Human ecology

In a previous paper (13) various propositions were presented which would have to be included in any theory of human motivation that could lay claim to being definitive. These conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of

@article{doi101037h0054346,
    author = "Maslow, Abraham H.",
    title = "A theory of human motivation.",
    year = "1943",
    journal = "Psychological Review",
    abstract = "In a previous paper (13) various propositions were presented which would have to be included in any theory of human motivation that could lay claim to being definitive. These conclusions may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346",
    doi = "10.1037/h0054346",
    openalex = "W4292542163"
}

The persistence, sources, fate and possible control of pesticides are reviewed and discussed. The amounts of pesticides in soil, air, freshwater, seawater, soil and aquatic invertebrates, plants, fish, birds, other vertebrates, human food and human beings are summarized. The ways the amounts of these residues can be decreased are discussed.

@book{doi10108010643387009381563,
    author = "Edwards, C. A. and Adams, Russell S.",
    title = "Persistent pesticides in the environment",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "C R C Critical Reviews in Environmental Control",
    abstract = "The persistence, sources, fate and possible control of pesticides are reviewed and discussed. The amounts of pesticides in soil, air, freshwater, seawater, soil and aquatic invertebrates, plants, fish, birds, other vertebrates, human food and human beings are summarized. The ways the amounts of these residues can be decreased are discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/10643387009381563",
    doi = "10.1080/10643387009381563",
    openalex = "W1963620846"
}

@misc{ehrilch1970population1,
    author = "Ehrilch, P. R. and Erhlich, A. H",
    title = "Population, resources, environment",
    year = "1970",
    howpublished = "issues in human ecology: San Francisco, Freeman, 383 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ehrilch, P. R., and Erhlich, A. H., 1970, Population, resources, environment: issues in human ecology: San Francisco, Freeman, 383 p.}"
}

There have been some questionable assertions relating to population growth. The most serious of these is the notion that the size and growth rate of the U.S. population are only minor contributors to this countrys adverse impact on local and global environment. The discussion in this article centers around 5 theorems which demonstrate the following: 1) population growth causes a disproportionate negative impact on the environment 2) the control of population is necessary but not sufficient means of seeing us through the whole crisis of environmental deterioration 3) population density is a poor measure of population pressure 4) environment as a term must be broadly construed to include physical environment of urban ghettos as well as the human behavioral environment and 5) theoratical solutions to out problems are not operational and some times are not solutions. The paper concludes that population control the redirection of technology the transition from open to closed resouce cycles the equitable distribution of opportunity and the ingredients of prosperity must all be accomplished if there is to be a future worth living.

@article{doi101126science17139771212,
    author = "Ehrlich, Paul R. and Holdren, John P.",
    title = "Impact of Population Growth",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "There have been some questionable assertions relating to population growth. The most serious of these is the notion that the size and growth rate of the U.S. population are only minor contributors to this countrys adverse impact on local and global environment. The discussion in this article centers around 5 theorems which demonstrate the following: 1) population growth causes a disproportionate negative impact on the environment 2) the control of population is necessary but not sufficient means of seeing us through the whole crisis of environmental deterioration 3) population density is a poor measure of population pressure 4) environment as a term must be broadly construed to include physical environment of urban ghettos as well as the human behavioral environment and 5) theoratical solutions to out problems are not operational and some times are not solutions. The paper concludes that population control the redirection of technology the transition from open to closed resouce cycles the equitable distribution of opportunity and the ingredients of prosperity must all be accomplished if there is to be a future worth living.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3977.1212",
    doi = "10.1126/science.171.3977.1212",
    openalex = "W1997466867",
    references = "doi1023071929601"
}

@article{doi101177003072707100600618,
    author = "Jones, D. Price",
    title = "Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Outlook on Agriculture",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/003072707100600618",
    doi = "10.1177/003072707100600618",
    openalex = "W2731601711"
}

@article{doi102105ajph6151063a,
    author = "Sewell, Granville H.",
    title = "POPULATION, RESOURCES, ENVIRONMENT, ISSUES IN HUMAN ECOLOGY",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "American Journal of Public Health",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.61.5.1063-a",
    doi = "10.2105/ajph.61.5.1063-a",
    openalex = "W2100451708"
}

@article{doi1023072093693,
    author = "Means, Richard L. and Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H.",
    title = "Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology.",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "American Sociological Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2093693",
    doi = "10.2307/2093693",
    openalex = "W2334208390"
}

@article{doi1023072402900,
    author = "Pirie, N. W. and Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H.",
    title = "Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology.",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2402900",
    doi = "10.2307/2402900",
    openalex = "W2033002439"
}

@article{doi1023073349365,
    author = "Wolman, Abel and Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H.",
    title = "Population, Resources, Environment. Issues in Human Ecology",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3349365",
    doi = "10.2307/3349365",
    openalex = "W2796339191"
}

@article{doi10111513426637,
    author = "Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H. and Hurlbut, F. C.",
    title = "Population/Resources/Environment: Issues in Human Ecology",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3426637",
    doi = "10.1115/1.3426637",
    openalex = "W1542311768"
}

@article{doi1023072402313,
    author = "Conway, Gordon and Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H.",
    title = "Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology.",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2402313",
    doi = "10.2307/2402313",
    openalex = "W2315413042"
}

@book{openalexw2111964893,
    author = "Rokeach, Milton",
    title = "The nature of human values",
    year = "1973",
    openalex = "W2111964893"
}

@book{doi1010079781489922717,
    author = "Deci, Edward L. and Ryan, Richard M.",
    title = "Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior",
    year = "1985",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7",
    openalex = "W2052729098"
}

Abstract Following the great Sahelian drought of the early 1970s, an unprecedented number of Fulani pastoralists immigrated to the Ivory Coast with their cattle. Although welcomed by the Ivorian government for their contribution to national beef production, the Fulani's presence has been bitterly opposed by Senufo peasants in the savanna region over the problem of uncompensated crop damage. I examine the nature of peasant-herder conflicts in northern Ivory Coast from a “political ecology” perspective and argue that it is at the intersection of Ivorian political economy and the human ecology of agricultural systems in the savanna region that one can begin to identify the key processes and decision-making conditions behind the current conflict. Micro- and macro-level processes involving the transfer of resources from Senufo house-holds are considered to be central to the strife. The case study seeks to contribute to the growing literature on peasant-herder interactions in sub-Saharan Africa by viewing peasant-herder conflicts as “responses in context.” The political ecology approach provides a framework for human ecologists interested in examining the interrelationships between local patterns of resource use and the larger political economy. Data collected to analyze the nature of the conflict in the Korhogo region during a seventeen-month period in 1981–82 and 1986 include survey research questionnaires, pastoral and farm management studies, participant observation and interviews with peasants, herders and livestock development officials.

@article{doi101111j146783061988tb00218x,
    author = "Bassett, Thomas J.",
    title = "The Political Ecology of Peasant-Herder Conflicts in the Northern Ivory Coast",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Annals of the Association of American Geographers",
    abstract = "Abstract Following the great Sahelian drought of the early 1970s, an unprecedented number of Fulani pastoralists immigrated to the Ivory Coast with their cattle. Although welcomed by the Ivorian government for their contribution to national beef production, the Fulani's presence has been bitterly opposed by Senufo peasants in the savanna region over the problem of uncompensated crop damage. I examine the nature of peasant-herder conflicts in northern Ivory Coast from a “political ecology” perspective and argue that it is at the intersection of Ivorian political economy and the human ecology of agricultural systems in the savanna region that one can begin to identify the key processes and decision-making conditions behind the current conflict. Micro- and macro-level processes involving the transfer of resources from Senufo house-holds are considered to be central to the strife. The case study seeks to contribute to the growing literature on peasant-herder interactions in sub-Saharan Africa by viewing peasant-herder conflicts as “responses in context.” The political ecology approach provides a framework for human ecologists interested in examining the interrelationships between local patterns of resource use and the larger political economy. Data collected to analyze the nature of the conflict in the Korhogo region during a seventeen-month period in 1981–82 and 1986 include survey research questionnaires, pastoral and farm management studies, participant observation and interviews with peasants, herders and livestock development officials.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1988.tb00218.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8306.1988.tb00218.x",
    openalex = "W1999588690",
    references = "openalexw1562196292"
}

Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00023992,
    author = "Buss, David M.",
    title = "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    openalex = "W2157338817",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi1010160022519364900384, doi1010160022519366901846, doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi101016s0065260122x00026, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi101017s0140525x00010128, doi10103711774000, doi10103712293000, doi101038246015a0, doi101038369716c0, doi101086284064, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101126science327542, doi1011425786, doi1011770022022190211001, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072393017, doi1023072412191, doi1023072485224, doi1023072576242, doi1023075530, doi102307582242, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi1043249781410606266, doi105962bhltitle27468, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, openalexw1649242647, openalexw2000871817"
}

@article{doi101007bf02207996,
    author = "Low, Bobbi S. and Heinen, Joel T.",
    title = "Population, resources, and environment: Implications of human behavioral ecology for conservation",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Population and Environment",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02207996",
    doi = "10.1007/bf02207996",
    openalex = "W2157136513",
    references = "doi1010160022519364900384, doi101017cbo9780511807763, doi101086406755, doi101126science16238591243, doi101126science7466396, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023071367778, doi1023073146384, doi105962bhltitle27468, openalexw2624262714"
}

Abstract Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00032325,
    author = "Dunbar, Robin",
    title = "Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Group size covaries with relative neocortical volume in nonhuman primates. This regression equation predicts a group size for modern humans very similar to that for hunter-gatherer and traditional horticulturalist societies. Similar group sizes are found in other contemporary and historical societies. Nonhuman primates maintain group cohesion through social grooming; among the Old World monkeys and apes, social grooming time is linearly related to group size. Maintaining stability of human-sized groups by grooming alone would make intolerable time demands. It is therefore suggested (1) that the evolution of large groups in the human lineage depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing the processes of social bonding and (2) that language uniquely fulfills this requirement. Data on the size of conversational and other small interacting groups of humans accord with the predicted relative efficiency of conversation compared to grooming as a bonding process. In human conversations about 60\% of time is spent gossiping about relationships and personal experiences. Language may accordingly have evolved to allow individuals to learn about the behavioural characteristics of other group members more rapidly than was feasible by direct observation alone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00032325",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00032325",
    openalex = "W2137391072",
    references = "doi1010079781468441482, doi1010160022519364900384, doi1010160047248487900224, doi101016004724849290081j, doi101016s0022519389801699, doi101017s0140525x00081061, doi101086284325, doi101093oso97801985464120010001, doi101098rstb19890106, doi101111j143903101963tb01161x, doi101152physrev1992721165, doi1023071367778, doi1023071438156, doi1023072063068, doi1023072185913, doi1023072407154, doi1043249780203037416, doi1043249781315132129, doi105860choice295104, falk1983cerebral, openalexw1659631989, openalexw1996270497"
}

This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.

@article{doi1010370033295x1002204,
    author = "Buss, David M. and Schmitt, David P.",
    title = "Sexual Strategies Theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating.",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Psychological Review",
    abstract = "This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204",
    openalex = "W1971871412",
    references = "doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi101017s0140525x00023992, doi101126science7123238, doi101537ase188722495, doi1043249781315129266, openalexw1659631989, openalexw2000871817"
}

Abstract The “new ecology” underscores the role of nonequilibrium conditions in biophysical environments, a reorientation of biological ecology based in part on biogeography. This paper describes the contributions of the “new ecology” and examines their implications for the analysis of biophysical environments in human geography, the most notable of which is a reformulation of certain key ecological postulates (generalized carrying capacity, area-biodiversity postulate, biodiversity-stability postulate). The irony of these reformulations is that our advanced understandings of biophysical environments come at the expense of the perceived certainty of prediction and possible justification for human-induced environmental degradation. These difficulties are not insuperable, however, as is readily demonstrated by the applications of the “new ecology” in landscape ecology and agroecology. Their example may prove instructive as geographers integrate the “new ecology's” perspectives on biophysical environments and interpret the relations between environmental conservation and economic development.

@article{doi101111j146783061994tb01731x,
    author = "Zimmerer, Karl S.",
    title = "Human Geography and the “New Ecology”: The Prospect and Promise of Integration",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Annals of the Association of American Geographers",
    abstract = "Abstract The “new ecology” underscores the role of nonequilibrium conditions in biophysical environments, a reorientation of biological ecology based in part on biogeography. This paper describes the contributions of the “new ecology” and examines their implications for the analysis of biophysical environments in human geography, the most notable of which is a reformulation of certain key ecological postulates (generalized carrying capacity, area-biodiversity postulate, biodiversity-stability postulate). The irony of these reformulations is that our advanced understandings of biophysical environments come at the expense of the perceived certainty of prediction and possible justification for human-induced environmental degradation. These difficulties are not insuperable, however, as is readily demonstrated by the applications of the “new ecology” in landscape ecology and agroecology. Their example may prove instructive as geographers integrate the “new ecology's” perspectives on biophysical environments and interpret the relations between environmental conservation and economic development.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1994.tb01731.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1467-8306.1994.tb01731.x",
    openalex = "W1965305377",
    references = "doi1023071854927, openalexw1562196292"
}

Abstract A theoretical framework is provided to understand a cultural group's definition of and relationship with nature and the environment. The framework draws on a social constructionist perspective that includes aspects of phenomenology and symbolic interactionism to define “landscape” as the symbolic environment created by a human act of conferring meaning on nature and the environment. This landscape reflects the selfdefinitions of the people within a particular cultural context. Attention is directed to transformation of the physical environment into landscapes that reflect people's definitions of themselves and on how these landscapes are reconstructed in response to people's changing definitions of themselves. Case studies from sociology and anthropology illustrate the social construction of nature and the environment. A discussion of the applied implications of the theoretical framework in social impact assessment and the global implications in the shifting power struggle over competing landscapes concludes the paper.

@article{doi101111j154908311994tb00519x,
    author = "Greider, Thomas and Garkovich, Lorraine",
    title = "Landscapes: The Social Construction of Nature and the Environment",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Rural Sociology",
    abstract = "Abstract A theoretical framework is provided to understand a cultural group's definition of and relationship with nature and the environment. The framework draws on a social constructionist perspective that includes aspects of phenomenology and symbolic interactionism to define “landscape” as the symbolic environment created by a human act of conferring meaning on nature and the environment. This landscape reflects the selfdefinitions of the people within a particular cultural context. Attention is directed to transformation of the physical environment into landscapes that reflect people's definitions of themselves and on how these landscapes are reconstructed in response to people's changing definitions of themselves. Case studies from sociology and anthropology illustrate the social construction of nature and the environment. A discussion of the applied implications of the theoretical framework in social impact assessment and the global implications in the shifting power struggle over competing landscapes concludes the paper.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.1994.tb00519.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1549-0831.1994.tb00519.x",
    openalex = "W2158004269",
    references = "openalexw1562196292"
}

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

@article{doi101037003329091173497,
    author = "Baumeister, Roy F. and Leary, Mark R.",
    title = "The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Psychological Bulletin",
    abstract = "A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497",
    openalex = "W2081155210",
    references = "doi101126science7466396, doi102307jctv19fvzzk47, openalexw2082507057"
}

The report reviews the state of the environment in Europe. It covers 46 countries - from Portugal in the west to The Urals in the east, and from Iceland in the north to Malta in the south - and is based on data from a wide range of sources, including UNECE, UNEP, OECD, Council of Europe, IUCN and WHO. The report is divided into six parts, it: introduces the context and reporting techniques used in the report; assesses the state of the environment in eight different fields (air, inland waters, seas, soil, landscapes, nature and wildlife, urban environment, and human health); describes the pressures which affect the environment (population, production and consumption, exploitation of natural resources, emissions, waste, noise and radiation, chemicals and genetically modified organisms, and natural and technological hazards); examines the sources of environmental pressures arising from human activities in eight different sectors (energy, industry, transport, agriculture, forestry, fishing and aquaculture, tourism and recreation, and households); analyses the 12 most pressing environmental problems facing European countries (including climatic change, ozone depletion, acidification, waste production); and presents a summary of main highlights and responses documented in the report. `Europe`s Environment` was written in response to the first pan-European environment ministers` conference held at Dobris Castle near Prague, Czechoslovakia in June 1991.

@book{openalexw1527293694,
    author = "Stanners, D.A. and Bourdeau, Philippe",
    title = "Europe's environment: the Dobrís assessment",
    year = "1995",
    abstract = "The report reviews the state of the environment in Europe. It covers 46 countries - from Portugal in the west to The Urals in the east, and from Iceland in the north to Malta in the south - and is based on data from a wide range of sources, including UNECE, UNEP, OECD, Council of Europe, IUCN and WHO. The report is divided into six parts, it: introduces the context and reporting techniques used in the report; assesses the state of the environment in eight different fields (air, inland waters, seas, soil, landscapes, nature and wildlife, urban environment, and human health); describes the pressures which affect the environment (population, production and consumption, exploitation of natural resources, emissions, waste, noise and radiation, chemicals and genetically modified organisms, and natural and technological hazards); examines the sources of environmental pressures arising from human activities in eight different sectors (energy, industry, transport, agriculture, forestry, fishing and aquaculture, tourism and recreation, and households); analyses the 12 most pressing environmental problems facing European countries (including climatic change, ozone depletion, acidification, waste production); and presents a summary of main highlights and responses documented in the report. `Europe`s Environment` was written in response to the first pan-European environment ministers` conference held at Dobris Castle near Prague, Czechoslovakia in June 1991.",
    openalex = "W1527293694"
}

▪ Abstract Although the loss of good health is inherently unpredictable, human behavior at the individual and societal levels profoundly influences the incidence and evolution of disease. In this review, we define the human epidemiological environment and describe key biophysical, economic, sociocultural, and political factors that shape it. The potential impact upon the epidemiological environment of biophysical aspects of global change—changes in the size, mobility, and geographic distribution of the human population; land conversion; agricultural intensification; and climate change—is then examined. Human vulnerability to disease is strongly and deleteriously influenced by many of these ongoing, intensifying alterations. We then examine threats to human defenses against disease, including immune suppression, loss of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge, and the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Effective responses will require greatly enhanced attention by and collaboration among experts in diverse academic disciplines, in the private sector, and in government worldwide.

@article{doi101146annurevenergy211125,
    author = "Daily, Gretchen C. and Ehrlich, Paul R.",
    title = "GLOBAL CHANGE AND HUMAN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DISEASE",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Annual Review of Energy and the Environment",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract Although the loss of good health is inherently unpredictable, human behavior at the individual and societal levels profoundly influences the incidence and evolution of disease. In this review, we define the human epidemiological environment and describe key biophysical, economic, sociocultural, and political factors that shape it. The potential impact upon the epidemiological environment of biophysical aspects of global change—changes in the size, mobility, and geographic distribution of the human population; land conversion; agricultural intensification; and climate change—is then examined. Human vulnerability to disease is strongly and deleteriously influenced by many of these ongoing, intensifying alterations. We then examine threats to human defenses against disease, including immune suppression, loss of biodiversity and indigenous knowledge, and the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Effective responses will require greatly enhanced attention by and collaboration among experts in diverse academic disciplines, in the private sector, and in government worldwide.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.21.1.125",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.energy.21.1.125",
    openalex = "W2122465371",
    references = "doi101177003072707100600618"
}

The organization and description of a comprehensive ecosystem model useful to ecosystem management is necessary. In this article, we propose the human ecosystem as an organizing concept for ecosystem management. First, we describe the history of the human ecosystem idea; both biological ecology and mainstream social theories provide useful guidance. Next, we present the key elements of a human ecosystem model: critical resources (natural, socioeconomic, and cultural), social institutions, social cycles, and social order (identities, norms, and hierarchies). In each element, we (1) provide a general definition and description, (2) suggest ways that the variable can be measured, and (3) give selected examples of how it may influence other components of the human ecosystem. The article concludes with specific suggestions as to how the human ecosystem model can play an organizing role in ecosystem management.

@article{doi10108008941929709381034,
    author = "Machlis, Gary E. and Force, Jo Ellen and Burch, William R.",
    title = "The human ecosystem Part I: The human ecosystem as an organizing concept in ecosystem management",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Society \& Natural Resources",
    abstract = "The organization and description of a comprehensive ecosystem model useful to ecosystem management is necessary. In this article, we propose the human ecosystem as an organizing concept for ecosystem management. First, we describe the history of the human ecosystem idea; both biological ecology and mainstream social theories provide useful guidance. Next, we present the key elements of a human ecosystem model: critical resources (natural, socioeconomic, and cultural), social institutions, social cycles, and social order (identities, norms, and hierarchies). In each element, we (1) provide a general definition and description, (2) suggest ways that the variable can be measured, and (3) give selected examples of how it may influence other components of the human ecosystem. The article concludes with specific suggestions as to how the human ecosystem model can play an organizing role in ecosystem management.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/08941929709381034",
    doi = "10.1080/08941929709381034",
    openalex = "W2052773069",
    references = "doi1023072402900, openalexw1562196292"
}

This article addresses one of the most controversial issues in resource management: how do population and market pressures affect resource use? After examining some shortcomings in several major approaches to the issue, the authors use structural equation analysis to decipher the relative and reciprocal influence of population pressures, markets, and institutional arrangements on forest use in the Kumaon Himalaya in India. By deploying an approach which investigates comparatively the effects of these factors, the article attempts to find a way out of the stultifying positions that participants in the debate on overpopulation and environmental change are forced to adopt. The results presented in the second half of the article are especially interesting, showing that local institutions created by the state play a critical role in mediating the influence of structural and socio‐economic variables. The findings thus possess significant implications for all who are interested in co‐management of renewable resources by the state and the community.

@article{doi1011111467766000050,
    author = "Agrawal, Arun and Yadama, Gautam N.",
    title = "How do Local Institutions Mediate Market and Population Pressures on Resources? Forest Panchayats in Kumaon, India",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Development and Change",
    abstract = "This article addresses one of the most controversial issues in resource management: how do population and market pressures affect resource use? After examining some shortcomings in several major approaches to the issue, the authors use structural equation analysis to decipher the relative and reciprocal influence of population pressures, markets, and institutional arrangements on forest use in the Kumaon Himalaya in India. By deploying an approach which investigates comparatively the effects of these factors, the article attempts to find a way out of the stultifying positions that participants in the debate on overpopulation and environmental change are forced to adopt. The results presented in the second half of the article are especially interesting, showing that local institutions created by the state play a critical role in mediating the influence of structural and socio‐economic variables. The findings thus possess significant implications for all who are interested in co‐management of renewable resources by the state and the community.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00050",
    doi = "10.1111/1467-7660.00050",
    openalex = "W2108882480",
    references = "doi101007bf02207996, doi101037003329091053430, doi101037003329091072238, doi1011770049124189017003004, doi1023071060065, doi1023072072165, doi1023072580595, doi1023073146384, openalexw1816720378, openalexw2010189956, openalexw2037503630"
}

Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction. By these and other standards, it is clear that we live on a human-dominated planet.

@article{doi101126science2775325494,
    author = "Vitousek, Peter M. and Mooney, Harold A. and Lubchenco, Jane and Melillo, Jerry M.",
    title = "Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction. By these and other standards, it is clear that we live on a human-dominated planet.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.494",
    doi = "10.1126/science.277.5325.494",
    openalex = "W2102200338",
    references = "doi1010079781489972149, doi1010079789400958517, doi101038371065a0, doi101038374255a0, doi101111j152317391991tb00384x, doi101126science2695222347, doi101146annureves23110192000431, doi102216i00318884322791, doi1023071310258, doi1023072257385, openalexw1625730066"
}

Review: Our Ecological Footprint: reducing human impact on the Earth. By Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees Reviewed by Gene Bazan Center for Sustainability, Pennsylvania State University Wackernagel, Mathis and William Rees. Our Ecological Footprint: reducing human impact on the Earth. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 1996. 160 pp. US $14.94 paper ISBN: 0-86571-312-X. Partially recycled, acid-free paper using soy-based ink. If the earth's inhabitants were to live at the standard of the U.S., we would require three planet Earths to support us. Many of us have heard or read something like this before. Our Ecological Footprint provides a graphically compelling and quantitatively rigorous way for us to engage in the worldwide sustainability debate: Ecological Footprint analysis. Through this analysis we can determine the consequences of our behavior, and proposed solutions, at any level: individual, household, community, nation, or world. Ecological Footprint analysis measures the aggregate land area required for a given population to exist in a sustainable manner. Wackernagel and Rees note that at 11 acres per person, the U.S. has the highest per capita footprint and suggest that this number should be closer to 6 acres per person. Further, the U.S. faces an 80% ecological deficit, which means we are borrowing from our grandchildren's legacy, and expropriating land from elsewhere in the world. By contrast, each European requires around 5 acres; however, Europeans face higher ecological deficits because they have smaller land areas. Unlike other approaches, which focus on the depletion of non-renewables such as fossil fuel and minerals, Ecological Footprint analysis asserts that the road to sustainability must be paved with sustainable practices. Thus, our use of fossil fuel must have as a compensatory sink the acres of woodlot required to sequester the carbon from our combustion of fossil fuel (in our cars, home heating, etc.) or, alternatively, the acres of fields required to grow biofuel. For example, in comparing our daily commute by car, bus or bicycle, and considering all land requirements (e.g., manufacturing land to produce

@article{doi105070g31710273,
    author = "Bazan, Gene",
    title = "Our Ecological Footprint: reducing human impact on the earth",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Electronic Green Journal",
    abstract = "Review: Our Ecological Footprint: reducing human impact on the Earth. By Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees Reviewed by Gene Bazan Center for Sustainability, Pennsylvania State University Wackernagel, Mathis and William Rees. Our Ecological Footprint: reducing human impact on the Earth. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 1996. 160 pp. US $14.94 paper ISBN: 0-86571-312-X. Partially recycled, acid-free paper using soy-based ink. If the earth's inhabitants were to live at the standard of the U.S., we would require three planet Earths to support us. Many of us have heard or read something like this before. Our Ecological Footprint provides a graphically compelling and quantitatively rigorous way for us to engage in the worldwide sustainability debate: Ecological Footprint analysis. Through this analysis we can determine the consequences of our behavior, and proposed solutions, at any level: individual, household, community, nation, or world. Ecological Footprint analysis measures the aggregate land area required for a given population to exist in a sustainable manner. Wackernagel and Rees note that at 11 acres per person, the U.S. has the highest per capita footprint and suggest that this number should be closer to 6 acres per person. Further, the U.S. faces an 80\% ecological deficit, which means we are borrowing from our grandchildren's legacy, and expropriating land from elsewhere in the world. By contrast, each European requires around 5 acres; however, Europeans face higher ecological deficits because they have smaller land areas. Unlike other approaches, which focus on the depletion of non-renewables such as fossil fuel and minerals, Ecological Footprint analysis asserts that the road to sustainability must be paved with sustainable practices. Thus, our use of fossil fuel must have as a compensatory sink the acres of woodlot required to sequester the carbon from our combustion of fossil fuel (in our cars, home heating, etc.) or, alternatively, the acres of fields required to grow biofuel. For example, in comparing our daily commute by car, bus or bicycle, and considering all land requirements (e.g., manufacturing land to produce",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5070/g31710273",
    doi = "10.5070/g31710273",
    openalex = "W1551322995"
}

Political ecology examines the political dynamics surrounding material and discursive struggles over the environment in the third world. The role of unequal power relations in constituting a politicized environment is a central theme. Particular attention is given to the ways in which conflict over access to environmental resources is linked to systems of political and economic control first elaborated during the colonial era. Studies emphasize the increased marginality and vulnerability of the poor as an outcome of such conflict. The impact of perceptions and discourses on the specification of environmental problems and interventions is also explored leading on to debates about the relative merits of indigenous and western scientific knowledge. Future research needs also to address issues linked to changing air and water quality, urban processes, organizational attributes and the human body.

@article{doi101177030913339802200104,
    author = "Bryant, Raymond L.",
    title = "Power, knowledge and political ecology in the third world: a review",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment",
    abstract = "Political ecology examines the political dynamics surrounding material and discursive struggles over the environment in the third world. The role of unequal power relations in constituting a politicized environment is a central theme. Particular attention is given to the ways in which conflict over access to environmental resources is linked to systems of political and economic control first elaborated during the colonial era. Studies emphasize the increased marginality and vulnerability of the poor as an outcome of such conflict. The impact of perceptions and discourses on the specification of environmental problems and interventions is also explored leading on to debates about the relative merits of indigenous and western scientific knowledge. Future research needs also to address issues linked to changing air and water quality, urban processes, organizational attributes and the human body.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/030913339802200104",
    doi = "10.1177/030913339802200104",
    openalex = "W2068539103",
    references = "openalexw1562196292"
}

@article{doi10230720048980,
    author = "Fukuyama, Francis and Scott, James C.",
    title = "Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Foreign Affairs",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/20048980",
    doi = "10.2307/20048980",
    openalex = "W3154739585"
}

▪ Abstract This review asks the question: What new avenues of social science enquiry are suggested by new ecological thinking, with its focus on nonequilibrium dynamics, spatial and temporal variation, complexity, and uncertainty? Following a review of the emergence of the “new ecology” and the highlighting of contrasts with earlier “balance of nature” perspectives, work emerging from ecological anthropology, political ecology, environmental and ecological economics, and debates about nature and culture are examined. With some important exceptions, much social science work and associated popular and policy debates remain firmly wedded to a static and equilibrial view. This review turns to three areas where a more dynamic perspective has emerged. Each has the potential to take central elements of new ecological thinking seriously, sometimes with major practical consequences for planning, intervention design, and management. First is the concern with spatial and temporal dynamics developed in detailed and situated analyses of “people in places,” using, in particular, historical analysis as a way of explaining environmental change across time and space. Second is the growing understanding of environment as both the product of and the setting for human interactions, which link dynamic structural analyses of environmental processes with an appreciation of human agency in environmental transformation, as part of a “structuration” approach. Third is the appreciation of complexity and uncertainty in social-ecological systems and, with this, the recognition of that prediction, management, and control are unlikely, if not impossible.

@article{doi101146annurevanthro281479,
    author = "Scoones, Ian",
    title = "New Ecology and the Social Sciences: What Prospects for a Fruitful Engagement?",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract This review asks the question: What new avenues of social science enquiry are suggested by new ecological thinking, with its focus on nonequilibrium dynamics, spatial and temporal variation, complexity, and uncertainty? Following a review of the emergence of the “new ecology” and the highlighting of contrasts with earlier “balance of nature” perspectives, work emerging from ecological anthropology, political ecology, environmental and ecological economics, and debates about nature and culture are examined. With some important exceptions, much social science work and associated popular and policy debates remain firmly wedded to a static and equilibrial view. This review turns to three areas where a more dynamic perspective has emerged. Each has the potential to take central elements of new ecological thinking seriously, sometimes with major practical consequences for planning, intervention design, and management. First is the concern with spatial and temporal dynamics developed in detailed and situated analyses of “people in places,” using, in particular, historical analysis as a way of explaining environmental change across time and space. Second is the growing understanding of environment as both the product of and the setting for human interactions, which link dynamic structural analyses of environmental processes with an appreciation of human agency in environmental transformation, as part of a “structuration” approach. Third is the appreciation of complexity and uncertainty in social-ecological systems and, with this, the recognition of that prediction, management, and control are unlikely, if not impossible.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.479",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.479",
    openalex = "W2159546432",
    references = "doi101038128243c0, doi1023072598477, doi105860choice330904, openalexw1562196292"
}

@article{doi101002sici1520650520009251aidevan130co27,
    author = "Winterhalder, Bruce and Smith, Eric Alden",
    title = "Analyzing adaptive strategies: Human behavioral ecology at twenty-five",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(2000)9:2<51::aid-evan1>3.0.co;2-7",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(2000)9:2<51::aid-evan1>3.0.co;2-7",
    openalex = "W1995815484",
    references = "doi101007bf01601953, doi101007bf02207996, doi1010160022519375901113, doi101086282454, doi101086282505, doi101086300102, doi101086406755, doi101086psaprocbienmeetp19822192409, doi1023071367778, doi1023072576242, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, openalexw1659631989"
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@article{doi101038415137a,
    author = "Fehr, Ernst and Gächter, Simon",
    title = "Altruistic punishment in humans",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/415137a",
    doi = "10.1038/415137a",
    openalex = "W2129135549",
    references = "doi101006jtbi20002111, doi1010160022519364900384, doi101046j14390310199900372x, doi101086406755, doi102307257983"
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The book examines theories (models) of how systems (those of humans, nature, and combined humannatural systems) function, and attempts to understand those theories and how they can help researchers develop effective institutions and policies for environmental management. The fundamental question this book asks is whether or not it is possible to get beyond seeing environment as a sub-component of social systems, and society as a sub-component of ecological systems, that is, to understand human-environment interactions as their own unique system. After examining the similarities and differences among human and natural systems, as well as the means by which they can be accounted for in theories and models, the book examines five efforts to describe human-natural systems. The point of these efforts is to provide the means of learning about those systems so that they can be managed adaptively. The final section of the book uses case studies to examine the application of integrated theories/models to the real world.

@book{openalexw1731457293,
    author = "Gunderson, Lance and Holling, C. S.",
    title = "Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems",
    year = "2002",
    abstract = "The book examines theories (models) of how systems (those of humans, nature, and combined humannatural systems) function, and attempts to understand those theories and how they can help researchers develop effective institutions and policies for environmental management. The fundamental question this book asks is whether or not it is possible to get beyond seeing environment as a sub-component of social systems, and society as a sub-component of ecological systems, that is, to understand human-environment interactions as their own unique system. After examining the similarities and differences among human and natural systems, as well as the means by which they can be accounted for in theories and models, the book examines five efforts to describe human-natural systems. The point of these efforts is to provide the means of learning about those systems so that they can be managed adaptively. The final section of the book uses case studies to examine the application of integrated theories/models to the real world.",
    openalex = "W1731457293"
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Archaeology's main contribution to the debate over the origins of modern humans has been investigating where and when modern human behavior is first recognized in the archaeological record. Most of this debate has been over the empirical record for the appearance and distribution of a set of traits that have come to be accepted as indicators of behavioral modernity. This debate has resulted in a series of competing models that we explicate here, and the traits are typically used as the test implications for these models. However, adequate tests of hypotheses and models rest on robust test implications, and we argue here that the current set of test implications suffers from three main problems: (1) Many are empirically derived from and context-specific to the richer European record, rendering them problematic for use in the primarily tropical and subtropical African continent. (2) They are ambiguous because other processes can be invoked, often with greater parsimony, to explain their character. (3) Many lack theoretical justification. In addition, there are severe taphonomic problems in the application of these test implications across differing spans of time. To provide adequate tests of these models, archaeologists must first subject these test implications to rigorous discussion, which is initiated here.

@article{doi101086377665,
    author = "Henshilwood, Christopher S. and Marean, Curtis W.",
    title = "The Origin of Modern Human Behavior",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Current Anthropology",
    abstract = "Archaeology's main contribution to the debate over the origins of modern humans has been investigating where and when modern human behavior is first recognized in the archaeological record. Most of this debate has been over the empirical record for the appearance and distribution of a set of traits that have come to be accepted as indicators of behavioral modernity. This debate has resulted in a series of competing models that we explicate here, and the traits are typically used as the test implications for these models. However, adequate tests of hypotheses and models rest on robust test implications, and we argue here that the current set of test implications suffers from three main problems: (1) Many are empirically derived from and context-specific to the richer European record, rendering them problematic for use in the primarily tropical and subtropical African continent. (2) They are ambiguous because other processes can be invoked, often with greater parsimony, to explain their character. (3) Many lack theoretical justification. In addition, there are severe taphonomic problems in the application of these test implications across differing spans of time. To provide adequate tests of these models, archaeologists must first subject these test implications to rigorous discussion, which is initiated here.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/377665",
    doi = "10.1086/377665",
    openalex = "W1657865724",
    references = "doi101002evan10110, doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi101002sici1520650520009251aidevan130co27, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101016004058097690040x, doi101017cbo9780511612381, doi101017s0140525x00032325, doi101038nature01025, doi101038nature01669, doi1010800969160x2012718920, doi101126science1067575, doi102307279653, doi1043249781315131450, openalexw1512990238"
}

PREFACE 1. Sense and nonsense 2. A history of evolution and human behaviours 3. Human sociobiology 4. Human behavioural ecology 5. Evolutionary psychology 6. Memetics 7. Gene-culture co-evolution 8. Comparing and integrating approaches FURTHER READING REFERENCES INDEX

@article{doi105860choice403388,
    title = "Sense and nonsense: evolutionary perspectives on human behaviour",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "PREFACE 1. Sense and nonsense 2. A history of evolution and human behaviours 3. Human sociobiology 4. Human behavioural ecology 5. Evolutionary psychology 6. Memetics 7. Gene-culture co-evolution 8. Comparing and integrating approaches FURTHER READING REFERENCES INDEX",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.40-3388",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.40-3388",
    openalex = "W1601558686",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009251aidevan130co27, doi1011770022022190211001, doi105860choice325693, doi107208chicago97802261495160010001"
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Written during the height of the ecology movement, The Ecological Transition is a stunning interdisciplinary work. It combines anthropology, ecology, and sociology to formulate an understanding of cultural-environmental relationships. While anthropologists have been studying relationships between humans and the physical environment for a very long time, only in the last thirty years have questions inherent in these relationships broadened beyond description and classification. For example, the concept of environment has been extended beyond the physical into the social.Although anthropologists have adopted many of the concepts that Bennett develops in the book, he also feels that the central issues have never been addressed, either by anthropologists or by people in related disciplines. The most important of these, in Bennett's opinion, is the failure to incorporate a respect for the environmental in contemporary culture, which would allow making exceptions in certain human practices in order to protect the environment. His point in The Ecological Transition is that a basic cultural change in modern civilization is necessary to achieve this end.Both a theoretical and a practical work, The Ecological Transition emphasizes the relationships between human culture, the physical environment, technology, and social policy. The Ecological Transition is a challenging volume that makes us face the consequences of human behavior in the modern world: its effect on pollution, natural resources, agriculture, the economy, and population, to name just a few areas. The book remains a significant contribution to the discourse on social, economic, and environmental problems. While the book was first published in 1976, it still reads as a contemporary tract.

@book{openalexw1562196292,
    author = "Bennett, John W.",
    title = "The Ecological Transition: Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation",
    year = "2003",
    abstract = "Written during the height of the ecology movement, The Ecological Transition is a stunning interdisciplinary work. It combines anthropology, ecology, and sociology to formulate an understanding of cultural-environmental relationships. While anthropologists have been studying relationships between humans and the physical environment for a very long time, only in the last thirty years have questions inherent in these relationships broadened beyond description and classification. For example, the concept of environment has been extended beyond the physical into the social.Although anthropologists have adopted many of the concepts that Bennett develops in the book, he also feels that the central issues have never been addressed, either by anthropologists or by people in related disciplines. The most important of these, in Bennett's opinion, is the failure to incorporate a respect for the environmental in contemporary culture, which would allow making exceptions in certain human practices in order to protect the environment. His point in The Ecological Transition is that a basic cultural change in modern civilization is necessary to achieve this end.Both a theoretical and a practical work, The Ecological Transition emphasizes the relationships between human culture, the physical environment, technology, and social policy. The Ecological Transition is a challenging volume that makes us face the consequences of human behavior in the modern world: its effect on pollution, natural resources, agriculture, the economy, and population, to name just a few areas. The book remains a significant contribution to the discourse on social, economic, and environmental problems. While the book was first published in 1976, it still reads as a contemporary tract.",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W1562196292",
    openalex = "W1562196292"
}

The transfer of food among group members is a ubiquitous feature of small-scale forager and forager-agricultural populations. The uniqueness of pervasive sharing among humans, especially among unrelated individuals, has led researchers to evaluate numerous hypotheses about the adaptive functions and patterns of sharing in different ecologies. This article attempts to organize available cross-cultural evidence pertaining to several contentious evolutionary models: kin selection, reciprocal altruism, tolerated scrounging, and costly signaling. Debates about the relevance of these models focus primarily on the extent to which individuals exert control over the distribution of foods they acquire, and the extent to which donors receive food or other fitness-enhancing benefits in return for shares given away. Each model can explain some of the variance in sharing patterns within groups, and so generalizations that ignore or deny the importance of any one model may be misleading. Careful multivariate analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of food transfer patterns are therefore necessary tools for assessing aspects of the sexual division of labor, human life history evolution, and the evolution of the family. This article also introduces a framework for better understanding variation in sharing behavior across small-scale traditional societies. I discuss the importance of resource ecology and the degree of coordination in acquisition activities as a key feature that influences sharing behavior.

@article{doi101017s0140525x04000123,
    author = "Gurven, Michael",
    title = "To give and to give not: The behavioral ecology of human food transfers",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "The transfer of food among group members is a ubiquitous feature of small-scale forager and forager-agricultural populations. The uniqueness of pervasive sharing among humans, especially among unrelated individuals, has led researchers to evaluate numerous hypotheses about the adaptive functions and patterns of sharing in different ecologies. This article attempts to organize available cross-cultural evidence pertaining to several contentious evolutionary models: kin selection, reciprocal altruism, tolerated scrounging, and costly signaling. Debates about the relevance of these models focus primarily on the extent to which individuals exert control over the distribution of foods they acquire, and the extent to which donors receive food or other fitness-enhancing benefits in return for shares given away. Each model can explain some of the variance in sharing patterns within groups, and so generalizations that ignore or deny the importance of any one model may be misleading. Careful multivariate analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of food transfer patterns are therefore necessary tools for assessing aspects of the sexual division of labor, human life history evolution, and the evolution of the family. This article also introduces a framework for better understanding variation in sharing behavior across small-scale traditional societies. I discuss the importance of resource ecology and the degree of coordination in acquisition activities as a key feature that influences sharing behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x04000123",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x04000123",
    openalex = "W2122226023",
    references = "doi101002sici1520650520009251aidevan130co27"
}

Emerging insights from adaptive and community-based resource management suggest that building resilience into both human and ecological systems is an effective way to cope with environmental change characterized by future surprises or unknowable risks. We argue that these emerging insights have implications for policies and strategies for responding to climate change. We review perspectives on collective action for natural resource management to inform understanding of climate response capacity. We demonstrate the importance of social learning, specifically in relation to the acceptance of strategies that build social and ecological resilience. Societies and communities dependent on natural resources need to enhance their capacity to adapt to the impacts of future climate change, particularly when such impacts could lie outside their experienced coping range. This argument is illustrated by an example of present-day collective action for community-based coastal management in Trinidad and Tobago. The case demonstrates that community-based management enhances adaptive capacity in two ways: by building networks that are important for coping with extreme events and by retaining the resilience of the underpinning resources and ecological systems

@article{doi105751es00667090210,
    author = "Tompkins, Emma L. and Adger, W. Neil",
    title = "Does Adaptive Management of Natural Resources Enhance Resilience to Climate Change?",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Ecology and Society",
    abstract = "Emerging insights from adaptive and community-based resource management suggest that building resilience into both human and ecological systems is an effective way to cope with environmental change characterized by future surprises or unknowable risks. We argue that these emerging insights have implications for policies and strategies for responding to climate change. We review perspectives on collective action for natural resource management to inform understanding of climate response capacity. We demonstrate the importance of social learning, specifically in relation to the acceptance of strategies that build social and ecological resilience. Societies and communities dependent on natural resources need to enhance their capacity to adapt to the impacts of future climate change, particularly when such impacts could lie outside their experienced coping range. This argument is illustrated by an example of present-day collective action for community-based coastal management in Trinidad and Tobago. The case demonstrates that community-based management enhances adaptive capacity in two ways: by building networks that are important for coping with extreme events and by retaining the resilience of the underpinning resources and ecological systems",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5751/es-00667-090210",
    doi = "10.5751/es-00667-090210",
    openalex = "W1495267566",
    references = "doi101016s0305750x01000638"
}

This first report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the conceptual framework that is being used in the MA. It is not a formal assessment of the literature, but rather a scientifically informed presentation of the choices made by the assessment team in structuring the analysis and framing the issues. The conceptual framework elaborated in this report describes the approach and assumptions that will underlie the analysis conducted in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. The framework was developed through interactions among the experts involved in the MA as well as stakeholders who will use its findings. It represents one means of examining the linkages between ecosystems and human well-being that is both scientifically credible and relevant to decision-makers. This framework for analysis and decision-making should be of use to a wide array of individuals and institutions in government, the private sector, and civil society that seek to incorporate considerations of ecosystem services in their assessments, plans, and actions.

@article{doi105860choice414645,
    title = "Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "This first report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the conceptual framework that is being used in the MA. It is not a formal assessment of the literature, but rather a scientifically informed presentation of the choices made by the assessment team in structuring the analysis and framing the issues. The conceptual framework elaborated in this report describes the approach and assumptions that will underlie the analysis conducted in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. The framework was developed through interactions among the experts involved in the MA as well as stakeholders who will use its findings. It represents one means of examining the linkages between ecosystems and human well-being that is both scientifically credible and relevant to decision-makers. This framework for analysis and decision-making should be of use to a wide array of individuals and institutions in government, the private sector, and civil society that seek to incorporate considerations of ecosystem services in their assessments, plans, and actions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.41-4645",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.41-4645",
    openalex = "W1496684753",
    references = "doi101002hyp3360090305, doi101007978113728787894, doi101007978146124018114, doi10100797894010183408, doi101016s0921800999000099, doi101016s1352023701003070, doi10103835098000, doi101038387253a0, doi101038nature01286, doi101086285824, doi101086419172, doi101126science2795352860, doi101126science28754591770, doi101146annurevecolsys120213091917, doi1012019780429258411, doi10129879780300188479022, doi1023071930070, doi1023071930126, doi1023071941447, doi1023072389612, doi1023072521228, doi1023073146384, doi102307jctv16h2njd11, openalexw1621450917"
}

Historical ecology is a new interdisciplinary research program concerned with comprehending temporal and spatial dimensions in the relationships of human societies to local environments and the cumulative global effects of these relationships. Historical ecology contains core postulates that concern qualitative types of human-mediated disturbance of natural environments and the effect of these on species diversity, among other parameters. A central term used in historical ecology to situate human behavior and agency in the environment is the landscape, as derived from historical geography, instead of the ecosystem, which is from systems ecology. Historical ecology is similar to nonequilibrium dynamic theory, but differs in its postulate of human-mediated disturbance as a principle of landscape transformation. Such disturbances counterintuitively may involve anthropogenic primary and secondary succession that result in net increases of alpha and even beta diversity. Applied historical ecology can supply the reference conditions of time depth and traditional knowledge to restore past landscapes.

@article{doi101146annurevanthro35081705123231,
    author = "Balée, William",
    title = "The Research Program of Historical Ecology",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "Historical ecology is a new interdisciplinary research program concerned with comprehending temporal and spatial dimensions in the relationships of human societies to local environments and the cumulative global effects of these relationships. Historical ecology contains core postulates that concern qualitative types of human-mediated disturbance of natural environments and the effect of these on species diversity, among other parameters. A central term used in historical ecology to situate human behavior and agency in the environment is the landscape, as derived from historical geography, instead of the ecosystem, which is from systems ecology. Historical ecology is similar to nonequilibrium dynamic theory, but differs in its postulate of human-mediated disturbance as a principle of landscape transformation. Such disturbances counterintuitively may involve anthropogenic primary and secondary succession that result in net increases of alpha and even beta diversity. Applied historical ecology can supply the reference conditions of time depth and traditional knowledge to restore past landscapes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123231",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123231",
    openalex = "W2038345407",
    references = "doi101146annurevanthro291493"
}

Integrated studies of coupled human and natural systems reveal new and complex patterns and processes not evident when studied by social or natural scientists separately. Synthesis of six case studies from around the world shows that couplings between human and natural systems vary across space, time, and organizational units. They also exhibit nonlinear dynamics with thresholds, reciprocal feedback loops, time lags, resilience, heterogeneity, and surprises. Furthermore, past couplings have legacy effects on present conditions and future possibilities.

@article{doi101126science1144004,
    author = "Liu, Jianguo and Dietz, Thomas and Carpenter, Stephen R. and Alberti, Marina and Folke, Carl and Morán, Emilio F. and Pell, Alice N. and Deadman, Peter and Kratz, Timothy K. and Lubchenco, Jane and Остром, Элинор and Ouyang, Zhiyun and Provencher, William and Redman, Charles L. and Schneider, Stephen H. and Taylor, William W.",
    title = "Complexity of Coupled Human and Natural Systems",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Integrated studies of coupled human and natural systems reveal new and complex patterns and processes not evident when studied by social or natural scientists separately. Synthesis of six case studies from around the world shows that couplings between human and natural systems vary across space, time, and organizational units. They also exhibit nonlinear dynamics with thresholds, reciprocal feedback loops, time lags, resilience, heterogeneity, and surprises. Furthermore, past couplings have legacy effects on present conditions and future possibilities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144004",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1144004",
    openalex = "W2010365184",
    references = "doi101016jgloenvcha200604002"
}

@incollection{doi101007978038785764017,
    author = "Bubolz, Margaret M. and Sontag, M. Suzanne",
    title = "Human Ecology Theory",
    year = "2008",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-85764-0\_17",
    doi = "10.1007/978-0-387-85764-0\_17",
    openalex = "W99067338",
    references = "openalexw1562196292"
}

On the question whether Science and Technology are under the surveillance of ethics, the answer is that scientists are responsible for the use of scientific achievements. Science, as a section of Culture, has been developed to assist human beings and has the moral obligation of improving the quality of life. As far as Environment is concerned, the initial harmonic relationship between man and Environment has been seriously disturbed during recent decades. The uncontrolled advancement of Technology and mankind’s dominant behaviour over Nature, have created serious ecological problems. Unless these problems will be controlled, they may produce irreversible adverse trends which may even jeopardise earth’s capacity. In order to achieve viable development and harmonious coexistence between humanity and Nature, mankind has to form a new relationship with the environment. The Christian Orthodox tradition provides the foundations of an Orthodox Environmental Ethic, which will provide sufficient teleological and religious reasons for environmental protection.

@article{doi10108000207230903028326,
    author = "Tsekos, Christos A. and Matthopoulos, Demetrios P.",
    title = "Ethics, science and environment: the need for a new environmental worldview",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "International Journal of Environmental Studies",
    abstract = "On the question whether Science and Technology are under the surveillance of ethics, the answer is that scientists are responsible for the use of scientific achievements. Science, as a section of Culture, has been developed to assist human beings and has the moral obligation of improving the quality of life. As far as Environment is concerned, the initial harmonic relationship between man and Environment has been seriously disturbed during recent decades. The uncontrolled advancement of Technology and mankind’s dominant behaviour over Nature, have created serious ecological problems. Unless these problems will be controlled, they may produce irreversible adverse trends which may even jeopardise earth’s capacity. In order to achieve viable development and harmonious coexistence between humanity and Nature, mankind has to form a new relationship with the environment. The Christian Orthodox tradition provides the foundations of an Orthodox Environmental Ethic, which will provide sufficient teleological and religious reasons for environmental protection.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/00207230903028326",
    doi = "10.1080/00207230903028326",
    openalex = "W2076313041",
    references = "doi102105ajph6151063a"
}

Humans, unlike any other multicellular species in Earth's history, have emerged as a global force that is transforming the ecology of an entire planet. It is no longer possible to understand, predict, or successfully manage ecological pattern, process, or change without understanding why and how humans reshape these over the long term. Here, a general causal theory is presented to explain why human societies gained the capacity to globally alter the patterns, processes, and dynamics of ecology and how these anthropogenic alterations unfold over time and space as societies themselves change over human generational time. Building on existing theories of ecosystem engineering, niche construction, inclusive inheritance, cultural evolution, ultrasociality, and social change, this theory of anthroecological change holds that sociocultural evolution of subsistence regimes based on ecosystem engineering, social specialization, and non‐kin exchange, or “sociocultural niche construction,” is the main cause of both the long‐term upscaling of human societies and their unprecedented transformation of the biosphere. Human sociocultural niche construction can explain, where classic ecological theory cannot, the sustained transformative effects of human societies on biogeography, ecological succession, ecosystem processes, and the ecological patterns and processes of landscapes, biomes, and the biosphere. Anthroecology theory generates empirically testable hypotheses on the forms and trajectories of long‐term anthropogenic ecological change that have significant theoretical and practical implications across the subdisciplines of ecology and conservation. Though still at an early stage of development, anthroecology theory aligns with and integrates established theoretical frameworks including social–ecological systems, social metabolism, countryside biogeography, novel ecosystems, and anthromes. The “fluxes of nature” are fast becoming “cultures of nature.” To investigate, understand, and address the ultimate causes of anthropogenic ecological change, not just the consequences, human sociocultural processes must become as much a part of ecological theory and practice as biological and geophysical processes are now. Strategies for achieving this goal and for advancing ecological science and conservation in an increasingly anthropogenic biosphere are presented.

@article{doi1018901422741,
    author = "Ellis, Erle C.",
    title = "Ecology in an anthropogenic biosphere",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = "Humans, unlike any other multicellular species in Earth's history, have emerged as a global force that is transforming the ecology of an entire planet. It is no longer possible to understand, predict, or successfully manage ecological pattern, process, or change without understanding why and how humans reshape these over the long term. Here, a general causal theory is presented to explain why human societies gained the capacity to globally alter the patterns, processes, and dynamics of ecology and how these anthropogenic alterations unfold over time and space as societies themselves change over human generational time. Building on existing theories of ecosystem engineering, niche construction, inclusive inheritance, cultural evolution, ultrasociality, and social change, this theory of anthroecological change holds that sociocultural evolution of subsistence regimes based on ecosystem engineering, social specialization, and non‐kin exchange, or “sociocultural niche construction,” is the main cause of both the long‐term upscaling of human societies and their unprecedented transformation of the biosphere. Human sociocultural niche construction can explain, where classic ecological theory cannot, the sustained transformative effects of human societies on biogeography, ecological succession, ecosystem processes, and the ecological patterns and processes of landscapes, biomes, and the biosphere. Anthroecology theory generates empirically testable hypotheses on the forms and trajectories of long‐term anthropogenic ecological change that have significant theoretical and practical implications across the subdisciplines of ecology and conservation. Though still at an early stage of development, anthroecology theory aligns with and integrates established theoretical frameworks including social–ecological systems, social metabolism, countryside biogeography, novel ecosystems, and anthromes. The “fluxes of nature” are fast becoming “cultures of nature.” To investigate, understand, and address the ultimate causes of anthropogenic ecological change, not just the consequences, human sociocultural processes must become as much a part of ecological theory and practice as biological and geophysical processes are now. Strategies for achieving this goal and for advancing ecological science and conservation in an increasingly anthropogenic biosphere are presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/14-2274.1",
    doi = "10.1890/14-2274.1",
    openalex = "W2145303294",
    references = "doi101007s1375201200284, doi101016jgloenvcha200604002, doi101016jtree201202003, doi101017s0140525x06009083, doi101038461472a, doi101038nature10452, doi101073pnas0510792103, doi101073pnas1116437108, doi101086377665, doi101098rstb20100162, doi101111brv12053, doi101126science1168112, doi101126science1170165, doi101126science2775325494, doi101146annurevanthro291493, doi101537ase188722495, doi1016410006356820010510933teotwa20co2, doi1023071367778, openalexw1515810707, openalexw2624262714"
}

@incollection{doi104324978131525832416,
    title = "A THEORY OF HUMAN MOTIVATION",
    year = "2017",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315258324-16",
    doi = "10.4324/9781315258324-16",
    openalex = "W2162040794",
    references = "doi1043249781315010533"
}

A historical tendency to use European ancestry samples hinders medical genetics research, including the use of polygenic scores, which are individual-level metrics of genetic risk. We analyze the first decade of polygenic scoring studies (2008-2017, inclusive), and find that 67% of studies included exclusively European ancestry participants and another 19% included only East Asian ancestry participants. Only 3.8% of studies were among cohorts of African, Hispanic, or Indigenous peoples. We find that predictive performance of European ancestry-derived polygenic scores is lower in non-European ancestry samples (e.g. African ancestry samples: t = -5.97, df = 24, p = 3.7 × 10 -6), and we demonstrate the effects of methodological choices in polygenic score distributions for worldwide populations. These findings highlight the need for improved treatment of linkage disequilibrium and variant frequencies when applying polygenic scoring to cohorts of non-European ancestry, and bolster the rationale for large-scale GWAS in diverse human populations.

@article{doi101038s41467019111120,
    author = "Duncan, Laramie E. and Shen, Hanyang and Gelaye, Bizu and Meijsen, Joeri and Ressler, Kerry J. and Feldman, Marcus W. and Peterson, Roseann E. and Domingue, Benjamin W.",
    title = "Analysis of polygenic risk score usage and performance in diverse human populations",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "A historical tendency to use European ancestry samples hinders medical genetics research, including the use of polygenic scores, which are individual-level metrics of genetic risk. We analyze the first decade of polygenic scoring studies (2008-2017, inclusive), and find that 67\% of studies included exclusively European ancestry participants and another 19\% included only East Asian ancestry participants. Only 3.8\% of studies were among cohorts of African, Hispanic, or Indigenous peoples. We find that predictive performance of European ancestry-derived polygenic scores is lower in non-European ancestry samples (e.g. African ancestry samples: t = -5.97, df = 24, p = 3.7 × 10 -6), and we demonstrate the effects of methodological choices in polygenic score distributions for worldwide populations. These findings highlight the need for improved treatment of linkage disequilibrium and variant frequencies when applying polygenic scoring to cohorts of non-European ancestry, and bolster the rationale for large-scale GWAS in diverse human populations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11112-0",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-019-11112-0",
    openalex = "W2963160524",
    references = "doi101016jajhg201703004, doi101073pnas1620732114"
}

@article{doi101016jeneco2020105060,
    author = "Khan, Zeeshan and Ali, Shahid and Dong, Kangyin and Li, Rita Yi Man",
    title = "How does fiscal decentralization affect CO2 emissions? The roles of institutions and human capital",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Energy Economics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.105060",
    doi = "10.1016/j.eneco.2020.105060",
    openalex = "W3111578616"
}

Managing complex problems in socio-ecological systems (SES) requires innovative approaches, which account for multiple scales, large datasets, and diverse lived experiences. By combining two commonly utilized mixed-methods, public participation GIS (PPGIS) and Q-method (Q), Q + PPGIS has the potential to reveal competing agendas and reduce conflict, but its benefits and weaknesses are comparatively understudied. Using a systematic review, we evaluated how different studies have employed and implemented the Q + PPGIS method. We found 16 studies, comprising 30 publications, with considerable variation in their geographic foci, research disciplines, and addressed SES challenges. These studies exhibit a lack of cohesion between methodological design and implementation and the absence of a consistent application of the method. Nonetheless, Q + PPGIS offers a tool that can guide policy, better inform stakeholders, and reduce conflict based on misconceptions. Resolving the shortcomings identified here will broaden Q + PPGIS utility in geographically situating and representing multiple realities within complex socio-ecological systems challenges.

@article{doi101007s1328002201709z,
    author = "Johnson, Malcolm S. and Adams, Vanessa M. and Byrne, Jason and Harris, Rebecca M. B.",
    title = "The benefits of Q + PPGIS for coupled human-natural systems research: A systematic review",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "AMBIO",
    abstract = "Managing complex problems in socio-ecological systems (SES) requires innovative approaches, which account for multiple scales, large datasets, and diverse lived experiences. By combining two commonly utilized mixed-methods, public participation GIS (PPGIS) and Q-method (Q), Q + PPGIS has the potential to reveal competing agendas and reduce conflict, but its benefits and weaknesses are comparatively understudied. Using a systematic review, we evaluated how different studies have employed and implemented the Q + PPGIS method. We found 16 studies, comprising 30 publications, with considerable variation in their geographic foci, research disciplines, and addressed SES challenges. These studies exhibit a lack of cohesion between methodological design and implementation and the absence of a consistent application of the method. Nonetheless, Q + PPGIS offers a tool that can guide policy, better inform stakeholders, and reduce conflict based on misconceptions. Resolving the shortcomings identified here will broaden Q + PPGIS utility in geographically situating and representing multiple realities within complex socio-ecological systems challenges.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-022-01709-z",
    doi = "10.1007/s13280-022-01709-z",
    openalex = "W4220716342",
    references = "doi10100797894007117781"
}