101086377665,
    author = "Henshilwood, Christopher S. and Marean, Curtis W.",
    title = "The Origin of Modern Human Behavior",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Current Anthropology",
    abstract = "Archaeology's main contribution to the debate over the origins of modern humans has been investigating where and when modern human behavior is first recognized in the archaeological record. Most of this debate has been over the empirical record for the appearance and distribution of a set of traits that have come to be accepted as indicators of behavioral modernity. This debate has resulted in a series of competing models that we explicate here, and the traits are typically used as the test implications for these models. However, adequate tests of hypotheses and models rest on robust test implications, and we argue here that the current set of test implications suffers from three main problems: (1) Many are empirically derived from and context-specific to the richer European record, rendering them problematic for use in the primarily tropical and subtropical African continent. (2) They are ambiguous because other processes can be invoked, often with greater parsimony, to explain their character. (3) Many lack theoretical justification. In addition, there are severe taphonomic problems in the application of these test implications across differing spans of time. To provide adequate tests of these models, archaeologists must first subject these test implications to rigorous discussion, which is initiated here.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/377665",
    doi = "10.1086/377665",
    openalex = "W1657865724",
    references = "doi101002evan10110, doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101002sici1520650520009251aidevan130co27, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016004058097690040x, doi101017cbo9780511612381, doi101017s0140525x00032325, doi101038nature01025, doi101038nature01669, doi1010800969160x2012718920, doi101126science1067575, doi102307279653, doi1043249781315131450, openalexw1512990238"
}

@article{doi101038ng1416,
    author = "Iafrate, A. John and Feuk, Lars and Rivera, Miguel N. and Listewnik, Marc and Donahoe, Patricia K. and Qi, Ying and Scherer, Stephen W. and Lee, Charles",
    title = "Detection of large-scale variation in the human genome",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1416",
    doi = "10.1038/ng1416",
    openalex = "W2116753165"
}

We report the dynamic anatomical sequence of human cortical gray matter development between the age of 4-21 years using quantitative four-dimensional maps and time-lapse sequences. Thirteen healthy children for whom anatomic brain MRI scans were obtained every 2 years, for 8-10 years, were studied. By using models of the cortical surface and sulcal landmarks and a statistical model for gray matter density, human cortical development could be visualized across the age range in a spatiotemporally detailed time-lapse sequence. The resulting time-lapse "movies" reveal that (i) higher-order association cortices mature only after lower-order somatosensory and visual cortices, the functions of which they integrate, are developed, and (ii) phylogenetically older brain areas mature earlier than newer ones. Direct comparison with normal cortical development may help understanding of some neurodevelopmental disorders such as childhood-onset schizophrenia or autism.

@article{doi101073pnas0402680101,
    author = "Gogtay, Nitin and Giedd, Jay N. and Lusk, Leslie and Hayashi, Kiralee M. and Greenstein, Deanna and Vaituzis, A. Catherine and Nugent, Tom and Herman, David and Clasen, Liv and Toga, Arthur W. and Rapoport, Judith L. and Thompson, Paul M.",
    title = "Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {We report the dynamic anatomical sequence of human cortical gray matter development between the age of 4-21 years using quantitative four-dimensional maps and time-lapse sequences. Thirteen healthy children for whom anatomic brain MRI scans were obtained every 2 years, for 8-10 years, were studied. By using models of the cortical surface and sulcal landmarks and a statistical model for gray matter density, human cortical development could be visualized across the age range in a spatiotemporally detailed time-lapse sequence. The resulting time-lapse "movies" reveal that (i) higher-order association cortices mature only after lower-order somatosensory and visual cortices, the functions of which they integrate, are developed, and (ii) phylogenetically older brain areas mature earlier than newer ones. Direct comparison with normal cortical development may help understanding of some neurodevelopmental disorders such as childhood-onset schizophrenia or autism.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402680101",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0402680101",
    openalex = "W2120731293"
}

Although few hunter-gatherers or foragers exist today, they are well documented in the ethnographic record. Anthropologists have been eager to study them since they assumed foragers represented a lifestyle that existed everywhere before 10,000 years ago and characterized our ancestors into some ill-defined but remote past. In the past few decades, that assumption has been challenged on several grounds. Ethnographically described foragers may be a biased sample that only continued to exist because they occupied marginal habitats less coveted by agricultural people.3 In addition, many foragers have been greatly influenced by their association with more powerful agricultural societies.4 It has even been suggested that Holocene foragers represent a new niche that appeared only with the climatic changes and faunal depletion at the end of the last major glaciation.5 Despite these issues, the ethnographic record of foragers provides the only direct observations of human behavior in the absence of agriculture, and as such is invaluable for testing hypotheses about human behavioral evolution.6.

@article{doi101002evan20046,
    author = "Marlowe, Frank W.",
    title = "Hunter-gatherers and human evolution",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    abstract = "Although few hunter-gatherers or foragers exist today, they are well documented in the ethnographic record. Anthropologists have been eager to study them since they assumed foragers represented a lifestyle that existed everywhere before 10,000 years ago and characterized our ancestors into some ill-defined but remote past. In the past few decades, that assumption has been challenged on several grounds. Ethnographically described foragers may be a biased sample that only continued to exist because they occupied marginal habitats less coveted by agricultural people.3 In addition, many foragers have been greatly influenced by their association with more powerful agricultural societies.4 It has even been suggested that Holocene foragers represent a new niche that appeared only with the climatic changes and faunal depletion at the end of the last major glaciation.5 Despite these issues, the ethnographic record of foragers provides the only direct observations of human behavior in the absence of agriculture, and as such is invaluable for testing hypotheses about human behavioral evolution.6.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20046",
    doi = "10.1002/evan.20046",
    openalex = "W2168363280",
    references = "doi10100215206505200094156aidevan530co27, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101017cbo9780511565519, doi101038385333a0, doi101126science2845414625, doi105860choice310304"
}

The article analyzes the neural and functional grounding of language skills as well as their emergence in hominid evolution, hypothesizing stages leading from abilities known to exist in monkeys and apes and presumed to exist in our hominid ancestors right through to modern spoken and signed languages. The starting point is the observation that both premotor area F5 in monkeys and Broca's area in humans contain a "mirror system" active for both execution and observation of manual actions, and that F5 and Broca's area are homologous brain regions. This grounded the mirror system hypothesis of Rizzolatti and Arbib (1998) which offers the mirror system for grasping as a key neural "missing link" between the abilities of our nonhuman ancestors of 20 million years ago and modern human language, with manual gestures rather than a system for vocal communication providing the initial seed for this evolutionary process. The present article, however, goes "beyond the mirror" to offer hypotheses on evolutionary changes within and outside the mirror systems which may have occurred to equip Homo sapiens with a language-ready brain. Crucial to the early stages of this progression is the mirror system for grasping and its extension to permit imitation. Imitation is seen as evolving via a so-called simple system such as that found in chimpanzees (which allows imitation of complex "object-oriented" sequences but only as the result of extensive practice) to a so-called complex system found in humans (which allows rapid imitation even of complex sequences, under appropriate conditions) which supports pantomime. This is hypothesized to have provided the substrate for the development of protosign, a combinatorially open repertoire of manual gestures, which then provides the scaffolding for the emergence of protospeech (which thus owes little to nonhuman vocalizations), with protosign and protospeech then developing in an expanding spiral. It is argued that these stages involve biological evolution of both brain and body. By contrast, it is argued that the progression from protosign and protospeech to languages with full-blown syntax and compositional semantics was a historical phenomenon in the development of Homo sapiens, involving few if any further biological changes.

@article{doi101017s0140525x05000038,
    author = "Arbib, Michael A.",
    title = "From monkey-like action recognition to human language: An evolutionary framework for neurolinguistics",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = {The article analyzes the neural and functional grounding of language skills as well as their emergence in hominid evolution, hypothesizing stages leading from abilities known to exist in monkeys and apes and presumed to exist in our hominid ancestors right through to modern spoken and signed languages. The starting point is the observation that both premotor area F5 in monkeys and Broca's area in humans contain a "mirror system" active for both execution and observation of manual actions, and that F5 and Broca's area are homologous brain regions. This grounded the mirror system hypothesis of Rizzolatti and Arbib (1998) which offers the mirror system for grasping as a key neural "missing link" between the abilities of our nonhuman ancestors of 20 million years ago and modern human language, with manual gestures rather than a system for vocal communication providing the initial seed for this evolutionary process. The present article, however, goes "beyond the mirror" to offer hypotheses on evolutionary changes within and outside the mirror systems which may have occurred to equip Homo sapiens with a language-ready brain. Crucial to the early stages of this progression is the mirror system for grasping and its extension to permit imitation. Imitation is seen as evolving via a so-called simple system such as that found in chimpanzees (which allows imitation of complex "object-oriented" sequences but only as the result of extensive practice) to a so-called complex system found in humans (which allows rapid imitation even of complex sequences, under appropriate conditions) which supports pantomime. This is hypothesized to have provided the substrate for the development of protosign, a combinatorially open repertoire of manual gestures, which then provides the scaffolding for the emergence of protospeech (which thus owes little to nonhuman vocalizations), with protosign and protospeech then developing in an expanding spiral. It is argued that these stages involve biological evolution of both brain and body. By contrast, it is argued that the progression from protosign and protospeech to languages with full-blown syntax and compositional semantics was a historical phenomenon in the development of Homo sapiens, involving few if any further biological changes.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x05000038",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x05000038",
    openalex = "W2156256694",
    references = "doi101038nrn1180, doi1023074613021, doi105860choice351500, doi105860choice425260, openalexw227636185"
}

@article{doi101038nature03258,
    author = "McDougall, Ian and Brown, Francis H. and Fleagle, John G.",
    title = "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03258",
    doi = "10.1038/nature03258",
    openalex = "W2010478315"
}

@article{doi101038nature03701,
    author = "Kosfeld, Michael and Heinrichs, Markus and Zak, Paul J. and Fischbacher, Urs and Fehr, Ernst",
    title = "Oxytocin increases trust in humans",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03701",
    doi = "10.1038/nature03701",
    openalex = "W2138559331",
    references = "doi101162003355300555475, doi101162003355399556151"
}

@article{doi101038nature04072,
    author = "Mikkelsen, Tarjei S.",
    title = "Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04072",
    doi = "10.1038/nature04072",
    openalex = "W1689369637",
    references = "doi101017s0016672300014634, doi10103821415, doi10103835057062, doi10103835057149, doi101038351652a0, doi10103847513, doi10103875556, doi101038nature01262, doi101038nature02168, doi101038nature03001, doi101126science1090005"
}

Inherited genetic variation has a critical but as yet largely uncharacterized role in human disease. Here we report a public database of common variation in the human genome: more than one million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for which accurate and complete genotypes have been obtained in 269 DNA samples from four populations, including ten 500-kilobase regions in which essentially all information about common DNA variation has been extracted. These data document the generality of recombination hotspots, a block-like structure of linkage disequilibrium and low haplotype diversity, leading to substantial correlations of SNPs with many of their neighbours. We show how the HapMap resource can guide the design and analysis of genetic association studies, shed light on structural variation and recombination, and identify loci that may have been subject to natural selection during human evolution.

@article{doi101038nature04226,
    title = "A haplotype map of the human genome",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = "Inherited genetic variation has a critical but as yet largely uncharacterized role in human disease. Here we report a public database of common variation in the human genome: more than one million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for which accurate and complete genotypes have been obtained in 269 DNA samples from four populations, including ten 500-kilobase regions in which essentially all information about common DNA variation has been extracted. These data document the generality of recombination hotspots, a block-like structure of linkage disequilibrium and low haplotype diversity, leading to substantial correlations of SNPs with many of their neighbours. We show how the HapMap resource can guide the design and analysis of genetic association studies, shed light on structural variation and recombination, and identify loci that may have been subject to natural selection during human evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04226",
    doi = "10.1038/nature04226",
    openalex = "W2217809488",
    references = "doi101038nature04072, doi101046j1469180920016510043x, doi101126science1058040, doi101126science1078311"
}

Equilibrium models of isolation by distance predict an increase in genetic differentiation with geographic distance. Here we find a linear relationship between genetic and geographic distance in a worldwide sample of human populations, with major deviations from the fitted line explicable by admixture or extreme isolation. A close relationship is shown to exist between the correlation of geographic distance and genetic differentiation (as measured by F(ST)) and the geographic pattern of heterozygosity across populations. Considering a worldwide set of geographic locations as possible sources of the human expansion, we find that heterozygosities in the globally distributed populations of the data set are best explained by an expansion originating in Africa and that no geographic origin outside of Africa accounts as well for the observed patterns of genetic diversity. Although the relationship between F(ST) and geographic distance has been interpreted in the past as the result of an equilibrium model of drift and dispersal, simulation shows that the geographic pattern of heterozygosities in this data set is consistent with a model of a serial founder effect starting at a single origin. Given this serial-founder scenario, the relationship between genetic and geographic distance allows us to derive bounds for the effects of drift and natural selection on human genetic variation.

@article{doi101073pnas0507611102,
    author = "Ramachandran, Sohini and Deshpande, Omkar and Roseman, Charles C. and Rosenberg, Noah A. and Feldman, Marcus W. and Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca",
    title = "Support from the relationship of genetic and geographic distance in human populations for a serial founder effect originating in Africa",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Equilibrium models of isolation by distance predict an increase in genetic differentiation with geographic distance. Here we find a linear relationship between genetic and geographic distance in a worldwide sample of human populations, with major deviations from the fitted line explicable by admixture or extreme isolation. A close relationship is shown to exist between the correlation of geographic distance and genetic differentiation (as measured by F(ST)) and the geographic pattern of heterozygosity across populations. Considering a worldwide set of geographic locations as possible sources of the human expansion, we find that heterozygosities in the globally distributed populations of the data set are best explained by an expansion originating in Africa and that no geographic origin outside of Africa accounts as well for the observed patterns of genetic diversity. Although the relationship between F(ST) and geographic distance has been interpreted in the past as the result of an equilibrium model of drift and dispersal, simulation shows that the geographic pattern of heterozygosities in this data set is consistent with a model of a serial founder effect starting at a single origin. Given this serial-founder scenario, the relationship between genetic and geographic distance allows us to derive bounds for the effects of drift and natural selection on human genetic variation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507611102",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0507611102",
    openalex = "W1997722194",
    references = "doi101046j1469180920016510043x, doi101086282771, doi101093biomet5334325, doi101093genetics1391457, doi101093genetics494561, doi101126science1078311, doi101126science2965566261b, doi1023072531471, doi1023072533134, doi102307jctv301gjp, openalexw2330340155"
}

E-communication in businesses has been the target of intense research. The theoretical hypotheses that have informed the media richness hypothesis have been influential in some circles and have also been strongly attacked by social theorists. It is argued in this paper that this theoretical polarization involving advocates of the media richness hypothesis and social theorists is due to two problems. The first is that there is a wealth of empirical evidence that provides direct support for the notion that human beings prefer the face-to-face medium for a variety of business tasks that involve communication, which seems to provide support for the media richness hypothesis. The second problem is that the media richness hypothesis is built on a vacuum, as no underlying explanation was ever presented by media richness theorists for our predisposition toward rich (or face-to-face) media. The main goal of this paper is to offer a solution to these problems by providing an alternative to the media richness hypothesis, referred to here as media naturalness hypothesis, developed based on Darwin's theory of evolution. The media naturalness hypothesis argues that, other things being equal, a decrease in the degree of naturalness of a communication medium (or its degree of similarity to the face-to-face medium) leads to the following effects in connection with a communication interaction: (a) increased cognitive effort, (b) increased communication ambiguity, and (c) decreased physiological arousal. Like the media richness hypothesis, the media naturalness hypothesis has important implications for the selection, use, and deployment of e-communication tools in organizations. However, unlike the media richness hypothesis, the media naturalness hypothesis is compatible with social theories of behavior toward e-communication tools. Among other things, this paper shows that the media naturalness hypothesis (unlike its media richness counterpart) is compatible with the notion that, regardless of the obstacles posed by low naturalness media, individuals using those media to perform collaborative tasks may achieve the same or better task-related outcomes than individuals using media with higher degrees of naturalness.

@article{doi101109tpc2005849649,
    author = "Kock, Ned",
    title = "Media Richness or Media Naturalness? The Evolution of Our Biological Communication Apparatus and Its Influence on Our Behavior Toward E-Communication Tools",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication",
    abstract = "E-communication in businesses has been the target of intense research. The theoretical hypotheses that have informed the media richness hypothesis have been influential in some circles and have also been strongly attacked by social theorists. It is argued in this paper that this theoretical polarization involving advocates of the media richness hypothesis and social theorists is due to two problems. The first is that there is a wealth of empirical evidence that provides direct support for the notion that human beings prefer the face-to-face medium for a variety of business tasks that involve communication, which seems to provide support for the media richness hypothesis. The second problem is that the media richness hypothesis is built on a vacuum, as no underlying explanation was ever presented by media richness theorists for our predisposition toward rich (or face-to-face) media. The main goal of this paper is to offer a solution to these problems by providing an alternative to the media richness hypothesis, referred to here as media naturalness hypothesis, developed based on Darwin's theory of evolution. The media naturalness hypothesis argues that, other things being equal, a decrease in the degree of naturalness of a communication medium (or its degree of similarity to the face-to-face medium) leads to the following effects in connection with a communication interaction: (a) increased cognitive effort, (b) increased communication ambiguity, and (c) decreased physiological arousal. Like the media richness hypothesis, the media naturalness hypothesis has important implications for the selection, use, and deployment of e-communication tools in organizations. However, unlike the media richness hypothesis, the media naturalness hypothesis is compatible with social theories of behavior toward e-communication tools. Among other things, this paper shows that the media naturalness hypothesis (unlike its media richness counterpart) is compatible with the notion that, regardless of the obstacles posed by low naturalness media, individuals using those media to perform collaborative tasks may achieve the same or better task-related outcomes than individuals using media with higher degrees of naturalness.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1109/tpc.2005.849649",
    doi = "10.1109/tpc.2005.849649",
    openalex = "W2167586514",
    references = "doi1023072063068, doi105860choice285725, greene1963mankind"
}

Previously, we observed that without using prior information about individual sampling locations, a clustering algorithm applied to multilocus genotypes from worldwide human populations produced genetic clusters largely coincident with major geographic regions. It has been argued, however, that the degree of clustering is diminished by use of samples with greater uniformity in geographic distribution, and that the clusters we identified were a consequence of uneven sampling along genetic clines. Expanding our earlier dataset from 377 to 993 markers, we systematically examine the influence of several study design variables--sample size, number of loci, number of clusters, assumptions about correlations in allele frequencies across populations, and the geographic dispersion of the sample--on the "clusteredness" of individuals. With all other variables held constant, geographic dispersion is seen to have comparatively little effect on the degree of clustering. Examination of the relationship between genetic and geographic distance supports a view in which the clusters arise not as an artifact of the sampling scheme, but from small discontinuous jumps in genetic distance for most population pairs on opposite sides of geographic barriers, in comparison with genetic distance for pairs on the same side. Thus, analysis of the 993-locus dataset corroborates our earlier results: if enough markers are used with a sufficiently large worldwide sample, individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe, with some individuals from intermediate geographic locations having mixed membership in the clusters that correspond to neighboring regions.

@article{doi101371journalpgen0010070,
    author = "Rosenberg, Noah A. and Mahajan, Saurabh and Ramachandran, Sohini and Zhao, Chengfeng and Pritchard, Jonathan K. and Feldman, Marcus W.",
    title = "Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "PLoS Genetics",
    abstract = {Previously, we observed that without using prior information about individual sampling locations, a clustering algorithm applied to multilocus genotypes from worldwide human populations produced genetic clusters largely coincident with major geographic regions. It has been argued, however, that the degree of clustering is diminished by use of samples with greater uniformity in geographic distribution, and that the clusters we identified were a consequence of uneven sampling along genetic clines. Expanding our earlier dataset from 377 to 993 markers, we systematically examine the influence of several study design variables--sample size, number of loci, number of clusters, assumptions about correlations in allele frequencies across populations, and the geographic dispersion of the sample--on the "clusteredness" of individuals. With all other variables held constant, geographic dispersion is seen to have comparatively little effect on the degree of clustering. Examination of the relationship between genetic and geographic distance supports a view in which the clusters arise not as an artifact of the sampling scheme, but from small discontinuous jumps in genetic distance for most population pairs on opposite sides of geographic barriers, in comparison with genetic distance for pairs on the same side. Thus, analysis of the 993-locus dataset corroborates our earlier results: if enough markers are used with a sufficiently large worldwide sample, individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe, with some individuals from intermediate geographic locations having mixed membership in the clusters that correspond to neighboring regions.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070",
    openalex = "W2059053558"
}

@article{doi101007bf03395534,
    author = "Smith, Adam",
    title = "Cognitive Empathy and Emotional Empathy in Human Behavior and Evolution",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "The Psychological Record",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03395534",
    doi = "10.1007/bf03395534",
    openalex = "W1531773291",
    references = "doi1010160022519364900384, doi101016s1364661302019046, doi101086406755, doi1043249780429493898, doi105860choice332412, doi105860choice342454, doi107551mitpress46350010001, openalexw1998090778, openalexw2001431842, openalexw79275703"
}

@article{doi101016jjhevol200608011,
    author = "Barker, Graeme and Barton, Huw and Bird, Michael I. and Daly, Patrick and Datan, Ipoi and Dykes, Alan P. and Farr, Lucy and Gilbertson, D. D. and Harrisson, Barbara and Hunt, Chris and Higham, Tom and Kealhofer, Lisa and Krigbaum, John and Lewis, Helen and McLaren, Sue and Paz, Victor and Pike, Alistair and Piper, Philip J. and Pyatt, Brian and Rabett, Ryan and Reynolds, Tim and Rose, Jim and Rushworth, Garry and Stephens, Mark and Stringer, Chris and Thompson, Jill and Turney, Chris",
    title = "The ‘human revolution’ in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011",
    openalex = "W2020825935",
    references = "doi101086377665, doi1023073514634"
}

@article{doi101016jmad200611016,
    author = "Franceschi, Claudio and Capri, Miriam and Monti, Daniela and Giunta, Sergio and Fabiola, Olivieri and Sevini, Federica and Panourgia, Maria Panagiota and Invidia, Laura and Celani, Laura and Scurti, Maria and Cevenini, Elisa and Castellani, Gastone and Salvioli, Stefano",
    title = "Inflammaging and anti-inflammaging: A systemic perspective on aging and longevity emerged from studies in humans",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Mechanisms of Ageing and Development",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mad.2006.11.016",
    doi = "10.1016/j.mad.2006.11.016",
    openalex = "W2027042725",
    references = "doi101002ajhb10156, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x"
}

@article{doi101038nature05329,
    author = "Redon, Richard and Ishikawa, Shumpei and Fitch, Karen and Feuk, Lars and Perry, George H. and Andrews, T. Daniel and Fiegler, Heike and Shapero, Michael H. and Carson, Andrew R. and Chen, Wenwei and Cho, Eun Kyung and Dallaire, Stephanie and Freeman, Jennifer L. and González, Juan R. and Gratacòs, Mónica and Huang, Jing and Kalaitzopoulos, Dimitrios Rafail and Komura, Daisuke and MacDonald, Jeffrey R. and Marshall, Christian R. and Mei, Rui and Montgomery, Lyndal and Nishimura, Kunihiro and Okamura, K. and Shen, Fan and Somerville, Martin J. and Tchinda, Joëlle and Valsesia, Armand and Woodwark, Cara and Yang, Fengtang and Zhang, Junjun and Zerjal, Tatiana and Zhang, Jane and Armengol, Lluı́s and Conrad, Donald F. and Estivill, Xavier and Tyler‐Smith, Chris and Carter, Nigel P. and Aburatani, Hiroyuki and Lee, Charles and Jones, Keith and Scherer, Stephen W. and Hurles, Matthew E.",
    title = "Global variation in copy number in the human genome",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05329",
    doi = "10.1038/nature05329",
    openalex = "W2155707112",
    references = "doi101126science1078311"
}

@article{doi101038ng1946,
    author = "Tishkoff, Sarah A. and Reed, Floyd A. and Ranciaro, Alessia and Voight, Benjamin F. and Babbitt, Courtney C. and Silverman, Jesse S and Powell, Kweli and Mortensen, Holly M. and Hirbo, Jibril and Osman, Maha M. and Ibrahim, Muntaser E. and Omar, Sabah A. and Lema, Godfrey and Nyambo, Thomas and Ghori, Jilur and Bumpstead, Suzannah and Pritchard, Jonathan K. and Wray, Gregory A. and Deloukas, Panos",
    title = "Convergent adaptation of human lactase persistence in Africa and Europe",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1946",
    doi = "10.1038/ng1946",
    openalex = "W2156918287",
    references = "doi10100797836427878291, doi101017s0016672300014634, doi101017s0016672308009579, doi101038nature01140, doi101038nature04226, doi101086302959, doi101093molbevmsg140, doi101093nar1631215, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva026036, doi101371journalpbio0040072, doi1023073001616, doi102307jctv301gjp"
}

Recent research has provided increasing support for the origins of anatomically and genetically "modern" human populations in Africa between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago, followed by a major dispersal of these populations to both Asia and Europe sometime after ca. 65,000 before present (B.P.). However, the central question of why it took these populations approximately 100,000 years to disperse from Africa to other regions of the world has never been clearly resolved. It is suggested here that the answer may lie partly in the results of recent DNA studies of present-day African populations, combined with a spate of new archaeological discoveries in Africa. Studies of both the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mismatch patterns in modern African populations and related mtDNA lineage-analysis patterns point to a major demographic expansion centered broadly within the time range from 80,000 to 60,000 B.P., probably deriving from a small geographical region of Africa. Recent archaeological discoveries in southern and eastern Africa suggest that, at approximately the same time, there was a major increase in the complexity of the technological, economic, social, and cognitive behavior of certain African groups, which could have led to a major demographic expansion of these groups in competition with other, adjacent groups. It is suggested that this complex of behavioral changes (possibly triggered by the rapid environmental changes around the transition from oxygen isotope stage 5 to stage 4) could have led not only to the expansion of the L2 and L3 mitochondrial lineages over the whole of Africa but also to the ensuing dispersal of these modern populations over most regions of Asia, Australasia, and Europe, and their replacement (with or without interbreeding) of the preceding "archaic" populations in these regions.

@article{doi101073pnas0510792103,
    author = "Mellars, Paul",
    title = "Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {Recent research has provided increasing support for the origins of anatomically and genetically "modern" human populations in Africa between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago, followed by a major dispersal of these populations to both Asia and Europe sometime after ca. 65,000 before present (B.P.). However, the central question of why it took these populations approximately 100,000 years to disperse from Africa to other regions of the world has never been clearly resolved. It is suggested here that the answer may lie partly in the results of recent DNA studies of present-day African populations, combined with a spate of new archaeological discoveries in Africa. Studies of both the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mismatch patterns in modern African populations and related mtDNA lineage-analysis patterns point to a major demographic expansion centered broadly within the time range from 80,000 to 60,000 B.P., probably deriving from a small geographical region of Africa. Recent archaeological discoveries in southern and eastern Africa suggest that, at approximately the same time, there was a major increase in the complexity of the technological, economic, social, and cognitive behavior of certain African groups, which could have led to a major demographic expansion of these groups in competition with other, adjacent groups. It is suggested that this complex of behavioral changes (possibly triggered by the rapid environmental changes around the transition from oxygen isotope stage 5 to stage 4) could have led not only to the expansion of the L2 and L3 mitochondrial lineages over the whole of Africa but also to the ensuing dispersal of these modern populations over most regions of Asia, Australasia, and Europe, and their replacement (with or without interbreeding) of the preceding "archaic" populations in these regions.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0510792103",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0510792103",
    openalex = "W2069729948",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101006jhev19980219, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016jjhevol200409002, doi101016s0002929707629541, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101038364218a0, doi101038nature01025, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature03258, doi101046j1469180920016510043x, doi101073pnas0507611102, doi101086377665, doi101126science1067575"
}

PART 1: WARFARE IN THE FIRST TWO MILLION YEARS: ENVIRONMENT, GENES, AND CULTURE 1. Introduction: The Human 'State of Nature' 2. Peaceful or War-like: Did Hunter-Gatherers Fight? 3. Why Fighting? The Evolutionary Perspective 4. Motivation: Food and Sex 5. Motivation: the Web of Desire 6. 'Primitive Warfare': How Was It Done? 7. Conclusion: Fighting in the Evolutionary State of Nature PART 2: AGRICULTURE, CIVILIZATION, AND WAR 8. Introduction: Evolving Cultural Complexity 9. Tribal Warfare in Agraria and Pastoralia 10. Armed Force in the Emergence of the State 11. The Eurasian Spearhead: East, West, and the Steppe 12. Conclusion: War, the Leviathan, and the Pleasures and Miseries of Civilization PART 3: MODERNITY: THE DUAL FACE OF JANUS 13. Introduction: the Explosion of Wealth and Power 14. Guns and Markets: the New European States and a Global World 15. Unbound and Bound Prometheus: Machine Age War 16. Affluent Liberal Democracies, Ultimate Weapons, and the World 17. Conclusion: Unravelling the Riddle of War Endnotes Index

@book{openalexw1532830548,
    author = "Gat, Azar",
    title = "War in Human Civilization",
    year = "2006",
    booktitle = "The Knowledge Bank (The Ohio State University)",
    abstract = "PART 1: WARFARE IN THE FIRST TWO MILLION YEARS: ENVIRONMENT, GENES, AND CULTURE 1. Introduction: The Human 'State of Nature' 2. Peaceful or War-like: Did Hunter-Gatherers Fight? 3. Why Fighting? The Evolutionary Perspective 4. Motivation: Food and Sex 5. Motivation: the Web of Desire 6. 'Primitive Warfare': How Was It Done? 7. Conclusion: Fighting in the Evolutionary State of Nature PART 2: AGRICULTURE, CIVILIZATION, AND WAR 8. Introduction: Evolving Cultural Complexity 9. Tribal Warfare in Agraria and Pastoralia 10. Armed Force in the Emergence of the State 11. The Eurasian Spearhead: East, West, and the Steppe 12. Conclusion: War, the Leviathan, and the Pleasures and Miseries of Civilization PART 3: MODERNITY: THE DUAL FACE OF JANUS 13. Introduction: the Explosion of Wealth and Power 14. Guns and Markets: the New European States and a Global World 15. Unbound and Bound Prometheus: Machine Age War 16. Affluent Liberal Democracies, Ultimate Weapons, and the World 17. Conclusion: Unravelling the Riddle of War Endnotes Index",
    openalex = "W1532830548"
}

@article{doi101038nature05562,
    author = "Linz, Bodo and Balloux, François and Moodley, Yoshan and Manica, Andrea and Liu, Hua and Roumagnac, Philippe and Falush, Daniel and Stamer, Christiana and Prugnolle, Franck and der Merwe, Van and Yamaoka, Yoshio and Graham, David Y. and Pérez‐Trallero, Emilio and Wadström, Torkel and Suerbaum, Sebastian and Achtman, Mark",
    title = "An African origin for the intimate association between humans and Helicobacter pylori",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05562",
    doi = "10.1038/nature05562",
    openalex = "W2108018752",
    references = "doi101073pnas0507611102, doi101073pnas0510792103, openalexw2119799171"
}

@article{doi101038nature06204,
    author = "Marean, Curtis W. and Bar‐Matthews, Miryam and Bernatchez, Jocelyn and Fisher, Erich C. and Goldberg, Paul and Herries, Andy I.R. and Jacobs, Zenobia and Jerardino, Antonieta and Karkanas, Panagiotis and Minichillo, Tom and Nilssen, Peter and Thompson, Erin and Watts, Ian and Williams, Hope M.",
    title = "Early human use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06204",
    doi = "10.1038/nature06204",
    openalex = "W2024501228",
    references = "doi101006jhev20000435, doi101006jhev20010515, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi101023a1013062712695, doi10103820859, doi10103835011048, doi10103835047064, doi101038nature03258, doi101126science1095905, doi101126science1128139"
}

@article{doi101038ng2123,
    author = "Perry, George H. and Dominy, Nathaniel J. and Claw, Katrina G. and Lee, Arthur S. and Fiegler, Heike and Redon, Richard and Werner, John C. and Villanea, Fernando A. and Mountain, Joanna L. and Misra, Rajeev and Carter, Nigel P. and Lee, Charles and Stone, Anne C.",
    title = "Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng2123",
    doi = "10.1038/ng2123",
    openalex = "W2144690533",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101016s0140673606687709, doi101038nature01019, doi101038nature05329, doi101038ng1416, doi101073pnas9531336, doi101086300083, doi101093acprofosobl97801995490610010001, doi101126science1136678, doi101371journalpgen0010070, doi1023072403680"
}

This article begins the synthesis of two currently unrelated literatures: the human capital approach to health economics and the economics of cognitive and noncognitive skill formation. A lifecycle investment framework is the foundation for understanding the origins of human inequality and for devising policies to reduce it.

@article{doi101073pnas0701362104,
    author = "Heckman, James J.",
    title = "The economics, technology, and neuroscience of human capability formation",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "This article begins the synthesis of two currently unrelated literatures: the human capital approach to health economics and the economics of cognitive and noncognitive skill formation. A lifecycle investment framework is the foundation for understanding the origins of human inequality and for devising policies to reduce it.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701362104",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0701362104",
    openalex = "W3023024409",
    references = "doi1023074613021"
}

The first appearance of explicitly symbolic objects in the archaeological record marks a fundamental stage in the emergence of modern social behavior in Homo. Ornaments such as shell beads represent some of the earliest objects of this kind. We report on examples of perforated Nassarius gibbosulus shell beads from Grotte des Pigeons (Taforalt, Morocco), North Africa. These marine shells come from archaeological levels dated by luminescence and uranium-series techniques to approximately 82,000 years ago. They confirm evidence of similar ornaments from other less well dated sites in North Africa and adjacent areas of southwest Asia. The shells are of the same genus as shell beads from slightly younger levels at Blombos Cave in South Africa. Wear patterns on the shells imply that some of them were suspended, and, as at Blombos, they were covered in red ochre. These findings imply an early distribution of bead-making in Africa and southwest Asia at least 40 millennia before the appearance of similar cultural manifestations in Europe.

@article{doi101073pnas0703877104,
    author = "Bouzouggar, Abdeljalil and Barton, Nick and Vanhaeren, Marian and d’Errico, Francesco and Collcutt, S. N. and Higham, Tom and Hodge, Edward J. and Parfitt, Simon A. and Rhodes, Edward J. and Schwenninger, Jean‐Luc and Stringer, Chris and Turner, Elaine and Ward, Steven N. and Moutmir, Abdelkrim and Stambouli, A.",
    title = "82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The first appearance of explicitly symbolic objects in the archaeological record marks a fundamental stage in the emergence of modern social behavior in Homo. Ornaments such as shell beads represent some of the earliest objects of this kind. We report on examples of perforated Nassarius gibbosulus shell beads from Grotte des Pigeons (Taforalt, Morocco), North Africa. These marine shells come from archaeological levels dated by luminescence and uranium-series techniques to approximately 82,000 years ago. They confirm evidence of similar ornaments from other less well dated sites in North Africa and adjacent areas of southwest Asia. The shells are of the same genus as shell beads from slightly younger levels at Blombos Cave in South Africa. Wear patterns on the shells imply that some of them were suspended, and, as at Blombos, they were covered in red ochre. These findings imply an early distribution of bead-making in Africa and southwest Asia at least 40 millennia before the appearance of similar cultural manifestations in Europe.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0703877104",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0703877104",
    openalex = "W2129879182",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016jjhevol200409002, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature01690, doi101038nature03258, doi101086377665, doi101126science1067575, doi101126science1095905, openalexw2014256778"
}

An appropriate model of recent human evolution is not only important to understand our own history, but it is necessary to disentangle the effects of demography and selection on genome diversity. Although most genetic data support the view that our species originated recently in Africa, it is still unclear if it completely replaced former members of the Homo genus, or if some interbreeding occurred during its range expansion. Several scenarios of modern human evolution have been proposed on the basis of molecular and paleontological data, but their likelihood has never been statistically assessed. Using DNA data from 50 nuclear loci sequenced in African, Asian and Native American samples, we show here by extensive simulations that a simple African replacement model with exponential growth has a higher probability (78%) as compared with alternative multiregional evolution or assimilation scenarios. A Bayesian analysis of the data under this best supported model points to an origin of our species approximately 141 thousand years ago (Kya), an exit out-of-Africa approximately 51 Kya, and a recent colonization of the Americas approximately 10.5 Kya. We also find that the African replacement model explains not only the shallow ancestry of mtDNA or Y-chromosomes but also the occurrence of deep lineages at some autosomal loci, which has been formerly interpreted as a sign of interbreeding with Homo erectus.

@article{doi101073pnas0708280104,
    author = "Fagundes, Nelson J. R. and Ray, Nicolas and Beaumont, Mark and Neuenschwander, Samuel and Salzano, Francisco M. and Bonatto, Sandro L. and Excoffier, Laurent",
    title = "Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "An appropriate model of recent human evolution is not only important to understand our own history, but it is necessary to disentangle the effects of demography and selection on genome diversity. Although most genetic data support the view that our species originated recently in Africa, it is still unclear if it completely replaced former members of the Homo genus, or if some interbreeding occurred during its range expansion. Several scenarios of modern human evolution have been proposed on the basis of molecular and paleontological data, but their likelihood has never been statistically assessed. Using DNA data from 50 nuclear loci sequenced in African, Asian and Native American samples, we show here by extensive simulations that a simple African replacement model with exponential growth has a higher probability (78\%) as compared with alternative multiregional evolution or assimilation scenarios. A Bayesian analysis of the data under this best supported model points to an origin of our species approximately 141 thousand years ago (Kya), an exit out-of-Africa approximately 51 Kya, and a recent colonization of the Americas approximately 10.5 Kya. We also find that the African replacement model explains not only the shallow ancestry of mtDNA or Y-chromosomes but also the occurrence of deep lineages at some autosomal loci, which has been formerly interpreted as a sign of interbreeding with Homo erectus.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708280104",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0708280104",
    openalex = "W2169120848",
    references = "doi101073pnas0510792103, openalexw2119799171"
}

Humans have many cognitive skills not possessed by their nearest primate relatives. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that this is mainly due to a species-specific set of social-cognitive skills, emerging early in ontogeny, for participating and exchanging knowledge in cultural groups. We tested this hypothesis by giving a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests to large numbers of two of humans' closest primate relatives, chimpanzees and orangutans, as well as to 2.5-year-old human children before literacy and schooling. Supporting the cultural intelligence hypothesis and contradicting the hypothesis that humans simply have more "general intelligence," we found that the children and chimpanzees had very similar cognitive skills for dealing with the physical world but that the children had more sophisticated cognitive skills than either of the ape species for dealing with the social world.

@article{doi101126science1146282,
    author = "Herrmann, Esther and Call, Josep and Hernández‐Lloreda, María Victoria and Hare, Brian and Tomasello, Michael",
    title = "Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Humans have many cognitive skills not possessed by their nearest primate relatives. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that this is mainly due to a species-specific set of social-cognitive skills, emerging early in ontogeny, for participating and exchanging knowledge in cultural groups. We tested this hypothesis by giving a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests to large numbers of two of humans' closest primate relatives, chimpanzees and orangutans, as well as to 2.5-year-old human children before literacy and schooling. Supporting the cultural intelligence hypothesis and contradicting the hypothesis that humans simply have more "general intelligence," we found that the children and chimpanzees had very similar cognitive skills for dealing with the physical world but that the children had more sophisticated cognitive skills than either of the ape species for dealing with the social world.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1146282",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1146282",
    openalex = "W1979486681",
    references = "doi101002sici15206505199865178aidevan530co28, doi101016004724849290081j, doi101016b9780123852502500183, doi101017s0140525x00032325, doi101017s0140525x05000129, doi101037003329091172250, doi10103821415, doi10103835057062, doi101038nature04072, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi101126science1058040, doi101126science1078004, doi102307jctvjsf4jc, doi105860choice475652, openalexw1659631989, openalexw2126603167, openalexw2135943618"
}

Abstract Twenty‐one years ago, a landmark exploration of mitochondrial DNA diversity popularized the idea of a recent African origin for all living humans. 1 The ancestral African population was estimated to have existed 200 ka (thousands of years ago) plus or minus a few tens of thousands of years. A corollary was that at some later date the fully modern African descendants of that population expanded to swamp or replace the Neanderthals and other nonmodern Eurasians. The basic concept soon became known as “Out of Africa,” after the Academy Award winning film (1985) that took its title, in turn, from Isak Dinesen's classic autobiography (1937). Many subsequent genetic analyses, including those of Ingman and coworkers 2 and Underhill and coworkers, 3 have reaffirmed the fundamental Out of Africa model. The fossil and archeological records also support it strongly. The fossil record implies that anatomically modern or near‐modern humans were present in Africa by 150 ka; the fossil and archeological records together indicate that modern Africans expanded to Eurasia beginning about 50 ka.

@article{doi101002evan20181,
    author = "Klein, Richard G.",
    title = "Out of Africa and the evolution of human behavior",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    abstract = "Abstract Twenty‐one years ago, a landmark exploration of mitochondrial DNA diversity popularized the idea of a recent African origin for all living humans. 1 The ancestral African population was estimated to have existed 200 ka (thousands of years ago) plus or minus a few tens of thousands of years. A corollary was that at some later date the fully modern African descendants of that population expanded to swamp or replace the Neanderthals and other nonmodern Eurasians. The basic concept soon became known as “Out of Africa,” after the Academy Award winning film (1985) that took its title, in turn, from Isak Dinesen's classic autobiography (1937). Many subsequent genetic analyses, including those of Ingman and coworkers 2 and Underhill and coworkers, 3 have reaffirmed the fundamental Out of Africa model. The fossil and archeological records also support it strongly. The fossil record implies that anatomically modern or near‐modern humans were present in Africa by 150 ka; the fossil and archeological records together indicate that modern Africans expanded to Eurasia beginning about 50 ka.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20181",
    doi = "10.1002/evan.20181",
    openalex = "W2100766130",
    references = "doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016jcub200610053, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101038325031a0, doi10103835047064, doi101038nature05336, doi101038nature06204, doi101046j1469180920016510043x, doi101111j155856461991tb04425x, doi101126science1067575"
}

@article{doi101016jajhg200804002,
    author = "Behar, Doron M. and Villems, Richard and Soodyall, Himla and Blue-Smith, Jason and Pereira, Luı́sa and Metspalu, Ene and Scozzari, Rosaria and Makkan, Heeran and Tzur, Shay and Comas, David and Bertranpetit, Jaume and Quintana‐Murci, Lluís and Tyler‐Smith, Chris and Wells, R. Spencer and Rosset, Saharon",
    title = "The Dawn of Human Matrilineal Diversity",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "The American Journal of Human Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002",
    openalex = "W2113488183",
    references = "doi101073pnas0703877104"
}

@article{doi101038nature07517,
    author = "Bentley, David and Balasubramanian, Shankar and Swerdlow, Harold and Smith, Geoffrey and Milton, John and Brown, Clive and Hall, Kevin P. and Evers, Dirk J. and Barnes, C.L. and Bignell, Helen and Boutell, Jonathan M. and Bryant, Jason and Carter, Richard J. and Cheetham, R. Keira and Cox, Anthony J. and Ellis, Darren J. and Flatbush, Michael R. and Gormley, Niall and Humphray, Sean and Irving, Leslie J. and Karbelashvili, Mirian and Kirk, Scott and Li, Heng and Liu, Xiaohai and Maisinger, Klaus S. and Murray, Lisa and Obradović, Bojan and Ost, Tobias W. B. and Parkinson, Michael L. and Pratt, Mark and Rasolonjatovo, Isabelle and Reed, Mark T. and Rigatti, Roberto and Rodighiero, Chiara and Ross, Mark T. and Sabot, Andrea and Sankar, S. V. and Scally, Aylwyn and Schroth, Gary P. and Smith, Mark E. B. and Smith, Vincent P. and Spiridou, Anastassia and Torrance, Peta E. and Tzonev, Svilen and Vermaas, Eric H. and Walter, Klaudia and Wu, Xiaolin and Zhang, Lu and Alam, Mohammed D. and Anastasi, Carole and Aniebo, Ify C. and Bailey, David M. and Bancarz, Iain R. and Banerjee, Saibal and Barbour, Selena G. and Baybayan, Primo and Benoit, Vincent A. and Benson, Kevin F. and Bevis, Claire and Black, Phillip J. and Boodhun, Asha and Brennan, Joe S. and Bridgham, John A. and Brown, Rob and Brown, Andrew and Buermann, Dale H. and Bundu, Abass A. and Burrows, James C. and Carter, Nigel P. and Castillo-Magallanes, Néstor and Catenazzi, Maria Chiara E. and Chang, Simon and Cooley, Rachel and Crake, Natasha R. and Dada, Olubunmi O. and Diakoumakos, Konstantinos D. and Dominguez‐Fernandez, Belen and Earnshaw, David and Egbujor, Ugonna C. and Elmore, David W. and Etchin, Sergey S. and Ewan, Mark and Fedurco, Milan and Fraser, Louise and Fajardo, Karin V. Fuentes and Furey, W. Scott and George, David and Gietzen, Kimberley J. and Goddard, C and Golda, George S. and Granieri, Philip A. and Green, David E. and Gustafson, David and Hansen, Nancy F. and Harnish, Kevin and Haudenschild, Christian and Heyer, Narinder I. and Hims, Matthew M. and Ho, Johnny T. and Horgan, Adrian",
    title = "Accurate whole human genome sequencing using reversible terminator chemistry",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07517",
    doi = "10.1038/nature07517",
    openalex = "W2012016911"
}

Human genetic diversity is shaped by both demographic and biological factors and has fundamental implications for understanding the genetic basis of diseases. We studied 938 unrelated individuals from 51 populations of the Human Genome Diversity Panel at 650,000 common single-nucleotide polymorphism loci. Individual ancestry and population substructure were detectable with very high resolution. The relationship between haplotype heterozygosity and geography was consistent with the hypothesis of a serial founder effect with a single origin in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, we observed a pattern of ancestral allele frequency distributions that reflects variation in population dynamics among geographic regions. This data set allows the most comprehensive characterization to date of human genetic variation.

@article{doi101126science1153717,
    author = "Li, Jun Z. and Absher, Devin M. and Tang, Hua and Southwick, Audrey M. and Casto, Amanda M. and Ramachandran, Sohini and Cann, Howard M. and Barsh, Gregory S. and Feldman, Marcus W. and Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca and Myers, R",
    title = "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Human genetic diversity is shaped by both demographic and biological factors and has fundamental implications for understanding the genetic basis of diseases. We studied 938 unrelated individuals from 51 populations of the Human Genome Diversity Panel at 650,000 common single-nucleotide polymorphism loci. Individual ancestry and population substructure were detectable with very high resolution. The relationship between haplotype heterozygosity and geography was consistent with the hypothesis of a serial founder effect with a single origin in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, we observed a pattern of ancestral allele frequency distributions that reflects variation in population dynamics among geographic regions. This data set allows the most comprehensive characterization to date of human genetic variation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153717",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1153717",
    openalex = "W2102714321",
    references = "doi101038368455a0, doi101038nature04226, doi101038ng1946, doi101046j14718286200300566x, doi101073pnas0507611102, doi101093genetics1053767, doi101093genetics1312479, doi101126science1078311, doi101126science2965566261b, doi101371journalpbio0040072, doi1023072533134"
}

The expansion of modern human populations in Africa 80,000 to 60,000 years ago and their initial exodus out of Africa have been tentatively linked to two phases of technological and behavioral innovation within the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa-the Still Bay and Howieson's Poort industries-that are associated with early evidence for symbols and personal ornaments. Establishing the correct sequence of events, however, has been hampered by inadequate chronologies. We report ages for nine sites from varied climatic and ecological zones across southern Africa that show that both industries were short-lived (5000 years or less), separated by about 7000 years, and coeval with genetic estimates of population expansion and exit times. Comparison with climatic records shows that these bursts of innovative behavior cannot be explained by environmental factors alone.

@article{doi101126science1162219,
    author = "Jacobs, Zenobia and Roberts, Richard G. and Galbraith, R. F. and Deacon, H. J. and Grün, Rainer and Mackay, Alex and Mitchell, Peter and Vogelsang, Ralf and Wadley, Lyn",
    title = "Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: Implications for Human Behavior and Dispersal",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The expansion of modern human populations in Africa 80,000 to 60,000 years ago and their initial exodus out of Africa have been tentatively linked to two phases of technological and behavioral innovation within the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa-the Still Bay and Howieson's Poort industries-that are associated with early evidence for symbols and personal ornaments. Establishing the correct sequence of events, however, has been hampered by inadequate chronologies. We report ages for nine sites from varied climatic and ecological zones across southern Africa that show that both industries were short-lived (5000 years or less), separated by about 7000 years, and coeval with genetic estimates of population expansion and exit times. Comparison with climatic records shows that these bursts of innovative behavior cannot be explained by environmental factors alone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1162219",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1162219",
    openalex = "W2009028979",
    references = "doi101006jhev19980219, doi101073pnas0703877104"
}

Comparative studies of ethnically diverse human populations, particularly in Africa, are important for reconstructing human evolutionary history and for understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic adaptation and complex disease. African populations are characterized by greater levels of genetic diversity, extensive population substructure, and less linkage disequilibrium (LD) among loci compared to non-African populations. Africans also possess a number of genetic adaptations that have evolved in response to diverse climates and diets, as well as exposure to infectious disease. This review summarizes patterns and the evolutionary origins of genetic diversity present in African populations, as well as their implications for the mapping of complex traits, including disease susceptibility.

@article{doi101146annurevgenom9081307164258,
    author = "Campbell, Michael C. and Tishkoff, Sarah A.",
    title = "African Genetic Diversity: Implications for Human Demographic History, Modern Human Origins, and Complex Disease Mapping",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics",
    abstract = "Comparative studies of ethnically diverse human populations, particularly in Africa, are important for reconstructing human evolutionary history and for understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic adaptation and complex disease. African populations are characterized by greater levels of genetic diversity, extensive population substructure, and less linkage disequilibrium (LD) among loci compared to non-African populations. Africans also possess a number of genetic adaptations that have evolved in response to diverse climates and diets, as well as exposure to infectious disease. This review summarizes patterns and the evolutionary origins of genetic diversity present in African populations, as well as their implications for the mapping of complex traits, including disease susceptibility.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164258",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164258",
    openalex = "W2140026462",
    references = "doi101006jhev20000435"
}

@article{doi103828bfarm200817,
    author = "Milliken, Sarah",
    title = "Rethinking the human revolution",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Before Farming",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3828/bfarm.2008.1.7",
    doi = "10.3828/bfarm.2008.1.7",
    openalex = "W2085032416",
    references = "doi101073pnas0703877104"
}

Since Darwin, intergroup hostilities have figured prominently in explanations of the evolution of human social behavior. Yet whether ancestral humans were largely "peaceful" or "warlike" remains controversial. I ask a more precise question: If more cooperative groups were more likely to prevail in conflicts with other groups, was the level of intergroup violence sufficient to influence the evolution of human social behavior? Using a model of the evolutionary impact of between-group competition and a new data set that combines archaeological evidence on causes of death during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene with ethnographic and historical reports on hunter-gatherer populations, I find that the estimated level of mortality in intergroup conflicts would have had substantial effects, allowing the proliferation of group-beneficial behaviors that were quite costly to the individual altruist.

@article{doi101126science1168112,
    author = "Bowles, Samuel",
    title = "Did Warfare Among Ancestral Hunter-Gatherers Affect the Evolution of Human Social Behaviors?",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Since Darwin, intergroup hostilities have figured prominently in explanations of the evolution of human social behavior. Yet whether ancestral humans were largely "peaceful" or "warlike" remains controversial. I ask a more precise question: If more cooperative groups were more likely to prevail in conflicts with other groups, was the level of intergroup violence sufficient to influence the evolution of human social behavior? Using a model of the evolutionary impact of between-group competition and a new data set that combines archaeological evidence on causes of death during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene with ethnographic and historical reports on hunter-gatherer populations, I find that the estimated level of mortality in intergroup conflicts would have had substantial effects, allowing the proliferation of group-beneficial behaviors that were quite costly to the individual altruist.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1168112",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1168112",
    openalex = "W1984807806",
    references = "doi101002evan20046, doi101038227520a0, doi101038nature02805, doi101111j001438202005tb01814x, doi101111j1365294x200803887x, doi101126science1144237, doi1023072137817, doi1023072801993, openalexw1529800964, openalexw1532830548"
}

The origins of modern human behavior are marked by increased symbolic and technological complexity in the archaeological record. In western Eurasia this transition, the Upper Paleolithic, occurred about 45,000 years ago, but many of its features appear transiently in southern Africa about 45,000 years earlier. We show that demography is a major determinant in the maintenance of cultural complexity and that variation in regional subpopulation density and/or migratory activity results in spatial structuring of cultural skill accumulation. Genetic estimates of regional population size over time show that densities in early Upper Paleolithic Europe were similar to those in sub-Saharan Africa when modern behavior first appeared. Demographic factors can thus explain geographic variation in the timing of the first appearance of modern behavior without invoking increased cognitive capacity.

@article{doi101126science1170165,
    author = "Powell, Adam and Shennan, Stephen and Thomas, Mark",
    title = "Late Pleistocene Demography and the Appearance of Modern Human Behavior",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The origins of modern human behavior are marked by increased symbolic and technological complexity in the archaeological record. In western Eurasia this transition, the Upper Paleolithic, occurred about 45,000 years ago, but many of its features appear transiently in southern Africa about 45,000 years earlier. We show that demography is a major determinant in the maintenance of cultural complexity and that variation in regional subpopulation density and/or migratory activity results in spatial structuring of cultural skill accumulation. Genetic estimates of regional population size over time show that densities in early Upper Paleolithic Europe were similar to those in sub-Saharan Africa when modern behavior first appeared. Demographic factors can thus explain geographic variation in the timing of the first appearance of modern behavior without invoking increased cognitive capacity.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1170165",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1170165",
    openalex = "W2149212390",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101006jhev19980219, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature03258, doi101038nature06204, doi101086431525, doi101126science1067575, doi101126science1078311, doi101126science1153717, doi1011620024389052993655, doi1023074128416"
}

The controlled use of fire was a breakthrough adaptation in human evolution. It first provided heat and light and later allowed the physical properties of materials to be manipulated for the production of ceramics and metals. The analysis of tools at multiple sites shows that the source stone materials were systematically manipulated with fire to improve their flaking properties. Heat treatment predominates among silcrete tools at approximately 72 thousand years ago (ka) and appears as early as 164 ka at Pinnacle Point, on the south coast of South Africa. Heat treatment demands a sophisticated knowledge of fire and an elevated cognitive ability and appears at roughly the same time as widespread evidence for symbolic behavior.

@article{doi101126science1175028,
    author = "Brown, Kyle S. and Marean, Curtis W. and Herries, Andy I.R. and Jacobs, Zenobia and Tribolo, Chantal and Braun, David R. and Roberts, David L. and Meyer, Michael C. and Bernatchez, Jocelyn",
    title = "Fire As an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The controlled use of fire was a breakthrough adaptation in human evolution. It first provided heat and light and later allowed the physical properties of materials to be manipulated for the production of ceramics and metals. The analysis of tools at multiple sites shows that the source stone materials were systematically manipulated with fire to improve their flaking properties. Heat treatment predominates among silcrete tools at approximately 72 thousand years ago (ka) and appears as early as 164 ka at Pinnacle Point, on the south coast of South Africa. Heat treatment demands a sophisticated knowledge of fire and an elevated cognitive ability and appears at roughly the same time as widespread evidence for symbolic behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175028",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1175028",
    openalex = "W1979543252",
    references = "doi101016jjhevol200409002, doi101038nature06204, doi101126science1067575"
}

Copy number variation (CNV) is a source of genetic diversity in humans. Numerous CNVs are being identified with various genome analysis platforms, including array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping platforms, and next-generation sequencing. CNV formation occurs by both recombination-based and replication-based mechanisms and de novo locus-specific mutation rates appear much higher for CNVs than for SNPs. By various molecular mechanisms, including gene dosage, gene disruption, gene fusion, position effects, etc., CNVs can cause Mendelian or sporadic traits, or be associated with complex diseases. However, CNV can also represent benign polymorphic variants. CNVs, especially gene duplication and exon shuffling, can be a predominant mechanism driving gene and genome evolution.

@article{doi101146annurevgenom9081307164217,
    author = "Zhang, Feng and Gu, Wenli and Hurles, Matthew E. and Lupski, James R.",
    title = "Copy Number Variation in Human Health, Disease, and Evolution",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics",
    abstract = "Copy number variation (CNV) is a source of genetic diversity in humans. Numerous CNVs are being identified with various genome analysis platforms, including array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping platforms, and next-generation sequencing. CNV formation occurs by both recombination-based and replication-based mechanisms and de novo locus-specific mutation rates appear much higher for CNVs than for SNPs. By various molecular mechanisms, including gene dosage, gene disruption, gene fusion, position effects, etc., CNVs can cause Mendelian or sporadic traits, or be associated with complex diseases. However, CNV can also represent benign polymorphic variants. CNVs, especially gene duplication and exon shuffling, can be a predominant mechanism driving gene and genome evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164217",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164217",
    openalex = "W2162927194",
    references = "doi101038ng2123"
}

Individuals residing in the rainforest belt of Nigeria were shown photographs of five biomes: rain forest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, savanna, and desert. Subjects overwhelmingly selected savanna scenes as representing the most desirable place to live. These results, coupled with extensive American data, support the hypothesis that humans possess an innate preference for savanna-like settings, which then is modified through experience and enculturation. Findings are discussed in relation to anthropological, biological, and psychological research.

@article{doi1011770013916509341244,
    author = "Falk, John H. and Balling, John D.",
    title = "Evolutionary Influence on Human Landscape Preference",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Environment and Behavior",
    abstract = "Individuals residing in the rainforest belt of Nigeria were shown photographs of five biomes: rain forest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, savanna, and desert. Subjects overwhelmingly selected savanna scenes as representing the most desirable place to live. These results, coupled with extensive American data, support the hypothesis that humans possess an innate preference for savanna-like settings, which then is modified through experience and enculturation. Findings are discussed in relation to anthropological, biological, and psychological research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916509341244",
    doi = "10.1177/0013916509341244",
    openalex = "W2111242027",
    references = "openalexw567542833"
}

@article{doi101016jevolhumbehav201002005,
    author = "Puts, David A.",
    title = "Beauty and the beast: mechanisms of sexual selection in humans",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Evolution and Human Behavior",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.02.005",
    openalex = "W2048956452",
    references = "crossref1975sexual, doi10100215206505200094156aidevan530co27, doi101002sici109686441999110291aidajpa230co2e, doi101007bf02382954, doi1010160162309579900049, doi101016jevolhumbehav200904002, doi101017cbo9780511693281002, doi101017s0140525x00023992, doi101017s0140525x09990951, doi10103700223514633452, doi1010370033295x1002204, doi1010371089268084291, doi1010801529519220019681209, doi101111j155856461962tb03206x, doi101126science327542, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072485224, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi105962bhltitle2092, doi105962bhltitle27468"
}

@article{doi101016jevolhumbehav201008001,
    author = "West, Stuart A. and Mouden, Claire El and Gardner, Andy",
    title = "Sixteen common misconceptions about the evolution of cooperation in humans",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Evolution and Human Behavior",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.08.001",
    doi = "10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.08.001",
    openalex = "W2081421712",
    references = "doi1010160022519364900384, doi101016jcub200706004, doi101038001534a0, doi101086303168, doi101086406755, doi101086522809, doi101093acprofoso97801992679720010001, doi101093genetics16297, doi101111j14209101200801681x, doi101111j15585646201001012x, doi101126science1168112, doi101126science16238591243, doi101126science7466396, doi101162003355399556151, doi101537ase188722495, doi105860choice435875, doi105962bhltitle27468, openalexw2624262714, openalexw2764433274"
}

@article{doi101016jjhevol201007011,
    author = "Marean, Curtis W.",
    title = "Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: The Cape Floral kingdom, shellfish, and modern human origins",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.011",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.011",
    openalex = "W2024908710",
    references = "doi101006jhev20000435, doi10103820859, doi10103835047064, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature02599, doi101038nature03258, doi101073pnas0703877104, doi102307279653, doi1023072801993, openalexw1480092759, openalexw2330340155"
}

Is the human mind/brain composed of a set of highly specialized components, each carrying out a specific aspect of human cognition, or is it more of a general-purpose device, in which each component participates in a wide variety of cognitive processes? For nearly two centuries, proponents of specialized organs or modules of the mind and brain--from the phrenologists to Broca to Chomsky and Fodor--have jousted with the proponents of distributed cognitive and neural processing--from Flourens to Lashley to McClelland and Rumelhart. I argue here that research using functional MRI is beginning to answer this long-standing question with new clarity and precision by indicating that at least a few specific aspects of cognition are implemented in brain regions that are highly specialized for that process alone. Cortical regions have been identified that are specialized not only for basic sensory and motor processes but also for the high-level perceptual analysis of faces, places, bodies, visually presented words, and even for the very abstract cognitive function of thinking about another person's thoughts. I further consider the as-yet unanswered questions of how much of the mind and brain are made up of these functionally specialized components and how they arise developmentally.

@article{doi101073pnas1005062107,
    author = "Kanwisher, Nancy",
    title = "Functional specificity in the human brain: A window into the functional architecture of the mind",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Is the human mind/brain composed of a set of highly specialized components, each carrying out a specific aspect of human cognition, or is it more of a general-purpose device, in which each component participates in a wide variety of cognitive processes? For nearly two centuries, proponents of specialized organs or modules of the mind and brain--from the phrenologists to Broca to Chomsky and Fodor--have jousted with the proponents of distributed cognitive and neural processing--from Flourens to Lashley to McClelland and Rumelhart. I argue here that research using functional MRI is beginning to answer this long-standing question with new clarity and precision by indicating that at least a few specific aspects of cognition are implemented in brain regions that are highly specialized for that process alone. Cortical regions have been identified that are specialized not only for basic sensory and motor processes but also for the high-level perceptual analysis of faces, places, bodies, visually presented words, and even for the very abstract cognitive function of thinking about another person's thoughts. I further consider the as-yet unanswered questions of how much of the mind and brain are made up of these functionally specialized components and how they arise developmentally.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1005062107",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.1005062107",
    openalex = "W1988545511",
    references = "doi1023074613021"
}

Humans regulate intergroup conflict through parochial altruism; they self-sacrifice to contribute to in-group welfare and to aggress against competing out-groups. Parochial altruism has distinct survival functions, and the brain may have evolved to sustain and promote in-group cohesion and effectiveness and to ward off threatening out-groups. Here, we have linked oxytocin, a neuropeptide produced in the hypothalamus, to the regulation of intergroup conflict. In three experiments using double-blind placebo-controlled designs, male participants self-administered oxytocin or placebo and made decisions with financial consequences to themselves, their in-group, and a competing out-group. Results showed that oxytocin drives a "tend and defend" response in that it promoted in-group trust and cooperation, and defensive, but not offensive, aggression toward competing out-groups.

@article{doi101126science1189047,
    author = "Dreu, Carsten K. W. De and Greer, Lindred L. and Handgraaf, Michel J. J. and Shalvi, Shaul and van Kleef, Gerben A. and Baas, Matthijs and Velden, Femke S. Ten and van Dijk, Eric and Feith, Sander W. W.",
    title = "The Neuropeptide Oxytocin Regulates Parochial Altruism in Intergroup Conflict Among Humans",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Humans regulate intergroup conflict through parochial altruism; they self-sacrifice to contribute to in-group welfare and to aggress against competing out-groups. Parochial altruism has distinct survival functions, and the brain may have evolved to sustain and promote in-group cohesion and effectiveness and to ward off threatening out-groups. Here, we have linked oxytocin, a neuropeptide produced in the hypothalamus, to the regulation of intergroup conflict. In three experiments using double-blind placebo-controlled designs, male participants self-administered oxytocin or placebo and made decisions with financial consequences to themselves, their in-group, and a competing out-group. Results showed that oxytocin drives a "tend and defend" response in that it promoted in-group trust and cooperation, and defensive, but not offensive, aggression toward competing out-groups.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1189047",
    openalex = "W2122682494",
    references = "doi101126science1144237, doi101126science1168112"
}

@article{doi101016jtics201105002,
    author = "Bartz, Jennifer A. and Zaki, Jamil and Bolger, Niall and Ochsner, Kevin N.",
    title = "Social effects of oxytocin in humans: context and person matter",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Trends in Cognitive Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.002",
    openalex = "W2061226698"
}

@article{doi101038nature10213,
    author = "Kau, Andrew L. and Ahern, Philip P. and Griffin, Nicholas W. and Goodman, Andrew L. and Gordon, Jeffrey I.",
    title = "Human nutrition, the gut microbiome and the immune system",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10213",
    doi = "10.1038/nature10213",
    openalex = "W2009170813",
    references = "doi101016s0140673605718778, doi101038ng2123"
}

@article{doi101038nature10231,
    author = "Li, Heng and Durbin, Richard",
    title = "Inference of human population history from individual whole-genome sequences",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10231",
    doi = "10.1038/nature10231",
    openalex = "W2091705028",
    references = "doi101073pnas0510792103, doi101126science1188021"
}

@article{doi101038nrn3044,
    author = "Meyer‐Lindenberg, Andreas and Domes, Gregor and Kirsch, Peter and Heinrichs, Markus",
    title = "Oxytocin and vasopressin in the human brain: social neuropeptides for translational medicine",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Nature reviews. Neuroscience",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3044",
    doi = "10.1038/nrn3044",
    openalex = "W2023636464"
}

Although many species display behavioural traditions, human culture is unique in the complexity of its technological, symbolic and social contents. Is this extraordinary complexity a product of cognitive evolution, cultural evolution or some interaction of the two? Answering this question will require a much better understanding of patterns of increasing cultural diversity, complexity and rates of change in human evolution. Palaeolithic stone tools provide a relatively abundant and continuous record of such change, but a systematic method for describing the complexity and diversity of these early technologies has yet to be developed. Here, an initial attempt at such a system is presented. Results suggest that rates of Palaeolithic culture change may have been underestimated and that there is a direct relationship between increasing technological complexity and diversity. Cognitive evolution and the greater latitude for cultural variation afforded by increasingly complex technologies may play complementary roles in explaining this pattern.

@article{doi101098rstb20100369,
    author = "Stout, Dietrich",
    title = "Stone toolmaking and the evolution of human culture and cognition",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Although many species display behavioural traditions, human culture is unique in the complexity of its technological, symbolic and social contents. Is this extraordinary complexity a product of cognitive evolution, cultural evolution or some interaction of the two? Answering this question will require a much better understanding of patterns of increasing cultural diversity, complexity and rates of change in human evolution. Palaeolithic stone tools provide a relatively abundant and continuous record of such change, but a systematic method for describing the complexity and diversity of these early technologies has yet to be developed. Here, an initial attempt at such a system is presented. Results suggest that rates of Palaeolithic culture change may have been underestimated and that there is a direct relationship between increasing technological complexity and diversity. Cognitive evolution and the greater latitude for cultural variation afforded by increasingly complex technologies may play complementary roles in explaining this pattern.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0369",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2010.0369",
    openalex = "W2102806079",
    references = "doi101098rstb20061998, doi101098rstb20090052, doi101126science1170165"
}

Long-standing speculations and more recent hypotheses propose a variety of possible evolutionary connections between language, gesture and tool use. These arguments have received important new support from neuroscientific research on praxis, observational action understanding and vocal language demonstrating substantial functional/anatomical overlap between these behaviours. However, valid reasons for scepticism remain as well as substantial differences in detail between alternative evolutionary hypotheses. Here, we review the current status of alternative 'gestural' and 'technological' hypotheses of language origins, drawing on current evidence of the neural bases of speech and tool use generally, and on recent studies of the neural correlates of Palaeolithic technology specifically.

@article{doi101098rstb20110099,
    author = "Stout, Dietrich and Chaminade, Thierry",
    title = "Stone tools, language and the brain in human evolution",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Long-standing speculations and more recent hypotheses propose a variety of possible evolutionary connections between language, gesture and tool use. These arguments have received important new support from neuroscientific research on praxis, observational action understanding and vocal language demonstrating substantial functional/anatomical overlap between these behaviours. However, valid reasons for scepticism remain as well as substantial differences in detail between alternative evolutionary hypotheses. Here, we review the current status of alternative 'gestural' and 'technological' hypotheses of language origins, drawing on current evidence of the neural bases of speech and tool use generally, and on recent studies of the neural correlates of Palaeolithic technology specifically.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0099",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.2011.0099",
    openalex = "W2158574777",
    references = "doi101073pnas0900957106"
}

Contemporary humans exhibit spectacular biological success derived from cumulative culture and cooperation. The origins of these traits may be related to our ancestral group structure. Because humans lived as foragers for 95% of our species' history, we analyzed co-residence patterns among 32 present-day foraging societies (total n = 5067 individuals, mean experienced band size = 28.2 adults). We found that hunter-gatherers display a unique social structure where (i) either sex may disperse or remain in their natal group, (ii) adult brothers and sisters often co-reside, and (iii) most individuals in residential groups are genetically unrelated. These patterns produce large interaction networks of unrelated adults and suggest that inclusive fitness cannot explain extensive cooperation in hunter-gatherer bands. However, large social networks may help to explain why humans evolved capacities for social learning that resulted in cumulative culture.

@article{doi101126science1199071,
    author = "Hill, Kim and Walker, Robert S. and Božičević, Miran and Eder, James F. and Headland, Thomas N. and Hewlett, Barry S. and Hurtado, A. Magdalena and Marlowe, Frank W. and Wiessner, Polly and Wood, Brian M.",
    title = "Co-Residence Patterns in Hunter-Gatherer Societies Show Unique Human Social Structure",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Contemporary humans exhibit spectacular biological success derived from cumulative culture and cooperation. The origins of these traits may be related to our ancestral group structure. Because humans lived as foragers for 95\% of our species' history, we analyzed co-residence patterns among 32 present-day foraging societies (total n = 5067 individuals, mean experienced band size = 28.2 adults). We found that hunter-gatherers display a unique social structure where (i) either sex may disperse or remain in their natal group, (ii) adult brothers and sisters often co-reside, and (iii) most individuals in residential groups are genetically unrelated. These patterns produce large interaction networks of unrelated adults and suggest that inclusive fitness cannot explain extensive cooperation in hunter-gatherer bands. However, large social networks may help to explain why humans evolved capacities for social learning that resulted in cumulative culture.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199071",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1199071",
    openalex = "W2020506662",
    references = "doi10100215206505200094156aidevan530co27, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101126science1146282, doi101126science1170165"
}

The timing of the dispersal of anatomically modern humans (AMH) out of Africa is a fundamental question in human evolutionary studies. Existing data suggest a rapid coastal exodus via the Indian Ocean rim around 60,000 years ago. We present evidence from Jebel Faya, United Arab Emirates, demonstrating human presence in eastern Arabia during the last interglacial. The tool kit found at Jebel Faya has affinities to the late Middle Stone Age in northeast Africa, indicating that technological innovation was not necessary to facilitate migration into Arabia. Instead, we propose that low eustatic sea level and increased rainfall during the transition between marine isotope stages 6 and 5 allowed humans to populate Arabia. This evidence implies that AMH may have been present in South Asia before the Toba eruption.

@article{doi101126science1199113,
    author = "Armitage, Simon J. and Jasim, Sabah and Marks, Anthony E. and Parker, Adrian G. and Usik, Vitaly I. and Uerpmann, Hans‐Peter",
    title = "The Southern Route “Out of Africa”: Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "The timing of the dispersal of anatomically modern humans (AMH) out of Africa is a fundamental question in human evolutionary studies. Existing data suggest a rapid coastal exodus via the Indian Ocean rim around 60,000 years ago. We present evidence from Jebel Faya, United Arab Emirates, demonstrating human presence in eastern Arabia during the last interglacial. The tool kit found at Jebel Faya has affinities to the late Middle Stone Age in northeast Africa, indicating that technological innovation was not necessary to facilitate migration into Arabia. Instead, we propose that low eustatic sea level and increased rainfall during the transition between marine isotope stages 6 and 5 allowed humans to populate Arabia. This evidence implies that AMH may have been present in South Asia before the Toba eruption.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199113",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1199113",
    openalex = "W1976915931",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi1010160012821x96000696, doi1010160033589487900469, doi101016s0016703702010311, doi10103835011166, doi10103870550, doi101038nature01690, doi101038nature03258, doi101073pnas0510792103, doi101126science1141564"
}

Information processing in the cerebral cortex involves interactions among distributed areas. Anatomical connectivity suggests that certain areas form local hierarchical relations such as within the visual system. Other connectivity patterns, particularly among association areas, suggest the presence of large-scale circuits without clear hierarchical relations. In this study the organization of networks in the human cerebrum was explored using resting-state functional connectivity MRI. Data from 1,000 subjects were registered using surface-based alignment. A clustering approach was employed to identify and replicate networks of functionally coupled regions across the cerebral cortex. The results revealed local networks confined to sensory and motor cortices as well as distributed networks of association regions. Within the sensory and motor cortices, functional connectivity followed topographic representations across adjacent areas. In association cortex, the connectivity patterns often showed abrupt transitions between network boundaries. Focused analyses were performed to better understand properties of network connectivity. A canonical sensory-motor pathway involving primary visual area, putative middle temporal area complex (MT+), lateral intraparietal area, and frontal eye field was analyzed to explore how interactions might arise within and between networks. Results showed that adjacent regions of the MT+ complex demonstrate differential connectivity consistent with a hierarchical pathway that spans networks. The functional connectivity of parietal and prefrontal association cortices was next explored. Distinct connectivity profiles of neighboring regions suggest they participate in distributed networks that, while showing evidence for interactions, are embedded within largely parallel, interdigitated circuits. We conclude by discussing the organization of these large-scale cerebral networks in relation to monkey anatomy and their potential evolutionary expansion in humans to support cognition.

@article{doi101152jn003382011,
    author = "Yeo, B.T. Thomas and Krienen, Fenna M. and Sepulcre, Jorge and Sabuncu, Mert R. and Lashkari, Danial and Hollinshead, Marisa O. and Roffman, Joshua L. and Smoller, Jordan W. and Zöllei, Lilla and Polimeni, Jon̈athan R. and Fischl, Bruce and Liu, Hesheng and Buckner, Randy L.",
    title = "The organization of the human cerebral cortex estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Neurophysiology",
    abstract = "Information processing in the cerebral cortex involves interactions among distributed areas. Anatomical connectivity suggests that certain areas form local hierarchical relations such as within the visual system. Other connectivity patterns, particularly among association areas, suggest the presence of large-scale circuits without clear hierarchical relations. In this study the organization of networks in the human cerebrum was explored using resting-state functional connectivity MRI. Data from 1,000 subjects were registered using surface-based alignment. A clustering approach was employed to identify and replicate networks of functionally coupled regions across the cerebral cortex. The results revealed local networks confined to sensory and motor cortices as well as distributed networks of association regions. Within the sensory and motor cortices, functional connectivity followed topographic representations across adjacent areas. In association cortex, the connectivity patterns often showed abrupt transitions between network boundaries. Focused analyses were performed to better understand properties of network connectivity. A canonical sensory-motor pathway involving primary visual area, putative middle temporal area complex (MT+), lateral intraparietal area, and frontal eye field was analyzed to explore how interactions might arise within and between networks. Results showed that adjacent regions of the MT+ complex demonstrate differential connectivity consistent with a hierarchical pathway that spans networks. The functional connectivity of parietal and prefrontal association cortices was next explored. Distinct connectivity profiles of neighboring regions suggest they participate in distributed networks that, while showing evidence for interactions, are embedded within largely parallel, interdigitated circuits. We conclude by discussing the organization of these large-scale cerebral networks in relation to monkey anatomy and their potential evolutionary expansion in humans to support cognition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00338.2011",
    doi = "10.1152/jn.00338.2011",
    openalex = "W4295750005",
    references = "doi101038nrn2575, doi101038nrn755, doi101196annals1440011"
}

The striatum is connected to the cerebral cortex through multiple anatomical loops that process sensory, limbic, and heteromodal information. Tract-tracing studies in the monkey reveal that these corticostriatal connections form stereotyped patterns in the striatum. Here the organization of the striatum was explored in the human with resting-state functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI). Data from 1,000 subjects were registered with nonlinear deformation of the striatum in combination with surface-based alignment of the cerebral cortex. fcMRI maps derived from seed regions placed in the foot and tongue representations of the motor cortex yielded the expected inverted somatotopy in the putamen. fcMRI maps derived from the supplementary motor area were located medially to the primary motor representation, also consistent with anatomical studies. The topography of the complete striatum was estimated and replicated by assigning each voxel in the striatum to its most strongly correlated cortical network in two independent groups of 500 subjects. The results revealed at least five cortical zones in the striatum linked to sensorimotor, premotor, limbic, and two association networks with a topography globally consistent with monkey anatomical studies. The majority of the human striatum was coupled to cortical association networks. Examining these association networks further revealed details that fractionated the five major networks. The resulting estimates of striatal organization provide a reference for exploring how the striatum contributes to processing motor, limbic, and heteromodal information through multiple large-scale corticostriatal circuits.

@article{doi101152jn003392011,
    author = "Buckner, Randy L. and Krienen, Fenna M. and Castellanos, Angela and Diaz, Julio C. and Yeo, B. T. Thomas",
    title = "The organization of the human cerebellum estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Neurophysiology",
    abstract = "The striatum is connected to the cerebral cortex through multiple anatomical loops that process sensory, limbic, and heteromodal information. Tract-tracing studies in the monkey reveal that these corticostriatal connections form stereotyped patterns in the striatum. Here the organization of the striatum was explored in the human with resting-state functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI). Data from 1,000 subjects were registered with nonlinear deformation of the striatum in combination with surface-based alignment of the cerebral cortex. fcMRI maps derived from seed regions placed in the foot and tongue representations of the motor cortex yielded the expected inverted somatotopy in the putamen. fcMRI maps derived from the supplementary motor area were located medially to the primary motor representation, also consistent with anatomical studies. The topography of the complete striatum was estimated and replicated by assigning each voxel in the striatum to its most strongly correlated cortical network in two independent groups of 500 subjects. The results revealed at least five cortical zones in the striatum linked to sensorimotor, premotor, limbic, and two association networks with a topography globally consistent with monkey anatomical studies. The majority of the human striatum was coupled to cortical association networks. Examining these association networks further revealed details that fractionated the five major networks. The resulting estimates of striatal organization provide a reference for exploring how the striatum contributes to processing motor, limbic, and heteromodal information through multiple large-scale corticostriatal circuits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00339.2011",
    doi = "10.1152/jn.00339.2011",
    openalex = "W2067456724",
    references = "doi10103711059000, doi101038nrn2575, doi101038nrn755, doi101073pnas982676, doi101196annals1440011"
}

The tremendous expansion and the differentiation of the neocortex constitute two major events in the evolution of the mammalian brain. The increase in size and complexity of our brains opened the way to a spectacular development of cognitive and mental skills. This expansion during evolution facilitated the addition of microcircuits with a similar basic structure, which increased the complexity of the human brain and contributed to its uniqueness. However, fundamental differences even exist between distinct mammalian species. Here, we shall discuss the issue of our humanity from a neurobiological and historical perspective.

@article{doi103389fnana201100029,
    author = "DeFelipe, Javier",
    title = "The Evolution of the Brain, the Human Nature of Cortical Circuits, and Intellectual Creativity",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Frontiers in Neuroanatomy",
    abstract = "The tremendous expansion and the differentiation of the neocortex constitute two major events in the evolution of the mammalian brain. The increase in size and complexity of our brains opened the way to a spectacular development of cognitive and mental skills. This expansion during evolution facilitated the addition of microcircuits with a similar basic structure, which increased the complexity of the human brain and contributed to its uniqueness. However, fundamental differences even exist between distinct mammalian species. Here, we shall discuss the issue of our humanity from a neurobiological and historical perspective.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2011.00029",
    doi = "10.3389/fnana.2011.00029",
    openalex = "W2037661692",
    references = "doi101016s0891061898000659, doi101073pnas1002195107, doi101126science1067575"
}

@article{doi101016jjhevol201201011,
    author = "Blome, Margaret Whiting and Cohen, Andrew S. and Tryon, Christian A. and Brooks, Alison S. and Russell, J. L.",
    title = "The environmental context for the origins of modern human diversity: A synthesis of regional variability in African climate 150,000–30,000 years ago",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.01.011",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.01.011",
    openalex = "W1989228143",
    references = "doi101002ajpa20733, doi101016jjhevol201007011, doi101086658067"
}

By characterizing the geographic and functional spectrum of human genetic variation, the 1000 Genomes Project aims to build a resource to help to understand the genetic contribution to disease. Here we describe the genomes of 1,092 individuals from 14 populations, constructed using a combination of low-coverage whole-genome and exome sequencing. By developing methods to integrate information across several algorithms and diverse data sources, we provide a validated haplotype map of 38 million single nucleotide polymorphisms, 1.4 million short insertions and deletions, and more than 14,000 larger deletions. We show that individuals from different populations carry different profiles of rare and common variants, and that low-frequency variants show substantial geographic differentiation, which is further increased by the action of purifying selection. We show that evolutionary conservation and coding consequence are key determinants of the strength of purifying selection, that rare-variant load varies substantially across biological pathways, and that each individual contains hundreds of rare non-coding variants at conserved sites, such as motif-disrupting changes in transcription-factor-binding sites. This resource, which captures up to 98% of accessible single nucleotide polymorphisms at a frequency of 1% in related populations, enables analysis of common and low-frequency variants in individuals from diverse, including admixed, populations.

@article{doi101038nature11632,
    author = "Iqbal, Zamin and Iqbal, Zamin and Rimmer, Andy and Gupta-Hinch, Anjali and McVean, Gil A. and Donnelly, Peter and Kerasidou, Angeliki and Xifara, Dionysia K. and Mathieson, Iain and McVean, Gil A. and Delaneau, Olivier and McVean, Gil and Donnelly, Peter and Xifara, Dionysia K. and McVean, Gil A. and Churchhouse, Claire and Bhatia, Gaurav and Nemesh, James C. and Gupta, Namrata and Banks, Eric and Handsaker, Robert E. and Shakir, Khalid and Grossman, Sharon R. and Li, Heng and Gabriel, Stacey B. and Lander, Eric S. and Hartl, Chris and DePristo, Mark A. and Carneiro, Mauricio O. and del Angel, Guillermo and Schaffner, Stephen F. and McCarroll, Steven A. and Poplin, Ryan E. and Tabrizi, Shervin and Tariyal, Ridhi and Genovese, Giulio and Altshuler, David M. and DePristo, Mark A. and Altshuler, David M. and Altshuler, David M. and Reich, David and Handsaker, Robert E. and Altshuler, David M. and Hurles, Matthew E. and Huang, Ni and Xue, Yali and Keane, Thomas M. and Chen, Yuan and Harrow, Jennifer and Scally, Aylwyn and Danecek, Petr and Li, Heng and Walter, Klaudia and Colonna, Vincenza and Stalker, James and Ning, Zemin and Balasubramaniam, Senduran and McCarthy, Shane and Blackburne, Ben and Durbin, Richard and Burton, John and Coffey, Alison J. and Lindsay, Sarah J. and Jostins, Luke and Tyler-Smith, Chris and Ayub, Qasim and Zhang, Yujun and Frankish, Adam and Quail, Michael and Kolb-Kokocinski, Anja and Busonero, Fabio and Tan, Adrian and Abecasis, Gonçalo R. and Yu, Jin and Jun, Goo and Yu, Jin and Anderson, Paul and Sidore, Carlo and Fuchsberger, Christian and Blackwell, Tom and Trost, Mary Kate and Porcu, Eleonora and Maschio, Andrea and Kingsbury, Zoya and Murray, Lisa and Cheetham, R. Keira and Grocock, Russell and Cox, Tony and Shaw, Richard and Cox, Tony and James, Terena and Eberle, Michael and Bauer, Markus and Bentley, David R. and Humphray, Sean and Chakravarti, Aravinda and Rodriguez-Flores, Juan L. and Degenhardt, Jeremiah and Clark, Andrew G. and Vega, Francisco M. De La",
    title = "An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = "By characterizing the geographic and functional spectrum of human genetic variation, the 1000 Genomes Project aims to build a resource to help to understand the genetic contribution to disease. Here we describe the genomes of 1,092 individuals from 14 populations, constructed using a combination of low-coverage whole-genome and exome sequencing. By developing methods to integrate information across several algorithms and diverse data sources, we provide a validated haplotype map of 38 million single nucleotide polymorphisms, 1.4 million short insertions and deletions, and more than 14,000 larger deletions. We show that individuals from different populations carry different profiles of rare and common variants, and that low-frequency variants show substantial geographic differentiation, which is further increased by the action of purifying selection. We show that evolutionary conservation and coding consequence are key determinants of the strength of purifying selection, that rare-variant load varies substantially across biological pathways, and that each individual contains hundreds of rare non-coding variants at conserved sites, such as motif-disrupting changes in transcription-factor-binding sites. This resource, which captures up to 98\% of accessible single nucleotide polymorphisms at a frequency of 1\% in related populations, enables analysis of common and low-frequency variants in individuals from diverse, including admixed, populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11632",
    doi = "10.1038/nature11632",
    openalex = "W2096791516",
    references = "doi101371journalpgen1002453, doi101534g3111001198"
}

@article{doi101038nrg3295,
    author = "Scally, Aylwyn and Durbin, Richard",
    title = "Revising the human mutation rate: implications for understanding human evolution",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Nature Reviews Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3295",
    doi = "10.1038/nrg3295",
    openalex = "W1980496331",
    references = "doi101016jajhg200905001, doi101038nature10842, doi101093molbevmsl150, doi101126science1199113"
}

Modern theories of the evolution of human cooperation focus mainly on altruism. In contrast, we propose that humans’ species-unique forms of cooperation—as well as their species-unique forms of cognition, communication, and social life—all derive from mutualistic collaboration (with social selection against cheaters). In a first step, humans became obligate collaborative foragers such that individuals were interdependent with one another and so had a direct interest in the well-being of their partners. In this context, they evolved new skills and motivations for collaboration not possessed by other great apes (joint intentionality), and they helped their potential partners (and avoided cheaters). In a second step, these new collaborative skills and motivations were scaled up to group life in general, as modern humans faced competition from other groups. As part of this new group-mindedness, they created cultural conventions, norms, and institutions (all characterized by collective intentionality), with knowledge of a specific set of these marking individuals as members of a particular cultural group. Human cognition and sociality thus became ever more collaborative and altruistic as human individuals became ever more interdependent.

@article{doi101086668207,
    author = "Tomasello, Michael and Melis, Alicia P. and Tennie, Claudio and Wyman, Emily and Herrmann, Esther",
    title = "Two Key Steps in the Evolution of Human Cooperation",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Current Anthropology",
    abstract = "Modern theories of the evolution of human cooperation focus mainly on altruism. In contrast, we propose that humans’ species-unique forms of cooperation—as well as their species-unique forms of cognition, communication, and social life—all derive from mutualistic collaboration (with social selection against cheaters). In a first step, humans became obligate collaborative foragers such that individuals were interdependent with one another and so had a direct interest in the well-being of their partners. In this context, they evolved new skills and motivations for collaboration not possessed by other great apes (joint intentionality), and they helped their potential partners (and avoided cheaters). In a second step, these new collaborative skills and motivations were scaled up to group life in general, as modern humans faced competition from other groups. As part of this new group-mindedness, they created cultural conventions, norms, and institutions (all characterized by collective intentionality), with knowledge of a specific set of these marking individuals as members of a particular cultural group. Human cognition and sociality thus became ever more collaborative and altruistic as human individuals became ever more interdependent.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/668207",
    doi = "10.1086/668207",
    openalex = "W2094956512",
    references = "doi101002ajhb10156, doi101002ajpa1330780410, doi101006jhev20000435, doi1010160010027789900231, doi101017s0140525x00032325, doi101017s0140525x05000129, doi101037h0093718, doi101038nature04047, doi101098rstb20090052, doi101126science1078004, doi101126science1168112, doi1023072091298, doi102307jctt20ks0rb46, doi107551mitpress75510010001, openalexw2068869385, openalexw2764433274"
}

Population mixture is an important process in biology. We present a suite of methods for learning about population mixtures, implemented in a software package called ADMIXTOOLS, that support formal tests for whether mixture occurred and make it possible to infer proportions and dates of mixture. We also describe the development of a new single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array consisting of 629,433 sites with clearly documented ascertainment that was specifically designed for population genetic analyses and that we genotyped in 934 individuals from 53 diverse populations. To illustrate the methods, we give a number of examples that provide new insights about the history of human admixture. The most striking finding is a clear signal of admixture into northern Europe, with one ancestral population related to present-day Basques and Sardinians and the other related to present-day populations of northeast Asia and the Americas. This likely reflects a history of admixture between Neolithic migrants and the indigenous Mesolithic population of Europe, consistent with recent analyses of ancient bones from Sweden and the sequencing of the genome of the Tyrolean "Iceman."

@article{doi101534genetics112145037,
    author = "Patterson, Nick and Moorjani, Priya and Luo, Yontao and Mallick, Swapan and Rohland, Nadin and Zhan, Yiping and Genschoreck, Teri and Webster, Teresa and Reich, David",
    title = "Ancient Admixture in Human History",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Genetics",
    abstract = {Population mixture is an important process in biology. We present a suite of methods for learning about population mixtures, implemented in a software package called ADMIXTOOLS, that support formal tests for whether mixture occurred and make it possible to infer proportions and dates of mixture. We also describe the development of a new single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array consisting of 629,433 sites with clearly documented ascertainment that was specifically designed for population genetic analyses and that we genotyped in 934 individuals from 53 diverse populations. To illustrate the methods, we give a number of examples that provide new insights about the history of human admixture. The most striking finding is a clear signal of admixture into northern Europe, with one ancestral population related to present-day Basques and Sardinians and the other related to present-day populations of northeast Asia and the Americas. This likely reflects a history of admixture between Neolithic migrants and the indigenous Mesolithic population of Europe, consistent with recent analyses of ancient bones from Sweden and the sequencing of the genome of the Tyrolean "Iceman."},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.112.145037",
    doi = "10.1534/genetics.112.145037",
    openalex = "W2166214412",
    references = "doi1010179781316276259010, doi101038nature09298, doi101038nature11041, doi101093genetics1552945, doi101093genetics16441567, doi101111j14718286200501155x, doi101111j155856461984tb05657x, doi101126science1153717, doi101126science1172257, doi101126science1188021, doi101126science2965566261b, doi101371journalpgen0020190, doi1023072408641, doi102307jctv301gjp, doi107312nei92038"
}

@article{doi101016jcub201302044,
    author = "Fu, Qiaomei and Mittnik, Alissa and Johnson, Philip L. F. and Bos, Kirsten I. and Lari, Martina and Bollongino, Ruth and Sun, Chengkai and Giemsch, Liane and Schmitz, Ralf W. and Bürger, Joachim and Ronchitelli, Anna María and Martini, Fabio and Cremonesi, Renata Grifoni and Svoboda, Jiřı́ and Bauer, Peter and Caramelli, David and Castellano, Sergi and Reich, David and Pääbo, Svante and Krause, Johannes",
    title = "A Revised Timescale for Human Evolution Based on Ancient Mitochondrial Genomes",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Current Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.044",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.044",
    openalex = "W2038810697",
    references = "doi101016jajhg200905001"
}

@article{doi101016jquaint201301008,
    author = "Boivin, Nicole and Fuller, Dorian Q. and Dennell, Robin and Allaby, Robin G. and Petraglia, Michael D.",
    title = "Human dispersal across diverse environments of Asia during the Upper Pleistocene",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Quaternary International",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.01.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quaint.2013.01.008",
    openalex = "W2084553823",
    references = "doi101073pnas0903532106"
}

@article{doi101016jtics201306003,
    author = "Rand, David G. and Nowak, Martin A.",
    title = "Human cooperation",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Trends in Cognitive Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.003",
    openalex = "W2911795125",
    references = "doi101016jphysrep200704004, doi101016s1090513804000054, doi101073pnas721143, doi101126science1144237, doi101126science1168112, doi105962bhltitle2112"
}

@article{doi101016jtics201309017,
    author = "Buckner, Randy L. and Krienen, Fenna M.",
    title = "The evolution of distributed association networks in the human brain",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Trends in Cognitive Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.017",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.017",
    openalex = "W2066653668",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101017cbo9780511606397, doi101017s0140525x05000129, doi101038nature02999, doi101038nrn2575, doi101038nrn2719, doi101073pnas0402680101, doi101093cercor111, doi101098rspb19790086, doi101098rstb20090052, doi101111j14697580200800868x, doi101126science1203922, doi101146annurevne13030190000325, doi101146annurevneuro241167, doi101152jn003382011, doi101152jn003392011, doi101196annals1440011"
}

This review examines the hypothesis that oxytocin pathways--which include the neuropeptide oxytocin, the related peptide vasopressin, and their receptors--are at the center of physiological and genetic systems that permitted the evolution of the human nervous system and allowed the expression of contemporary human sociality. Unique actions of oxytocin, including the facilitation of birth, lactation, maternal behavior, genetic regulation of the growth of the neocortex, and the maintenance of the blood supply to the cortex, may have been necessary for encephalization. Peptide-facilitated attachment also allows the extended periods of nurture necessary for the emergence of human intellectual development. In general, oxytocin acts to allow the high levels of social sensitivity and attunement necessary for human sociality and for rearing a human child. Under optimal conditions oxytocin may create an emotional sense of safety. Oxytocin dynamically moderates the autonomic nervous system, and effects of oxytocin on vagal pathways, as well as the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of this peptide, help to explain the pervasive adaptive consequences of social behavior for emotional and physical health.

@article{doi101146annurevpsych010213115110,
    author = "Carter, C. Sue",
    title = "Oxytocin Pathways and the Evolution of Human Behavior",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Annual Review of Psychology",
    abstract = "This review examines the hypothesis that oxytocin pathways--which include the neuropeptide oxytocin, the related peptide vasopressin, and their receptors--are at the center of physiological and genetic systems that permitted the evolution of the human nervous system and allowed the expression of contemporary human sociality. Unique actions of oxytocin, including the facilitation of birth, lactation, maternal behavior, genetic regulation of the growth of the neocortex, and the maintenance of the blood supply to the cortex, may have been necessary for encephalization. Peptide-facilitated attachment also allows the extended periods of nurture necessary for the emergence of human intellectual development. In general, oxytocin acts to allow the high levels of social sensitivity and attunement necessary for human sociality and for rearing a human child. Under optimal conditions oxytocin may create an emotional sense of safety. Oxytocin dynamically moderates the autonomic nervous system, and effects of oxytocin on vagal pathways, as well as the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of this peptide, help to explain the pervasive adaptive consequences of social behavior for emotional and physical health.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115110",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115110",
    openalex = "W2155600799",
    references = "doi101016jtics201105002, doi1010370033295x1073411, doi10103708827974211140, doi101038nature03701, doi101038nrn2719, doi101038nrn3044, doi101126science1158668, doi101146annurevpsych60110707163514, doi101152physrev2001812629, doi105860choice473250"
}

@article{doi101038nature12961,
    author = "Sankararaman, Sriram and Mallick, Swapan and Dannemann, Michael and Prüfer, Kay and Kelso, Janet and Pääbo, Svante and Patterson, Nick and Reich, David",
    title = "The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12961",
    doi = "10.1038/nature12961",
    openalex = "W2009494639"
}

@article{doi101038nature13025,
    author = "Rasmussen, Morten and Anzick, Sarah L. and Waters, Michael R. and Skoglund, Pontus and DeGiorgio, Michael and Stafford, Thomas W. and Rasmussen, Simon and Moltke, Ida and Albrechtsen, Anders and Doyle, Shane and Poznik, G. David and Guðmundsdóttir, Valborg and Yadav, Rachita and Malaspinas, Anna‐Sapfo and White, Samuel Stockton and Allentoft, Morten E. and Cornejo, Omar E. and Tambets, Kristiina and Eriksson, Anders and Heintzman, Peter D. and Karmin, Monika and Korneliussen, Thorfinn Sand and Meltzer, David J. and Pierre, Tracey L. and Stenderup, Jesper and Saag, Lauri and Warmuth, Vera and Lopes, Margarida C. and Malhi, Ripan S. and Brunak, Søren and Sicheritz‐Pontén, Thomas and Barnes, Ian and Collins, Matthew J. and Orlando, Ludovic and Balloux, François and Manica, Andrea and Gupta, Ramneek and Metspalu, Mait and Bustamante, Carlos D. and Jakobsson, Mattias and Nielsen, Rasmus and Willerslev, Eske",
    title = "The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13025",
    doi = "10.1038/nature13025",
    openalex = "W1989965598",
    references = "doi101126science1137166, doi101126science1237619"
}

@article{doi101038nature13673,
    author = "Lazaridis, Iosif and Patterson, Nick and Mittnik, Alissa and Renaud, Gabriel and Mallick, Swapan and Kirsanow, Karola and Sudmant, Peter H. and Schraiber, Joshua G. and Castellano, Sergi and Lipson, Mark and Berger, Bonnie and Economou, Christos and Bollongino, Ruth and Fu, Qiaomei and Bos, Kirsten I. and Nordenfelt, Susanne and Li, Heng and de Filippo, Cesare and Prüfer, Kay and Sawyer, Susanna and Posth, Cosimo and Haak, Wolfgang and Hallgren, Fredrik and Fornander, Elin and Rohland, Nadin and Delsate, Dominique and Francken, Michael and Guinet, Jean-Michel and Wahl, Joachim and Ayodo, George and Babiker, Hamza A. and Bailliet, Graciela and Balanovska, Elena and Balanovsky, Oleg and Barrantes, Ramiro and Bedoya, Gabriel and Ben‐Ami, Haim and Bene, Judit and Berrada, Fouad and Bravi, Cláudio M. and Brisighelli, Francesca and Busby, George and Calı̀, Francesco and Churnosov, Mikhail and Cole, David E.C. and Corach, Daniel and Damba, Larissa D. and van Driem, George and Dryomov, Stanislav and Dugoujon, Jean-Michel and Федорова, С.А. and Romero, Irene Gallego and Gubina, Marina and Hammer, Michael F. and Henn, Brenna M. and Hervig, Tor and Hodoğlugil, Uğur and Jha, Aashish R. and Karachanak-Yankova, Sena and Хусаинова, Р. И. and Хуснутдинова, Э. К. and Kittles, Rick A. and Kivisild, Toomas and Klitz, William and Kučinskas, Vaidutis and Kushniarevich, Alena and Laredj, Leila and Litvinov, Sergey and Loukidis, Theologos and Mahley, Robert W. and Melegh, Béla and Metspalu, Ene and Molina, Julio and Mountain, Joanna L. and Näkkäläjärvi, Klemetti and Nesheva, Desislava and Nyambo, Thomas and Osipova, L. P. and Parik, Jüri and Платонов, Федор Алексеевич and Posukh, Olga L. and Romano, Valentino and Rothhammer, Francisco and Rudan, Igor and Ruizbakiev, Ruslan and Sahakyan, Hovhannes and Sajantila, Antti and Salas, Antonio and Starikovskaya, Elena B. and Tarekegn, Ayele and Тончева, Драга and Тurdikulova, Shahlo and Uktverytė, Ingrida and Utevska, Olga and Vásquez, René and Villena, Mercedes and Воевода, М. И. and Winkler, Cheryl A. and Yepiskoposyan, Levon and Zalloua, Pierre",
    title = "Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13673",
    doi = "10.1038/nature13673",
    openalex = "W2050967443",
    references = "doi101038nature05911, doi101038nature11632, doi101038ng1847, doi101038ng2123, doi101086519795, doi101093bioinformaticsbtm233, doi101093bioinformaticsbtp324, doi101093bioinformaticsbtp352, doi101093bioinformaticsbtr330, doi101093molbevmsr121, doi101126science1199113, doi101126science1243518, doi101186147121487214, doi101371journalpgen1002453, doi101534genetics112145037"
}

@article{doi101038nature13810,
    author = "Fu, Qiaomei and Li, Heng and Moorjani, Priya and Jay, Flora and Slepchenko, Sergey and Bondarev, A. A. and Johnson, Philip L. and Aximu‐Petri, Ayinuer and Prüfer, Kay and de Filippo, Cesare and Meyer, Matthias and Zwyns, Nicolas and Salazar‐García, Domingo C. and Kuzmin, Yaroslav V. and Keates, Susan G. and Косинцев, П. А. and Razhev, Dmitry and Richards, Michael P. and Peristov, Nikolai V. and Lachmann, Michael and Douka, Katerina and Higham, Thomas and Slatkin, Montgomery and Hublin, Jean‐Jacques and Reich, David and Kelso, Janet and Viola, Thomas Bence and Pääbo, Svante",
    title = "Genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13810",
    doi = "10.1038/nature13810",
    openalex = "W1975749505",
    references = "doi101038nature13673, doi101073pnas1211740109, doi101534genetics112145037, doi102458azujsrc5516947"
}

@article{doi101038ng3015,
    author = "Schiffels, Stephan and Durbin, Richard",
    title = "Inferring human population size and separation history from multiple genome sequences",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3015",
    doi = "10.1038/ng.3015",
    openalex = "W1964224776",
    references = "doi101073pnas0510792103, doi101126science1199113"
}

Neandertals are the best-studied of all extinct hominins, with a rich fossil record sampling hundreds of individuals, roughly dating from between 350,000 and 40,000 years ago. Their distinct fossil remains have been retrieved from Portugal in the west to the Altai area in central Asia in the east and from below the waters of the North Sea in the north to a series of caves in Israel in the south. Having thrived in Eurasia for more than 300,000 years, Neandertals vanished from the record around 40,000 years ago, when modern humans entered Europe. Modern humans are usually seen as superior in a wide range of domains, including weaponry and subsistence strategies, which would have led to the demise of Neandertals. This systematic review of the archaeological records of Neandertals and their modern human contemporaries finds no support for such interpretations, as the Neandertal archaeological record is not different enough to explain the demise in terms of inferiority in archaeologically visible domains. Instead, current genetic data suggest that complex processes of interbreeding and assimilation may have been responsible for the disappearance of the specific Neandertal morphology from the fossil record.

@article{doi101371journalpone0096424,
    author = "Villa, Paola and Roebroeks, Wil",
    title = "Neandertal Demise: An Archaeological Analysis of the Modern Human Superiority Complex",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Neandertals are the best-studied of all extinct hominins, with a rich fossil record sampling hundreds of individuals, roughly dating from between 350,000 and 40,000 years ago. Their distinct fossil remains have been retrieved from Portugal in the west to the Altai area in central Asia in the east and from below the waters of the North Sea in the north to a series of caves in Israel in the south. Having thrived in Eurasia for more than 300,000 years, Neandertals vanished from the record around 40,000 years ago, when modern humans entered Europe. Modern humans are usually seen as superior in a wide range of domains, including weaponry and subsistence strategies, which would have led to the demise of Neandertals. This systematic review of the archaeological records of Neandertals and their modern human contemporaries finds no support for such interpretations, as the Neandertal archaeological record is not different enough to explain the demise in terms of inferiority in archaeologically visible domains. Instead, current genetic data suggest that complex processes of interbreeding and assimilation may have been responsible for the disappearance of the specific Neandertal morphology from the fossil record.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096424",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0096424",
    openalex = "W2119711997",
    references = "doi101002evan20181, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016jcub201302044, doi101016jjhevol200409002, doi101038325031a0, doi101038nature01669, doi101038nature06204, doi101038nature12886, doi101038nature12961, doi101073pnas0900957106, doi101126science1067575, doi101126science1188021"
}

@article{doi101016jbiopsych201508008,
    author = "Feldman, Ruth and Monakhov, Mikhail and Pratt, Maayan and Ebstein, Richard P.",
    title = "Oxytocin Pathway Genes: Evolutionary Ancient System Impacting on Human Affiliation, Sociality, and Psychopathology",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Biological Psychiatry",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.08.008",
    openalex = "W1164968108",
    references = "doi101146annurevpsych010213115110"
}

@article{doi101016jtins201504004,
    author = "Feldman, Ruth",
    title = "The adaptive human parental brain: implications for children's social development",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Trends in Neurosciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2015.04.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tins.2015.04.004",
    openalex = "W1728298943",
    references = "doi101146annurevpsych010213115110, doi101146annurevpsych071112054629"
}

The 1000 Genomes Project set out to provide a comprehensive description of common human genetic variation by applying whole-genome sequencing to a diverse set of individuals from multiple populations. Here we report completion of the project, having reconstructed the genomes of 2,504 individuals from 26 populations using a combination of low-coverage whole-genome sequencing, deep exome sequencing, and dense microarray genotyping. We characterized a broad spectrum of genetic variation, in total over 88 million variants (84.7 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 3.6 million short insertions/deletions (indels), and 60,000 structural variants), all phased onto high-quality haplotypes. This resource includes >99% of SNP variants with a frequency of >1% for a variety of ancestries. We describe the distribution of genetic variation across the global sample, and discuss the implications for common disease studies.

@article{doi101038nature15393,
    author = "authors, Corresponding and Auton, Adam and Abecasis, Gonçalo R. and Altshuler, David M. and Durbin, Richard and Abecasis, Gonçalo R. and Bentley, David R. and Chakravarti, Aravinda and Clark, Andrew G. and Donnelly, Peter and Eichler, Evan E. and Flicek, Paul and Gabriel, Stacey B. and Gibbs, Richard A. and Green, Eric D. and Hurles, Matthew E. and Knoppers, Bartha M. and Korbel, Jan O. and Lander, Eric S. and Lee, Charles and Lehrach, Hans and Mardis, Elaine R. and Marth, Gábor and McVean, Gil A. and Nickerson, Deborah A. and Schmidt, Jeanette P. and Sherry, Stephen T. and Wang, Jun and Wilson, Richard K. and group, Production and Gibbs, Richard A. and Boerwinkle, Eric and Doddapaneni, HarshaVardhan and Han, Yi and Korchina, Viktoriya and Kovar, Christie and Lee, Sandra and Muzny, Donna M. and Reid, Jeffrey G. and Zhu, Yiming and BGI-Shenzhen and Wang, Jun and Chang, Yuqi and Feng, Qiang and Fang, Xiaodong and Guo, Xiaosen and Jian, Min and Jiang, Hui and Jin, Xin and Lan, Tianming and Li, Guoqing and Li, Jingxiang and Li, Yingrui and Liu, Shengmao and Liu, Xiao and Lu, Yao and Ma, Xuedi and Tang, Meifang and Wang, Bo and Wang, Guangbiao and Wu, Honglong and Wu, Renhua and Xu, Xun and Yin, Ye and Zhang, Dandan and Zhang, Wenwei and Zhao, Jiao and Zhao, Meiru and Zheng, Xiaole and Lander, Eric S. and Altshuler, David M. and Gabriel, Stacey and Gupta, Namrata and Gharani, Neda and Toji, Lorraine H. and Gerry, Norman P. and Resch, Alissa and Flicek, Paul and Barker, Jonathan and Clarke, Laura and Gil, Laurent and Hunt, Sarah and Kelman, Gavin and Kulesha, Eugene and Leinonen, Rasko and McLaren, William and Radhakrishnan, Rajesh and Roa, Asier and Smirnov, Dmitriy and Smith, Richard E. and Streeter, Ian and Thormann, Anja and Toneva, Iliana and Vaughan, Brendan and Zheng-Bradley, Xiangqun and Illumina and Bentley, David R. and Grocock, Russell and Humphray, Sean and James, Terena",
    title = "A global reference for human genetic variation",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = "The 1000 Genomes Project set out to provide a comprehensive description of common human genetic variation by applying whole-genome sequencing to a diverse set of individuals from multiple populations. Here we report completion of the project, having reconstructed the genomes of 2,504 individuals from 26 populations using a combination of low-coverage whole-genome sequencing, deep exome sequencing, and dense microarray genotyping. We characterized a broad spectrum of genetic variation, in total over 88 million variants (84.7 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 3.6 million short insertions/deletions (indels), and 60,000 structural variants), all phased onto high-quality haplotypes. This resource includes >99\% of SNP variants with a frequency of >1\% for a variety of ancestries. We describe the distribution of genetic variation across the global sample, and discuss the implications for common disease studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15393",
    doi = "10.1038/nature15393",
    openalex = "W2104549677",
    references = "doi101038nature11247"
}

@article{doi101038nature15696,
    author = "Liu, Wu and Martinón‐Torres, María and Cai, Yanjun and Xing, Song and Tong, Hao-wen and Pei, Shuwen and Sier, Mark J. and Wu, Xiao-hong and Edwards, R. Lawrence and Cheng, Hai and Li, YY and Yang, Xiong-xin and de Castro, José Marı́a Bermúdez and Wu, Xiu-jie",
    title = "The earliest unequivocally modern humans in southern China",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15696",
    doi = "10.1038/nature15696",
    openalex = "W2155150069",
    references = "doi101016jepsl201304006, doi101126science1199113, doi101371journalpone0096424"
}

@article{doi101016jtics201611007,
    author = "Feldman, Ruth",
    title = "The Neurobiology of Human Attachments",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Trends in Cognitive Sciences",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007",
    openalex = "W2565550142",
    references = "doi101146annurevpsych010213115110"
}

@article{doi101038nature16544,
    author = "Kuhlwilm, Martin and Gronau, Ilan and Hubisz, Melissa J. and de Filippo, Cesare and Prado-Martinez, Javier and Kircher, Martin and Fu, Qiaomei and Burbano, Hernán A. and Lalueza‐Fox, Carles and de la Rasilla Vives, Marco and Rosas, Antonio and Rudan, Pavao and Brajković, Dejana and Kućan, Željko and Gušić, Ivan and Marquès‐Bonet, Tomàs and Andrés, Aida M. and Viola, Bence and Pääbo, Svante and Meyer, Matthias and Siepel, Adam and Castellano, Sergi",
    title = "Ancient gene flow from early modern humans into Eastern Neanderthals",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16544",
    doi = "10.1038/nature16544",
    openalex = "W2280243844",
    references = "doi101126science1199113"
}

@article{doi101038ng3559,
    author = "Poznik, G. David and Xue, Yali and Méndez, Fernando L. and Willems, Thomas and Massaia, Andrea and Wilson, Melissa A. and Ayub, Qasim and McCarthy, Shane and Narechania, Apurva and Kashin, Seva and Chen, Yuan and Banerjee, Ruby and Rodríguez-Flores, Juan L. and Cerezo, María and Shao, Haojing and Gymrek, Melissa and Malhotra, Ankit and Louzada, Sandra and DeSalle, Rob and Ritchie, Graham R. S. and Cerveira, Eliza and Fitzgerald, Tomas and Garrison, Erik and Marcketta, Anthony and Mittelman, David and Romanovitch, Mallory and Zhang, Chengsheng and Zheng-Bradley, Xiangqun and Abecasis, Gonçalo R. and McCarroll, Steven A. and Flicek, Paul and Underhill, Peter A. and Coin, Lachlan and Zerbino, Daniel R. and Yang, Fengtang and Lee, Charles and Clarke, Laura and Auton, Adam and Erlich, Yaniv and Handsaker, Robert E. and Bustamante, Carlos D. and Tyler‐Smith, Chris",
    title = "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Nature Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3559",
    doi = "10.1038/ng.3559",
    openalex = "W2345012058",
    references = "doi101126science1237619, doi1012019781317952268"
}

This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.

@article{doi101016jquaint201706025,
    author = "Benjamín, Jonathan and Rovere, Alessio and Fontana, Alessandro and Furlani, Stefano and Vacchi, Matteo and Inglis, Robyn and Galili, Ehud and Antonioli, Fabrizio and Sivan, Dorit and Miko, Slobodan and Mourtzas, Nikos and Felja, Igor and Meredith‐Williams, Matthew and Goodman‐Tchernov, Beverly and Kolaiti, Eleni and Anzidei, Marco and Gehrels, W. Roland",
    title = "Late Quaternary sea-level changes and early human societies in the central and eastern Mediterranean Basin: An interdisciplinary review",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Quaternary International",
    abstract = "This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.025",
    doi = "10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.025",
    openalex = "W2738023605",
    references = "doi1010022015rg000482, doi101073pnas0903532106, doi101073pnas0914088107, doi105194cp1210792016"
}

@article{doi101038nature22968,
    author = "Clarkson, Chris and Jacobs, Zenobia and Marwick, Ben and Fullagar, Richard and Wallis, Lynley A. and Smith, Mike and Roberts, Richard G. and Hayes, Elspeth and Lowe, Kelsey M. and Carah, Xavier and Florin, S. Anna and McNeil, Jessica and Cox, Delyth and Arnold, Lee J. and Hua, Quan and Huntley, Jillian and Brand, Helen E. A. and Manne, Tiina and Fairbairn, Andrew and Shulmeister, James and Lyle, Lindsey and Salinas, Makiah and Page, M.J. and Connell, Kate and Park, Gayoung and Norman, Kasih and Murphy, Tessa and Pardoe, Colin",
    title = "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22968",
    doi = "10.1038/nature22968",
    openalex = "W2738625345",
    references = "doi101017s0033822200033865, doi101017s0033822200034093, doi1011632294193290000349"
}

@article{doi101038nrg201736,
    author = "Jobling, Mark A. and Tyler‐Smith, Chris",
    title = "Human Y-chromosome variation in the genome-sequencing era",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Nature Reviews Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg.2017.36",
    doi = "10.1038/nrg.2017.36",
    openalex = "W2617653607",
    references = "doi101126science1237619"
}

A central goal in systems neuroscience is the parcellation of the cerebral cortex into discrete neurobiological "atoms". Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) offers the possibility of in vivo human cortical parcellation. Almost all previous parcellations relied on 1 of 2 approaches. The local gradient approach detects abrupt transitions in functional connectivity patterns. These transitions potentially reflect cortical areal boundaries defined by histology or visuotopic fMRI. By contrast, the global similarity approach clusters similar functional connectivity patterns regardless of spatial proximity, resulting in parcels with homogeneous (similar) rs-fMRI signals. Here, we propose a gradient-weighted Markov Random Field (gwMRF) model integrating local gradient and global similarity approaches. Using task-fMRI and rs-fMRI across diverse acquisition protocols, we found gwMRF parcellations to be more homogeneous than 4 previously published parcellations. Furthermore, gwMRF parcellations agreed with the boundaries of certain cortical areas defined using histology and visuotopic fMRI. Some parcels captured subareal (somatotopic and visuotopic) features that likely reflect distinct computational units within known cortical areas. These results suggest that gwMRF parcellations reveal neurobiologically meaningful features of brain organization and are potentially useful for future applications requiring dimensionality reduction of voxel-wise fMRI data. Multiresolution parcellations generated from 1489 participants are publicly available (https://github.com/ThomasYeoLab/CBIG/tree/master/stable_projects/brain_parcellation/Schaefer2018_LocalGlobal).

@article{doi101093cercorbhx179,
    author = "Schaefer, Alexander and Kong, Ru and Gordon, Evan M. and Laumann, Timothy O. and Zuo, Xi‐Nian and Holmes, Avram J. and Eickhoff, Simon B. and Yeo, B.T. Thomas",
    title = "Local-Global Parcellation of the Human Cerebral Cortex from Intrinsic Functional Connectivity MRI",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Cerebral Cortex",
    abstract = {A central goal in systems neuroscience is the parcellation of the cerebral cortex into discrete neurobiological "atoms". Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) offers the possibility of in vivo human cortical parcellation. Almost all previous parcellations relied on 1 of 2 approaches. The local gradient approach detects abrupt transitions in functional connectivity patterns. These transitions potentially reflect cortical areal boundaries defined by histology or visuotopic fMRI. By contrast, the global similarity approach clusters similar functional connectivity patterns regardless of spatial proximity, resulting in parcels with homogeneous (similar) rs-fMRI signals. Here, we propose a gradient-weighted Markov Random Field (gwMRF) model integrating local gradient and global similarity approaches. Using task-fMRI and rs-fMRI across diverse acquisition protocols, we found gwMRF parcellations to be more homogeneous than 4 previously published parcellations. Furthermore, gwMRF parcellations agreed with the boundaries of certain cortical areas defined using histology and visuotopic fMRI. Some parcels captured subareal (somatotopic and visuotopic) features that likely reflect distinct computational units within known cortical areas. These results suggest that gwMRF parcellations reveal neurobiologically meaningful features of brain organization and are potentially useful for future applications requiring dimensionality reduction of voxel-wise fMRI data. Multiresolution parcellations generated from 1489 participants are publicly available (https://github.com/ThomasYeoLab/CBIG/tree/master/stable\_projects/brain\_parcellation/Schaefer2018\_LocalGlobal).},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhx179",
    doi = "10.1093/cercor/bhx179",
    openalex = "W2951617899",
    references = "doi101016jtics201309017, doi101038nrn2575"
}

, with some degree of interbreeding occurring. These early human dispersals, which left at least some genetic traces in modern populations, indicate that later replacements were not wholesale.

@article{doi101126scienceaai9067,
    author = "Bae, Christopher J. and Douka, Katerina and Petraglia, Michael D.",
    title = "On the origin of modern humans: Asian perspectives",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = ", with some degree of interbreeding occurring. These early human dispersals, which left at least some genetic traces in modern populations, indicate that later replacements were not wholesale.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aai9067",
    doi = "10.1126/science.aai9067",
    openalex = "W2771287391",
    references = "doi101002evan20181, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016s0092867400803104, doi101038325031a0, doi101038nature09710, doi101038nature12886, doi101038nature13810, doi101038nature18964, doi101038nature22336, doi101038nature22968, doi101073pnas0914088107, doi101086377665, doi101086658067, doi101126science1188021, doi101126science1199113"
}

Studies of the peopling of the Americas have focused on the timing and number of initial migrations. Less attention has been paid to the subsequent spread of people within the Americas. We sequenced 15 ancient human genomes spanning from Alaska to Patagonia; six are ≥10,000 years old (up to ~18× coverage). All are most closely related to Native Americans, including those from an Ancient Beringian individual and two morphologically distinct "Paleoamericans." We found evidence of rapid dispersal and early diversification that included previously unknown groups as people moved south. This resulted in multiple independent, geographically uneven migrations, including one that provides clues of a Late Pleistocene Australasian genetic signal, as well as a later Mesoamerican-related expansion. These led to complex and dynamic population histories from North to South America.

@article{doi101126scienceaav2621,
    author = "Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor and Vinner, Lasse and de Barros Damgaard, Peter and de la Fuente Castro, Constanza and Chan, Jeffrey and Spence, Jeffrey P. and Allentoft, Morten E. and Vimala, Tharsika and Racimo, Fernando and Pinotti, Thomaz and Rasmussen, Simon and Margaryan, Ashot and Iraeta-Orbegozo, Miren and Mylopotamitaki, Dorothea and Wooller, Matthew J. and Bataille, Clément P. and Becerra‐Valdivia, Lorena and Chivall, David and Comeskey, Daniel and Devièse, Thibaut and Grayson, Donald K. and George, Len and Harry, Harold W. and Alexandersen, Verner and Primeau, Charlotte and Erlandson, Jon M. and Rodrigues-Carvalho, Cláudia and Reis, Silvia and Bastos, Murilo and Cybulski, Jerome S. and Vullo, Carlos and Morello, Flavia and Vilar, Miguel G. and Wells, Spencer and Gregersen, Kristian Murphy and Hansen, Kasper Lykke and Lynnerup, Niels and Lahr, Marta Mìrazón and Kjær, Kurt H. and Strauss, André and Alfonso‐Durruty, Marta and Salas, Antonio and Schroeder, Hannes and Higham, Thomas and Malhi, Ripan S. and Rasic, Jeffrey T. and Souza, Luiz Antônio Cruz and Santos, Fabrício R. and Malaspinas, Anna‐Sapfo and Sikora, Martin and Nielsen, Rasmus and Song, Yun S. and Meltzer, David J. and Willerslev, Eske",
    title = "Early human dispersals within the Americas",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Studies of the peopling of the Americas have focused on the timing and number of initial migrations. Less attention has been paid to the subsequent spread of people within the Americas. We sequenced 15 ancient human genomes spanning from Alaska to Patagonia; six are ≥10,000 years old (up to \textasciitilde 18× coverage). All are most closely related to Native Americans, including those from an Ancient Beringian individual and two morphologically distinct "Paleoamericans." We found evidence of rapid dispersal and early diversification that included previously unknown groups as people moved south. This resulted in multiple independent, geographically uneven migrations, including one that provides clues of a Late Pleistocene Australasian genetic signal, as well as a later Mesoamerican-related expansion. These led to complex and dynamic population histories from North to South America.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav2621",
    doi = "10.1126/science.aav2621",
    openalex = "W2899815955",
    references = "doi101016jcell201810027, doi101038nature21347, doi101038nature25173, doi101073pnas1413131111, doi101126science1137166, doi101126science1237619, doi101126scienceaao1807, doi101126scienceaar7711"
}

@book{doi102307jctv301gjp,
    author = "Cavalli‐Sforza, L. L. and Menozzi, Paolo and Piazza, Alberto",
    title = "The History and Geography of Human Genes",
    year = "2018",
    booktitle = "Princeton University Press eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv301gjp",
    doi = "10.2307/j.ctv301gjp",
    openalex = "W3136389637"
}

ABSTRACT This paper reviews some of the main advances in our understanding of human evolution over the last 1 million years, presenting a holistic overview of a field defined by interdisciplinary approaches to studying the origins of our species. We begin by briefly summarizing the climatic context across the Old World for the last 1 million years before directly addressing the fossil and archaeological records. The main themes in this work explore (i) recent discoveries in the fossil record over the last 15 years, such as Homo naledi and Homo floresiensis; (ii) the implications of palaeogenetics for understanding the evolutionary history of, and relationships between, Neanderthals, Denisovans and Homo sapiens; (iii) the interplay between physiology and metabolic demand, landscape use, and behavioural adaptations in the evolution of morphological and behavioural innovation; and (iv) recent advances in archaeological understanding for the behavioural record, in particular that of the Neanderthals. This paper seeks to provide a broad‐scale, holistic perspective of our current understanding of human evolution for the last 1 Ma, providing a reference point for researchers that can be built upon as new discoveries continue to develop the landscapes of human evolution. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Quaternary Science Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

@article{doi101002jqs3137,
    author = "Galway‐Witham, Julia and Cole, James and Stringer, Chris",
    title = "Aspects of human physical and behavioural evolution during the last 1 million years",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Journal of Quaternary Science",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT This paper reviews some of the main advances in our understanding of human evolution over the last 1 million years, presenting a holistic overview of a field defined by interdisciplinary approaches to studying the origins of our species. We begin by briefly summarizing the climatic context across the Old World for the last 1 million years before directly addressing the fossil and archaeological records. The main themes in this work explore (i) recent discoveries in the fossil record over the last 15 years, such as Homo naledi and Homo floresiensis; (ii) the implications of palaeogenetics for understanding the evolutionary history of, and relationships between, Neanderthals, Denisovans and Homo sapiens; (iii) the interplay between physiology and metabolic demand, landscape use, and behavioural adaptations in the evolution of morphological and behavioural innovation; and (iv) recent advances in archaeological understanding for the behavioural record, in particular that of the Neanderthals. This paper seeks to provide a broad‐scale, holistic perspective of our current understanding of human evolution for the last 1 Ma, providing a reference point for researchers that can be built upon as new discoveries continue to develop the landscapes of human evolution. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Quaternary Science Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3137",
    doi = "10.1002/jqs.3137",
    openalex = "W2955673807",
    references = "doi101016jjhevol200809001, doi101016jquascirev201406012, doi101371journalpone0096424"
}

A historical tendency to use European ancestry samples hinders medical genetics research, including the use of polygenic scores, which are individual-level metrics of genetic risk. We analyze the first decade of polygenic scoring studies (2008-2017, inclusive), and find that 67% of studies included exclusively European ancestry participants and another 19% included only East Asian ancestry participants. Only 3.8% of studies were among cohorts of African, Hispanic, or Indigenous peoples. We find that predictive performance of European ancestry-derived polygenic scores is lower in non-European ancestry samples (e.g. African ancestry samples: t = -5.97, df = 24, p = 3.7 × 10 -6), and we demonstrate the effects of methodological choices in polygenic score distributions for worldwide populations. These findings highlight the need for improved treatment of linkage disequilibrium and variant frequencies when applying polygenic scoring to cohorts of non-European ancestry, and bolster the rationale for large-scale GWAS in diverse human populations.

@article{doi101038s41467019111120,
    author = "Duncan, Laramie E. and Shen, Hanyang and Gelaye, Bizu and Meijsen, Joeri and Ressler, Kerry J. and Feldman, Marcus W. and Peterson, Roseann E. and Domingue, Benjamin W.",
    title = "Analysis of polygenic risk score usage and performance in diverse human populations",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "A historical tendency to use European ancestry samples hinders medical genetics research, including the use of polygenic scores, which are individual-level metrics of genetic risk. We analyze the first decade of polygenic scoring studies (2008-2017, inclusive), and find that 67\% of studies included exclusively European ancestry participants and another 19\% included only East Asian ancestry participants. Only 3.8\% of studies were among cohorts of African, Hispanic, or Indigenous peoples. We find that predictive performance of European ancestry-derived polygenic scores is lower in non-European ancestry samples (e.g. African ancestry samples: t = -5.97, df = 24, p = 3.7 × 10 -6), and we demonstrate the effects of methodological choices in polygenic score distributions for worldwide populations. These findings highlight the need for improved treatment of linkage disequilibrium and variant frequencies when applying polygenic scoring to cohorts of non-European ancestry, and bolster the rationale for large-scale GWAS in diverse human populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11112-0",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-019-11112-0",
    openalex = "W2963160524",
    references = "doi101016jajhg201703004, doi101073pnas1620732114"
}

This cranio-morphometric study emphasizes a "two-layer model" for eastern Eurasian anatomically modern human (AMH) populations, based on large datasets of 89 population samples including findings directly from ancient archaeological contexts. Results suggest that an initial "first layer" of AMH had related closely to ancestral Andaman, Australian, Papuan, and Jomon groups who likely entered this region via the Southeast Asian landmass, prior to 65-50 kya. A later "second layer" shared strong cranial affinities with Siberians, implying a Northeast Asian source, evidenced by 9 kya in central China and then followed by expansions of descendant groups into Southeast Asia after 4 kya. These two populations shared limited initial exchange, and the second layer grew at a faster rate and in greater numbers, linked with contexts of farming that may have supported increased population densities. Clear dichotomization between the two layers implies a temporally deep divergence of distinct migration routes for AMH through both southern and northern Eurasia.

@article{doi101038s4159801835426z,
    author = "Matsumura, Hirofumi and Hung, Hsiao‐chun and Higham, Charles and Zhang, Chi and Yamagata, Mariko and Nguyen, Lan Cuong and Li, Zhen and Fan, Xuechun and Simanjuntak, Truman and Oktaviana, Adhi Agus and He, Jianing and Chen, Chung-yu and Pan, Chien-kuo and He, Gang and Sun, Guoping and Huang, Weijin and Li, Xinwei and Wei, Xingtao and Domett, Kate and Halcrow, Siân E. and Nguyen, Kim Dung and Trinh, Hoang Hiep and Bui, Chi Hoang and Nguyen, Khanh Trung Kien and Reinecke, Andreas",
    title = "Craniometrics Reveal “Two Layers” of Prehistoric Human Dispersal in Eastern Eurasia",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = {This cranio-morphometric study emphasizes a "two-layer model" for eastern Eurasian anatomically modern human (AMH) populations, based on large datasets of 89 population samples including findings directly from ancient archaeological contexts. Results suggest that an initial "first layer" of AMH had related closely to ancestral Andaman, Australian, Papuan, and Jomon groups who likely entered this region via the Southeast Asian landmass, prior to 65-50 kya. A later "second layer" shared strong cranial affinities with Siberians, implying a Northeast Asian source, evidenced by 9 kya in central China and then followed by expansions of descendant groups into Southeast Asia after 4 kya. These two populations shared limited initial exchange, and the second layer grew at a faster rate and in greater numbers, linked with contexts of farming that may have supported increased population densities. Clear dichotomization between the two layers implies a temporally deep divergence of distinct migration routes for AMH through both southern and northern Eurasia.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-35426-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-018-35426-z",
    openalex = "W2914666155",
    references = "doi101126scienceaai9067"
}

Genome sequences from diverse human groups are needed to understand the structure of genetic variation in our species and the history of, and relationships between, different populations. We present 929 high-coverage genome sequences from 54 diverse human populations, 26 of which are physically phased using linked-read sequencing. Analyses of these genomes reveal an excess of previously undocumented common genetic variation private to southern Africa, central Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, but an absence of such variants fixed between major geographical regions. We also find deep and gradual population separations within Africa, contrasting population size histories between hunter-gatherer and agriculturalist groups in the past 10,000 years, and a contrast between single Neanderthal but multiple Denisovan source populations contributing to present-day human populations.

@article{doi101126scienceaay5012,
    author = "Bergström, Anders and McCarthy, Shane and Hui, Ruoyun and Almarri, Mohamed A. and Ayub, Qasim and Danecek, Petr and Chen, Yuan and Felkel, Sabine and Hallast, Pille and Kamm, Jack and Blanché, Hélène and Deleuze, Jean‐François and Cann, Howard M. and Mallick, Swapan and Reich, David and Sandhu, Manjinder S. and Skoglund, Pontus and Scally, Aylwyn and Xue, Yali and Durbin, Richard and Tyler‐Smith, Chris",
    title = "Insights into human genetic variation and population history from 929 diverse genomes",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Genome sequences from diverse human groups are needed to understand the structure of genetic variation in our species and the history of, and relationships between, different populations. We present 929 high-coverage genome sequences from 54 diverse human populations, 26 of which are physically phased using linked-read sequencing. Analyses of these genomes reveal an excess of previously undocumented common genetic variation private to southern Africa, central Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, but an absence of such variants fixed between major geographical regions. We also find deep and gradual population separations within Africa, contrasting population size histories between hunter-gatherer and agriculturalist groups in the past 10,000 years, and a contrast between single Neanderthal but multiple Denisovan source populations contributing to present-day human populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay5012",
    doi = "10.1126/science.aay5012",
    openalex = "W3011413344",
    references = "doi101038nature13673, doi101038nature21347, doi101126science1237619, doi101534genetics112145037"
}

Social Safety Theory hypothesizes that developing and maintaining friendly social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human behavior and that threats to social safety are a critical feature of psychological stressors that increase risk for disease. Central to this formulation is the fact that the human brain and immune system are principally designed to keep the body biologically safe, which they do by continually monitoring and responding to social, physical, and microbial threats in the environment. Because situations involving social conflict, isolation, devaluation, rejection, and exclusion historically increased risk for physical injury and infection, anticipatory neural-immune reactivity to social threat was likely highly conserved. This neurocognitive and immunologic ability for humans to symbolically represent and respond to potentially dangerous social situations is ultimately critical for survival. When sustained, however, this multilevel biological threat response can increase individuals' risk for viral infections and several inflammation-related disease conditions that dominate present-day morbidity and mortality.

@article{doi101146annurevclinpsy032816045159,
    author = "Slavich, George M.",
    title = "Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Annual Review of Clinical Psychology",
    abstract = "Social Safety Theory hypothesizes that developing and maintaining friendly social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human behavior and that threats to social safety are a critical feature of psychological stressors that increase risk for disease. Central to this formulation is the fact that the human brain and immune system are principally designed to keep the body biologically safe, which they do by continually monitoring and responding to social, physical, and microbial threats in the environment. Because situations involving social conflict, isolation, devaluation, rejection, and exclusion historically increased risk for physical injury and infection, anticipatory neural-immune reactivity to social threat was likely highly conserved. This neurocognitive and immunologic ability for humans to symbolically represent and respond to potentially dangerous social situations is ultimately critical for survival. When sustained, however, this multilevel biological threat response can increase individuals' risk for viral infections and several inflammation-related disease conditions that dominate present-day morbidity and mortality.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045159",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-045159",
    openalex = "W3010515129",
    references = "doi101146annurevpsych010213115110"
}

@article{doi101038s41586021032445,
    author = "Bergström, Anders and Stringer, Chris and Hajdinjak, Mateja and Scerri, Eleanor M. L. and Skoglund, Pontus",
    title = "Origins of modern human ancestry",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5",
    doi = "10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5",
    openalex = "W3127116345",
    references = "doi101038nature22336, doi101038s415860180455x, doi101038s415860191279z, doi101126scienceaam9695, doi101126scienceaao1807"
}

in humans should be addressed more vigorously. For this purpose a first framework for educational content is proposed.

@article{doi103389frai2021622364,
    author = "Korteling, J.E. and van de Boer-Visschedijk, G. C. and Blankendaal, Romy and Boonekamp, Rudy and Eikelboom, A.R.",
    title = "Human- versus Artificial Intelligence",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence",
    abstract = "in humans should be addressed more vigorously. For this purpose a first framework for educational content is proposed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2021.622364",
    doi = "10.3389/frai.2021.622364",
    openalex = "W3147517805",
    references = "doi101086377665"
}

Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) continues to transform firm-customer interactions. However, current AI marketing agents are often perceived as cold and uncaring and can be poor substitutes for human-based interactions. Addressing this issue, this article argues that artificial empathy needs to become an important design consideration in the next generation of AI marketing applications. Drawing from research in diverse disciplines, we develop a systematic framework for integrating artificial empathy into AI-enabled marketing interactions. We elaborate on the key components of artificial empathy and how each component can be implemented in AI marketing agents. We further explicate and test how artificial empathy generates value for both customers and firms by bridging the AI-human gap in affective and social customer experience. Recognizing that artificial empathy may not always be desirable or relevant, we identify the requirements for artificial empathy to create value and deduce situations where it is unnecessary and, in some cases, harmful.

@article{doi101007s11747022008925,
    author = "Liu–Thompkins, Yuping and Okazaki, Shintaro and Li, Hairong",
    title = "Artificial empathy in marketing interactions: Bridging the human-AI gap in affective and social customer experience",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science",
    abstract = "Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) continues to transform firm-customer interactions. However, current AI marketing agents are often perceived as cold and uncaring and can be poor substitutes for human-based interactions. Addressing this issue, this article argues that artificial empathy needs to become an important design consideration in the next generation of AI marketing applications. Drawing from research in diverse disciplines, we develop a systematic framework for integrating artificial empathy into AI-enabled marketing interactions. We elaborate on the key components of artificial empathy and how each component can be implemented in AI marketing agents. We further explicate and test how artificial empathy generates value for both customers and firms by bridging the AI-human gap in affective and social customer experience. Recognizing that artificial empathy may not always be desirable or relevant, we identify the requirements for artificial empathy to create value and deduce situations where it is unnecessary and, in some cases, harmful.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-022-00892-5",
    doi = "10.1007/s11747-022-00892-5",
    openalex = "W4284966012",
    references = "doi101007bf03395534"
}

@article{doi101038s4158602306457y,
    author = "Rhie, Arang and Nurk, Sergey and Čechová, Monika and Hoyt, Savannah J. and Taylor, Dylan J. and Altemose, Nicolas and Hook, Paul W. and Koren, Sergey and Rautiainen, Mikko and Alexandrov, Ivan A. and Allen, Jamie and Asri, Mobin and Bzikadze, Andrey V. and Chen, Nae-Chyun and Chin, Chen-Shan and Diekhans, Mark and Flicek, Paul and Formenti, Giulio and Fungtammasan, Arkarachai and Girón, Carlos García and Garrison, Erik and Gershman, Ariel and Gerton, Jennifer L. and Grady, Patrick G. S. and Guarracino, Andrea and Haggerty, Leanne and Halabian, Reza and Hansen, Nancy F. and Harris, Robert S. and Hartley, Gabrielle A. and Harvey, William T. and Haukness, Marina and Heinz, Jakob and Hourlier, Thibaut and Hubley, Robert and Hunt, Sarah and Hwang, Stephen and Jain, Miten and Kesharwani, Rupesh K. and Lewis, Alexandra P. and Li, Heng and Logsdon, Glennis A. and Lucas, Julian and Makałowski, Wojciech and Markovic, Christopher and Martin, Fergal J. and Cartney, Ann M. Mc and McCoy, Rajiv C. and McDaniel, Jennifer and McNulty, Brandy and Medvedev, Paul and Mikheenko, Alla and Munson, Katherine M. and Murphy, Terence D. and Olsen, Hugh E. and Olson, Nathan D. and Paulin, Luis F. and Porubský, David and Potapova, Tamara and Ryabov, Fedor and Salzberg, Steven L. and Sauria, Michael E.G. and Sedlazeck, Fritz J. and Shafin, Kishwar and Шепелев, В. А. and Shumate, Alaina and Storer, Jessica M. and Surapaneni, Likhitha and Oill, Angela M. Taravella and Thibaud‐Nissen, Françoise and Timp, Winston and Tomaszkiewicz, Marta and Vollger, Mitchell R. and Walenz, Brian P. and Watwood, Allison C. and Weissensteiner, Matthias H. and Wenger, Aaron M. and Wilson, Melissa A. and Zarate, Samantha and Zhu, Yiming and Zook, Justin M. and Eichler, Evan E. and O’Neill, Rachel J. and Schatz, Michael C. and Miga, Karen H. and Makova, Kateryna D. and Phillippy, Adam M.",
    title = "The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y",
    doi = "10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y",
    openalex = "W4386113054",
    references = "doi101126science1237619"
}