Human evolution

Alfred R. Wallace, The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of "Natural Selection", Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, Vol. 2 (1864), pp. clviii-clxxxvii

@article{doi1023073025211,
    author = "WALLACE, ALFRED R.",
    title = {The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of "Natural Selection"},
    year = "1864",
    journal = "Journal of the Anthropological Society of London",
    abstract = {Alfred R. Wallace, The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of "Natural Selection", Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, Vol. 2 (1864), pp. clviii-clxxxvii},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3025211",
    doi = "10.2307/3025211",
    openalex = "W179199121"
}

@misc{blumenstock1941climate4,
    author = "Blumenstock, D. I. and Thornthwaithe, C. W",
    title = "Climate and The World Pattern, in Climate and Man, 1941 of United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook",
    year = "1941",
    howpublished = "Washington, D.C., United States Department of Agriculture, p. 98-127; 1248 pp",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Blumenstock, D. I., and Thornthwaithe, C. W., 1941, Climate and The World Pattern, in Climate and Man, 1941 of United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook: Washington, D.C., United States Department of Agriculture, p. 98-127; 1248 pp.}"
}

@misc{debeer1948embryology17,
    author = "de Beer, G. R",
    title = "Embryology and the Evolution of Man",
    year = "1948",
    howpublished = "Cape Town, Royal Society of South Africa",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {de Beer, G. R., 1948, Embryology and the Evolution of Man: Cape Town, Royal Society of South Africa.}"
}

@article{eiseley1955fossil,
    author = "Eiseley, Loren C.",
    title = "Fossil Man and Human Evolution",
    year = "1955",
    journal = "Yearbook of Anthropology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/yearanth.0.3031138",
    doi = "10.1086/yearanth.0.3031138",
    openalex = "W2404498569",
    pages = "61-78",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330080109, doi101002ajpa1330080310, doi101086281823, doi101093oso97801986078090010001, doi101144gsljgs1949105010409, doi1023073025211, doi105962bhltitle19780"
}

@misc{deterra1956a19,
    author = "de Terra, H",
    title = "A New Approach to the Problem of Man's Origin",
    year = "1956",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 124, p. 1282-1285",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {de Terra, H., 1956, A New Approach to the Problem of Man's Origin: Science, v. 124, p. 1282-1285.}"
}

This discussion recounts the development of several anthropological definitions of human nature. It then examines conclusions of studies in other disciplines that make possible a revised empirical definition of human nature and which have led to reexamination of paleoanthropological data classed as unimportant under the rubrics of precceding studies. Finally, this discussion appraises certain of these data, as they pertain to the question: “Do empirical evidences suggest that a human nature, as well as a human structure, may be the product of evolutionary processes?”

@article{doi101086287631,
    author = "Williams, Thomas R.",
    title = "The Evolution of a Human Nature",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Philosophy of Science",
    abstract = "This discussion recounts the development of several anthropological definitions of human nature. It then examines conclusions of studies in other disciplines that make possible a revised empirical definition of human nature and which have led to reexamination of paleoanthropological data classed as unimportant under the rubrics of precceding studies. Finally, this discussion appraises certain of these data, as they pertain to the question: “Do empirical evidences suggest that a human nature, as well as a human structure, may be the product of evolutionary processes?”",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/287631",
    doi = "10.1086/287631",
    openalex = "W2086383794",
    references = "doi101086281823"
}

@article{doi101126science1303379831,
    author = "Howell, F. Clark",
    title = "The Villafranchian and Human Origin",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.130.3379.831",
    doi = "10.1126/science.130.3379.831",
    openalex = "W2942972579"
}

@book{penfield1959speech39,
    author = "Penfield, W. and Robert, L",
    title = "Speech and Brain Mechanisms",
    year = "1959",
    publisher = "Princeton, Princeton University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Penfield, W., and Robert, L., 1959, Speech and Brain Mechanisms: Princeton, Princeton University Press.}"
}

@book{stirton1959time48,
    author = "Stirton, R. A",
    title = "Time, Life, and Man - The Fossil Record",
    year = "1959",
    publisher = "New York, Wiley, 558 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Stirton, R. A., 1959, Time, Life, and Man - The Fossil Record: New York, Wiley, 558 p.}"
}

@article{crossref1960evolution,
    title = "Evolution of Mankind",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/185411a0",
    doi = "10.1038/185411a0",
    number = "4711",
    openalex = "W4252912067",
    pages = "411-412",
    volume = "185"
}

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.

@article{doi101017s0003598x00035377,
    author = "Škerlj, B.",
    title = "Human Evolution Neanderthal Man",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Antiquity",
    abstract = "An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00035377",
    doi = "10.1017/s0003598x00035377",
    openalex = "W2474908365",
    references = "eiseley1955fossil"
}

@book{dobzhansky1962mankind20,
    author = "Dobzhansky, T",
    title = "Mankind Evolving",
    year = "1962",
    publisher = "New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 381 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dobzhansky, T., 1962, Mankind Evolving: New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 381 p.}"
}

@article{prufer1962races,
    author = "Prufer, Olaf H. and Kephart, Calvin",
    title = "Races of Mankind: Their Origin and Mankind",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Technology and Culture",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3100813",
    doi = "10.2307/3100813",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2312383119",
    pages = "105",
    volume = "3"
}

@article{greene1963mankind,
    author = "Greene, John C. and Dobzhansky, Theodosius",
    title = "Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species",
    year = "1963",
    journal = "Technology and Culture",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3101360",
    doi = "10.2307/3101360",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2003272339",
    pages = "111",
    volume = "4"
}

@book{clark1964fossil15,
    author = "Clark, W. E. le G",
    title = "Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution",
    year = "1964",
    publisher = "Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Clark, W. E. le G., 1964, Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution: Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press.}"
}

@book{legrosclark1964the30,
    author = "Le Gros Clark, W. E",
    title = "The Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution [2nd ed.]",
    year = "1964",
    publisher = "Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 201 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Le Gros Clark, W. E., 1964, The Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution [2nd ed.]: Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 201 p.}"
}

@book{buettnerjanusch1966origins12,
    author = "Buettner-Janusch, J",
    title = "Origins of Man",
    year = "1966",
    publisher = "New York, Wiley and Sons",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Buettner-Janusch, J., 1966, Origins of Man: New York, Wiley and Sons.}"
}

@misc{teilharddechardin1966mans51,
    author = "Teilhard de Chardin, P",
    title = "Man's Place in Nature",
    year = "1966",
    howpublished = "New York, Harper \& Row, 124 p.; Translated by R. Hague",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Teilhard de Chardin, P., 1966, Man's Place in Nature: New York, Harper \& Row, 124 p.; Translated by R. Hague.}"
}

Several workers have observed that there is an extremely close immunological resemblance between the serum albumins of apes and man. Our studies with the quantitative micro-complement fixation method confirm this observation. To explain the closeness of the resemblance, previous workers suggested that there has been a slowing down of albumin evolution since the time of divergence of apes and man. Recent evidence, however, indicates that the albumin molecule has evolved at a steady rate. Hence, we suggest that apes and man have a more recent common ancestry than is usually supposed. Our calculations lead to the suggestion that, if man and Old World monkeys last shared a common ancestor 30 million years ago, then man and African apes shared a common ancestor 5 million years ago, that is, in the Pliocene era.

@article{doi101126science15838051200,
    author = "Sarich, Vincent M. and Wilson, Allan C.",
    title = "Immunological Time Scale for Hominid Evolution",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Several workers have observed that there is an extremely close immunological resemblance between the serum albumins of apes and man. Our studies with the quantitative micro-complement fixation method confirm this observation. To explain the closeness of the resemblance, previous workers suggested that there has been a slowing down of albumin evolution since the time of divergence of apes and man. Recent evidence, however, indicates that the albumin molecule has evolved at a steady rate. Hence, we suggest that apes and man have a more recent common ancestry than is usually supposed. Our calculations lead to the suggestion that, if man and Old World monkeys last shared a common ancestor 30 million years ago, then man and African apes shared a common ancestor 5 million years ago, that is, in the Pliocene era.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.158.3805.1200",
    doi = "10.1126/science.158.3805.1200",
    openalex = "W2048918147",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330260211, doi1010160002934366901458, doi101016s006532330860128x, doi101038202147a0, doi101038205135a0, doi101038213155a0, doi101073pnas581142, doi101126science147365368, doi101159000155026, doi1043249781315081083"
}

@misc{howells1967mankind26,
    author = "Howells, W",
    title = "Mankind in the Making [Rev. ed.]",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "Garden City, Doubleday, 384 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Howells, W., 1967, Mankind in the Making [Rev. ed.]: Garden City, Doubleday, 384 p.}"
}

@misc{sarich1967immunological44,
    author = "Sarich, V. and Wilson, A",
    title = "Immunological Time Scale for Homonid Evolution",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 158, p. 1200-1203",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sarich, V., and Wilson, A., 1967, Immunological Time Scale for Homonid Evolution: Science, v. 158, p. 1200-1203.}"
}

@misc{sullivan1967bone49,
    author = "Sullivan, W",
    title = "Bone found in Kenya indicates man is 2.5 million years old",
    year = "1967",
    howpublished = "The New York Times; 1967",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sullivan, W., 1967, Bone found in Kenya indicates man is 2.5 million years old: The New York Times; 1967.}"
}

@misc{bresler1968environments10,
    author = "Bresler, J. B",
    title = "Environments of Man",
    year = "1968",
    howpublished = "Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 289 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bresler, J. B., 1968, Environments of Man: Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 289 p.}"
}

It is argued that a number of recent writings based on primate studies and on analysis of early hominid evolution have blurred certain central issues regarding human and non-human primate behavior. The central problem of how man organizes his experience and how he interacts with his environment is seldom squarely faced. A framework is provided here which examines tool-making in terms of psychological processes. It is argued that both tool-making and language come out of the same cognitive structure. The framework attempts to provide a means by which the appearance of emergent human behavior may be gauged from the fossil record. Two attributes, arbitrary form and imposition, are defined. It is argued that these two dimensions are specific to the human psychological structure, and that stone tools made to any standardized form satisfy the requirements of emergence in cognitive structure. Tool-making is analyzed using models for language behavior, and strong parallels are shown with certain design features that are specific to human communication. Tools are then viewed from the perspective of social psychological frameworks relating to the acquisition of norms of reference, perception, and the passage of objects from an unstructured to structured condition. This analysis suggests that arbitrary symbols played a major part in the development of social controls adaptive for early hominids utilizing strategies of division of labor, since symbols produce invariant relationships that can be defined outside of strictly biological relationships.

@article{doi101086201036,
    author = "Holloway, Ralph L.",
    title = "Culture: A Human Domain",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Current Anthropology",
    abstract = "It is argued that a number of recent writings based on primate studies and on analysis of early hominid evolution have blurred certain central issues regarding human and non-human primate behavior. The central problem of how man organizes his experience and how he interacts with his environment is seldom squarely faced. A framework is provided here which examines tool-making in terms of psychological processes. It is argued that both tool-making and language come out of the same cognitive structure. The framework attempts to provide a means by which the appearance of emergent human behavior may be gauged from the fossil record. Two attributes, arbitrary form and imposition, are defined. It is argued that these two dimensions are specific to the human psychological structure, and that stone tools made to any standardized form satisfy the requirements of emergence in cognitive structure. Tool-making is analyzed using models for language behavior, and strong parallels are shown with certain design features that are specific to human communication. Tools are then viewed from the perspective of social psychological frameworks relating to the acquisition of norms of reference, perception, and the passage of objects from an unstructured to structured condition. This analysis suggests that arbitrary symbols played a major part in the development of social controls adaptive for early hominids utilizing strategies of division of labor, since symbols produce invariant relationships that can be defined outside of strictly biological relationships.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/201036",
    doi = "10.1086/201036",
    openalex = "W2038298471",
    references = "doi101086401258"
}

@article{siegmund1969experiment,
    author = "Siegmund, Georg",
    title = "Experiment Mankind. The Directing of Human Evolution",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Philosophy and History",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5840/philhist19692142",
    doi = "10.5840/philhist19692142",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2332728987",
    pages = "41-42",
    volume = "2"
}

@misc{ehrilch1970population22,
    author = "Ehrilch, P. R. and Erhlich, A. H",
    title = "Population, resources, environment",
    year = "1970",
    howpublished = "issues in human ecology: San Francisco, Freeman, 383 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Ehrilch, P. R., and Erhlich, A. H., 1970, Population, resources, environment: issues in human ecology: San Francisco, Freeman, 383 p.}"
}

@book{bajema1971natural2,
    author = "Bajema, C. J",
    title = "Natural Selection in Human Populations, the Measurement of Ongoing Genetic Evolution in Contemporary Societies",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "New York, Wiley, 406 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bajema, C. J., 1971, Natural Selection in Human Populations, the Measurement of Ongoing Genetic Evolution in Contemporary Societies: New York, Wiley, 406 p.}"
}

@book{clark1971the16,
    author = "Clark, W. E. le G",
    title = "The Antecedents of Man",
    year = "1971",
    publisher = "Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Clark, W. E. le G., 1971, The Antecedents of Man: Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press.}"
}

@misc{uzzell1971phyletic53,
    author = "Uzzell, T. and Pilbeam, D",
    title = "Phyletic divergence dates of homomid primates - a comparison of fossil and molecular data",
    year = "1971",
    howpublished = "Evolution, v. 25, p. 615-635",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Uzzell, T., and Pilbeam, D., 1971, Phyletic divergence dates of homomid primates - a comparison of fossil and molecular data: Evolution, v. 25, p. 615-635.}"
}

@article{kohne1972evolution29,
    author = "Kohne, D. E. and Chiscon, J. A. and Hoyer, B. H",
    title = "Evolution of primate DNA sequences",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 627-644",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Kohne, D. E., Chiscon, J. A., and Hoyer, B. H., 1972, Evolution of primate DNA sequences: Journal of Human Evolution, v. 1, p. 627-644.}"
}

@misc{sullivan1972skull50,
    author = "Sullivan, W",
    title = "Skull pushes back man's origin",
    year = "1972",
    howpublished = "The New York Times; 1972",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sullivan, W., 1972, Skull pushes back man's origin: The New York Times; 1972.}"
}

@article{doi1010160047248473901231,
    author = "Holloway, Ralph L.",
    title = "Endocranial volumes of early African hominids, and the role of the brain in human mosaic evolution",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(73)90123-1",
    doi = "10.1016/0047-2484(73)90123-1",
    openalex = "W2008454170",
    references = "openalexw2416473814"
}

@book{oxnard1973form37,
    author = "Oxnard, C. E",
    title = "Form and Pattern in Human Evolution",
    year = "1973",
    publisher = "Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 218 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Oxnard, C. E., 1973, Form and Pattern in Human Evolution: Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 218 p.}"
}

@misc{campbell1974human13,
    author = "Campbell, B. G",
    title = "Human Evolution",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "An Introduction to Man's Adaptations [2nd ed.]: Chicago, Ill., Aldine Publishing Company, 469 p.; Third Edition: 1985",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Campbell, B. G., 1974, Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations [2nd ed.]: Chicago, Ill., Aldine Publishing Company, 469 p.; Third Edition: 1985.}"
}

@misc{holloway1974the25,
    author = "Holloway, R. L",
    title = "The casts of fossil homonid brains",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 231, no. 1, p. 106-115",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Holloway, R. L., 1974, The casts of fossil homonid brains: Scientific American, v. 231, no. 1, p. 106-115.}"
}

@misc{pilbeam1974size41,
    author = "Pilbeam, D. and Gould, S. J",
    title = "Size and scaling in human evolution",
    year = "1974",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 186, p. 892-901",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Pilbeam, D., and Gould, S. J., 1974, Size and scaling in human evolution: Science, v. 186, p. 892-901.}"
}

@misc{birdsell1975human3,
    author = "Birdsell, J. B",
    title = "Human Evolution",
    year = "1975",
    howpublished = "Chicago, Ill., Rand McNally College Publishing Co., 546 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Birdsell, J. B., 1975, Human Evolution: Chicago, Ill., Rand McNally College Publishing Co., 546 p.}"
}

@article{doi101126science1090005,
    author = "King, Mary‐Claire and Wilson, Allan C.",
    title = "Evolution at Two Levels in Humans and Chimpanzees",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1090005",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1090005",
    openalex = "W2128969076",
    references = "doi101007bf00485780, doi101016002228367190324x, doi101016s002192581861823x, doi1010179781316276259010, doi101038224149a0, doi101073pnas581142, doi101073pnas6341088, doi101073pnas7183028, doi101093genetics701113, doi101126science15838051200, doi1023073001850, doi1043249781315081083, sarich1967immunological"
}

@misc{king1975evolution28,
    author = "King, M. C. and Wilson, A. C",
    title = "Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees",
    year = "1975",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 188, p. 107-118",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {King, M. C., and Wilson, A. C., 1975, Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees: Science, v. 188, p. 107-118.}"
}

@misc{oxnard1975the36,
    author = "Oxnard, C",
    title = "The Place of the Australopithecines in Human Evolution",
    year = "1975",
    howpublished = "Grounds for Doubt?: Nature, v. 258, p. 386-394",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Oxnard, C., 1975, The Place of the Australopithecines in Human Evolution: Grounds for Doubt?: Nature, v. 258, p. 386-394.}"
}

@book{oxnard1975uniqueness38,
    author = "Oxnard, C. E",
    title = "Uniqueness and Diversity in Human Evolution",
    year = "1975",
    publisher = "Morphometric Studies of Australopithecines: Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press, 133 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Oxnard, C. E., 1975, Uniqueness and Diversity in Human Evolution: Morphometric Studies of Australopithecines: Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press, 133 p.}"
}

@misc{brace1977human7,
    author = "Brace, C. L. and Montagu, A",
    title = "Human Evolution",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "New York, Macmillan",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brace, C. L., and Montagu, A., 1977, Human Evolution: New York, Macmillan.}"
}

@misc{hartl1977our24,
    author = "Hartl, D. L",
    title = "Our Uncertain Heritage, Genetics and Human Diversity",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "Philadelphia, Pa., J.B. Lippincott Co",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hartl, D. L., 1977, Our Uncertain Heritage, Genetics and Human Diversity: Philadelphia, Pa., J.B. Lippincott Co.}"
}

@misc{simons1977ramipithecus46,
    author = "Simons, E. L",
    title = "Ramipithecus",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 236, no. 5, p. 28- 35",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Simons, E. L., 1977, Ramipithecus: Scientific American, v. 236, no. 5, p. 28- 35.}"
}

@misc{washburn1978the54,
    author = "Washburn, S. L",
    title = "The evolution of man",
    year = "1978",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 239, no. 3, p. 194-208",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Washburn, S. L., 1978, The evolution of man: Scientific American, v. 239, no. 3, p. 194-208.}"
}

@misc{brace1979atlas8,
    author = "Brace, C. L. and Nelson, H. and Kom, N. and Brace, M. L",
    title = "Atlas of Human Evolution",
    year = "1979",
    howpublished = "New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brace, C. L., Nelson, H., Kom, N., and Brace, M. L., 1979, Atlas of Human Evolution: New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.}"
}

@misc{degrazia1981chaos18,
    author = "De Grazia, A",
    title = "Chaos and Creation",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "An Introduction to Quantavolution in Human Natural History [1st ed.]: Princeton, Metron, 335 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {De Grazia, A., 1981, Chaos and Creation: An Introduction to Quantavolution in Human Natural History [1st ed.]: Princeton, Metron, 335 p.}"
}

@misc{gould1981the23,
    author = "Gould, S. J",
    title = "The Mismeasure of Man",
    year = "1981",
    howpublished = "New York, Norton",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Gould, S. J., 1981, The Mismeasure of Man: New York, Norton.}"
}

@book{hrdy1981the27,
    author = "Hrdy, S. B",
    title = "The Woman That Never Evolved",
    year = "1981",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 256 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Hrdy, S. B., 1981, The Woman That Never Evolved: Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 256 p.}"
}

@article{doi101016s0047248482800997,
    author = "Vilensky, Joel A. and Hoesen, Gary W. Van and Damásio, António R.",
    title = "The limbic system and human evolution",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0047-2484(82)80099-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s0047-2484(82)80099-7",
    openalex = "W2022409495",
    references = "doi1023072798729"
}

@misc{morowitz1982navels35,
    author = "Morowitz, H. J",
    title = "Navels of Eden",
    year = "1982",
    howpublished = "Science 82, v. 3, no. 2, p. 20-22",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Morowitz, H. J., 1982, Navels of Eden: Science 82, v. 3, no. 2, p. 20-22.}"
}

@misc{brace1983humans6,
    author = "Brace, C. L",
    title = "Humans in Space and Time, in Godfrey, L. R., ed., Scientists Confront Creationism",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "New York, Norton, p. 245-282",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brace, C. L., 1983, Humans in Space and Time, in Godfrey, L. R., ed., Scientists Confront Creationism: New York, Norton, p. 245-282.}"
}

@misc{brace1983humans9,
    author = "Brace, L",
    title = "Humans in Time and Space, in Godfrey, L. R., ed., Scientists Confront Creationism",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "New York, W.W. Norton \& Co., p. 245-282",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brace, L., 1983, Humans in Time and Space, in Godfrey, L. R., ed., Scientists Confront Creationism: New York, W.W. Norton \& Co., p. 245-282.}"
}

Corresponding Editor: Joseph Felsenstein

@article{doi101111j155856461983tb05533x,
    author = "Templeton, Alan R.",
    title = "PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE FROM RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE CLEAVAGE SITE MAPS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE EVOLUTION OF HUMANS AND THE APES",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Corresponding Editor: Joseph Felsenstein",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb05533.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1983.tb05533.x",
    openalex = "W2317907906",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330550203, doi101007bf01734359, doi101007bf01797451, doi101038scientificamerican117998, doi101073pnas76105269, doi101073pnas7641967, doi10108000031305195710501091, doi101093sysbio274401, doi101126science2114480341, doi1023071268795, doi1023072412923, johanson1979a, openalexw2506868775"
}

@misc{rukang1983peking43,
    author = "Rukang, W. and Shenlong, L",
    title = "Peking Man",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 248, p. 86-94",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Rukang, W., and Shenlong, L., 1983, Peking Man: Scientific American, v. 248, p. 86-94.}"
}

@misc{templeton1983phylogenetic52,
    author = "Templeton, A. R",
    title = "Phylogenetic inference from restriction endonuclease cleavage site maps with particular reference to the evolution of humans and apes",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "Evolution, v. 37, p. 221-244",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Templeton, A. R., 1983, Phylogenetic inference from restriction endonuclease cleavage site maps with particular reference to the evolution of humans and apes: Evolution, v. 37, p. 221-244.}"
}

@misc{zechun1983peking55,
    author = "Zechun, L",
    title = "Peking Man's cave yeilds new finds",
    year = "1983",
    howpublished = "The Geographical Magazine, v. 55, no. 6, p. 297-300",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Zechun, L., 1983, Peking Man's cave yeilds new finds: The Geographical Magazine, v. 55, no. 6, p. 297-300.}"
}

@misc{andrews1984the1,
    author = "Andrews, P",
    title = "The descent of man",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "New Scientist, v. 102, p. 24-25",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Andrews, P., 1984, The descent of man: New Scientist, v. 102, p. 24-25.}"
}

@misc{lewin1984dna31,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "DNA reveals surprises in human family tree",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 226, p. 1179-1182",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1984, DNA reveals surprises in human family tree: Science, v. 226, p. 1179-1182.}"
}

@misc{lewin1984human32,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "Human Evolution",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "An Illustrated Introduction: New York, W.H. Freeman \& Co., 104 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1984, Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction: New York, W.H. Freeman \& Co., 104 p.}"
}

@misc{pilbeam1984the40,
    author = "Pilbeam, D",
    title = "The descent of homonoids and homonids",
    year = "1984",
    howpublished = "Scientific American, v. 250, no. 3, p. 84-96",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Pilbeam, D., 1984, The descent of homonoids and homonids: Scientific American, v. 250, no. 3, p. 84-96.}"
}

@article{sibley1984the45,
    author = "Sibley, C. and Ahlquist, J",
    title = "The phylogeny of the homonid primates as indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Journal of Molecular Evolution, v. 20, p. 2-15",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Sibley, C., and Ahlquist, J., 1984, The phylogeny of the homonid primates as indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization: Journal of Molecular Evolution, v. 20, p. 2-15.}"
}

@misc{bower1985a5,
    author = "Bower, B",
    title = {A "mosaic ape" takes shape},
    year = "1985",
    howpublished = "Science News, v. 127, p. 26-27",
    note = {talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Bower, B., 1985, A "mosaic ape" takes shape: Science News, v. 127, p. 26-27.}}
}

@misc{cann1987mitochondrial14,
    author = "Cann, R. L. and Stoncking, M. and Wilson, A. C",
    title = "Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Nature, v. 325, p. 31-36",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Cann, R. L., Stoncking, M., and Wilson, A. C., 1987, Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution: Nature, v. 325, p. 31-36.}"
}

Starting with the onset of the last glaciation approximately 100,000 years ago and continuing to the end of the Late Pleistocene approximately 10,000 years ago, human tooth size began to reduce at a rate of 1% every 2,000 years. Both the mesial-distal and the buccal-lingual dimensions of mandibular and maxillary teeth were undergoing the same rate of reduction. From the beginning of the Post-Pleistocene until the present, the overall rate of dental reduction doubled, becoming approximately 1% per thousand years. Buccal-lingual dimensions are now reducing twice as fast as mesial-distal dimensions, and maxillary teeth are reducing at an even more rapid rate than mandibular teeth. Late Pleistocene rates are comparable in Europe and the Middle East. The Post-Pleistocene rates are also the same for Europe, the Middle East, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. It is suggested that the cookery at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene allowed the earlier changes to occur. The use of pottery within the last 10,000 years further reduced the amount of selection that had previously maintained usable tooth substance. Reduction then occurred as a consequence of the Probable Mutation Effect (Brace, 1963; McKee, 1984).

@article{doi101111j155856461987tb05847x,
    author = "Brace, C. Loring and Rosenberg, Karen and Hunt, Kevin D.",
    title = "GRADUAL CHANGE IN HUMAN TOOTH SIZE IN THE LATE PLEISTOCENE AND POST-PLEISTOCENE",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Evolution",
    abstract = "Starting with the onset of the last glaciation approximately 100,000 years ago and continuing to the end of the Late Pleistocene approximately 10,000 years ago, human tooth size began to reduce at a rate of 1\% every 2,000 years. Both the mesial-distal and the buccal-lingual dimensions of mandibular and maxillary teeth were undergoing the same rate of reduction. From the beginning of the Post-Pleistocene until the present, the overall rate of dental reduction doubled, becoming approximately 1\% per thousand years. Buccal-lingual dimensions are now reducing twice as fast as mesial-distal dimensions, and maxillary teeth are reducing at an even more rapid rate than mandibular teeth. Late Pleistocene rates are comparable in Europe and the Middle East. The Post-Pleistocene rates are also the same for Europe, the Middle East, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. It is suggested that the cookery at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene allowed the earlier changes to occur. The use of pottery within the last 10,000 years further reduced the amount of selection that had previously maintained usable tooth substance. Reduction then occurred as a consequence of the Probable Mutation Effect (Brace, 1963; McKee, 1984).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1987.tb05847.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1558-5646.1987.tb05847.x",
    openalex = "W2322954887",
    references = "doi1023073025211"
}

@misc{lewin1987the33,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "The origin of the modern human mind",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 236, p. 668-670",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1987, The origin of the modern human mind: Science, v. 236, p. 668-670.}"
}

@book{openalexw1603350052,
    author = "Foley, Robert",
    title = "Another Unique Species: Patterns in Human Evolutionary Ecology",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    openalex = "W1603350052"
}

@book{openalexw2021052598,
    author = "Bowler, Peter J.",
    title = "Theories of Human Evolution: A Century of Debate, 1844-1944",
    year = "1987",
    openalex = "W2021052598"
}

@misc{richards1987human42,
    author = "Richards, G",
    title = "Human Evolution:An Introduction for the Behavioural Sciences",
    year = "1987",
    howpublished = "London, Routledge \& Kegan Paul",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Richards, G., 1987, Human Evolution:An Introduction for the Behavioural Sciences: London, Routledge \& Kegan Paul.}"
}

@misc{brooks1988whats11,
    author = "Brooks, A. S",
    title = "What's New in Human Evolution",
    year = "1988",
    howpublished = "Creation/Evolution Newsletter, v. 8, p. 15-18",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Brooks, A. S., 1988, What's New in Human Evolution: Creation/Evolution Newsletter, v. 8, p. 15-18.}"
}

@article{doi101038335509a0,
    author = "Beynon, A. D. and Dean, Christopher",
    title = "Distinct dental development patterns in early fossil hominids",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/335509a0",
    doi = "10.1038/335509a0",
    openalex = "W1984706939",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330080109"
}

@misc{lewin1988in34,
    author = "Lewin, R",
    title = "In the Age of Mankind",
    year = "1988",
    howpublished = "A Smithsonian Book of Human Evolution: Washington, Smithsonian Books",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lewin, R., 1988, In the Age of Mankind: A Smithsonian Book of Human Evolution: Washington, Smithsonian Books.}"
}

Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00023992,
    author = "Buss, David M.",
    title = "Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00023992",
    openalex = "W2157338817",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi1010160022519364900384, doi1010160022519366901846, doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi101016s0065260122x00026, doi101017cbo9780511806292, doi101017s0140525x00010128, doi10103711774000, doi10103712293000, doi101038246015a0, doi101038369716c0, doi101086284064, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101126science327542, doi1011425786, doi1011770022022190211001, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072393017, doi1023072412191, doi1023072485224, doi1023072576242, doi1023075530, doi102307582242, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, doi1043249781410606266, doi105962bhltitle27468, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, openalexw1649242647, openalexw2000871817"
}

@book{durant1989human21,
    author = "Durant, J. R",
    title = "Human Origins",
    year = "1989",
    publisher = "New York, Claredon (Oxford University Press), 147 p.; From the lecture series, Oxford, U.K., 1984",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Durant, J. R., 1989, Human Origins: New York, Claredon (Oxford University Press), 147 p.; From the lecture series, Oxford, U.K., 1984.}"
}

@misc{simons1990discovery47,
    author = "Simons, E. L",
    title = "Discovery of the oldest known Anthropoidean skull from the Paleogene of Egypt",
    year = "1990",
    howpublished = "Science, v. 247, p. 1567-1569",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Simons, E. L., 1990, Discovery of the oldest known Anthropoidean skull from the Paleogene of Egypt: Science, v. 247, p. 1567-1569.}"
}

@incollection{quesada1991origin,
    author = "Quesada, Francisco Miró",
    title = "Origin and Evolution of the Universe and Mankind",
    year = "1991",
    booktitle = "Philosophy and the Origin and Evolution of the Universe",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3598-6\_13",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-011-3598-6\_13",
    openalex = "W2097941486",
    pages = "441-456",
    references = "doi1010079789401097314, doi10108000173139109432018, doi101259rss19260045, doi1023071574876, doi1023072332835, doi1023072550489, doi10289379783787333547, openalexw1555065933, openalexw593937941"
}

Miocene hominoids from Europe are among the earliest members of the great ape and human clade (the Hominidae). One of these forms, represented by well-preserved cranial remains from Rudabánya, Hungary, sheds new light on the question of the evolutionary relations among living hominids. This new evidence supports the view that humans have a specific evolutionary relation with chimpanzees, to the exclusion of all other apes.

@article{doi101126science1411507,
    author = "Begun, David R.",
    title = "Miocene Fossil Hominids and the Chimp-Human Clade",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Miocene hominoids from Europe are among the earliest members of the great ape and human clade (the Hominidae). One of these forms, represented by well-preserved cranial remains from Rudabánya, Hungary, sheds new light on the question of the evolutionary relations among living hominids. This new evidence supports the view that humans have a specific evolutionary relation with chimpanzees, to the exclusion of all other apes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1411507",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1411507",
    openalex = "W1975586897"
}

This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.

@article{doi1010370033295x1002204,
    author = "Buss, David M. and Schmitt, David P.",
    title = "Sexual Strategies Theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating.",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Psychological Review",
    abstract = "This article proposes a contextual-evolutionary theory of human mating strategies. Both men and women are hypothesized to have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term strategies. Men and women confront different adaptive problems in short-term as opposed to long-term mating contexts. Consequently, different mate preferences become activated from their strategic repertoires. Nine key hypotheses and 22 predictions from Sexual Strategies Theory are outlined and tested empirically. Adaptive problems sensitive to context include sexual accessibility, fertility assessment, commitment seeking and avoidance, immediate and enduring resource procurement, paternity certainty, assessment of mate value, and parental investment. Discussion summarizes 6 additional sources of behavioral data, outlines adaptive problems common to both sexes, and suggests additional contexts likely to cause shifts in mating strategy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204",
    doi = "10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204",
    openalex = "W1971871412",
    references = "doi1010160162309582900279, doi1010160162309583900274, doi101017s0140525x00023992, doi101126science7123238, doi101537ase188722495, doi1043249781315129266, openalexw1659631989, openalexw2000871817"
}

Abstract In both biology and the human sciences, social groups are sometimes treated as adaptive units whose organization cannot be reduced to individual interactions. This group-level view is opposed by a more individualistic one that treats social organization as a byproduct of self-interest. According to biologists, group-level adaptations can evolve only by a process of natural selection at the group level. Most biologists rejected group selection as an important evolutionary force during the 1960s and 1970s but a positive literature began to grow during the 1970s and is rapidly expanding today. We review this recent literature and its implications for human evolutionary biology. We show that the rejection of group selection was based on a misplaced emphasis on genes as “replicators” which is in fact irrelevant to the question of whether groups can be like individuals in their functional organization. The fundamental question is whether social groups and other higher-level entities can be “vehicles” of selection. When this elementary fact is recognized, group selection emerges as an important force in nature and what seem to be competing theories, such as kin selection and reciprocity, reappear as special cases of group selection. The result is a unified theory of natural selection that operates on a nested hierarchy of units. The vehicle-based theory makes it clear that group selection is an important force to consider in human evolution. Humans can facultatively span the full range from self-interested individuals to “organs” of group-level “organisms.” Human behavior not only reflects the balance between levels of selection but it can also alter the balance through the construction of social structures that have the effect of reducing fitness differences within groups, concentrating natural selection (and functional organization) at the group level. These social structures and the cognitive abilities that produce them allow group selection to be important even among large groups of unrelated individuals.

@article{doi101017s0140525x00036104,
    author = "Wilson, David Sloan and Sober, Elliott",
    title = "Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Behavioral and Brain Sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract In both biology and the human sciences, social groups are sometimes treated as adaptive units whose organization cannot be reduced to individual interactions. This group-level view is opposed by a more individualistic one that treats social organization as a byproduct of self-interest. According to biologists, group-level adaptations can evolve only by a process of natural selection at the group level. Most biologists rejected group selection as an important evolutionary force during the 1960s and 1970s but a positive literature began to grow during the 1970s and is rapidly expanding today. We review this recent literature and its implications for human evolutionary biology. We show that the rejection of group selection was based on a misplaced emphasis on genes as “replicators” which is in fact irrelevant to the question of whether groups can be like individuals in their functional organization. The fundamental question is whether social groups and other higher-level entities can be “vehicles” of selection. When this elementary fact is recognized, group selection emerges as an important force in nature and what seem to be competing theories, such as kin selection and reciprocity, reappear as special cases of group selection. The result is a unified theory of natural selection that operates on a nested hierarchy of units. The vehicle-based theory makes it clear that group selection is an important force to consider in human evolution. Humans can facultatively span the full range from self-interested individuals to “organs” of group-level “organisms.” Human behavior not only reflects the balance between levels of selection but it can also alter the balance through the construction of social structures that have the effect of reducing fitness differences within groups, concentrating natural selection (and functional organization) at the group level. These social structures and the cognitive abilities that produce them allow group selection to be important even among large groups of unrelated individuals.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x00036104",
    doi = "10.1017/s0140525x00036104",
    openalex = "W2091199874",
    references = "doi101007bf00129882, doi1010160022519364900384, doi101016s0022519389801699, doi101016s0065345408603526, doi101017s0140525x00029939, doi10103712293000, doi101073pnas722646, doi101086406755, doi101086410450, doi101093genetics16297, doi101111j143903101978tb01823x, doi101111j155856461977tb00991x, doi101111j155856461984tb00344x, doi101111j204483091987tb00799x, doi101126science16238591243, doi101126science7466396, doi101146annureves01110170000245, doi1015159781400858712, doi1015159781503621534, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023072026633, doi1023072026953, doi1023072529912, doi105962bhltitle2092, doi105962bhltitle27468, doi107208chicago97802261495160010001, goodnight1992contextual, nunney1985group, openalexw2616504082, openalexw2624262714, openalexw645218623"
}

@misc{crossref1995the,
    title = "The Origin of Mankind",
    year = "1995",
    booktitle = "Elijah Benamozegh",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5040/9780809171149.0017",
    doi = "10.5040/9780809171149.0017",
    openalex = "W4406921173",
    pages = "147-152"
}

The more than 1000-fold increase in the cortical surface without a comparable increase in its thickness during mammalian evolution is explained in the context of the radial-unit hypothesis of cortical development. According to the proposed model, cortical expansion is the result of changes in proliferation kinetics that increase the number of radial columnar units without changing the number of neurons within each unit significantly. Thus, mutation of a regulatory gene(s) that controls the timing and ratio of symmetric and asymmetric modes of cell divisions in the proliferative zone, coupled with radial constraints in the distribution of migrating neurons, could create an expanded cortical plate with enhanced capacity for establishing new patterns of connectivity that are validated through natural selection.

@article{doi101016016622369593934p,
    author = "Rakić, Pasko",
    title = "A small step for the cell, a giant leap for mankind: a hypothesis of neocortical expansion during evolution",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Trends in Neurosciences",
    abstract = "The more than 1000-fold increase in the cortical surface without a comparable increase in its thickness during mammalian evolution is explained in the context of the radial-unit hypothesis of cortical development. According to the proposed model, cortical expansion is the result of changes in proliferation kinetics that increase the number of radial columnar units without changing the number of neurons within each unit significantly. Thus, mutation of a regulatory gene(s) that controls the timing and ratio of symmetric and asymmetric modes of cell divisions in the proliferative zone, coupled with radial constraints in the distribution of migrating neurons, could create an expanded cortical plate with enhanced capacity for establishing new patterns of connectivity that are validated through natural selection.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(95)93934-p",
    doi = "10.1016/0166-2236(95)93934-p",
    openalex = "W1998454877",
    references = "doi1010079781468441482, doi101017s0094837300006588"
}

We analyzed the complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of three humans (African, European, and Japanese), three African apes (common and pygmy chimpanzees, and gorilla), and one orangutan in an attempt to estimate most accurately the substitution rates and divergence times of hominoid mtDNAs. Nonsynonymous substitutions and substitutions in RNA genes have accumulated with an approximately clock-like regularity. From these substitutions and under the assumption that the orangutan and African apes diverged 13 million years ago, we obtained a divergence time for humans and chimpanzees of 4.9 million years. This divergence time permitted calibration of the synonymous substitution rate (3.89 x 10(-8)/site per year). To obtain the substitution rate in the displacement (D)-loop region, we compared the three human mtDNAs and measured the relative abundance of substitutions in the D-loop region and at synonymous sites. The estimated substitution rate in the D-loop region was 7.00 x 10(-8)/site per year. Using both synonymous and D-loop substitutions, we inferred the age of the last common ancestor of the human mtDNAs as 143,000 +/- 18,000 years. The shallow ancestry of human mtDNAs, together with the observation that the African sequence is the most diverged among humans, strongly supports the recent African origin of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens.

@article{doi101073pnas922532,
    author = "Horai, Satoshi and Hayasaka, Kenji and Kondo, R and Tsugane, Kazuo and Takahata, Naoyuki",
    title = "Recent African origin of modern humans revealed by complete sequences of hominoid mitochondrial DNAs.",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "We analyzed the complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of three humans (African, European, and Japanese), three African apes (common and pygmy chimpanzees, and gorilla), and one orangutan in an attempt to estimate most accurately the substitution rates and divergence times of hominoid mtDNAs. Nonsynonymous substitutions and substitutions in RNA genes have accumulated with an approximately clock-like regularity. From these substitutions and under the assumption that the orangutan and African apes diverged 13 million years ago, we obtained a divergence time for humans and chimpanzees of 4.9 million years. This divergence time permitted calibration of the synonymous substitution rate (3.89 x 10(-8)/site per year). To obtain the substitution rate in the displacement (D)-loop region, we compared the three human mtDNAs and measured the relative abundance of substitutions in the D-loop region and at synonymous sites. The estimated substitution rate in the D-loop region was 7.00 x 10(-8)/site per year. Using both synonymous and D-loop substitutions, we inferred the age of the last common ancestor of the human mtDNAs as 143,000 +/- 18,000 years. The shallow ancestry of human mtDNAs, together with the observation that the African sequence is the most diverged among humans, strongly supports the recent African origin of modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.2.532",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.92.2.532",
    openalex = "W2077311097"
}

One of the most remarkable fossil finds in history occurred in Laetoli, Tanzania, in 1974, when anthropologist Andrew Hill (diving to the ground to avoid a lump of elephant dung thrown by a colleague) came face to face with a set of ancient footprints captured in stone - the earliest recorded steps of our far-off human ancestors, some three million years old. Today we can see a recreation of the making of the Laetoli footprints at the American Museum of Natural History in a stunning diorama which depicts two of our human forebears walking side by side through a snowy landscape of volcanic ash. But how do we know what these three-million-year-old relatives looked like? How have we reconstructed the eons-long journey from our first ancient steps to where we stand today? In short, how do we know what we think we know about human evolution

@article{doi105860choice331617,
    author = "Tattersall, Ian",
    title = "The fossil trail: how we know what we think we know about human evolution",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    abstract = "One of the most remarkable fossil finds in history occurred in Laetoli, Tanzania, in 1974, when anthropologist Andrew Hill (diving to the ground to avoid a lump of elephant dung thrown by a colleague) came face to face with a set of ancient footprints captured in stone - the earliest recorded steps of our far-off human ancestors, some three million years old. Today we can see a recreation of the making of the Laetoli footprints at the American Museum of Natural History in a stunning diorama which depicts two of our human forebears walking side by side through a snowy landscape of volcanic ash. But how do we know what these three-million-year-old relatives looked like? How have we reconstructed the eons-long journey from our first ancient steps to where we stand today? In short, how do we know what we think we know about human evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.33-1617",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.33-1617",
    openalex = "W431160270"
}

Darwin's early M and N notebooks on Man, Mind and Materialism make clear the important place that the human species played in the formation of his ideas on evolution In 1838 Darwin wrote "Origin of man now proved. Metaphysics must flourish. He who understand baboon would do more toward metaphysics than Locke[.]" These words were written in the heat of Darwin's most creative period, a few weeks before his first clear statement of the principle of natural selection was recorded in his notebook on The Transmutation of Species. The passage is an expression of hopeful enthusiasm rather than triumph. He was actively pursuing a purely materialistic theory' of organic evolution, and was already committed to the idea that humans would belong under the theory. Given the scope of the theory, it could hardly be otherwise. Right down to the present, the promise and perils of understanding the origins of humans and human behavior have been an unavoidable part of the Darwinian agenda. On the one hand, evolutionary theory, if correct, should provide powerful tools to understand human behavior. On the other, if humans are not understandable in Darwinian terms, perhaps there are deep, general, problems with the theory.

@article{doi1021825philosophica82319,
    author = "Richerson, Peter J. and Boyd, Robert",
    title = "Built for Speed, not for Comfort. Darwinian Theory and Human Culture.",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Philosophica",
    abstract = {Darwin's early M and N notebooks on Man, Mind and Materialism make clear the important place that the human species played in the formation of his ideas on evolution In 1838 Darwin wrote "Origin of man now proved. Metaphysics must flourish. He who understand baboon would do more toward metaphysics than Locke[.]" These words were written in the heat of Darwin's most creative period, a few weeks before his first clear statement of the principle of natural selection was recorded in his notebook on The Transmutation of Species. The passage is an expression of hopeful enthusiasm rather than triumph. He was actively pursuing a purely materialistic theory' of organic evolution, and was already committed to the idea that humans would belong under the theory. Given the scope of the theory, it could hardly be otherwise. Right down to the present, the promise and perils of understanding the origins of humans and human behavior have been an unavoidable part of the Darwinian agenda. On the one hand, evolutionary theory, if correct, should provide powerful tools to understand human behavior. On the other, if humans are not understandable in Darwinian terms, perhaps there are deep, general, problems with the theory.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.21825/philosophica.82319",
    doi = "10.21825/philosophica.82319",
    openalex = "W2099115799",
    references = "cravens1978the, doi101006jhev20000435, doi101017s0080456800012163, doi101046j14390310199900372x, doi101126science7466396, doi101537ase188722495, doi1017763haer391l3u15956627424k7, doi1023071367778, doi1023072576242, doi1023073025211, doi102307jctvjsf4jc, openalexw1659631989"
}

"Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world"--Jacket. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)

@book{doi10103710370000,
    author = "Geary, David C.",
    title = "Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences.",
    year = "1998",
    booktitle = "American Psychological Association eBooks",
    abstract = {"Why do girls tend to earn better grades in school than boys? Why are men still far more likely than women to earn degrees in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? And why are men on average more likely than women to be injured in accidents and fights? These and many other questions are the subject of both informal investigation in the media and formal investigation in academic and scientific circles. In his landmark book Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences (see record 2000-07043-000), author David C. Geary provided the first comprehensive evolutionary model to explain human sex differences. Now, over 10 years since the first edition, Geary has completed a massive update, expansion, and theoretical revision of his classic text. New findings in brain and genetic research inform a wealth of new material, including a new chapter on sex differences in patterns of life history development; expanded coverage of genetic research (e.g., DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity as related to male-male competition in primates); fatherhood in humans; cross-cultural patterns of sex differences in choosing and competing for mates; and genetic, hormonal, and sociocultural influences on the expression of sex differences. Finally, through his motivation to control framework, Geary presents a theoretical bridge linking parenting, mate choices, and competition with children's development and sex differences in brain and cognition. The result is a lively and nuanced application of Darwin's insight to help explain our heritage and our place in the natural world"--Jacket. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1037/10370-000",
    doi = "10.1037/10370-000",
    openalex = "W1981402013",
    references = "doi1010160162309579900049, doi101016b9780122089305500064, doi101016s0070215321x00026, doi101017s0140525x00029939, doi101017s0140525x98001228, doi101038336435a0, doi101038350033a0, doi101073pnas87166349, doi101073pnas8793566, doi101086284064, doi101098rspb19790081, doi101126science2114480341, doi1023073544435, doi105860choice310304, openalexw1515814298, openalexw595961698"
}

The assumption that absence of oestrus and of manifestations of ovulation is specific to humans has given rise to various proposals of a role for selection pressures in the evolution of these features in the form of sexual selection or other behavioural adaptations. Analysis of the sexual behaviour of nonhuman primates and humans indicates, however, that constant receptivity is not unique to humans and that human sexual behaviour is not independent of the phases of the menstrual cycle. Quantitative differences in the distribution of sexual behaviour between humans and the nonhuman primates in question may be the result of many morphological, ecological, and cultural factors of which those differences are side effects. In the case of the postulated selection pressures on the disappearance of visual manifestations of ovulation, the rather unlikely chimpanzee model of anogenital swelling in the early Hominidae may be replaced by an early‐hominoidal model in which the swelling was relatively small. Its reduction in anthropogenesis may have been caused by bipedal locomotion, the cost of water accumulation, hyperaemia of the area, and an increase in adipose tissue. Furthermore, olfactory communication in the context of sexual behaviour in the climatic conditions of the African savannah would have been sufficient for detection of the fertile periods of the menstrual cycle. Thus, assuming the existence of direct selection pressures on sexual behaviour in the Plio/Pleistocene evolution of the Homininae seems unjustified.

@article{doi1023072991395,
    author = "Pawłowski, Bogusław",
    title = "Loss of Oestrus and Concealed Ovulation in Human Evolution: The Case Against the Sexual-Selection Hypothesis",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Current Anthropology",
    abstract = "The assumption that absence of oestrus and of manifestations of ovulation is specific to humans has given rise to various proposals of a role for selection pressures in the evolution of these features in the form of sexual selection or other behavioural adaptations. Analysis of the sexual behaviour of nonhuman primates and humans indicates, however, that constant receptivity is not unique to humans and that human sexual behaviour is not independent of the phases of the menstrual cycle. Quantitative differences in the distribution of sexual behaviour between humans and the nonhuman primates in question may be the result of many morphological, ecological, and cultural factors of which those differences are side effects. In the case of the postulated selection pressures on the disappearance of visual manifestations of ovulation, the rather unlikely chimpanzee model of anogenital swelling in the early Hominidae may be replaced by an early‐hominoidal model in which the swelling was relatively small. Its reduction in anthropogenesis may have been caused by bipedal locomotion, the cost of water accumulation, hyperaemia of the area, and an increase in adipose tissue. Furthermore, olfactory communication in the context of sexual behaviour in the climatic conditions of the African savannah would have been sufficient for detection of the fertile periods of the menstrual cycle. Thus, assuming the existence of direct selection pressures on sexual behaviour in the Plio/Pleistocene evolution of the Homininae seems unjustified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2991395",
    doi = "10.2307/2991395",
    openalex = "W1975814692",
    references = "openalexw2416473814"
}

This review begins by setting out the context and the scope of human evolution. Several classes of evidence, morphological, molecular, and genetic, support a particularly close relationship between modern humans and the species within the genus Pan, the chimpanzee. Thus human evolution is the study of the lineage, or clade, comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. Its stem species is the so-called 'common hominin ancestor', and its only extant member is Homo sapiens. This clade contains all the species more closely-related to modern humans than to any other living primate. Until recently, these species were all subsumed into a family, Hominidae, but this group is now more usually recognised as a tribe, the Hominini. The rest of the review sets out the formal nomenclature, history of discovery, and information about the characteristic morphology, and its behavioural implications, of the species presently included in the human clade. The taxa are considered within their assigned genera, beginning with the most primitive and finishing with Homo. Within genera, species are presented in order of geological age. The entries conclude with a list of the more important items of fossil evidence, and a summary of relevant taxonomic issues.

@article{doi101046j14697580200019710019x,
    author = "Wood, Bernard and Richmond, Brian G.",
    title = "Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Anatomy",
    abstract = "This review begins by setting out the context and the scope of human evolution. Several classes of evidence, morphological, molecular, and genetic, support a particularly close relationship between modern humans and the species within the genus Pan, the chimpanzee. Thus human evolution is the study of the lineage, or clade, comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. Its stem species is the so-called 'common hominin ancestor', and its only extant member is Homo sapiens. This clade contains all the species more closely-related to modern humans than to any other living primate. Until recently, these species were all subsumed into a family, Hominidae, but this group is now more usually recognised as a tribe, the Hominini. The rest of the review sets out the formal nomenclature, history of discovery, and information about the characteristic morphology, and its behavioural implications, of the species presently included in the human clade. The taxa are considered within their assigned genera, beginning with the most primitive and finishing with Homo. Within genera, species are presented in order of geological age. The entries conclude with a list of the more important items of fossil evidence, and a summary of relevant taxonomic issues.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x",
    openalex = "W2149338429",
    references = "doi101038142377a0, doi101038184491a0, doi101038196409a0, doi101144gsljgs1949105010409"
}

Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 44:70–105, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

@article{doi101002ajpa10019,
    author = "Richmond, Brian G. and Begun, David R. and Strait, David S.",
    title = "Origin of human bipedalism: The knuckle-walking hypothesis revisited",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 44:70–105, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10019",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.10019",
    openalex = "W4232867356",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330550203, doi101002ajpa1330600302, doi101002sici10968644199602992345aidajpa930co2x, doi101007978148993647916, doi1010160305440386900580, doi101016s0764444200017869, doi10103712293000, doi10103838229, doi101086281823, doi101086397067, doi101126science1059487, doi101126science2114480341, doi107208chicago97802262565730010001, openalexw631077730, openalexw638862129"
}

Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 44:70–105, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

@article{doi101002ajpa10019abs,
    author = "Richmond, Brian G. and Begun, David R. and Strait, David S.",
    title = "Origin of human bipedalism: The knuckle-walking hypothesis revisited",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Some of the most long-standing questions in paleoanthropology concern how and why human bipedalism evolved. Over the last century, many hypotheses have been offered on the mode of locomotion from which bipedalism originated. Candidate ancestral adaptations include monkey-like arboreal or terrestrial quadrupedalism, gibbon- or orangutan-like (or other forms of) climbing and suspension, and knuckle-walking. This paper reviews the history of these hypotheses, outlines their predictions, and assesses them in light of current phylogenetic, comparative anatomical, and fossil evidence. The functional significance of characteristics of the shoulder and arm, elbow, wrist, and hand shared by African apes and humans, including their fossil relatives, most strongly supports the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which reconstructs the ancestor as being adapted to knuckle-walking and arboreal climbing. Future fossil discoveries, and a clear understanding of anthropoid locomotor anatomy, are required to ultimately test these hypotheses. If knuckle-walking was an important component of the behavioral repertoire of the prebipedal human ancestor, then we can reject scenarios on the origin of bipedalism that rely on a strictly arboreal ancestor. Moreover, paleoenvironmental data associated with the earliest hominins, and their close relatives, contradict hypotheses that place the agents of selection for bipedality in open savanna habitats. Existing hypotheses must explain why bipedalism would evolve from an ancestor that was already partly terrestrial. Many food acquisition and carrying hypotheses remain tenable in light of current evidence. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 44:70–105, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10019.abs",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.10019.abs",
    openalex = "W2111750545",
    references = "doi101002ajpa10019, doi101002ajpa1330600302, doi101002sici10968644199602992345aidajpa930co2x, doi10103712293000, doi101038115195a0, doi10103838229, doi101086281823, doi101086397067, doi101126science2114480341, doi101537ase188722495, doi105860choice263889, doi105860choice392183, doi105962bhltitle2092, openalexw631077730"
}

@article{doi101086318206,
    author = "Chen, Feng-Chi and Li, Wen‐Hsiung",
    title = "Genomic Divergences between Humans and Other Hominoids and the Effective Population Size of the Common Ancestor of Humans and Chimpanzees",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "The American Journal of Human Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/318206",
    doi = "10.1086/318206",
    openalex = "W2049089966"
}

The generalized/primitive nature of the hominoid dentition and often fragmentary nature of fossils, coupled with enthusiastic optimism for making revolutionary finds, has wreaked havoc with recognition of early human ancestors and reconstruction of fossil hominoid phylogeny. As such, the history of paleoanthropology is one of repeated misidentification of fossil ancestors and of occasional fraud. Although this history has led many workers to lose confidence in morphology based systematics (MBS), past and present misidentifications are actually due to a disregard of systematic methodology. Systematics depends on the continuity of life and gains its objectivity largely from the order alpha taxonomy imposes on morphologic discontinuities in closely related taxa (i.e., species and genera). Transformation of characters fixed in species into character complexes, as manifested in taxa nested at different levels of relationship, form the foundation for higher-level taxonomy and for phylogeny. Because in most cases, hominoid fossils are unable to provide the data needed to resolve alpha taxonomy, classification and phylogeny of fossil taxa must be guided by analogies to living taxa. Hominid and hominoid fossil taxonomy and phylogeny, however, has been based largely on preevolutionary notions and on misinterpretations of the polarity of assumed diagnostic characters. More often than not, fossils lack resolution for the taxonomic level or rank they are assigned to and taxa are erected without appropriate analogies to living forms. As such, phylogenies based on these classifications are unlikely to be correct. More in-depth anatomical studies that are in accordance with systematic methodology are likely to hold the key to correctly classifying fossils and unraveling hominoid and hominid phylogeny.

@article{doi101002ar10055,
    author = "Sarmiento, Esteban E. and Stiner, Eric and Mowbray, Ken",
    title = "Morphology‐based systematics (MBS) and problems with fossil hominoid and hominid systematics",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "The Anatomical Record",
    abstract = "The generalized/primitive nature of the hominoid dentition and often fragmentary nature of fossils, coupled with enthusiastic optimism for making revolutionary finds, has wreaked havoc with recognition of early human ancestors and reconstruction of fossil hominoid phylogeny. As such, the history of paleoanthropology is one of repeated misidentification of fossil ancestors and of occasional fraud. Although this history has led many workers to lose confidence in morphology based systematics (MBS), past and present misidentifications are actually due to a disregard of systematic methodology. Systematics depends on the continuity of life and gains its objectivity largely from the order alpha taxonomy imposes on morphologic discontinuities in closely related taxa (i.e., species and genera). Transformation of characters fixed in species into character complexes, as manifested in taxa nested at different levels of relationship, form the foundation for higher-level taxonomy and for phylogeny. Because in most cases, hominoid fossils are unable to provide the data needed to resolve alpha taxonomy, classification and phylogeny of fossil taxa must be guided by analogies to living taxa. Hominid and hominoid fossil taxonomy and phylogeny, however, has been based largely on preevolutionary notions and on misinterpretations of the polarity of assumed diagnostic characters. More often than not, fossils lack resolution for the taxonomic level or rank they are assigned to and taxa are erected without appropriate analogies to living forms. As such, phylogenies based on these classifications are unlikely to be correct. More in-depth anatomical studies that are in accordance with systematic methodology are likely to hold the key to correctly classifying fossils and unraveling hominoid and hominid phylogeny.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.10055",
    doi = "10.1002/ar.10055",
    openalex = "W1970565859",
    references = "clark1950hominid, doi10103714088000, doi1010382191335a0, doi101093oso97801986078090010001, doi101146annureven10010165000525, doi101537ase188722495, doi1023071375443, doi104159harvard9780674865327, doi105281zenodo18028696, doi105860choice355657, doi105962bhltitle2112, doi105962bhltitle82303, doi107312simp92414"
}

Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived from our primate ancestors and some acquired from the animals we have domesticated or come in contact with during our relatively short history on Earth. Our knowledge of parasitic infections extends into antiquity, and descriptions of parasites and parasitic infections are found in the earliest writings and have been confirmed by the finding of parasites in archaeological material. The systematic study of parasites began with the rejection of the theory of spontaneous generation and the promulgation of the germ theory. Thereafter, the history of human parasitology proceeded along two lines, the discovery of a parasite and its subsequent association with disease and the recognition of a disease and the subsequent discovery that it was caused by a parasite. This review is concerned with the major helminth and protozoan infections of humans: ascariasis, trichinosis, strongyloidiasis, dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, loasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, cestodiasis, paragonimiasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, amoebiasis, giardiasis, African trypanosomiasis, South American trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis, and microsporidiosis.

@article{doi101128cmr1545956122002,
    author = "Cox, F. E. G.",
    title = "History of Human Parasitology",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Clinical Microbiology Reviews",
    abstract = "Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived from our primate ancestors and some acquired from the animals we have domesticated or come in contact with during our relatively short history on Earth. Our knowledge of parasitic infections extends into antiquity, and descriptions of parasites and parasitic infections are found in the earliest writings and have been confirmed by the finding of parasites in archaeological material. The systematic study of parasites began with the rejection of the theory of spontaneous generation and the promulgation of the germ theory. Thereafter, the history of human parasitology proceeded along two lines, the discovery of a parasite and its subsequent association with disease and the recognition of a disease and the subsequent discovery that it was caused by a parasite. This review is concerned with the major helminth and protozoan infections of humans: ascariasis, trichinosis, strongyloidiasis, dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, loasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, cestodiasis, paragonimiasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, amoebiasis, giardiasis, African trypanosomiasis, South American trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis, and microsporidiosis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.15.4.595-612.2002",
    doi = "10.1128/cmr.15.4.595-612.2002",
    openalex = "W2149717051",
    references = "doi1010160014489456900248, doi101016s0001706x99000959, doi101177030751333101700126, doi105962bhltitle542"
}

▪ Abstract Evolutionary trends in human body form provide important context for interpreting variation among modern populations. Average body mass in living humans is smaller than it was during most of the Pleistocene, possibly owing to technological improvements during the past 50,000 years that no longer favored large body size. Sexual dimorphism in body size reached modern levels at least 150,000 years ago and probably earlier. Geographic variation in both body size and shape in earlier humans paralleled latitudinal clines observed today. Climatic adaptation is the most likely primary cause for these gradients, overlain in more recent populations by nutritional effects on growth. Thus, to distinguish growth disturbances, it is necessary to partition out the (presumably genetic) long-term differences in body form between populations that have resulted from climatic selection. An example is given from a study of Inupiat children, using a new index of body shape to assess relative body mass.

@article{doi101146annurevanthro31040402085407,
    author = "Ruff, Christopher B.",
    title = "Variation in Human Body Size and Shape",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract Evolutionary trends in human body form provide important context for interpreting variation among modern populations. Average body mass in living humans is smaller than it was during most of the Pleistocene, possibly owing to technological improvements during the past 50,000 years that no longer favored large body size. Sexual dimorphism in body size reached modern levels at least 150,000 years ago and probably earlier. Geographic variation in both body size and shape in earlier humans paralleled latitudinal clines observed today. Climatic adaptation is the most likely primary cause for these gradients, overlain in more recent populations by nutritional effects on growth. Thus, to distinguish growth disturbances, it is necessary to partition out the (presumably genetic) long-term differences in body form between populations that have resulted from climatic selection. An example is given from a study of Inupiat children, using a new index of body shape to assess relative body mass.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085407",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085407",
    openalex = "W2144250538",
    references = "doi101002ajpa10011abs, doi101038371306a0, doi101146annurevanthro291125"
}

Great apes, our closest living relatives, live longer and mature later than most other mammals and modern humans are even later-maturing and potentially longer-lived. Evolutionary life-history theory seeks to explain cross-species differences in these variables and the covariation between them. That provides the foundation for a hypothesis that a novel role for grandmothers underlies the shift from an ape-like ancestral pattern to one more like our own in the first widely successful members of genus Homo. This hypothesis links four distinctive features of human life histories: 1). our potential longevity, 2). our late maturity, 3). our midlife menopause, and 4). our early weaning with next offspring produced before the previous infant can feed itself. I discuss the problem, then, using modern humans and chimpanzees to represent, respectively, genus Homo and australopithecines, I focus on two corollaries of this grandmother hypothesis: 1). that ancestral age-specific fertility declines persisted in our genus, while 2). senescence in other aspects of physiological performance slowed down. The data are scanty but they illustrate similarities in age-specific fertility decline and differences in somatic durability that are consistent with the hypothesis that increased longevity in our genus is a legacy of the "reproductive" role of ancestral grandmothers.

@article{doi101002ajhb10156,
    author = "Hawkes, Kristen",
    title = "Grandmothers and the evolution of human longevity",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "American Journal of Human Biology",
    abstract = {Great apes, our closest living relatives, live longer and mature later than most other mammals and modern humans are even later-maturing and potentially longer-lived. Evolutionary life-history theory seeks to explain cross-species differences in these variables and the covariation between them. That provides the foundation for a hypothesis that a novel role for grandmothers underlies the shift from an ape-like ancestral pattern to one more like our own in the first widely successful members of genus Homo. This hypothesis links four distinctive features of human life histories: 1). our potential longevity, 2). our late maturity, 3). our midlife menopause, and 4). our early weaning with next offspring produced before the previous infant can feed itself. I discuss the problem, then, using modern humans and chimpanzees to represent, respectively, genus Homo and australopithecines, I focus on two corollaries of this grandmother hypothesis: 1). that ancestral age-specific fertility declines persisted in our genus, while 2). senescence in other aspects of physiological performance slowed down. The data are scanty but they illustrate similarities in age-specific fertility decline and differences in somatic durability that are consistent with the hypothesis that increased longevity in our genus is a legacy of the "reproductive" role of ancestral grandmothers.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.10156",
    doi = "10.1002/ajhb.10156",
    openalex = "W2160394440",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330780410, doi101002sici1520650520009117aidevan330co2a, doi10103835041687, doi10103835084063, doi101038scientificamerican096062, doi101093geronj113298, doi101111j155856461957tb02911x, doi101146annurevphysiol621207, doi101152physrev1998782547, doi1015159781400881376, doi101525aa198688102a00020, doi102307493157, doi1023075403, doi1043249781315129266, doi10432497813151292667, johanson1979a, openalexw1974359478"
}

@article{doi101038nrg1124,
    author = "Jobling, Mark A. and Tyler‐Smith, Chris",
    title = "The human Y chromosome: an evolutionary marker comes of age",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Nature Reviews Genetics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg1124",
    doi = "10.1038/nrg1124",
    openalex = "W2006431749",
    references = "doi101038331614a0, doi10103835047064, doi101038nature00879"
}

The effective population sizes of ancestral as well as modern species are important parameters in models of population genetics and human evolution. The commonly used method for estimating ancestral population sizes, based on counting mismatches between the species tree and the inferred gene trees, is highly biased as it ignores uncertainties in gene tree reconstruction. In this article, we develop a Bayes method for simultaneous estimation of the species divergence times and current and ancestral population sizes. The method uses DNA sequence data from multiple loci and extracts information about conflicts among gene tree topologies and coalescent times to estimate ancestral population sizes. The topology of the species tree is assumed known. A Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm is implemented to integrate over uncertain gene trees and branch lengths (or coalescence times) at each locus as well as species divergence times. The method can handle any species tree and allows different numbers of sequences at different loci. We apply the method to published noncoding DNA sequences from the human and the great apes. There are strong correlations between posterior estimates of speciation times and ancestral population sizes. With the use of an informative prior for the human-chimpanzee divergence date, the population size of the common ancestor of the two species is estimated to be approximately 20,000, with a 95% credibility interval (8000, 40,000). Our estimates, however, are affected by model assumptions as well as data quality. We suggest that reliable estimates have yet to await more data and more realistic models.

@article{doi101093genetics16441645,
    author = "Rannala, Bruce and Yang, Ziheng",
    title = "Bayes Estimation of Species Divergence Times and Ancestral Population Sizes Using DNA Sequences From Multiple Loci",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Genetics",
    abstract = "The effective population sizes of ancestral as well as modern species are important parameters in models of population genetics and human evolution. The commonly used method for estimating ancestral population sizes, based on counting mismatches between the species tree and the inferred gene trees, is highly biased as it ignores uncertainties in gene tree reconstruction. In this article, we develop a Bayes method for simultaneous estimation of the species divergence times and current and ancestral population sizes. The method uses DNA sequence data from multiple loci and extracts information about conflicts among gene tree topologies and coalescent times to estimate ancestral population sizes. The topology of the species tree is assumed known. A Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm is implemented to integrate over uncertain gene trees and branch lengths (or coalescence times) at each locus as well as species divergence times. The method can handle any species tree and allows different numbers of sequences at different loci. We apply the method to published noncoding DNA sequences from the human and the great apes. There are strong correlations between posterior estimates of speciation times and ancestral population sizes. With the use of an informative prior for the human-chimpanzee divergence date, the population size of the common ancestor of the two species is estimated to be approximately 20,000, with a 95\% credibility interval (8000, 40,000). Our estimates, however, are affected by model assumptions as well as data quality. We suggest that reliable estimates have yet to await more data and more realistic models.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/164.4.1645",
    doi = "10.1093/genetics/164.4.1645",
    openalex = "W1897064680",
    references = "doi101038nature00879"
}

We implement a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm for estimating species divergence times that uses heterogeneous data from multiple gene loci and accommodates multiple fossil calibration nodes. A birth-death process with species sampling is used to specify a prior for divergence times, which allows easy assessment of the effects of that prior on posterior time estimates. We propose a new approach for specifying calibration points on the phylogeny, which allows the use of arbitrary and flexible statistical distributions to describe uncertainties in fossil dates. In particular, we use soft bounds, so that the probability that the true divergence time is outside the bounds is small but nonzero. A strict molecular clock is assumed in the current implementation, although this assumption may be relaxed. We apply our new algorithm to two data sets concerning divergences of several primate species, to examine the effects of the substitution model and of the prior for divergence times on Bayesian time estimation. We also conduct computer simulation to examine the differences between soft and hard bounds. We demonstrate that divergence time estimation is intrinsically hampered by uncertainties in fossil calibrations, and the error in Bayesian time estimates will not go to zero with increased amounts of sequence data. Our analyses of both real and simulated data demonstrate potentially large differences between divergence time estimates obtained using soft versus hard bounds and a general superiority of soft bounds. Our main findings are as follows. (1) When the fossils are consistent with each other and with the molecular data, and the posterior time estimates are well within the prior bounds, soft and hard bounds produce similar results. (2) When the fossils are in conflict with each other or with the molecules, soft and hard bounds behave very differently; soft bounds allow sequence data to correct poor calibrations, while poor hard bounds are impossible to overcome by any amount of data. (3) Soft bounds eliminate the need for "safe" but unrealistically high upper bounds, which may bias posterior time estimates. (4) Soft bounds allow more reliable assessment of estimation errors, while hard bounds generate misleadingly high precisions when fossils and molecules are in conflict.

@article{doi101093molbevmsj024,
    author = "Yang, Ziheng and Rannala, Bruce",
    title = "Bayesian Estimation of Species Divergence Times Under a Molecular Clock Using Multiple Fossil Calibrations with Soft Bounds",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Molecular Biology and Evolution",
    abstract = {We implement a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm for estimating species divergence times that uses heterogeneous data from multiple gene loci and accommodates multiple fossil calibration nodes. A birth-death process with species sampling is used to specify a prior for divergence times, which allows easy assessment of the effects of that prior on posterior time estimates. We propose a new approach for specifying calibration points on the phylogeny, which allows the use of arbitrary and flexible statistical distributions to describe uncertainties in fossil dates. In particular, we use soft bounds, so that the probability that the true divergence time is outside the bounds is small but nonzero. A strict molecular clock is assumed in the current implementation, although this assumption may be relaxed. We apply our new algorithm to two data sets concerning divergences of several primate species, to examine the effects of the substitution model and of the prior for divergence times on Bayesian time estimation. We also conduct computer simulation to examine the differences between soft and hard bounds. We demonstrate that divergence time estimation is intrinsically hampered by uncertainties in fossil calibrations, and the error in Bayesian time estimates will not go to zero with increased amounts of sequence data. Our analyses of both real and simulated data demonstrate potentially large differences between divergence time estimates obtained using soft versus hard bounds and a general superiority of soft bounds. Our main findings are as follows. (1) When the fossils are consistent with each other and with the molecular data, and the posterior time estimates are well within the prior bounds, soft and hard bounds produce similar results. (2) When the fossils are in conflict with each other or with the molecules, soft and hard bounds behave very differently; soft bounds allow sequence data to correct poor calibrations, while poor hard bounds are impossible to overcome by any amount of data. (3) Soft bounds eliminate the need for "safe" but unrealistically high upper bounds, which may bias posterior time estimates. (4) Soft bounds allow more reliable assessment of estimation errors, while hard bounds generate misleadingly high precisions when fossils and molecules are in conflict.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msj024",
    doi = "10.1093/molbev/msj024",
    openalex = "W2036628186",
    references = "doi101038nature00879, rambaut1998estimating"
}

Successful reconstruction of any aspect of human evolution ideally requires broad-based comparisons with other primates, as recognition of general principles provides a more reliable foundation for inference. Indeed, in many cases it is necessary to conduct comparisons with other placental mammals to test interpretations. This review considers comparative evidence with respect to the following topics relating to human reproduction: (1) size of the testes, sperm, and baculum; (2) ovarian processes and mating cyclicity; (3) placentation and embryonic membranes; (4) gestation period and neonatal condition; (5) brain development in relation to reproduction; and (6) suckling and age at weaning. Relative testis size, the size of the sperm midpiece, and perhaps the absence of a baculum indicate that humans are adapted for a mating system in which sperm competition was not a major factor. Because sizes of mammalian gametes do not increase with body size, they are increasingly dwarfed by the size of the female reproductive tract as body size increases. The implications of this have yet to be explored. Primates have long ovarian cycles and humans show an average pattern. Menstruation is completely lacking in strepsirrhine primates, possibly weakly present in tarsiers and variably expressed in simians. The only other mammals reliably reported to show menstruation are bats. Three hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of menstruation (eliminating sperm-borne pathogens; reducing the metabolic cost of a prepared uterine lining; occurrence as a side-effect of physiological changes), but no consensus has emerged. Copulation at times other than the periovulatory period is not unique to humans, and its occurrence during pregnancy is widespread among mammals. Although the human condition is extreme, extended copulation during the ovarian cycle is the norm among simian primates, in stark contrast to prosimians, in which mating is typically restricted to a few days when the female is in oestrus. The model of regular mid-cycle ovulation in simians is questionable. Gestation periods calculated on that basis show greater variability than in other mammals, and evidence from laboratory breeding colonies indicates that an extended mating period is matched by an extended period in which conception can occur. New evidence indicates that the noninvasive placentation found in strepsirrhine primates is not primitive after all. Furthermore, comparative studies reveal that such noninvasive placentation is not "inefficient". Evolution of highly invasive placentation in haplorhine primates is probably linked instead to immunological factors. Primates have relatively long gestation periods, and humans are average in this respect. However, there is evidence that humans show greater maternal investment during pregnancy in comparison with apes. Although the human neonate matches the typical precocial pattern of primates in most respects, a fetal pattern of brain growth continues for a year after birth, such that the human infant is "secondarily altricial" in terms of its dependence on parental care. Nevertheless, the "natural" lactation period of humans is probably about 3 years, fitting the expectation in comparison to other hominoids.

@article{doi101002ajpa20734,
    author = "Martín, Robert D.",
    title = "The evolution of human reproduction: A primatological perspective",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = {Successful reconstruction of any aspect of human evolution ideally requires broad-based comparisons with other primates, as recognition of general principles provides a more reliable foundation for inference. Indeed, in many cases it is necessary to conduct comparisons with other placental mammals to test interpretations. This review considers comparative evidence with respect to the following topics relating to human reproduction: (1) size of the testes, sperm, and baculum; (2) ovarian processes and mating cyclicity; (3) placentation and embryonic membranes; (4) gestation period and neonatal condition; (5) brain development in relation to reproduction; and (6) suckling and age at weaning. Relative testis size, the size of the sperm midpiece, and perhaps the absence of a baculum indicate that humans are adapted for a mating system in which sperm competition was not a major factor. Because sizes of mammalian gametes do not increase with body size, they are increasingly dwarfed by the size of the female reproductive tract as body size increases. The implications of this have yet to be explored. Primates have long ovarian cycles and humans show an average pattern. Menstruation is completely lacking in strepsirrhine primates, possibly weakly present in tarsiers and variably expressed in simians. The only other mammals reliably reported to show menstruation are bats. Three hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of menstruation (eliminating sperm-borne pathogens; reducing the metabolic cost of a prepared uterine lining; occurrence as a side-effect of physiological changes), but no consensus has emerged. Copulation at times other than the periovulatory period is not unique to humans, and its occurrence during pregnancy is widespread among mammals. Although the human condition is extreme, extended copulation during the ovarian cycle is the norm among simian primates, in stark contrast to prosimians, in which mating is typically restricted to a few days when the female is in oestrus. The model of regular mid-cycle ovulation in simians is questionable. Gestation periods calculated on that basis show greater variability than in other mammals, and evidence from laboratory breeding colonies indicates that an extended mating period is matched by an extended period in which conception can occur. New evidence indicates that the noninvasive placentation found in strepsirrhine primates is not primitive after all. Furthermore, comparative studies reveal that such noninvasive placentation is not "inefficient". Evolution of highly invasive placentation in haplorhine primates is probably linked instead to immunological factors. Primates have relatively long gestation periods, and humans are average in this respect. However, there is evidence that humans show greater maternal investment during pregnancy in comparison with apes. Although the human neonate matches the typical precocial pattern of primates in most respects, a fetal pattern of brain growth continues for a year after birth, such that the human infant is "secondarily altricial" in terms of its dependence on parental care. Nevertheless, the "natural" lactation period of humans is probably about 3 years, fitting the expectation in comparison to other hominoids.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20734",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.20734",
    openalex = "W2094780144",
    references = "doi101086281823, openalexw2416473814"
}

Terror management theory (TMT) posits that the uniquely human awareness of death gives rise to a potential for debilitating terror, which is averted by the construction and maintenance of cultural worldviews. Over 300 studies have supported hypotheses derived from TMT. In a recent critique of TMT, Navarrete and Fessler (2005) argued that TMT is inconsistent with contemporary evolutionary biology and that the evidence supporting TMT can be better accounted for by an alternative “coalitional psychology” (CP), which posits a domain general mechanism whereby a wide range of adaptive threats activate an even wider range of judgments and behaviors all directed toward sustaining unspecified coalitions. In this paper, we argue that: a) Navarrete and Fessler do not adequately present either TMT or the empirical evidence in support of it; b) TMT is in no way inconsistent with modern evolutionary biology; and c) CP is not theoretically plausible and cannot provide a convincing empirical account of evidence supporting TMT. The broader goal of this paper is to encourage evolutionary theorists to move beyond overly simplistic alternatives that target superficial portrayals of TMT and the evidence supporting it, and contribute to a more useful integration of TMT and its findings with evolutionary thinking about culture and human social behavior.

@article{doi101177147470490700500303,
    author = "Landau, Mark J. and Solomon, Sheldon and Pyszczynski, Tom and Greenberg, Jeff",
    title = "On the Compatibility of Terror Management Theory and Perspectives on Human Evolution",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Evolutionary Psychology",
    abstract = "Terror management theory (TMT) posits that the uniquely human awareness of death gives rise to a potential for debilitating terror, which is averted by the construction and maintenance of cultural worldviews. Over 300 studies have supported hypotheses derived from TMT. In a recent critique of TMT, Navarrete and Fessler (2005) argued that TMT is inconsistent with contemporary evolutionary biology and that the evidence supporting TMT can be better accounted for by an alternative “coalitional psychology” (CP), which posits a domain general mechanism whereby a wide range of adaptive threats activate an even wider range of judgments and behaviors all directed toward sustaining unspecified coalitions. In this paper, we argue that: a) Navarrete and Fessler do not adequately present either TMT or the empirical evidence in support of it; b) TMT is in no way inconsistent with modern evolutionary biology; and c) CP is not theoretically plausible and cannot provide a convincing empirical account of evidence supporting TMT. The broader goal of this paper is to encourage evolutionary theorists to move beyond overly simplistic alternatives that target superficial portrayals of TMT and the evidence supporting it, and contribute to a more useful integration of TMT and its findings with evolutionary thinking about culture and human social behavior.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490700500303",
    doi = "10.1177/147470490700500303",
    openalex = "W2172811224",
    references = "doi101086401258"
}

@article{doi101007s108180089033x,
    author = "Battistini, Alberto and Pagano, Ugo",
    title = "Primates’ fertilization systems and the evolution of the human brain",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Bioeconomics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10818-008-9033-x",
    doi = "10.1007/s10818-008-9033-x",
    openalex = "W2025557656",
    references = "openalexw2416473814"
}

@article{dalton2009fossil,
    author = "Dalton, Rex",
    title = "Fossil rewrites early human evolution",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/461705a",
    doi = "10.1038/461705a",
    number = "7265",
    pages = "705-705",
    volume = "461"
}

BACKGROUND: The primates are among the most broadly studied mammalian orders, with the published literature containing extensive analyses of their behavior, physiology, genetics and ecology. The importance of this group in medical and biological research is well appreciated, and explains the numerous molecular phylogenies that have been proposed for most primate families and genera. Composite estimates for the entire order have been infrequently attempted, with the last phylogenetic reconstruction spanning the full range of primate evolutionary relationships having been conducted over a decade ago. RESULTS: To estimate the structure and tempo of primate evolutionary history, we employed Bayesian phylogenetic methods to analyze data supermatrices comprising 7 mitochondrial genes (6,138 nucleotides) from 219 species across 67 genera and 3 nuclear genes (2,157 nucleotides) from 26 genera. Many taxa were only partially represented, with an average of 3.95 and 5.43 mitochondrial genes per species and per genus, respectively, and 2.23 nuclear genes per genus. Our analyses of mitochondrial DNA place Tarsiiformes as the sister group of Strepsirrhini. Within Haplorrhini, we find support for the primary divergence of Pitheciidae in Platyrrhini, and our results suggest a sister grouping of African and non-African colobines within Colobinae and of Cercopithecini and Papionini within Cercopthecinae. Date estimates for nodes within each family and genus are presented, with estimates for key splits including: Strepsirrhini-Haplorrhini 64 million years ago (MYA), Lemuriformes-Lorisiformes 52 MYA, Platyrrhini-Catarrhini 43 MYA and Cercopithecoidea-Hominoidea 29 MYA. CONCLUSION: We present an up-to-date, comprehensive estimate of the structure and tempo of primate evolutionary history. Although considerable gaps remain in our knowledge of the primate phylogeny, increased data sampling, particularly from nuclear loci, will be able to provide further resolution.

@article{doi101186147121489259,
    author = "Chatterjee, Helen J. and Ho, Simon Y. W. and Barnes, Ian and Groves, Colin P.",
    title = "Estimating the phylogeny and divergence times of primates using a supermatrix approach",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "BMC Evolutionary Biology",
    abstract = "BACKGROUND: The primates are among the most broadly studied mammalian orders, with the published literature containing extensive analyses of their behavior, physiology, genetics and ecology. The importance of this group in medical and biological research is well appreciated, and explains the numerous molecular phylogenies that have been proposed for most primate families and genera. Composite estimates for the entire order have been infrequently attempted, with the last phylogenetic reconstruction spanning the full range of primate evolutionary relationships having been conducted over a decade ago. RESULTS: To estimate the structure and tempo of primate evolutionary history, we employed Bayesian phylogenetic methods to analyze data supermatrices comprising 7 mitochondrial genes (6,138 nucleotides) from 219 species across 67 genera and 3 nuclear genes (2,157 nucleotides) from 26 genera. Many taxa were only partially represented, with an average of 3.95 and 5.43 mitochondrial genes per species and per genus, respectively, and 2.23 nuclear genes per genus. Our analyses of mitochondrial DNA place Tarsiiformes as the sister group of Strepsirrhini. Within Haplorrhini, we find support for the primary divergence of Pitheciidae in Platyrrhini, and our results suggest a sister grouping of African and non-African colobines within Colobinae and of Cercopithecini and Papionini within Cercopthecinae. Date estimates for nodes within each family and genus are presented, with estimates for key splits including: Strepsirrhini-Haplorrhini 64 million years ago (MYA), Lemuriformes-Lorisiformes 52 MYA, Platyrrhini-Catarrhini 43 MYA and Cercopithecoidea-Hominoidea 29 MYA. CONCLUSION: We present an up-to-date, comprehensive estimate of the structure and tempo of primate evolutionary history. Although considerable gaps remain in our knowledge of the primate phylogeny, increased data sampling, particularly from nuclear loci, will be able to provide further resolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-9-259",
    doi = "10.1186/1471-2148-9-259",
    openalex = "W1972826893",
    references = "steiper2006primate"
}

Human skin pigmentation is the product of two clines produced by natural selection to adjust levels of constitutive pigmentation to levels of UV radiation (UVR). One cline was generated by high UVR near the equator and led to the evolution of dark, photoprotective, eumelanin-rich pigmentation. The other was produced by the requirement for UVB photons to sustain cutaneous photosynthesis of vitamin D(3) in low-UVB environments, and resulted in the evolution of depigmented skin. As hominins dispersed outside of the tropics, they experienced different intensities and seasonal mixtures of UVA and UVB. Extreme UVA throughout the year and two equinoctial peaks of UVB prevail within the tropics. Under these conditions, the primary selective pressure was to protect folate by maintaining dark pigmentation. Photolysis of folate and its main serum form of 5-methylhydrofolate is caused by UVR and by reactive oxygen species generated by UVA. Competition for folate between the needs for cell division, DNA repair, and melanogenesis is severe under stressful, high-UVR conditions and is exacerbated by dietary insufficiency. Outside of tropical latitudes, UVB levels are generally low and peak only once during the year. The populations exhibiting maximally depigmented skin are those inhabiting environments with the lowest annual and summer peak levels of UVB. Development of facultative pigmentation (tanning) was important to populations settling between roughly 23 degrees and 46 degrees, where levels of UVB varied strongly according to season. Depigmented and tannable skin evolved numerous times in hominin evolution via independent genetic pathways under positive selection.

@article{doi101073pnas0914628107,
    author = "Jablonski, Nina G. and Chaplin, George",
    title = "Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Human skin pigmentation is the product of two clines produced by natural selection to adjust levels of constitutive pigmentation to levels of UV radiation (UVR). One cline was generated by high UVR near the equator and led to the evolution of dark, photoprotective, eumelanin-rich pigmentation. The other was produced by the requirement for UVB photons to sustain cutaneous photosynthesis of vitamin D(3) in low-UVB environments, and resulted in the evolution of depigmented skin. As hominins dispersed outside of the tropics, they experienced different intensities and seasonal mixtures of UVA and UVB. Extreme UVA throughout the year and two equinoctial peaks of UVB prevail within the tropics. Under these conditions, the primary selective pressure was to protect folate by maintaining dark pigmentation. Photolysis of folate and its main serum form of 5-methylhydrofolate is caused by UVR and by reactive oxygen species generated by UVA. Competition for folate between the needs for cell division, DNA repair, and melanogenesis is severe under stressful, high-UVR conditions and is exacerbated by dietary insufficiency. Outside of tropical latitudes, UVB levels are generally low and peak only once during the year. The populations exhibiting maximally depigmented skin are those inhabiting environments with the lowest annual and summer peak levels of UVB. Development of facultative pigmentation (tanning) was important to populations settling between roughly 23 degrees and 46 degrees, where levels of UVB varied strongly according to season. Depigmented and tannable skin evolved numerous times in hominin evolution via independent genetic pathways under positive selection.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914628107",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0914628107",
    openalex = "W2127501217",
    references = "doi105962bhltitle2092"
}

@article{doi101016jcell201106030,
    author = "Lui, Jan H. and Hansen, David V. and Kriegstein, Arnold R.",
    title = "Development and Evolution of the Human Neocortex",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Cell",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.06.030",
    doi = "10.1016/j.cell.2011.06.030",
    openalex = "W2010994321",
    references = "doi101038385313a0, doi101038nn2553, doi101038nrn2719, doi101126science2785337474, doi1023072412825, doi103389neuro090312009"
}

Body mass is a key determinant of a species' ecology, including locomotion, foraging strategies, and energetics. Accurate information on the body mass of wild primates allows us to develop explanatory models for relationships among body size, ecology, and behavior and is crucial for reconstructing the ecology and behavior of fossil primates and hominins. Information on body mass can also provide indirect information on health and can be an important tool for conservation in the context of increasingly widespread habitat disturbance. This study reports body mass data recorded for wild Northeast Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) during relocation efforts in forestry and oil palm plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The average mass of flanged adult males (n = 12, 74 ± 9.78 kg) and adult females (n = 7, 35.29 ± 7.32 kg) from this study were 13.6% and 9% lower, respectively, than the only other published wild Bornean orangutan body mass measurements, but the range of weights for both males and females was larger for this study. This pattern could be due to sampling error, data collection differences, or the influence of habitat disturbance, specifically a lack of access to resources, on individual health. When necessary relocations present the opportunity, we encourage researchers to prioritize the collection of body size data for the purposes of understanding ecology but also as an indirect means of monitoring population viability. As primate habitat becomes increasingly fragmented and altered by humans such data will become critical to our ability to make informed conservation decisions.

@article{doi101002ajpa22709,
    author = "Rayadin, Yaya and Spehar, Stephanie",
    title = "Body mass of wild bornean orangutans living in human‐dominated landscapes: Implications for understanding their ecology and conservation",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "American Journal of Physical Anthropology",
    abstract = "Body mass is a key determinant of a species' ecology, including locomotion, foraging strategies, and energetics. Accurate information on the body mass of wild primates allows us to develop explanatory models for relationships among body size, ecology, and behavior and is crucial for reconstructing the ecology and behavior of fossil primates and hominins. Information on body mass can also provide indirect information on health and can be an important tool for conservation in the context of increasingly widespread habitat disturbance. This study reports body mass data recorded for wild Northeast Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) during relocation efforts in forestry and oil palm plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The average mass of flanged adult males (n = 12, 74 ± 9.78 kg) and adult females (n = 7, 35.29 ± 7.32 kg) from this study were 13.6\% and 9\% lower, respectively, than the only other published wild Bornean orangutan body mass measurements, but the range of weights for both males and females was larger for this study. This pattern could be due to sampling error, data collection differences, or the influence of habitat disturbance, specifically a lack of access to resources, on individual health. When necessary relocations present the opportunity, we encourage researchers to prioritize the collection of body size data for the purposes of understanding ecology but also as an indirect means of monitoring population viability. As primate habitat becomes increasingly fragmented and altered by humans such data will become critical to our ability to make informed conservation decisions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22709",
    doi = "10.1002/ajpa.22709",
    openalex = "W2127374509",
    references = "doi101002ajpa1330080109"
}

@incollection{doi101016b9780128026526000062,
    author = "Sussman, Robert W. and Hart, Donna",
    title = "Primate Models for Human Evolution",
    year = "2015",
    booktitle = "Elsevier eBooks",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-802652-6.00006-2",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-802652-6.00006-2",
    openalex = "W936089506",
    references = "doi1023072798729"
}

The classification of living human populations or of samples of fossil hominids is a branch of animal taxonomy. There is one practical difference between animal and hominid taxonomy. Hominid remains are of significance that even rather incomplete specimens may be of vital importance. The material of taxonomy consists of zoological objects. These objects are individuals or parts of individuals who, in nature, were members of populations. There have been several previous attempts to apply the principles of systematic zoology to some of the open problems of hominid classification. All attempts to trace hominid phylogeny still deal with typological models. When one reads the older anthropological literature with its rich proliferation of generic names, one has the impression of large numbers of species of fossil man and other hominids coexisting with each other. Of the literally scores of generic names proposed for fossil hominids, very few deserve recognition.

@incollection{doi104324978131508108316,
    author = "Mayr, Ernst",
    title = "The Taxonomic Evaluation of Fossil Hominids",
    year = "2017",
    abstract = "The classification of living human populations or of samples of fossil hominids is a branch of animal taxonomy. There is one practical difference between animal and hominid taxonomy. Hominid remains are of significance that even rather incomplete specimens may be of vital importance. The material of taxonomy consists of zoological objects. These objects are individuals or parts of individuals who, in nature, were members of populations. There have been several previous attempts to apply the principles of systematic zoology to some of the open problems of hominid classification. All attempts to trace hominid phylogeny still deal with typological models. When one reads the older anthropological literature with its rich proliferation of generic names, one has the impression of large numbers of species of fossil man and other hominids coexisting with each other. Of the literally scores of generic names proposed for fossil hominids, very few deserve recognition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315081083-16",
    doi = "10.4324/9781315081083-16",
    openalex = "W2951374341",
    references = "doi101144gsljgs1949105010409"
}

A distinctive ancestor There has been much focus on the evolution of primates and especially where and how humans diverged in this process. It has often been suggested that the last common ancestor between humans and other apes, especially our closest relative, the chimpanzee, was ape- or chimp-like. Almécija et al. review this area and conclude that the morphology of fossil apes was varied and that it is likely that the last shared ape ancestor had its own set of traits, different from those of modern humans and modern apes, both of which have been undergoing separate suites of selection pressures. Science, this issue p. eabb4363

@article{almécija2021fossil,
    author = "Almécija, Sergio and Hammond, Ashley S. and Thompson, Nathan E. and Pugh, Kelsey D. and Moyà-Solà, Salvador and Alba, David M.",
    title = "Fossil apes and human evolution",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "A distinctive ancestor There has been much focus on the evolution of primates and especially where and how humans diverged in this process. It has often been suggested that the last common ancestor between humans and other apes, especially our closest relative, the chimpanzee, was ape- or chimp-like. Almécija et al. review this area and conclude that the morphology of fossil apes was varied and that it is likely that the last shared ape ancestor had its own set of traits, different from those of modern humans and modern apes, both of which have been undergoing separate suites of selection pressures. Science, this issue p. eabb4363",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb4363",
    doi = "10.1126/science.abb4363",
    number = "6542",
    volume = "372"
}

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase that regulates fundamental cellular processes including growth control, autophagy and metabolism. mTOR has key functions in nervous system development and mis-regulation of mTOR signaling causes aberrant neurodevelopment and neurological diseases, collectively called mTORopathies. In this mini review we discuss recent studies that have deepened our understanding of the key roles of the mTOR pathway in human nervous system development and disease. Recent advances in single-cell transcriptomics have been exploited to reveal specific roles for mTOR signaling in human cortical development that may have contributed to the evolutionary divergence from our primate ancestors. Cerebral organoid technology has been utilized to show that mTOR signaling is active in and regulates outer radial glial cells (RGCs), a population of neural stem cells that distinguish the human developing cortex. mTOR signaling has a well-established role in hamartoma syndromes such as tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and other mTORopathies. New ultra-sensitive techniques for identification of somatic mTOR pathway mutations have shed light on the neurodevelopmental origin and phenotypic heterogeneity seen in mTORopathy patients. These emerging studies suggest that mTOR signaling may facilitate developmental processes specific to human cortical development but also, when mis-regulated, cause cortical malformations and neurological disease.

@article{doi103389fnmol20221005631,
    author = "Girodengo, Marie and Ultanir, Sila K. and Bateman, J.E.",
    title = "Mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling in human nervous system development and disease",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience",
    abstract = "Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase that regulates fundamental cellular processes including growth control, autophagy and metabolism. mTOR has key functions in nervous system development and mis-regulation of mTOR signaling causes aberrant neurodevelopment and neurological diseases, collectively called mTORopathies. In this mini review we discuss recent studies that have deepened our understanding of the key roles of the mTOR pathway in human nervous system development and disease. Recent advances in single-cell transcriptomics have been exploited to reveal specific roles for mTOR signaling in human cortical development that may have contributed to the evolutionary divergence from our primate ancestors. Cerebral organoid technology has been utilized to show that mTOR signaling is active in and regulates outer radial glial cells (RGCs), a population of neural stem cells that distinguish the human developing cortex. mTOR signaling has a well-established role in hamartoma syndromes such as tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and other mTORopathies. New ultra-sensitive techniques for identification of somatic mTOR pathway mutations have shed light on the neurodevelopmental origin and phenotypic heterogeneity seen in mTORopathy patients. These emerging studies suggest that mTOR signaling may facilitate developmental processes specific to human cortical development but also, when mis-regulated, cause cortical malformations and neurological disease.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2022.1005631",
    doi = "10.3389/fnmol.2022.1005631",
    openalex = "W4297225597",
    references = "almécija2021fossil, doi101016009286749390618z, doi101016016622369593934p, doi101016jcell201106030, doi101016jcell201702004, doi101038s415800190199y, doi101038s4158601915067, doi101126science1199498, doi101126science2775327805, doi101126scienceaap8809, doi103389neuro090312009"
}

Because the ulna supports and transmits forces during movement, its morphology can signal aspects of functional adaptation. To test whether, like extant apes, some hominins habitually recruit the forelimb in locomotion, we separate the ulna shaft and ulna proximal complex for independent shape analyses via elliptical Fourier methods to identify functional signals. We examine the relative influence of locomotion, taxonomy, and body mass on ulna contours in Homo sapiens (n = 22), five species of extant apes (n = 33), two Miocene apes (Hispanopithecus and Danuvius), and 17 fossil hominin specimens including Sahelanthropus, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and early Homo. Ulna proximal complex contours correlate with body mass but not locomotor patterns, while ulna shafts significantly correlate with locomotion. African apes' ulna shafts are more robust and curved than Asian apes and are unlike other terrestrial mammals (including other primates), curving ventrally rather than dorsally. Because this distinctive curvature is absent in orangutans and hylobatids, it is likely a function of powerful flexors engaged in wrist and hand stabilization during knuckle-walking, and not an adaptation to climbing or suspensory behavior. The OH 36 (purported Paranthropus boisei) and TM 266 (assigned to Sahelanthropus tchadensis) fossils differ from other hominins by falling within the knuckle-walking morphospace, and thus appear to show forelimb morphology consistent with terrestrial locomotion. Discriminant function analysis classifies both OH 36 and TM 266 with Pan and Gorilla with high posterior probability. Along with its associated femur, the TM 266 ulna shaft contours and its deep, keeled trochlear notch comprise a suite of traits signaling African ape-like quadrupedalism. While implications for the phylogenetic position and hominin status of S. tchadensis remain equivocal, this study supports the growing body of evidence indicating that S. tchadensis was not an obligate biped, but instead represents a late Miocene hominid with knuckle-walking adaptations.

@article{doi101016jjhevol2023103355,
    author = "Meyer, Marc R. and Jung, Jason P. and Spear, Jeffrey K. and Araiza, Isabella and Galway‐Witham, Julia and Williams, Scott A.",
    title = "Knuckle-walking in Sahelanthropus? Locomotor inferences from the ulnae of fossil hominins and other hominoids",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Journal of Human Evolution",
    abstract = "Because the ulna supports and transmits forces during movement, its morphology can signal aspects of functional adaptation. To test whether, like extant apes, some hominins habitually recruit the forelimb in locomotion, we separate the ulna shaft and ulna proximal complex for independent shape analyses via elliptical Fourier methods to identify functional signals. We examine the relative influence of locomotion, taxonomy, and body mass on ulna contours in Homo sapiens (n = 22), five species of extant apes (n = 33), two Miocene apes (Hispanopithecus and Danuvius), and 17 fossil hominin specimens including Sahelanthropus, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and early Homo. Ulna proximal complex contours correlate with body mass but not locomotor patterns, while ulna shafts significantly correlate with locomotion. African apes' ulna shafts are more robust and curved than Asian apes and are unlike other terrestrial mammals (including other primates), curving ventrally rather than dorsally. Because this distinctive curvature is absent in orangutans and hylobatids, it is likely a function of powerful flexors engaged in wrist and hand stabilization during knuckle-walking, and not an adaptation to climbing or suspensory behavior. The OH 36 (purported Paranthropus boisei) and TM 266 (assigned to Sahelanthropus tchadensis) fossils differ from other hominins by falling within the knuckle-walking morphospace, and thus appear to show forelimb morphology consistent with terrestrial locomotion. Discriminant function analysis classifies both OH 36 and TM 266 with Pan and Gorilla with high posterior probability. Along with its associated femur, the TM 266 ulna shaft contours and its deep, keeled trochlear notch comprise a suite of traits signaling African ape-like quadrupedalism. While implications for the phylogenetic position and hominin status of S. tchadensis remain equivocal, this study supports the growing body of evidence indicating that S. tchadensis was not an obligate biped, but instead represents a late Miocene hominid with knuckle-walking adaptations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103355",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103355",
    openalex = "W4361256005",
    references = "doi101002ajpa24684"
}

Facial morphology, a complex trait influenced by genetics, holds great significance in evolutionary research. However, due to limited fossil evidence, the facial characteristics of Neanderthals and Denisovans have remained largely unknown. In this study, we conduct a large-scale multi-ethnic meta-analysis of the genome-wide association study (GWAS), including 9674 East Asians and 10,115 Europeans, quantitatively assessing 78 facial traits using 3D facial images. We identify 71 genomic loci associated with facial features, including 21 novel loci. We develop a facial polygenic score (FPS) that enables the prediction of facial features based on genetic information. Interestingly, the distribution of FPSs among populations from diverse continental groups exhibits relevant correlations with observed facial features. Furthermore, we apply the FPS to predict the facial traits of seven Neanderthals and one Denisovan using ancient DNA and align predictions with the fossil records. Our results suggest that Neanderthals and Denisovans likely share similar facial features, such as a wider but shorter nose and a wider endocanthion distance. The decreased mouth width is characterized specifically in Denisovans. The integration of genomic data and facial trait analysis provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history and adaptive changes in human facial morphology.

@article{doi101016jjgg202407005,
    author = "Du, Siyuan and Chen, Jieyi and Li, Jiarui and Qian, Wei and Wu, Sijie and Peng, Qianqian and Liu, Yu and Pan, Ting and Li, Yi and Hadi, Sibte and Tan, Jingze and Yuan, Ziyu and Wang, Jiucun and Tang, Kun and Wang, Zhuo and Wen, Yanqin and Dong, Xinran and Zhou, Wenhao and Ruiz‐Linares, Andrés and Shi, Yongyong and Li, Jin and Liu, Fan and Zhang, Manfei and Wang, Sijia",
    title = "A multi-ancestry GWAS meta-analysis of facial features and its application in predicting archaic human features",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Journal of genetics and genomics/Journal of Genetics and Genomics",
    abstract = "Facial morphology, a complex trait influenced by genetics, holds great significance in evolutionary research. However, due to limited fossil evidence, the facial characteristics of Neanderthals and Denisovans have remained largely unknown. In this study, we conduct a large-scale multi-ethnic meta-analysis of the genome-wide association study (GWAS), including 9674 East Asians and 10,115 Europeans, quantitatively assessing 78 facial traits using 3D facial images. We identify 71 genomic loci associated with facial features, including 21 novel loci. We develop a facial polygenic score (FPS) that enables the prediction of facial features based on genetic information. Interestingly, the distribution of FPSs among populations from diverse continental groups exhibits relevant correlations with observed facial features. Furthermore, we apply the FPS to predict the facial traits of seven Neanderthals and one Denisovan using ancient DNA and align predictions with the fossil records. Our results suggest that Neanderthals and Denisovans likely share similar facial features, such as a wider but shorter nose and a wider endocanthion distance. The decreased mouth width is characterized specifically in Denisovans. The integration of genomic data and facial trait analysis provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history and adaptive changes in human facial morphology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgg.2024.07.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jgg.2024.07.005",
    openalex = "W4400520961",
    references = "doi101038s41586024076129"
}

experienced a relative stasis in locomotor behavior, probably due to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, which created a stable environment in the Miocene of southwestern China.

@article{doi101016jxinn2024100580,
    author = "Zhang, Yinan and Ni, Xijun and Li, Qiang and Stidham, Thomas A. and Lü, Dan and Gao, Feng and Zhang, Chi and Harrison, Terry",
    title = "Lufengpithecus inner ear provides evidence of a common locomotor repertoire ancestral to human bipedalism",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "The Innovation",
    abstract = "experienced a relative stasis in locomotor behavior, probably due to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, which created a stable environment in the Miocene of southwestern China.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100580",
    doi = "10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100580",
    openalex = "W4391810138",
    references = "doi101126scienceabq2835"
}

The human otolithic system (utricle and saccule), housed within the bony vestibule of the inner ear, establishes our sense of balance in conjunction with the semicircular canals. Yet, while the morphological evolution of the semicircular canals is actively explored, comparative morphological analyses of the otolithic system are lacking. This is regrettable because functional links with head orientation suggest the otolithic system could be used to track postural change throughout human evolution and across primates more broadly. In this context, we present the first analysis of the evolution of the human otolithic system within an anthropoid primate setting. Using the vestibule as a morphological proxy for the utricle and saccule, we compare humans to 13 other extant anthropoid species, and use phylogenetically-informed methods to find correlations with body size, endocranial flexion, and head-neck posture. Our results, obtained through micro-CT of 136 inner ears, reveal two major evolutionary transitions in hominoids, leading to distinctive vestibular morphology in humans, characterized by otolithic morphology resembling squirrel monkeys (possibly due to reversal), with a pronounced supraovalic fossa. Finally, we find a positional signal embedded in the anthropoid bony vestibule, providing the foundation to further explore the evolution of human head-neck posture using inner ear morphology.

@article{doi101038s42003024069660,
    author = "Smith, Christopher M. and David, Romain and Almécija, Sergio and Laitman, Jeffrey T. and Hammond, Ashley S.",
    title = "First evolutionary insights into the human otolithic system",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Communications Biology",
    abstract = "The human otolithic system (utricle and saccule), housed within the bony vestibule of the inner ear, establishes our sense of balance in conjunction with the semicircular canals. Yet, while the morphological evolution of the semicircular canals is actively explored, comparative morphological analyses of the otolithic system are lacking. This is regrettable because functional links with head orientation suggest the otolithic system could be used to track postural change throughout human evolution and across primates more broadly. In this context, we present the first analysis of the evolution of the human otolithic system within an anthropoid primate setting. Using the vestibule as a morphological proxy for the utricle and saccule, we compare humans to 13 other extant anthropoid species, and use phylogenetically-informed methods to find correlations with body size, endocranial flexion, and head-neck posture. Our results, obtained through micro-CT of 136 inner ears, reveal two major evolutionary transitions in hominoids, leading to distinctive vestibular morphology in humans, characterized by otolithic morphology resembling squirrel monkeys (possibly due to reversal), with a pronounced supraovalic fossa. Finally, we find a positional signal embedded in the anthropoid bony vestibule, providing the foundation to further explore the evolution of human head-neck posture using inner ear morphology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06966-0",
    doi = "10.1038/s42003-024-06966-0",
    openalex = "W4403071503",
    references = "doi101002ajpa24684"
}

Plasmodium species causing malaria in humans are not monophyletic, sharing common ancestors with nonhuman primate parasites. Plasmodium gonderi is one of the few known Plasmodium species infecting African old-world monkeys that are not found in apes. This study reports a de novo assembled P. gonderi genome with complete chromosomes. The P. gonderi genome shares codon usage, syntenic blocks, and other characteristics with the human parasites Plasmodium ovale s.l. and Plasmodium malariae, also of African origin, and the human parasite Plasmodium vivax and species found in nonhuman primates from Southeast Asia. Using phylogenetically aware methods, newly identified syntenic blocks were found enriched with conserved metabolic genes. Regions outside those blocks harbored genes encoding proteins involved in the vertebrate host-Plasmodium relationship undergoing faster evolution. Such genome architecture may have facilitated colonizing vertebrate hosts. Phylogenomic analyses estimated the common ancestor between P. vivax and an African ape parasite P. vivax-like, within the Asian nonhuman primates parasites clade. Time estimates incorporating P. gonderi placed the P. vivax and P. vivax-like common ancestor in the late Pleistocene, a time of active migration of hominids between Africa and Asia. Thus, phylogenomic and time-tree analyses are consistent with an Asian origin for P. vivax and an introduction of P. vivax-like into Africa. Unlike other studies, time estimates for the clade with Plasmodium falciparum, the most lethal human malaria parasite, coincide with their host species radiation, African hominids. Overall, the newly assembled genome presented here has the quality to support comparative genomic investigations in Plasmodium.

@article{doi101093gbeevae027,
    author = "Cepeda, Axl S. and Mello, Beatriz and Pacheco, M. Andreína and Luo, Zunping and Sullivan, Steven A. and Carlton, Jane M. and Escalante, Ananías A.",
    title = "The Genome of Plasmodium gonderi: Insights into the Evolution of Human Malaria Parasites",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Genome Biology and Evolution",
    abstract = "Plasmodium species causing malaria in humans are not monophyletic, sharing common ancestors with nonhuman primate parasites. Plasmodium gonderi is one of the few known Plasmodium species infecting African old-world monkeys that are not found in apes. This study reports a de novo assembled P. gonderi genome with complete chromosomes. The P. gonderi genome shares codon usage, syntenic blocks, and other characteristics with the human parasites Plasmodium ovale s.l. and Plasmodium malariae, also of African origin, and the human parasite Plasmodium vivax and species found in nonhuman primates from Southeast Asia. Using phylogenetically aware methods, newly identified syntenic blocks were found enriched with conserved metabolic genes. Regions outside those blocks harbored genes encoding proteins involved in the vertebrate host-Plasmodium relationship undergoing faster evolution. Such genome architecture may have facilitated colonizing vertebrate hosts. Phylogenomic analyses estimated the common ancestor between P. vivax and an African ape parasite P. vivax-like, within the Asian nonhuman primates parasites clade. Time estimates incorporating P. gonderi placed the P. vivax and P. vivax-like common ancestor in the late Pleistocene, a time of active migration of hominids between Africa and Asia. Thus, phylogenomic and time-tree analyses are consistent with an Asian origin for P. vivax and an introduction of P. vivax-like into Africa. Unlike other studies, time estimates for the clade with Plasmodium falciparum, the most lethal human malaria parasite, coincide with their host species radiation, African hominids. Overall, the newly assembled genome presented here has the quality to support comparative genomic investigations in Plasmodium.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evae027",
    doi = "10.1093/gbe/evae027",
    openalex = "W4394766837",
    references = "doi101016jjhevol2022103309"
}

As an extinct archaic human group which has genetically contributed to modern humans, Denisovans have received significant research interests across multiple disciplines, including archaeology, paleoanthropology, and molecular biology. However, so far, the sporadic discoveries of Denisovan fossils have limited our understanding of this hominin group. Baishiya Karst Cave site (35°27ʹN, 102°34ʹ12ʺE, 3282 m above sea level), located on the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, is the only archaeological site in East Asia where Denisovan fossils have been found. It is also one of only two sites globally, besides Denisova Cave (51°23ʹ51.3ʺN, 84°40ʹ34.3ʺE, 700 m above sea level), that contains Denisovan archaeological remains. Systematic archaeological excavation and research at Baishiya Karst Cave site have revealed a continuous and long-term stratigraphic sequence and archaeological deposits from the late Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene. In-depth studies of this site not only enhance our understanding of Denisovan groups but also provide insights into their adaptation to high-altitude environments. Recently, a new Denisovan fossil (Xiahe 2) was discovered from Layer 3 of Baishiya Karst Cave site through paleoproteomic analysis, providing more hominin fossils for the study of Denisovans. Layer 3, from which the Xiahe 2 derives stratigraphically, is chronologically constrained between 48000 and 32000 years ago. Given that early modern humans had already appeared in East Asia, and even on the Tibetan Plateau, around 40000 years ago, it is crucial to directly date Xiahe 2 for gaining a more precise understanding of the occupation history of Denisovans and their potential spatiotemporal overlap at a regional scale with early modern humans. In this study, we conduct radiocarbon dating analysis of Xiahe 2 and two animal bones from the same stratigraphic layer (Layer 3) at the Baishiya Karst Cave site. Radiocarbon dating of Xiahe 2 yielded an age of 41938± 303 cal a BP (mu±sigma, calendar year before present, i.e., before AD1950; Table S1). The radiocarbon dating results of two animal bones are approximately 32000 years ago (36242±114 cal a BP) and 46000 years ago (46197±721 cal a BP) (Table S1), respectively, which are consistent with the previously determined age range for Layer 3. Although there is insufficient collagen of Xiahe 2 for further elemental analysis (C%, N%, C:N), the elemental C:N ratio of the animal bone samples, processed using the same protocol, ranged between 2.9 and 3.5, which is within the accepted margins of C:N variation. This suggests that the quality of the collagen extracted from Xiahe 2 should also be acceptable. Additionally, the consistency of radiocarbon dating results from different laboratories on the same animal bone (BSY01-18-T2-B20, OxA-39183: 36570±539, and LZU20288: 36242±114 cal a BP, Table S1), along with the variation in deamidation rates of bone remains at Baishiya Karst Cave site, all support the reliability of the dating results for Xiahe 2 to about 42000 years ago. These new dating results not only extend the known timeline for the latest Denisovan survival but also enrich the evidence of their presence in East Asia during the Late Pleistocene. Additionally, based on the dating results in this study, and known sites dated to 45000– 40000 years ago with early modern human fossils or archaeological remains demonstrating modern human behaviours in northern China and on the Tibetan Plateau, we observe a temporal and spatial overlap between the latest Denisovan (Xiahe 2) and early modern humans in East Asia. It suggests the possibility of direct genetic exchange in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, where Xiahe 2 was found, and surrounding regions. Therefore, our study provides new perspectives for understanding the evolutionary history of Denisovans and their interactions with early modern humans.

@article{doi101360tb20241192,
    author = "Xia, Huan and Li, Yuanxin and Zhang, Dongju and Chen, Fahu",
    title = "New insights from the latest Denisovan fossil discovery on the Tibetan Plateau",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version)",
    abstract = "As an extinct archaic human group which has genetically contributed to modern humans, Denisovans have received significant research interests across multiple disciplines, including archaeology, paleoanthropology, and molecular biology. However, so far, the sporadic discoveries of Denisovan fossils have limited our understanding of this hominin group. Baishiya Karst Cave site (35°27ʹN, 102°34ʹ12ʺE, 3282 m above sea level), located on the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, is the only archaeological site in East Asia where Denisovan fossils have been found. It is also one of only two sites globally, besides Denisova Cave (51°23ʹ51.3ʺN, 84°40ʹ34.3ʺE, 700 m above sea level), that contains Denisovan archaeological remains. Systematic archaeological excavation and research at Baishiya Karst Cave site have revealed a continuous and long-term stratigraphic sequence and archaeological deposits from the late Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene. In-depth studies of this site not only enhance our understanding of Denisovan groups but also provide insights into their adaptation to high-altitude environments. Recently, a new Denisovan fossil (Xiahe 2) was discovered from Layer 3 of Baishiya Karst Cave site through paleoproteomic analysis, providing more hominin fossils for the study of Denisovans. Layer 3, from which the Xiahe 2 derives stratigraphically, is chronologically constrained between 48000 and 32000 years ago. Given that early modern humans had already appeared in East Asia, and even on the Tibetan Plateau, around 40000 years ago, it is crucial to directly date Xiahe 2 for gaining a more precise understanding of the occupation history of Denisovans and their potential spatiotemporal overlap at a regional scale with early modern humans. In this study, we conduct radiocarbon dating analysis of Xiahe 2 and two animal bones from the same stratigraphic layer (Layer 3) at the Baishiya Karst Cave site. Radiocarbon dating of Xiahe 2 yielded an age of 41938± 303 cal a BP (mu±sigma, calendar year before present, i.e., before AD1950; Table S1). The radiocarbon dating results of two animal bones are approximately 32000 years ago (36242±114 cal a BP) and 46000 years ago (46197±721 cal a BP) (Table S1), respectively, which are consistent with the previously determined age range for Layer 3. Although there is insufficient collagen of Xiahe 2 for further elemental analysis (C\%, N\%, C:N), the elemental C:N ratio of the animal bone samples, processed using the same protocol, ranged between 2.9 and 3.5, which is within the accepted margins of C:N variation. This suggests that the quality of the collagen extracted from Xiahe 2 should also be acceptable. Additionally, the consistency of radiocarbon dating results from different laboratories on the same animal bone (BSY01-18-T2-B20, OxA-39183: 36570±539, and LZU20288: 36242±114 cal a BP, Table S1), along with the variation in deamidation rates of bone remains at Baishiya Karst Cave site, all support the reliability of the dating results for Xiahe 2 to about 42000 years ago. These new dating results not only extend the known timeline for the latest Denisovan survival but also enrich the evidence of their presence in East Asia during the Late Pleistocene. Additionally, based on the dating results in this study, and known sites dated to 45000– 40000 years ago with early modern human fossils or archaeological remains demonstrating modern human behaviours in northern China and on the Tibetan Plateau, we observe a temporal and spatial overlap between the latest Denisovan (Xiahe 2) and early modern humans in East Asia. It suggests the possibility of direct genetic exchange in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, where Xiahe 2 was found, and surrounding regions. Therefore, our study provides new perspectives for understanding the evolutionary history of Denisovans and their interactions with early modern humans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1360/tb-2024-1192",
    doi = "10.1360/tb-2024-1192",
    openalex = "W4404705453",
    references = "doi101038s41559023022944, doi101038s41586024076129"
}

@article{crossref2025estimating,
    title = "Estimating the Time of Mankind Evolution",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "European Researcher",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.13187/er.2025.2.72",
    doi = "10.13187/er.2025.2.72",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W7115701874",
    volume = "16"
}

. The rate of zoonoses remains uncertain in both countries, and gaps in genomic data obscure the timing and zoonotic and geographic origin of monkeypox virus (MPXV) emergence in humans. Here, to address these uncertainties, we sequenced 118 MPXV genomes isolated from cases in Nigeria and Cameroon between 2018 and 2023. We show that in contrast to cases in Nigeria, cases in Cameroon are the result of repeated zoonoses, with two distinct zoonotic lineages circulating across the Nigeria-Cameroon border. Our findings suggest that shared animal populations in the cross-border forest ecosystems drive the emergence and spread of the virus. Accordingly, we identify the closest zoonotic outgroup to the Nigerian human epidemic lineage (hMPXV-1) in a southern Nigerian border state. We estimate that the shared ancestor of the zoonotic outgroup and hMPXV-1 circulated in animals in southern Nigeria in late 2013. We find that hMPXV-1 emerged in humans in August 2014 in the southern Rivers State and circulated undetected for three years. Rivers State was the main source of viral spread during the human epidemic. Our study sheds light on the recent establishment of MPXV in the human population and highlights the risk of persistent zoonotic emergence of MPXV in the complex border regions of Cameroon and Nigeria.

@article{doi101038s41586025091282,
    author = "Parker, Edyth and Omah, Ifeanyi F. and Djuicy, Délia Doreen and Magee, Andrew F. and Tomkins-Tinch, Christopher H. and Otieno, James R. and Varilly, Patrick and Ayinla, Akeemat Opeyemi and Sijuwola, Ayotunde E. and Ahmed, Muhammad I. and Ope-ewe, Oludayo O. and Ogunsanya, Olusola and Olono, Alhaji and Saibu, Femi and Eromon, Philomena and Moumbeket-Yifomnjou, Moïse Henri and Essengue, Loique Landry Messanga and Yonga, Martial and Essima, Gael Dieudonné and Touoyem, Ibrahim Pascal and Mounchili, Landry and Eyangoh, Sara and Etoundi, Alain Georges Mballa and Esso, Linda and Nguidjol, Inès Mandah Emah and Metomb, Steve Franck and Chebo, Cornelius and Agwe, Samuel Mbah and Mossi, Hans Makembe and Bilounga, Chanceline Ndongo and Akanbi, Olusola Anuoluwapo and Egwuenu, Abiodun and Ehiakhamen, Odianosen and Chukwu, Chimaobi and Suleiman, Kabiru and Akinpelu, Afolabi and Ahmad, Adama and Imam, Khadijah Isa and Ojedele, Richard and Oripenaye, Victor and Ikeata, Kenneth and Adelakun, Sophiyah and Olajumoke, Babatunde and O’Toole, Áine and Zeller, Mark and Gangavarapu, Karthik and Park, Daniel J. and Mboowa, Gerald and Tessema, Sofonías K. and Tebeje, Yenew Kebede and Folarin, Onikepe and Happi, Anise and Lemey, Philippe and Suchard, Marc A. and Andersen, Kristian G. and Sabeti, Pardis C. and Rambaut, Andrew and Ihekweazu, Chikwe and Idris, Jide and Adetifa, Ifedayo and Njouom, Richard and Happi, Christian",
    title = "Genomics reveals zoonotic and sustained human mpox spread in West Africa",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Nature",
    abstract = ". The rate of zoonoses remains uncertain in both countries, and gaps in genomic data obscure the timing and zoonotic and geographic origin of monkeypox virus (MPXV) emergence in humans. Here, to address these uncertainties, we sequenced 118 MPXV genomes isolated from cases in Nigeria and Cameroon between 2018 and 2023. We show that in contrast to cases in Nigeria, cases in Cameroon are the result of repeated zoonoses, with two distinct zoonotic lineages circulating across the Nigeria-Cameroon border. Our findings suggest that shared animal populations in the cross-border forest ecosystems drive the emergence and spread of the virus. Accordingly, we identify the closest zoonotic outgroup to the Nigerian human epidemic lineage (hMPXV-1) in a southern Nigerian border state. We estimate that the shared ancestor of the zoonotic outgroup and hMPXV-1 circulated in animals in southern Nigeria in late 2013. We find that hMPXV-1 emerged in humans in August 2014 in the southern Rivers State and circulated undetected for three years. Rivers State was the main source of viral spread during the human epidemic. Our study sheds light on the recent establishment of MPXV in the human population and highlights the risk of persistent zoonotic emergence of MPXV in the complex border regions of Cameroon and Nigeria.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09128-2",
    doi = "10.1038/s41586-025-09128-2",
    openalex = "W4410495888",
    references = "doi103390v15030727"
}

The Late Pleistocene of Eurasia is key for understanding interactions between early modern humans and different types of archaic human groups. During this period, lithic technology shows more diversity and complexity, likely indicating flexible adaptative strategies. However, cultural variability as expressed by technological types remains vague in large parts of eastern Eurasia, like in China. Here, we report a complete Quina technological system identified from the study of the Longtan site in Southwest China. The site has been securely dated to ca. 60 to 50 thousand years ago (ka), with compelling evidence of core exploitation, production of large and thick flakes, shaping and maintenance of scrapers exhibiting the whole Quina concept, typical of contemporary European Middle Paleolithic technologies developed by Neanderthal groups adapted to climatic oscillations during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and early MIS 3. The finding of a Quina lithic assemblage in China not only demonstrates the existence of a Middle Paleolithic technology in the region but also shows large-scale analogies with Neanderthal behaviors in western Europe. Longtan substantially extends the geographic distribution of this technical behavior in East Asia. Although its origin remains unclear, implications for Pleistocene hominin dispersal and adaptation to diverse ecological settings are considered. The Longtan lithic evidence also provides perspectives for understanding the cultural evolutionary situation before the large-scale arrivals of early modern humans in East Asia predating ~45 ka.

@article{doi101073pnas2418029122,
    author = "Ruan, Qi-Jun and Li, Hao and Xiao, Peiyuan and Li, Bo and Monod, Hélène and Sumner, Alexandra and Zhao, Keliang and Liu, Jian-Hui and Jia, Zhenxiu and Wang, Chunxin and Fan, Anchuan and Moncel, Marie-Hélène and Marwick, Ben and Peresani, Marco and Wang, Youping and Chen, Fahu and Delpiano, Davide",
    title = "Quina lithic technology indicates diverse Late Pleistocene human dynamics in East Asia",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "The Late Pleistocene of Eurasia is key for understanding interactions between early modern humans and different types of archaic human groups. During this period, lithic technology shows more diversity and complexity, likely indicating flexible adaptative strategies. However, cultural variability as expressed by technological types remains vague in large parts of eastern Eurasia, like in China. Here, we report a complete Quina technological system identified from the study of the Longtan site in Southwest China. The site has been securely dated to ca. 60 to 50 thousand years ago (ka), with compelling evidence of core exploitation, production of large and thick flakes, shaping and maintenance of scrapers exhibiting the whole Quina concept, typical of contemporary European Middle Paleolithic technologies developed by Neanderthal groups adapted to climatic oscillations during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and early MIS 3. The finding of a Quina lithic assemblage in China not only demonstrates the existence of a Middle Paleolithic technology in the region but also shows large-scale analogies with Neanderthal behaviors in western Europe. Longtan substantially extends the geographic distribution of this technical behavior in East Asia. Although its origin remains unclear, implications for Pleistocene hominin dispersal and adaptation to diverse ecological settings are considered. The Longtan lithic evidence also provides perspectives for understanding the cultural evolutionary situation before the large-scale arrivals of early modern humans in East Asia predating \textasciitilde 45 ka.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418029122",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.2418029122",
    openalex = "W4409010335",
    references = "doi101038s41586024076129"
}