Invasions

@article{doi1023071781423,
    author = "B., R. N. R. and Thomson, George",
    title = "The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand",
    year = "1924",
    journal = "Geographical Journal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1781423",
    doi = "10.2307/1781423",
    openalex = "W2557030259"
}

@article{doi101038128243c0,
    author = "G., J. S.",
    title = "Animal Ecology and Evolution",
    year = "1931",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/128243c0",
    doi = "10.1038/128243c0",
    openalex = "W4251847152"
}

Summary 1. In analysing the ecological conditions of an animal population we have above all to focus our attention upon the most sensitive stages within the life cycle of the animal, that is, the period of breeding and larval development. 2. Most animal populations on the sea bottom maintain the qualitatively composition of the species composing them, over long periods of time, though the individual species use quite different modes of reproduction and development. This shows that species producing a large number of eggs have a larger wastage of eggs and larvae than those with only a few eggs. The wastage of eggs in the sea is much larger than on the land and in fresh water. 3. In the invertebrate populations on the level sea bottom, large fluctuations in numbers from year to year indicate species with a long pelagic larval life, while a more or less constant occurrence indicates species with a very short pelagic life or a non‐pelagic development. 4. In most marine invertebrates which shed their eggs and sperm freely in the water, either (a) the males are the first to spawn, thus stimulating the females to shed their eggs, or (b) an ‘epidemic spawning’ of a whole population takes place within a few hours. Both methods greatly favour the possibility of fertilization of the eggs spawned and show that the heavy wastage of eggs and larvae takes place after fertilization, during the free swimming pelagic life. 5. Embryos with a non‐pelagic development may originate (a) from large yolky eggs, in which case all the hatching young of the same species will be at the same stage of development, or (b) from small eggs which during their development feed on nurse eggs, when the individual embryos of the same species may vary enormously in size at the stage of hatching. 6. Three types of pelagic larvae are known: (a) Lecithotrophic larvae, originating from large yolky eggs spawned in small numbers by the individual mother animals; they are independent of the plankton as a source of food although growing during pelagic life, are absent from high arctic seas but constitute about 1 o % of the species with pelagic larvae in all other seas, (b) The planktotrophic larvae with a long pelagic life, originating from small eggs spawned in huge numbers by the individual mother animal; they feed from, and grow in, the plankton, constituting less than 5% of high arctic bottom invertebrates, 55–65% of the species in boreal seas, and 8 o ‐85 % of the tropical species, (c) The planktotrophic larvae with a short pelagic life having the same size and organization at the moment of hatching and at the moment of settling; these constitute about 5% of the species in all Recent seas. 7. To find out the factors which cause the enormous waste of eggs and larvae, we thus have to study those forms (constituting 7 o % of all species of bottom invertebrates in Recent seas) which have a long planktotrophic pelagic life, as only species reproducing in this way have really large numbers of eggs. 8. The food requirements of the planktotrophic pelagic larvae are much greater than those of the adult animals at the bottom. The adaptability of the larvae to poor food conditions seems, nevertheless, to be greater than hitherto believed. The significance of starvation seems mainly to be an indirect one: poor food conditions cause slow growth, prolong larval life, and give the enemies a longer interval of time to attack and eat the larvae. 9. At the temperatures to which they are normally exposed, northern as well as tropical larvae seem on an average to spend a similar time (about 3 weeks) in the plankton. The length of the pelagic life of the individual species may, however, vary significantly in nature. In the Sound (Denmark) the larvae are never exposed to temperatures outside the range which they are able to endure. The wastage caused by temperature, like that due to starvation, seems mainly to be an indirect one: low temperatures postpone growth and metamorphosis, and give the enemies a longer time to feed on the larvae. 1 o. When a larva feeding on a pure algal diet metamorphoses into a carnivorous bottom stage, a ‘physiological revolution’ occurs and a huge waste of larvae might be expected. Experiments have, however, shown that this is not the case. 11. Young pelagic larvae are photopositive and crowd near the surface; larvae about to metamorphose are photonegative. Larval polychaetes, echinoderms, and presumably also prosobranchs, may prolong their pelagic life for days or weeks until they find a suitable substratum. Forced towards the bottom by their photonegativity and transported by currents over wide bottom areas, testing the substratum at intervals, their chance of finding a suitable place for settling is much better than hitherto believed. 12. Continuous currents from the continental shelf towards the open ocean may transport larvae from the coast to the deep sea where they will perish. Such conditions may (for instance in the Gulf of Guinea) deeply influence the composition of the fauna, while in other areas (European western coast, southern California) they seem to be only of small significance. 13. The toll levied by enemies appears to be the most essential source of waste among the larvae. A list of such enemies, comprising other pelagic larvae, holoplank‐tonic animals and bottom animals, is given on p. 2 o. A medium‐sized Mytilus edulis, filtering 1–4 1. of water per hour, may retain and kill about 100,000 pelagic lamellibranch larvae in 24 hr. during the maximum breeding season in a Danish fjord. 14. Species reproducing in a vegetative way, by fission, laceration, budding, etc., might be expected to have good chances of competition in such areas where conditions for sexual reproduction are unfavourable. Nevertheless, they only supply a rather small percentage of the animal populations of all Recent seas, probably because their intensity of reproduction is low and because they are unable to spread to new areas. Most forms reproducing in a vegetative way have sexual reproduction as well. 15. Pelagic development is nearly or totally suspended in the deep sea, and is restricted to the shelf faunas. In the arctic and antarctic seas pelagic development is nearly or totally suppressed, even in the shelf faunas, but starting from here the percentage of forms with pelagic larvae gradually increases as we pass into warmer water, reaching its summit on the tropic shelves. 16. In order to survive in high arctic areas a planktotrophic, pelagic larva has to complete its development from hatching to metamorphosis within I–I ½ months (i.e. the period during which phytoplankton production takes place) at a temperature below 2–4 o C. Most larvae, that is in 95% of the species, are unable to do so and have a non‐pelagic development, but if a pelagic larva is able to develop under these severe conditions the planktotrophic pelagic life seems to afford good opportunities even in the Arctic. Thus the 5 % of arctic invertebrates reproducing in this way comprise several of the species which quantitatively are most common within the area. 17. The antarctic shore fauna has poor conditions similar to those of the Arctic. The longest continuous periods of phytoplankton production are 2 and 3 weeks respectively, and pelagic larvae have, in order to survive, to complete their development within this short space of time at a temperature between 1 and 4 o C. Accordingly, non‐pelagic development is the rule, but most arctic species are able to support their non‐pelagic development by means of much smaller eggs than the antarctic species, where brood protection and viviparity is dominant. The antarctic fauna has apparently had a longer time to develop its tendency to abandon a pelagic life. The greater the size of the individual born, the smaller its relative food requirements and the better its chance of competing under poor food conditions. 18. The relatively few data on reproduction in deep sea invertebrates point to a non‐pelagic development. The larvae of such forms, in order to develop through a planktotrophic pelagic stage, would have to rise by the aid of their own locomotory organs through a water column 2000–4000 m. high or more (often with counteracting currents) to the food producing surface layer, and to cover the same distance when descending to metamorphose and settle. 19. The ecological features common to the deep sea, the arctic and the antarctic seas, which enable the same animals to live and to reproduce there, contribute to explain the ‘equatorial submergence’ of many arctic and antarctic coastal forms. 20. In the tropical coastal zones where the percentage of species with pelagic larvae reaches its maximum, the production of food for the larvae takes place much more continuously than in temperate and arctic seas, because light conditions enable the phytoplankton to assimilate all the year round. The tropical species of marine invertebrates breed (in contrast to temperate and arctic species) within such different seasons that their larval stock, taken as a whole, is more or less equally distributed in the plankton all the year round. This makes the competition in the plankton less keen. 21. The fact that a mode of reproduction and development, well fit for an arctic area, is unfit in a tem

@article{doi101111j1469185x1950tb00585x,
    author = "Thorson, Gunnar",
    title = "REPRODUCTIVE and LARVAL ECOLOGY OF MARINE BOTTOM INVERTEBRATES",
    year = "1950",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Summary 1. In analysing the ecological conditions of an animal population we have above all to focus our attention upon the most sensitive stages within the life cycle of the animal, that is, the period of breeding and larval development. 2. Most animal populations on the sea bottom maintain the qualitatively composition of the species composing them, over long periods of time, though the individual species use quite different modes of reproduction and development. This shows that species producing a large number of eggs have a larger wastage of eggs and larvae than those with only a few eggs. The wastage of eggs in the sea is much larger than on the land and in fresh water. 3. In the invertebrate populations on the level sea bottom, large fluctuations in numbers from year to year indicate species with a long pelagic larval life, while a more or less constant occurrence indicates species with a very short pelagic life or a non‐pelagic development. 4. In most marine invertebrates which shed their eggs and sperm freely in the water, either (a) the males are the first to spawn, thus stimulating the females to shed their eggs, or (b) an ‘epidemic spawning’ of a whole population takes place within a few hours. Both methods greatly favour the possibility of fertilization of the eggs spawned and show that the heavy wastage of eggs and larvae takes place after fertilization, during the free swimming pelagic life. 5. Embryos with a non‐pelagic development may originate (a) from large yolky eggs, in which case all the hatching young of the same species will be at the same stage of development, or (b) from small eggs which during their development feed on nurse eggs, when the individual embryos of the same species may vary enormously in size at the stage of hatching. 6. Three types of pelagic larvae are known: (a) Lecithotrophic larvae, originating from large yolky eggs spawned in small numbers by the individual mother animals; they are independent of the plankton as a source of food although growing during pelagic life, are absent from high arctic seas but constitute about 1 o \% of the species with pelagic larvae in all other seas, (b) The planktotrophic larvae with a long pelagic life, originating from small eggs spawned in huge numbers by the individual mother animal; they feed from, and grow in, the plankton, constituting less than 5\% of high arctic bottom invertebrates, 55–65\% of the species in boreal seas, and 8 o ‐85 \% of the tropical species, (c) The planktotrophic larvae with a short pelagic life having the same size and organization at the moment of hatching and at the moment of settling; these constitute about 5\% of the species in all Recent seas. 7. To find out the factors which cause the enormous waste of eggs and larvae, we thus have to study those forms (constituting 7 o \% of all species of bottom invertebrates in Recent seas) which have a long planktotrophic pelagic life, as only species reproducing in this way have really large numbers of eggs. 8. The food requirements of the planktotrophic pelagic larvae are much greater than those of the adult animals at the bottom. The adaptability of the larvae to poor food conditions seems, nevertheless, to be greater than hitherto believed. The significance of starvation seems mainly to be an indirect one: poor food conditions cause slow growth, prolong larval life, and give the enemies a longer interval of time to attack and eat the larvae. 9. At the temperatures to which they are normally exposed, northern as well as tropical larvae seem on an average to spend a similar time (about 3 weeks) in the plankton. The length of the pelagic life of the individual species may, however, vary significantly in nature. In the Sound (Denmark) the larvae are never exposed to temperatures outside the range which they are able to endure. The wastage caused by temperature, like that due to starvation, seems mainly to be an indirect one: low temperatures postpone growth and metamorphosis, and give the enemies a longer time to feed on the larvae. 1 o. When a larva feeding on a pure algal diet metamorphoses into a carnivorous bottom stage, a ‘physiological revolution’ occurs and a huge waste of larvae might be expected. Experiments have, however, shown that this is not the case. 11. Young pelagic larvae are photopositive and crowd near the surface; larvae about to metamorphose are photonegative. Larval polychaetes, echinoderms, and presumably also prosobranchs, may prolong their pelagic life for days or weeks until they find a suitable substratum. Forced towards the bottom by their photonegativity and transported by currents over wide bottom areas, testing the substratum at intervals, their chance of finding a suitable place for settling is much better than hitherto believed. 12. Continuous currents from the continental shelf towards the open ocean may transport larvae from the coast to the deep sea where they will perish. Such conditions may (for instance in the Gulf of Guinea) deeply influence the composition of the fauna, while in other areas (European western coast, southern California) they seem to be only of small significance. 13. The toll levied by enemies appears to be the most essential source of waste among the larvae. A list of such enemies, comprising other pelagic larvae, holoplank‐tonic animals and bottom animals, is given on p. 2 o. A medium‐sized Mytilus edulis, filtering 1–4 1. of water per hour, may retain and kill about 100,000 pelagic lamellibranch larvae in 24 hr. during the maximum breeding season in a Danish fjord. 14. Species reproducing in a vegetative way, by fission, laceration, budding, etc., might be expected to have good chances of competition in such areas where conditions for sexual reproduction are unfavourable. Nevertheless, they only supply a rather small percentage of the animal populations of all Recent seas, probably because their intensity of reproduction is low and because they are unable to spread to new areas. Most forms reproducing in a vegetative way have sexual reproduction as well. 15. Pelagic development is nearly or totally suspended in the deep sea, and is restricted to the shelf faunas. In the arctic and antarctic seas pelagic development is nearly or totally suppressed, even in the shelf faunas, but starting from here the percentage of forms with pelagic larvae gradually increases as we pass into warmer water, reaching its summit on the tropic shelves. 16. In order to survive in high arctic areas a planktotrophic, pelagic larva has to complete its development from hatching to metamorphosis within I–I ½ months (i.e. the period during which phytoplankton production takes place) at a temperature below 2–4 o C. Most larvae, that is in 95\% of the species, are unable to do so and have a non‐pelagic development, but if a pelagic larva is able to develop under these severe conditions the planktotrophic pelagic life seems to afford good opportunities even in the Arctic. Thus the 5 \% of arctic invertebrates reproducing in this way comprise several of the species which quantitatively are most common within the area. 17. The antarctic shore fauna has poor conditions similar to those of the Arctic. The longest continuous periods of phytoplankton production are 2 and 3 weeks respectively, and pelagic larvae have, in order to survive, to complete their development within this short space of time at a temperature between 1 and 4 o C. Accordingly, non‐pelagic development is the rule, but most arctic species are able to support their non‐pelagic development by means of much smaller eggs than the antarctic species, where brood protection and viviparity is dominant. The antarctic fauna has apparently had a longer time to develop its tendency to abandon a pelagic life. The greater the size of the individual born, the smaller its relative food requirements and the better its chance of competing under poor food conditions. 18. The relatively few data on reproduction in deep sea invertebrates point to a non‐pelagic development. The larvae of such forms, in order to develop through a planktotrophic pelagic stage, would have to rise by the aid of their own locomotory organs through a water column 2000–4000 m. high or more (often with counteracting currents) to the food producing surface layer, and to cover the same distance when descending to metamorphose and settle. 19. The ecological features common to the deep sea, the arctic and the antarctic seas, which enable the same animals to live and to reproduce there, contribute to explain the ‘equatorial submergence’ of many arctic and antarctic coastal forms. 20. In the tropical coastal zones where the percentage of species with pelagic larvae reaches its maximum, the production of food for the larvae takes place much more continuously than in temperate and arctic seas, because light conditions enable the phytoplankton to assimilate all the year round. The tropical species of marine invertebrates breed (in contrast to temperate and arctic species) within such different seasons that their larval stock, taken as a whole, is more or less equally distributed in the plankton all the year round. This makes the competition in the plankton less keen. 21. The fact that a mode of reproduction and development, well fit for an arctic area, is unfit in a tem",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.1950.tb00585.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185x.1950.tb00585.x",
    openalex = "W2064001070",
    references = "doi101017s0025315400000102, doi101017s0025315400011917, doi101017s0025315400073690, doi101098rstb19140016, doi101126science1082810489, doi101126science16414901b, doi1023071948665, doi1023072420105, doi105962bhltitle11376, doi105962bhltitle6841, openalexw2968710936, openalexw584497954"
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This article is itself a summarized statement concerning the various influences which affect population densities and the population systems these lead to. Known facts concerning animal populations have been analysed. systematized. and critically examined. using the experimental and mathematical approaches in the simpler situations. The more outstanding conclusions are listed below. Populations are self-governing systems. They regulate their densities in relation to their own properties and those of their environments. This they do by depleting and impairing essential things to the threshold of favourability, or by maintaining reactive inimical factors, such as the attack of natural enemies, at the limit of tolerance. The mechanism of density governance is almost always intraspecific competition, either amongst the animals for a critically important requisite, or amongst natural enemies for which the animals concerned are requisites. Governing reaction induced by density change holds populations in a state of balance in their environments. The characteristic of balance is sustained and effective compensatory reaction which maintains populations in being in spite of even violent changes in the environment, and which adjusts their densities in general conformity with prevailing conditions. Far from being a stationary state, balance is commonly a state of oscillation about the level of the equilibrium density which is for ever changing with environmental conditions. Destructive factors do not add to mortality when they continue to operate over long periods, but merely cause a redistribution of mortality, for the intensity of competition automatically relaxes sufficiently to make room for the destruction they cause. Such compensatory reaction causes the effect of destructive factors upon density to be much less when balance is reattained than that which they produce when they first operate.

@article{doi101071zo9540009,
    author = "Nicholson, AJ",
    title = "An outline of the dynamics of animal populations.",
    year = "1954",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Zoology",
    abstract = "This article is itself a summarized statement concerning the various influences which affect population densities and the population systems these lead to. Known facts concerning animal populations have been analysed. systematized. and critically examined. using the experimental and mathematical approaches in the simpler situations. The more outstanding conclusions are listed below. Populations are self-governing systems. They regulate their densities in relation to their own properties and those of their environments. This they do by depleting and impairing essential things to the threshold of favourability, or by maintaining reactive inimical factors, such as the attack of natural enemies, at the limit of tolerance. The mechanism of density governance is almost always intraspecific competition, either amongst the animals for a critically important requisite, or amongst natural enemies for which the animals concerned are requisites. Governing reaction induced by density change holds populations in a state of balance in their environments. The characteristic of balance is sustained and effective compensatory reaction which maintains populations in being in spite of even violent changes in the environment, and which adjusts their densities in general conformity with prevailing conditions. Far from being a stationary state, balance is commonly a state of oscillation about the level of the equilibrium density which is for ever changing with environmental conditions. Destructive factors do not add to mortality when they continue to operate over long periods, but merely cause a redistribution of mortality, for the intensity of competition automatically relaxes sufficiently to make room for the destruction they cause. Such compensatory reaction causes the effect of destructive factors upon density to be much less when balance is reattained than that which they produce when they first operate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/zo9540009",
    doi = "10.1071/zo9540009",
    openalex = "W2086272729"
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Preface. Eugene P. Odum and Gary W. Barrett. 1. The Scope of Ecology. 2. The Ecosystem. 3. Energy in Ecological Systems. 4. Biogeochemical Cycles. 5. Limiting and Regulatory Factors. 6. Population Ecology. 7. Community Ecology. 8. Ecosystem Development. 9. Landscape Ecology. 10. Regional Ecology: Major Ecosystem Types and Biomes. 11. Global Ecology. 12. Statistical Thinking for Students of Ecology. Glossary. References. Index.

@book{doi10129879780300188479022,
    author = "Odum, Eugene P.",
    title = "Fundamentals of Ecology (1953)",
    year = "1955",
    booktitle = "Yale University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Preface. Eugene P. Odum and Gary W. Barrett. 1. The Scope of Ecology. 2. The Ecosystem. 3. Energy in Ecological Systems. 4. Biogeochemical Cycles. 5. Limiting and Regulatory Factors. 6. Population Ecology. 7. Community Ecology. 8. Ecosystem Development. 9. Landscape Ecology. 10. Regional Ecology: Major Ecosystem Types and Biomes. 11. Global Ecology. 12. Statistical Thinking for Students of Ecology. Glossary. References. Index.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300188479-022",
    doi = "10.12987/9780300188479-022",
    openalex = "W2015345446"
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@book{doi1010079781489972149,
    author = "Elton, Charles",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "1958",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7214-9",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4899-7214-9",
    openalex = "W4291174900"
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@misc{elton1958the1,
    author = "Elton, C. S",
    title = "The ecology of invasions by animals and plants",
    year = "1958",
    howpublished = "London, England, Methuen, 181 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Elton, C. S., 1958, The ecology of invasions by animals and plants: London, England, Methuen, 181 p.}"
}

@article{doi1023072257385,
    author = "Richards, P. W. and Elton, Charles",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants.",
    year = "1959",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2257385",
    doi = "10.2307/2257385",
    openalex = "W2315990401"
}

@article{doi1023071292702,
    author = "Edmondson, W. T. and Elton, Charles",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "AIBS Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1292702",
    doi = "10.2307/1292702",
    openalex = "W2582820197"
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@article{doi1023073796757,
    author = "Erickson, Arnold B. and Elton, Charles",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Journal of Wildlife Management",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3796757",
    doi = "10.2307/3796757",
    openalex = "W2329622255"
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"The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants sounded an early warning about an environmental catastrophe that has become all too familiar today - the invasion of nonnative species. From kudzu to zebra mussels to Asian long-horned beetles, nonnative species are colonizing new habitats around the world at an alarming rate, thanks to accidental and deliberate human intervention. One of the leading causes of extinctions of native animals and plants, invasive species also wreak severe economic havoc, causing billions of dollars in damage each year in the United States alone." "Elton explains the devastating effects that invasive species can have on local ecosystems in clear, concise language and with numerous examples. The first book on invasion biology, and still the most cited, Elton's masterpiece provides an accessible, engaging introduction to one of the most important environmental crises of our time."--BOOK JACKET.

@book{doi1010079789400958517,
    author = "Elton, Charles C.",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "1977",
    abstract = {"The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants sounded an early warning about an environmental catastrophe that has become all too familiar today - the invasion of nonnative species. From kudzu to zebra mussels to Asian long-horned beetles, nonnative species are colonizing new habitats around the world at an alarming rate, thanks to accidental and deliberate human intervention. One of the leading causes of extinctions of native animals and plants, invasive species also wreak severe economic havoc, causing billions of dollars in damage each year in the United States alone." "Elton explains the devastating effects that invasive species can have on local ecosystems in clear, concise language and with numerous examples. The first book on invasion biology, and still the most cited, Elton's masterpiece provides an accessible, engaging introduction to one of the most important environmental crises of our time."--BOOK JACKET.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5851-7",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-009-5851-7",
    openalex = "W2132145325"
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A population ecology perspective on organization-environment relations is proposed as an alternative to the dominant adaptation perspective. The strength of inertial pressures on organizational structure suggests the application of models that depend on competition and selection in populations of organizations. Several such models as well as issues that arise in attempts to apply them to the organization-environment problem are discussed.

@article{doi101086226424,
    author = "Hannan, Michael T. and Freeman, John H.",
    title = "The Population Ecology of Organizations",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "American Journal of Sociology",
    abstract = "A population ecology perspective on organization-environment relations is proposed as an alternative to the dominant adaptation perspective. The strength of inertial pressures on organizational structure suggests the application of models that depend on competition and selection in populations of organizations. Several such models as well as issues that arise in attempts to apply them to the organization-environment problem are discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/226424",
    doi = "10.1086/226424",
    openalex = "W3125349408",
    references = "doi1015159780691206912, doi105962bhltitle4489"
}

SUMMARY According to ‘Gause's hypothesis’ a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities. Most plant communities are longer‐lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all‐important to the argument presented. Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species‐richness: differences in life‐form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence‐relationships, differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression, fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species, the ability of certain species‐pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition, the production of substances more toxic to the producer‐species than to the other species, differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore‐sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven‐age structure of many populations. The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species‐rich communities known. In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance. The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2. The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components: the habitat niche, the life‐form niche, the phenological niche, and the regeneration niche. A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche. All stages in the regeneration‐cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages: Production of viable seed (including the sub‐stages of flowering, pollination and seed‐set), dispersal, in space and time, germination, establishment, and further development of the immature plant. In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes: the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species‐richness in plant communities, the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread, the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation, the co‐incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and the importance of regeneration‐studies for conservation.

@article{doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x,
    author = "Grubb, P. J.",
    title = "THE MAINTENANCE OF SPECIES‐RICHNESS IN PLANT COMMUNITIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REGENERATION NICHE",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "SUMMARY According to ‘Gause's hypothesis’ a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities. Most plant communities are longer‐lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all‐important to the argument presented. Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species‐richness: differences in life‐form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence‐relationships, differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression, fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species, the ability of certain species‐pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition, the production of substances more toxic to the producer‐species than to the other species, differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore‐sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven‐age structure of many populations. The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species‐rich communities known. In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance. The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2. The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components: the habitat niche, the life‐form niche, the phenological niche, and the regeneration niche. A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche. All stages in the regeneration‐cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages: Production of viable seed (including the sub‐stages of flowering, pollination and seed‐set), dispersal, in space and time, germination, establishment, and further development of the immature plant. In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes: the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species‐richness in plant communities, the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread, the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation, the co‐incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and the importance of regeneration‐studies for conservation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.1977.tb01347.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185x.1977.tb01347.x",
    openalex = "W2119259345",
    references = "doi101038242344a0, doi101086282070, doi101086282687, doi101093biomet3812196, doi101111j155856461969tb03489x, doi101126science1473655250, doi1015159780691206912, doi1023071218190, doi1023071929601, doi1023072256497, doi1023072258550, doi1023072989767, openalexw1532540194"
}

PLANT STRATEGIES. Primary Strategies in the Established Phase. Secondary Strategies in the Established Phase. Regenerative Strategies. VEGETATION PROCESSES. Dominance. Succession. Co-Existence. References. Index.

@book{openalexw2169917233,
    author = "Grime, J. Philip",
    title = "Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes",
    year = "1979",
    abstract = "PLANT STRATEGIES. Primary Strategies in the Established Phase. Secondary Strategies in the Established Phase. Regenerative Strategies. VEGETATION PROCESSES. Dominance. Succession. Co-Existence. References. Index.",
    openalex = "W2169917233"
}

@book{doi1010079783642965456,
    author = "Larcher, Walter",
    title = "Physiological Plant Ecology",
    year = "1980",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-96545-6",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-96545-6",
    openalex = "W2074209207"
}

Our understanding of plant mineral nutrition comes largely from studies of herbaceous crops that evolved from ruderal species characteristic of nutri­ ent-rich disturbed sites (52). With the development of agriculture, these ancestral species were bred for greater productivity and reproductive output at high nutrient levels where there was little selective advantage in efficient nutrient use. This paper briefly reviews the nature of crop responses to nutrient stress and compares these responses to those of species that have evolved under more natural conditions, particularly in low-nutrient envi­ ronments. I draw primarily upon nutritional studies of nitrogen and phos­ phorus because these elements most commonly limit plant growth and because their role in controlling plant growth and metabolism is most clearly understood (51). Other more specific aspects of nutritional plant ecology not discussed here include ammonium/nitrate nutrition (79), cal­ cicole/calcifuge nutrition (51,88), heavy metal tolerance (4), and serpentine ecology (133).

@article{doi101146annureves11110180001313,
    author = "Chapin, F. Stuart",
    title = "The Mineral Nutrition of Wild Plants",
    year = "1980",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
    abstract = "Our understanding of plant mineral nutrition comes largely from studies of herbaceous crops that evolved from ruderal species characteristic of nutri­ ent-rich disturbed sites (52). With the development of agriculture, these ancestral species were bred for greater productivity and reproductive output at high nutrient levels where there was little selective advantage in efficient nutrient use. This paper briefly reviews the nature of crop responses to nutrient stress and compares these responses to those of species that have evolved under more natural conditions, particularly in low-nutrient envi­ ronments. I draw primarily upon nutritional studies of nitrogen and phos­ phorus because these elements most commonly limit plant growth and because their role in controlling plant growth and metabolism is most clearly understood (51). Other more specific aspects of nutritional plant ecology not discussed here include ammonium/nitrate nutrition (79), cal­ cicole/calcifuge nutrition (51,88), heavy metal tolerance (4), and serpentine ecology (133).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.001313",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.001313",
    openalex = "W2114773779",
    references = "doi101086283244, openalexw2169917233"
}

Myrica faya, an introduced actinorhizal nitrogen fixer, is invading young volcanic sites in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. We examined the population biology of the invader and ecosystem—level consequences of its invasion in open—canopied forests resulting from volcanic cinder—fall. Although Myrica faya is nominally dioecious, both males and females produce large amounts of fruit that are utilized by a number of exotic and native birds, particularly the exotic Zosterops japonica. In areas of active colonization, Myrica seed rain under perch trees of the dominant native Metrosideros polymorpha ranged from 6 to 60 seeds · m — 2 · yr — 1; no seeds were captured in the open. Planted seeds of Myrica also germinated and established better under isolated individuals of Metrosideros than in the open. Diameter growth of Myrica is >15—fold greater than that of Metrosideros, and the Myrica population is increasing rapidly. Rates of nitrogen fixation were measured using the acetylene reduction assay calibrated with 1 5 N. Myrica nodules reduced acetylene at between 5 and 20 µmol · g — 1 · h — 1, a rate that extrapolated to nitrogen fixation of 18 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1 in a densely colonized site. By comparison, all native sources of nitrogen fixation summed to 0.2 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1, and precipitation added <4 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1. Measurements of litter decomposition and nitrogen release, soil nitrogen mineralization, and plant growth in bioassays all demonstrated that nitrogen fixed by Myrica becomes available to other organisms as well. We concluded that biological invasion by Myrica faya alters ecosystem—level properties in this young volcanic area; at least in this case, the demography and physiology of one species controls characteristics of a whole ecosystem.

@article{doi1023071942601,
    author = "Vitousek, Peter M. and Walker, Lawrence R.",
    title = "Biological Invasion by Myrica Faya in Hawai'i: Plant Demography, Nitrogen Fixation, Ecosystem Effects",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = "Myrica faya, an introduced actinorhizal nitrogen fixer, is invading young volcanic sites in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. We examined the population biology of the invader and ecosystem—level consequences of its invasion in open—canopied forests resulting from volcanic cinder—fall. Although Myrica faya is nominally dioecious, both males and females produce large amounts of fruit that are utilized by a number of exotic and native birds, particularly the exotic Zosterops japonica. In areas of active colonization, Myrica seed rain under perch trees of the dominant native Metrosideros polymorpha ranged from 6 to 60 seeds · m — 2 · yr — 1; no seeds were captured in the open. Planted seeds of Myrica also germinated and established better under isolated individuals of Metrosideros than in the open. Diameter growth of Myrica is >15—fold greater than that of Metrosideros, and the Myrica population is increasing rapidly. Rates of nitrogen fixation were measured using the acetylene reduction assay calibrated with 1 5 N. Myrica nodules reduced acetylene at between 5 and 20 µmol · g — 1 · h — 1, a rate that extrapolated to nitrogen fixation of 18 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1 in a densely colonized site. By comparison, all native sources of nitrogen fixation summed to 0.2 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1, and precipitation added <4 kg · ha — 1 · yr — 1. Measurements of litter decomposition and nitrogen release, soil nitrogen mineralization, and plant growth in bioassays all demonstrated that nitrogen fixed by Myrica becomes available to other organisms as well. We concluded that biological invasion by Myrica faya alters ecosystem—level properties in this young volcanic area; at least in this case, the demography and physiology of one species controls characteristics of a whole ecosystem.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1942601",
    doi = "10.2307/1942601",
    openalex = "W2144450527",
    references = "doi1023074785, mountainspring1985interspecific"
}

Disturbance is an important component of many ecosystems, and variations in disturbance regime can affect ecosystem and community structure and functioning. The “intermediate disturbance hypothesis” suggests that species diversity should be highest at moderate levels of disturbance. However, disturbance is also known to increase the invasibility of communities. Disturbance therefore poses an important problem for conservation management, Here, we review the effects of disturbances such as fire grazing, soil disturbance and nutrient addition on plant species diversity and invasion with particular emphasis on grassland vegetation. Individual components of the disturbance regime can have marked effects on species diversity, but it is often modifications of the existing regime that have the largest influence. Similarly, disturbance can enhance invasion of natural communities, but frequently it is the interaction between different disturbances that has the largest effect. The natural disturbance regime is now unlikely to persist within conservation areas since fragmentation and human intervention have usually modified physical and biotic conditions. Active management decisions must now be made on what disturbance regime is required and this requires decisions on what species are to be encouraged or discouraged.

@article{doi101046j15231739199206030324x,
    author = "Hobbs, Richard J. and Huenneke, Laura",
    title = "Disturbance, Diversity, and Invasion: Implications for Conservation",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "Disturbance is an important component of many ecosystems, and variations in disturbance regime can affect ecosystem and community structure and functioning. The “intermediate disturbance hypothesis” suggests that species diversity should be highest at moderate levels of disturbance. However, disturbance is also known to increase the invasibility of communities. Disturbance therefore poses an important problem for conservation management, Here, we review the effects of disturbances such as fire grazing, soil disturbance and nutrient addition on plant species diversity and invasion with particular emphasis on grassland vegetation. Individual components of the disturbance regime can have marked effects on species diversity, but it is often modifications of the existing regime that have the largest influence. Similarly, disturbance can enhance invasion of natural communities, but frequently it is the interaction between different disturbances that has the largest effect. The natural disturbance regime is now unlikely to persist within conservation areas since fragmentation and human intervention have usually modified physical and biotic conditions. Active management decisions must now be made on what disturbance regime is required and this requires decisions on what species are to be encouraged or discouraged.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06030324.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06030324.x",
    openalex = "W2046647383",
    references = "doi1010160006320787901224, doi101086283366, doi101126science19943351302, doi101146annureves15110184002033, openalexw2990282461"
}

It is argued that the problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying basic and applied ecology. Applied challenges, such as the prediction of the ecological causes and consequences of global climate change, require the interfacing of phenomena that occur on very different scales of space, time, and ecological organization. Furthermore, there is no single natural scale at which ecological phenomena should be studied; systems generally show characteristic variability on a range of spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. The observer imposes a perceptual bias, a filter through which the system is viewed. This has fundamental evolutionary significance, since every organism is an "observer" of the environment, and life history adaptations such as dispersal and dormancy alter the perceptual scales of the species, and the observed variability. It likewise has fundamental significance for our own study of ecological systems, since the patterns that are unique to any range of scales will have unique causes and biological consequences. The key to prediction and understanding lies in the elucidation of mechanisms underlying observed patterns. Typically, these mechanisms operate at different scales than those on which the patterns are observed; in some cases, the patterns must be understood as emerging form the collective behaviors of large ensembles of smaller scale units. In other cases, the pattern is imposed by larger scale constraints. Examination of such phenomena requires the study of how pattern and variability change with the scale of description, and the development of laws for simplification, aggregation, and scaling. Examples are given from the marine and terrestrial literatures.

@article{doi1023071941447,
    author = "Levin, Simon A.",
    title = "The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur Award Lecture",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = {It is argued that the problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying basic and applied ecology. Applied challenges, such as the prediction of the ecological causes and consequences of global climate change, require the interfacing of phenomena that occur on very different scales of space, time, and ecological organization. Furthermore, there is no single natural scale at which ecological phenomena should be studied; systems generally show characteristic variability on a range of spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. The observer imposes a perceptual bias, a filter through which the system is viewed. This has fundamental evolutionary significance, since every organism is an "observer" of the environment, and life history adaptations such as dispersal and dormancy alter the perceptual scales of the species, and the observed variability. It likewise has fundamental significance for our own study of ecological systems, since the patterns that are unique to any range of scales will have unique causes and biological consequences. The key to prediction and understanding lies in the elucidation of mechanisms underlying observed patterns. Typically, these mechanisms operate at different scales than those on which the patterns are observed; in some cases, the patterns must be understood as emerging form the collective behaviors of large ensembles of smaller scale units. In other cases, the pattern is imposed by larger scale constraints. Examination of such phenomena requires the study of how pattern and variability change with the scale of description, and the development of laws for simplification, aggregation, and scaling. Examples are given from the marine and terrestrial literatures.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1941447",
    doi = "10.2307/1941447",
    openalex = "W2322480672",
    references = "doi101007bfb0091924, doi101086282400, doi101098rstb19520012, doi101111j146918091937tb02153x, doi101111j155856461964tb01674x, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023071941447, doi1023072529912, doi105860choice295104, doi107551mitpress30140010001, openalexw1558456135, openalexw1576847343"
}

@article{doi101016016953479390025k,
    author = "Lodge, David M.",
    title = "Biological invasions: Lessons for ecology",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(93)90025-k",
    doi = "10.1016/0169-5347(93)90025-k",
    openalex = "W1970777324",
    references = "doi101126science25350241099, doi1023074220"
}

rocesses structuring riparian corridors can be viewed as a hierarchy, in which primary factors (such as matter, energy, and water) create a spatially extensive and temporally variable physical environment, which becomes habitat for plants and animals. The habitat is further modified by the activities of large animals as they selectively eat vegetation, burrow and wallow in soils, and build dams on streams, among other activities. As a result, the variety of habitats, or patches, is increased. The vegetation and microorganisms living on the increased variety of habitat patches largely determine the eventual distribution and cycling rates of elements (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) as basic population and community processes are carried out (Table 1). In general, ecologists understand how interactions among water, energy, and matter shape the physical characteristics and habitat patches of river corridors, and how vegetation and microbes cycle elements, grow, reproduce, compete, and otherwise function. However, there has been little recognition of the equal importance of large animals in shap-

@article{doi1023071313120,
    author = "Naiman, Robert J. and Rogers, Kevin H.",
    title = "Large Animals and System-Level Characteristics in River Corridors",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "BioScience",
    abstract = "rocesses structuring riparian corridors can be viewed as a hierarchy, in which primary factors (such as matter, energy, and water) create a spatially extensive and temporally variable physical environment, which becomes habitat for plants and animals. The habitat is further modified by the activities of large animals as they selectively eat vegetation, burrow and wallow in soils, and build dams on streams, among other activities. As a result, the variety of habitats, or patches, is increased. The vegetation and microorganisms living on the increased variety of habitat patches largely determine the eventual distribution and cycling rates of elements (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) as basic population and community processes are carried out (Table 1). In general, ecologists understand how interactions among water, energy, and matter shape the physical characteristics and habitat patches of river corridors, and how vegetation and microbes cycle elements, grow, reproduce, compete, and otherwise function. However, there has been little recognition of the equal importance of large animals in shap-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1313120",
    doi = "10.2307/1313120",
    openalex = "W2415244182",
    references = "doi101038128243c0"
}

1 It is useful to distinguish between the immediate effects of species richness on ecosystems and those which become apparent on a longer time scale, described here as filter and founder effects. 2 Relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem properties can be explored by classifying component species into three categories – dominants, subordinates and transients. Dominants recur in particular vegetation types, are relatively large, exhibit coarse‐grained foraging for resources and, as individual species, make a substantial contribution to the plant biomass. Subordinates also show high fidelity of association with particular vegetation types but they are smaller in stature, forage on a more restricted scale and tend to occupy microhabitats delimited by the architecture and phenology of their associated dominants. Transients comprise a heterogeneous assortment of species of low abundance and persistence; a high proportion are juveniles of species that occur as dominants or subordinates in neighbouring ecosystems. 3 A ‘mass ratio’ theory proposes that immediate controls are in proportion to inputs to primary production, are determined to an overwhelming extent by the traits and functional diversity of the dominant plants and are relatively insensitive to the richness of subordinates and transients. Recent experiments support the mass ratio hypothesis and the conclusion of Huston (1997) that claims of immediate benefits of high species richness to ecosystem functions arise from misinterpretation of data. 4 Attribution of immediate control to dominants does not exclude subordinates and transients from involvement in the determination of ecosystem function and sustainability. Both are suspected to play a crucial, if intermittent, role by influencing the recruitment of dominants. Some subordinates may act as a filter influencing regeneration by dominants following major perturbations. 5 Transients originate from the seed rain and seed banks and provide an index of the pool of potential dominants and subordinates at specific sites. Where the landscape carousel operates against a background of declining diversity in the reservoir of colonizing transients, we may predict that a progressive loss of ecosystem functions will arise from the decline in the precision with which dominants can engage in the re‐assembly and relocation of ecosystems.

@article{doi101046j13652745199800306x,
    author = "Grime, J. Philip",
    title = "Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: immediate, filter and founder effects",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology",
    abstract = "1 It is useful to distinguish between the immediate effects of species richness on ecosystems and those which become apparent on a longer time scale, described here as filter and founder effects. 2 Relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem properties can be explored by classifying component species into three categories – dominants, subordinates and transients. Dominants recur in particular vegetation types, are relatively large, exhibit coarse‐grained foraging for resources and, as individual species, make a substantial contribution to the plant biomass. Subordinates also show high fidelity of association with particular vegetation types but they are smaller in stature, forage on a more restricted scale and tend to occupy microhabitats delimited by the architecture and phenology of their associated dominants. Transients comprise a heterogeneous assortment of species of low abundance and persistence; a high proportion are juveniles of species that occur as dominants or subordinates in neighbouring ecosystems. 3 A ‘mass ratio’ theory proposes that immediate controls are in proportion to inputs to primary production, are determined to an overwhelming extent by the traits and functional diversity of the dominant plants and are relatively insensitive to the richness of subordinates and transients. Recent experiments support the mass ratio hypothesis and the conclusion of Huston (1997) that claims of immediate benefits of high species richness to ecosystem functions arise from misinterpretation of data. 4 Attribution of immediate control to dominants does not exclude subordinates and transients from involvement in the determination of ecosystem function and sustainability. Both are suspected to play a crucial, if intermittent, role by influencing the recruitment of dominants. Some subordinates may act as a filter influencing regeneration by dominants following major perturbations. 5 Transients originate from the seed rain and seed banks and provide an index of the pool of potential dominants and subordinates at specific sites. Where the landscape carousel operates against a background of declining diversity in the reservoir of colonizing transients, we may predict that a progressive loss of ecosystem functions will arise from the decline in the precision with which dominants can engage in the re‐assembly and relocation of ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00306.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2745.1998.00306.x",
    openalex = "W2064604453",
    references = "doi1010079781461262329, doi1010160006320787901224, doi101038379718a0, doi101086283241, doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x, doi101126science1473655250, doi1023072256497"
}

Summary Aim Our aim was to understand how similarity changes with distance in biological communities, to use the distance decay perspective as quantitative technique to describe biogeographic pattern, and to explore whether growth form, dispersal type, rarity, or support affected the rate of distance decay in similarity. Location North American spruce‐fir forests, Appalachian montane spruce‐fir forests. Methods We estimated rates of distance decay through regression of log‐transformed compositional similarity against distance for pairwise comparisons of thirty‐four white spruce plots and twenty‐six black spruce plots distributed from eastern Canada to Alaska, six regional floras along the crest of the Appalachians, and six regional floras along the east–west extent of the boreal forest. Results Similarity decreased significantly with distance, with the most linear models relating the log of similarity to untransformed distance. The rate of similarity decay was 1.5–1.9 times higher for vascular plants than for bryophytes. The rate of distance decay was highest for berry‐fruited and nut‐bearing species (1.7 times higher than plumose‐seeded species and 1.9 times higher than microseeded/spore species) and 2.1 times higher for herbs than woody plants. There was no distance decay for rare species, while species of intermediate frequency had 2.0 times higher distance decay rates than common species. The rate of distance decay was 2.7 times higher for floras from the fragmented Appalachians than for floras from the contiguous boreal forest. Main conclusions The distance decay of similarity can be caused by either a decrease in environmental similarity with distance (e.g. climatic gradients) or by limits to dispersal and niche width differences among taxa. Regardless of cause, the distance decay of similarity provides a simple descriptor of how biological diversity is distributed and therefore has consequences for conservation strategy.

@article{doi101046j13652699199900305x,
    author = "Nekola, Jeffrey C. and White, Peter S.",
    title = "The distance decay of similarity in biogeography and ecology",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Summary Aim Our aim was to understand how similarity changes with distance in biological communities, to use the distance decay perspective as quantitative technique to describe biogeographic pattern, and to explore whether growth form, dispersal type, rarity, or support affected the rate of distance decay in similarity. Location North American spruce‐fir forests, Appalachian montane spruce‐fir forests. Methods We estimated rates of distance decay through regression of log‐transformed compositional similarity against distance for pairwise comparisons of thirty‐four white spruce plots and twenty‐six black spruce plots distributed from eastern Canada to Alaska, six regional floras along the crest of the Appalachians, and six regional floras along the east–west extent of the boreal forest. Results Similarity decreased significantly with distance, with the most linear models relating the log of similarity to untransformed distance. The rate of similarity decay was 1.5–1.9 times higher for vascular plants than for bryophytes. The rate of distance decay was highest for berry‐fruited and nut‐bearing species (1.7 times higher than plumose‐seeded species and 1.9 times higher than microseeded/spore species) and 2.1 times higher for herbs than woody plants. There was no distance decay for rare species, while species of intermediate frequency had 2.0 times higher distance decay rates than common species. The rate of distance decay was 2.7 times higher for floras from the fragmented Appalachians than for floras from the contiguous boreal forest. Main conclusions The distance decay of similarity can be caused by either a decrease in environmental similarity with distance (e.g. climatic gradients) or by limits to dispersal and niche width differences among taxa. Regardless of cause, the distance decay of similarity provides a simple descriptor of how biological diversity is distributed and therefore has consequences for conservation strategy.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00305.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00305.x",
    openalex = "W2162873750",
    references = "doi101111j109583121991tb00548x, doi1023071931976, doi1023071935620, doi1023072389612, doi105860choice290892"
}

Abstract Written by a world renowned biologist, this volume offers a comprehensive synthesis of current research in this rapidly expanding area of population biology. It covers both the essential theory and a wide range of empirical studies, including the author's groundbreaking work on the Glanville fritillary butterfly. It also includes practical applications to conservation biology. The book describes theoretical models for metapopulation dynamics in highly fragmented landscapes and emphasizes spatially realistic models. It presents the incidence function model and includes several detailed examples of its application. Accessible to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, Metapopulation Ecology will be a valuable resource for researchers in population biology, conservation biology, and landscape ecology.

@book{doi101093oso97801985406630010001,
    author = "llkka Hanski",
    title = "Metapopulation Ecology",
    year = "1999",
    abstract = "Abstract Written by a world renowned biologist, this volume offers a comprehensive synthesis of current research in this rapidly expanding area of population biology. It covers both the essential theory and a wide range of empirical studies, including the author's groundbreaking work on the Glanville fritillary butterfly. It also includes practical applications to conservation biology. The book describes theoretical models for metapopulation dynamics in highly fragmented landscapes and emphasizes spatially realistic models. It presents the incidence function model and includes several detailed examples of its application. Accessible to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, Metapopulation Ecology will be a valuable resource for researchers in population biology, conservation biology, and landscape ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198540663.001.0001",
    doi = "10.1093/oso/9780198540663.001.0001",
    openalex = "W4388324015"
}

▪ Abstract This review asks the question: What new avenues of social science enquiry are suggested by new ecological thinking, with its focus on nonequilibrium dynamics, spatial and temporal variation, complexity, and uncertainty? Following a review of the emergence of the “new ecology” and the highlighting of contrasts with earlier “balance of nature” perspectives, work emerging from ecological anthropology, political ecology, environmental and ecological economics, and debates about nature and culture are examined. With some important exceptions, much social science work and associated popular and policy debates remain firmly wedded to a static and equilibrial view. This review turns to three areas where a more dynamic perspective has emerged. Each has the potential to take central elements of new ecological thinking seriously, sometimes with major practical consequences for planning, intervention design, and management. First is the concern with spatial and temporal dynamics developed in detailed and situated analyses of “people in places,” using, in particular, historical analysis as a way of explaining environmental change across time and space. Second is the growing understanding of environment as both the product of and the setting for human interactions, which link dynamic structural analyses of environmental processes with an appreciation of human agency in environmental transformation, as part of a “structuration” approach. Third is the appreciation of complexity and uncertainty in social-ecological systems and, with this, the recognition of that prediction, management, and control are unlikely, if not impossible.

@article{doi101146annurevanthro281479,
    author = "Scoones, Ian",
    title = "New Ecology and the Social Sciences: What Prospects for a Fruitful Engagement?",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Annual Review of Anthropology",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract This review asks the question: What new avenues of social science enquiry are suggested by new ecological thinking, with its focus on nonequilibrium dynamics, spatial and temporal variation, complexity, and uncertainty? Following a review of the emergence of the “new ecology” and the highlighting of contrasts with earlier “balance of nature” perspectives, work emerging from ecological anthropology, political ecology, environmental and ecological economics, and debates about nature and culture are examined. With some important exceptions, much social science work and associated popular and policy debates remain firmly wedded to a static and equilibrial view. This review turns to three areas where a more dynamic perspective has emerged. Each has the potential to take central elements of new ecological thinking seriously, sometimes with major practical consequences for planning, intervention design, and management. First is the concern with spatial and temporal dynamics developed in detailed and situated analyses of “people in places,” using, in particular, historical analysis as a way of explaining environmental change across time and space. Second is the growing understanding of environment as both the product of and the setting for human interactions, which link dynamic structural analyses of environmental processes with an appreciation of human agency in environmental transformation, as part of a “structuration” approach. Third is the appreciation of complexity and uncertainty in social-ecological systems and, with this, the recognition of that prediction, management, and control are unlikely, if not impossible.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.479",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.479",
    openalex = "W2159546432",
    references = "doi101038128243c0, doi1023072598477, doi105860choice330904, openalexw1562196292"
}

With a simple model, I show that comparisons of invasibility between regions are impossible to make unless one can control for all of the variables besides invasibility that influence exotic richness, including the rates of immigration of species and the characteristics of the invading species themselves. Using data from the literature for 184 sites around the world, I found that nature reserves had one-half of the exotic fraction of sites outside reserves, and island sites had nearly three times the exotic fraction of mainland sites. However, the exotic fraction and the number of exotics were also dependent on site area, and this had to be taken into account to make valid comparisons between sites. The number of native species was used as a surrogate for site area and habitat diversity. Nearly 70% of the variation in the number of exotic species was accounted for by a multiple regression containing the following predictors: the number of native species, whether the site was an island or on the mainland, and whether or not it was a nature reserve. After controlling for scale, there were significant differences among biomes, but not continents, in their level of invasion. Multiple biome regions and temperate agricultural or urban sites were among the most invaded biomes, and deserts and savannas were among the least. However, there was considerable within-group variation in the mean degree of invasion. Scale-controlled analysis also showed that the New World is significantly more invaded than the Old World, but only when site native richness (probably a surrogate for habitat diversity) is factored out. Contrary to expectation, communities richer in native species had more, not fewer, exotics. For mainland sites, the degree of invasion increased with latitude, but there was no such relationship for islands. Although islands are more invaded than mainland sites, this is apparently not because of low native species richness, as the islands in this data set were no less rich in native species than were mainland sites of similar area. The number of exotic species in nature reserves increases with the number of visitors. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about relative invasibility, invasion potential, or the roles of dispersal and disturbance from any of these results. Most of the observed patterns here and in the literature could potentially be explained by differences between regions in species properties, ecosystem properties, or propagule pressure.

@article{doi1018900012965819990801522gpopia20co2,
    author = "Lonsdale, W. M.",
    title = "GLOBAL PATTERNS OF PLANT INVASIONS AND THE CONCEPT OF INVASIBILITY",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = "With a simple model, I show that comparisons of invasibility between regions are impossible to make unless one can control for all of the variables besides invasibility that influence exotic richness, including the rates of immigration of species and the characteristics of the invading species themselves. Using data from the literature for 184 sites around the world, I found that nature reserves had one-half of the exotic fraction of sites outside reserves, and island sites had nearly three times the exotic fraction of mainland sites. However, the exotic fraction and the number of exotics were also dependent on site area, and this had to be taken into account to make valid comparisons between sites. The number of native species was used as a surrogate for site area and habitat diversity. Nearly 70\% of the variation in the number of exotic species was accounted for by a multiple regression containing the following predictors: the number of native species, whether the site was an island or on the mainland, and whether or not it was a nature reserve. After controlling for scale, there were significant differences among biomes, but not continents, in their level of invasion. Multiple biome regions and temperate agricultural or urban sites were among the most invaded biomes, and deserts and savannas were among the least. However, there was considerable within-group variation in the mean degree of invasion. Scale-controlled analysis also showed that the New World is significantly more invaded than the Old World, but only when site native richness (probably a surrogate for habitat diversity) is factored out. Contrary to expectation, communities richer in native species had more, not fewer, exotics. For mainland sites, the degree of invasion increased with latitude, but there was no such relationship for islands. Although islands are more invaded than mainland sites, this is apparently not because of low native species richness, as the islands in this data set were no less rich in native species than were mainland sites of similar area. The number of exotic species in nature reserves increases with the number of visitors. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about relative invasibility, invasion potential, or the roles of dispersal and disturbance from any of these results. Most of the observed patterns here and in the literature could potentially be explained by differences between regions in species properties, ecosystem properties, or propagule pressure.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1522:gpopia]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1522:gpopia]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2146437164"
}

PART 1 - ISLANDS AS NATURAL LABORATORIES 1. The natural laboratory paradigm 2. Island environments 3. The biogeography of island life: biodiversity hotspots in context PART 2- ISLAND ECOLOGY 4. Species number games: the macroecology of island biotas 5. Community assembly and dynamics 6. Scale and island ecological theory: towards a new synthesis PART 3- ISLAND EVOLUTION 7. Arrival and change 8. Speciation and the island condition 9. Emergent models of island evolution PART 4- ISLANDS AND CONSERVATION 10. Island theory and conservation 11. Anthropogenic losses and threats to island ecosystems 12. Island remedies: the conservation of islands ecosystems

@book{openalexw1596646469,
    author = "Whittaker, R. H.",
    title = "Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation",
    year = "1999",
    abstract = "PART 1 - ISLANDS AS NATURAL LABORATORIES 1. The natural laboratory paradigm 2. Island environments 3. The biogeography of island life: biodiversity hotspots in context PART 2- ISLAND ECOLOGY 4. Species number games: the macroecology of island biotas 5. Community assembly and dynamics 6. Scale and island ecological theory: towards a new synthesis PART 3- ISLAND EVOLUTION 7. Arrival and change 8. Speciation and the island condition 9. Emergent models of island evolution PART 4- ISLANDS AND CONSERVATION 10. Island theory and conservation 11. Anthropogenic losses and threats to island ecosystems 12. Island remedies: the conservation of islands ecosystems",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W1596646469",
    openalex = "W1596646469"
}

@article{crossref2000the,
    title = "The ecology of invasions by animals and plants",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.38-1547",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.38-1547",
    number = "03",
    openalex = "W4301885210",
    pages = "38-1547-38-1547",
    volume = "38"
}

Summary 1 The invasion of habitats by non‐native plant and animal species is a global phenomenon with potentially grave consequences for ecological, economic, and social systems. Unfortunately, to date, the study of invasions has been primarily anecdotal and resistant to generalization. 2 Here, we use insights from experiments and from long‐term monitoring studies of vegetation to propose a new theory in which fluctuation in resource availability is identified as the key factor controlling invasibility, the susceptibility of an environment to invasion by non‐resident species. The theory is mechanistic and quantitative in nature leading to a variety of testable predictions. 3 We conclude that the elusive nature of the invasion process arises from the fact that it depends upon conditions of resource enrichment or release that have a variety of causes but which occur only intermittently and, to result in invasion, must coincide with availability of invading propagules.

@article{doi101046j13652745200000473x,
    author = "Davis, Mark A. and Grime, J. Philip and Thompson, Ken",
    title = "Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invasibility",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary 1 The invasion of habitats by non‐native plant and animal species is a global phenomenon with potentially grave consequences for ecological, economic, and social systems. Unfortunately, to date, the study of invasions has been primarily anecdotal and resistant to generalization. 2 Here, we use insights from experiments and from long‐term monitoring studies of vegetation to propose a new theory in which fluctuation in resource availability is identified as the key factor controlling invasibility, the susceptibility of an environment to invasion by non‐resident species. The theory is mechanistic and quantitative in nature leading to a variety of testable predictions. 3 We conclude that the elusive nature of the invasion process arises from the fact that it depends upon conditions of resource enrichment or release that have a variety of causes but which occur only intermittently and, to result in invasion, must coincide with availability of invading propagules.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00473.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00473.x",
    openalex = "W2049852912",
    references = "doi1010079781489972149, doi1010079789400958517, doi101016016953479390025k, doi101016s0169534798013640, doi101016s0169534798015547, doi101038250026a0, doi1016410006356820000500053eaecon23co2, doi1018900012965819990801522gpopia20co2, doi1023072257385, openalexw1625730066"
}

Abstract. Much confusion exists in the English‐language literature on plant invasions concerning the terms ‘naturalized’ and ‘invasive’ and their associated concepts. Several authors have used these terms in proposing schemes for conceptualizing the sequence of events from introduction to invasion, but often imprecisely, erroneously or in contradictory ways. This greatly complicates the formulation of robust generalizations in invasion ecology. Based on an extensive and critical survey of the literature we defined a minimum set of key terms related to a graphic scheme which conceptualizes the naturalization/invasion process. Introduction means that the plant (or its propagule) has been transported by humans across a major geographical barrier. Naturalization starts when abiotic and biotic barriers to survival are surmounted and when various barriers to regular reproduction are overcome. Invasion further requires that introduced plants produce reproductive offspring in areas distant from sites of introduction (approximate scales: > 100 m over 6 m/3 years for taxa spreading by roots, rhizomes, stolons or creeping stems). Taxa that can cope with the abiotic environment and biota in the general area may invade disturbed, seminatural communities. Invasion of successionally mature, undisturbed communities usually requires that the alien taxon overcomes a different category of barriers. We propose that the term ‘invasive’ should be used without any inference to environmental or economic impact. Terms like ‘pests’ and ‘weeds’ are suitable labels for the 50–80% of invaders that have harmful effects. About 10% of invasive plants that change the character, condition, form, or nature of ecosystems over substantial areas may be termed ‘transformers’.

@article{doi101046j14724642200000083x,
    author = "Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr and Rejmánek, Marcel and Barbour, Michael G. and Panetta, F. D. and West, Carol J.",
    title = "Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Diversity and Distributions",
    abstract = "Abstract. Much confusion exists in the English‐language literature on plant invasions concerning the terms ‘naturalized’ and ‘invasive’ and their associated concepts. Several authors have used these terms in proposing schemes for conceptualizing the sequence of events from introduction to invasion, but often imprecisely, erroneously or in contradictory ways. This greatly complicates the formulation of robust generalizations in invasion ecology. Based on an extensive and critical survey of the literature we defined a minimum set of key terms related to a graphic scheme which conceptualizes the naturalization/invasion process. Introduction means that the plant (or its propagule) has been transported by humans across a major geographical barrier. Naturalization starts when abiotic and biotic barriers to survival are surmounted and when various barriers to regular reproduction are overcome. Invasion further requires that introduced plants produce reproductive offspring in areas distant from sites of introduction (approximate scales: > 100 m over 6 m/3 years for taxa spreading by roots, rhizomes, stolons or creeping stems). Taxa that can cope with the abiotic environment and biota in the general area may invade disturbed, seminatural communities. Invasion of successionally mature, undisturbed communities usually requires that the alien taxon overcomes a different category of barriers. We propose that the term ‘invasive’ should be used without any inference to environmental or economic impact. Terms like ‘pests’ and ‘weeds’ are suitable labels for the 50–80\% of invaders that have harmful effects. About 10\% of invasive plants that change the character, condition, form, or nature of ecosystems over substantial areas may be termed ‘transformers’.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1472-4642.2000.00083.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1472-4642.2000.00083.x",
    openalex = "W2163826476",
    references = "doi1010079781489972149, doi1010079789400958517, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101093auk1002507, doi1018900012965819990801522gpopia20co2, doi1023072257385, doi105281zenodo18199125, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303, openalexw1550375751, openalexw2101875448, openalexw2990282461"
}

Biotic invaders are species that establish a new range in which they proliferate, spread, and persist to the detriment of the environment. They are the most important ecological outcomes from the unprecedented alterations in the distribution of the earth's biota brought about largely through human transport and commerce. In a world without borders, few if any areas remain sheltered from these immigrations. The fate of immigrants is decidedly mixed. Few survive the hazards of chronic and stochastic forces, and only a small fraction become naturalized. In turn, some naturalized species do become invasive. There are several potential reasons why some immigrant species prosper: some escape from the constraints of their native predators or parasites; others are aided by human-caused disturbance that disrupts native communities. Ironically, many biotic invasions are apparently facilitated by cultivation and husbandry, unintentional actions that foster immigrant populations until they are self-perpetuating and uncontrollable. Whatever the cause, biotic invaders can in many cases inflict enormous environmental damage: (1) Animal invaders can cause extinctions of vulnerable native species through predation, grazing, competition, and habitat alteration. (2) Plant invaders can completely alter the fire regime, nutrient cycling, hydrology, and energy budgets in a native ecosystem and can greatly diminish the abundance or survival of native species. (3) In agriculture, the principal pests of temperate crops are nonindigenous, and the combined expenses of pest control and crop losses constitute an onerous “tax” on food, fiber, and forage production. (4) The global cost of virulent plant and animal diseases caused by parasites transported to new ranges and presented with susceptible new hosts is currently incalculable. Identifying future invaders and taking effective steps to prevent their dispersal and establishment constitutes an enormous challenge to both conservation and international commerce. Detection and management when exclusion fails have proved daunting for varied reasons: (1) Efforts to identify general attributes of future invaders have often been inconclusive. (2) Predicting susceptible locales for future invasions seems even more problematic, given the enormous differences in the rates of arrival among potential invaders. (3) Eradication of an established invader is rare, and control efforts vary enormously in their efficacy. Successful control, however, depends more on commitment and continuing diligence than on the efficacy of specific tools themselves. (4) Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on battling individual invaders. (5) Prevention of invasions is much less costly than post-entry control. Revamping national and international quarantine laws by adopting a “guilty until proven innocent” approach would be a productive first step. Failure to address the issue of biotic invasions could effectively result in severe global consequences, including wholesale loss of agricultural, forestry, and fishery resources in some regions, disruption of the ecological processes that supply natural services on which human enterprise depends, and the creation of homogeneous, impoverished ecosystems composed of cosmopolitan species. Given their current scale, biotic invasions have taken their place alongside human-driven atmospheric and oceanic alterations as major agents of global change. Left unchecked, they will influence these other forces in profound but still unpredictable ways.

@article{doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2,
    author = "Mack, Richard N. and Simberloff, Daniel and Lonsdale, W. M. and Evans, Harry C. and Clout, Michael and Bazzaz, Fakhri A.",
    title = "BIOTIC INVASIONS: CAUSES, EPIDEMIOLOGY, GLOBAL CONSEQUENCES, AND CONTROL",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Ecological Applications",
    abstract = "Biotic invaders are species that establish a new range in which they proliferate, spread, and persist to the detriment of the environment. They are the most important ecological outcomes from the unprecedented alterations in the distribution of the earth's biota brought about largely through human transport and commerce. In a world without borders, few if any areas remain sheltered from these immigrations. The fate of immigrants is decidedly mixed. Few survive the hazards of chronic and stochastic forces, and only a small fraction become naturalized. In turn, some naturalized species do become invasive. There are several potential reasons why some immigrant species prosper: some escape from the constraints of their native predators or parasites; others are aided by human-caused disturbance that disrupts native communities. Ironically, many biotic invasions are apparently facilitated by cultivation and husbandry, unintentional actions that foster immigrant populations until they are self-perpetuating and uncontrollable. Whatever the cause, biotic invaders can in many cases inflict enormous environmental damage: (1) Animal invaders can cause extinctions of vulnerable native species through predation, grazing, competition, and habitat alteration. (2) Plant invaders can completely alter the fire regime, nutrient cycling, hydrology, and energy budgets in a native ecosystem and can greatly diminish the abundance or survival of native species. (3) In agriculture, the principal pests of temperate crops are nonindigenous, and the combined expenses of pest control and crop losses constitute an onerous “tax” on food, fiber, and forage production. (4) The global cost of virulent plant and animal diseases caused by parasites transported to new ranges and presented with susceptible new hosts is currently incalculable. Identifying future invaders and taking effective steps to prevent their dispersal and establishment constitutes an enormous challenge to both conservation and international commerce. Detection and management when exclusion fails have proved daunting for varied reasons: (1) Efforts to identify general attributes of future invaders have often been inconclusive. (2) Predicting susceptible locales for future invasions seems even more problematic, given the enormous differences in the rates of arrival among potential invaders. (3) Eradication of an established invader is rare, and control efforts vary enormously in their efficacy. Successful control, however, depends more on commitment and continuing diligence than on the efficacy of specific tools themselves. (4) Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on battling individual invaders. (5) Prevention of invasions is much less costly than post-entry control. Revamping national and international quarantine laws by adopting a “guilty until proven innocent” approach would be a productive first step. Failure to address the issue of biotic invasions could effectively result in severe global consequences, including wholesale loss of agricultural, forestry, and fishery resources in some regions, disruption of the ecological processes that supply natural services on which human enterprise depends, and the creation of homogeneous, impoverished ecosystems composed of cosmopolitan species. Given their current scale, biotic invasions have taken their place alongside human-driven atmospheric and oceanic alterations as major agents of global change. Left unchecked, they will influence these other forces in profound but still unpredictable ways.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0689:bicegc]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0689:bicegc]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2101280078",
    references = "doi1010079789400958517, doi101007bf01972080, doi101093aesa444595, doi101126science261511778, doi101146annurevecolsys27183, doi101146annureves23110192000431, doi1016410006356820000500053eaecon23co2, doi1018900012965819990801522gpopia20co2, doi1023072257385, doi1023072265768, doi105962bhltitle44956, mountainspring1985interspecific, openalexw1625730066, openalexw2990282461"
}

Biological invasions are an economic problem. Invasions are typically the intended or unintended consequence of economic activity. They impose real costs on society, and the risk of invasion depends on human behaviour. Effective control of invasions depends on using the right economic instruments and developing the right institutions. The problem has two special features. The first is that the risks of invasions may be very low, but the potential costs are high. Since they are not reflected in market prices, they are typically ignored. The second is that the control of potentially invasive species is a public good of the 'weakest link' variety. Both features indicate a precautionary approach. To deal with the first, I recommend the use of environmental assurance bonds to cover society against the risks of invasive species whilst providing importers with an incentive to research the consequences of their actions. To deal with the second I recommend the development of an institution similar to the Atlanta Centre for Disease Control to provide the information and technical advice required if governments are to act, and a central organisation (involving UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank) to strengthen eradication, control of mitigation campaigns in those countries least able to deal with invasive species.

@book{doi1043379781781008645,
    author = "Perrings, Charles and Williamson, Mark and Dalmazzone, Silvana",
    title = "The Economics of Biological Invasions",
    year = "2000",
    booktitle = "Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks",
    abstract = "Biological invasions are an economic problem. Invasions are typically the intended or unintended consequence of economic activity. They impose real costs on society, and the risk of invasion depends on human behaviour. Effective control of invasions depends on using the right economic instruments and developing the right institutions. The problem has two special features. The first is that the risks of invasions may be very low, but the potential costs are high. Since they are not reflected in market prices, they are typically ignored. The second is that the control of potentially invasive species is a public good of the 'weakest link' variety. Both features indicate a precautionary approach. To deal with the first, I recommend the use of environmental assurance bonds to cover society against the risks of invasive species whilst providing importers with an incentive to research the consequences of their actions. To deal with the second I recommend the development of an institution similar to the Atlanta Centre for Disease Control to provide the information and technical advice required if governments are to act, and a central organisation (involving UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank) to strengthen eradication, control of mitigation campaigns in those countries least able to deal with invasive species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.4337/9781781008645",
    doi = "10.4337/9781781008645",
    openalex = "W1670276010"
}

@article{doi105860choice381547,
    title = "The ecology of invasions by animals and plants",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Choice Reviews Online",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.38-1547",
    doi = "10.5860/choice.38-1547",
    openalex = "W4301885210"
}

@article{crossref2001the,
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Biodiversity \& Conservation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1016659111889",
    doi = "10.1023/a:1016659111889",
    number = "9",
    openalex = "W4246821483",
    pages = "1601-1601",
    volume = "10"
}

@article{doi101016s0169534702024953,
    author = "Shea, Katriona",
    title = "Community ecology theory as a framework for biological invasions",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02495-3",
    doi = "10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02495-3",
    openalex = "W2137439980",
    references = "doi1010079783642965456, doi1010079789400958517, doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101016s0169534702024990, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023071939377, doi1023072257385, doi1023074549, doi105281zenodo18199125, doi105860choice332720, openalexw2101875448, openalexw2990282461"
}

@article{doi101016s0169534702024990,
    author = "Keane, Robert E.",
    title = "Exotic plant invasions and the enemy release hypothesis",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02499-0",
    doi = "10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02499-0",
    openalex = "W2102151056",
    references = "doi101016s0169534702024953, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, openalexw2101875448, openalexw2990282461"
}

Using freshwater cladocerans as an example, this paper explores the contributions that genetic analyses are making to the field of invasion biology. Most importantly, this approach enables a quantification of the incidence of both recent and past invasions. By determining genetic divergence between European and North American lineages of cladocerans, it is possible to estimate the natural incidence of past exchange between these continents. The results of this analysis establish that the current pace of species invasions is extraordinary; present rates are nearly 50 000 times higher than historical levels. Genetic studies can also exploit molecular markers to localize the points of origin of invaders. Finally, genetic studies are poised to play an important role in monitoring invasions; the DNA bar-coding of life is now simple and rapid enough to enable the development of molecular identification systems.

@article{doi101139f02091,
    author = "Hebert, Paul D. N. and Cristescu, Melania E.",
    title = "Genetic perspectives on invasions: the case of the Cladocera",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences",
    abstract = "Using freshwater cladocerans as an example, this paper explores the contributions that genetic analyses are making to the field of invasion biology. Most importantly, this approach enables a quantification of the incidence of both recent and past invasions. By determining genetic divergence between European and North American lineages of cladocerans, it is possible to estimate the natural incidence of past exchange between these continents. The results of this analysis establish that the current pace of species invasions is extraordinary; present rates are nearly 50 000 times higher than historical levels. Genetic studies can also exploit molecular markers to localize the points of origin of invaders. Finally, genetic studies are poised to play an important role in monitoring invasions; the DNA bar-coding of life is now simple and rapid enough to enable the development of molecular identification systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/f02-091",
    doi = "10.1139/f02-091",
    openalex = "W2145883844",
    references = "doi1023071292702"
}

▪ Abstract Invasions by non-native ants are an ecologically destructive phenomenon affecting both continental and island ecosystems throughout the world. Invasive ants often become highly abundant in their introduced range and can outnumber native ants. These numerical disparities underlie the competitive asymmetry between invasive ants and native ants and result from a complex interplay of behavioral, ecological, and genetic factors. Reductions in the diversity and abundance of native ants resulting from ant invasions give rise to a variety of direct and indirect effects on non-ant taxa. Invasive ants compete with and prey upon a diversity of other organisms, including some vertebrates, and may enter into or disrupt mutualistic interactions with numerous plants and other insects. Experimental studies and research focused on the native range ecology of invasive ants will be especially valuable contributions to this field of study.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150444,
    author = "Holway, David A. and Lach, Lori and Suarez, Andrew V. and Tsutsui, Neil D. and Case, Ted J.",
    title = "The Causes and Consequences of Ant Invasions",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract Invasions by non-native ants are an ecologically destructive phenomenon affecting both continental and island ecosystems throughout the world. Invasive ants often become highly abundant in their introduced range and can outnumber native ants. These numerical disparities underlie the competitive asymmetry between invasive ants and native ants and result from a complex interplay of behavioral, ecological, and genetic factors. Reductions in the diversity and abundance of native ants resulting from ant invasions give rise to a variety of direct and indirect effects on non-ant taxa. Invasive ants compete with and prey upon a diversity of other organisms, including some vertebrates, and may enter into or disrupt mutualistic interactions with numerous plants and other insects. Experimental studies and research focused on the native range ecology of invasive ants will be especially valuable contributions to this field of study.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150444",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150444",
    openalex = "W2118358832",
    references = "doi101023a1010086329619, doi101146annureves18110187000551"
}

@article{doi101007s1002100201513,
    author = "Ehrenfeld, Joan G.",
    title = "Effects of Exotic Plant Invasions on Soil Nutrient Cycling Processes",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Ecosystems",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-002-0151-3",
    doi = "10.1007/s10021-002-0151-3",
    openalex = "W2085072564",
    references = "doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023072960528"
}

Abstract: We used historical data to parameterize species‐accumulation models relating international trade to the establishment rates of nonindigenous species in the United States over the past century. We then coupled these relationships with published trade forecasts to predict future invasion rates for insects, plant pathogens, and mollusks. Relationships between the accumulation of non‐native species and merchandise imports were reasonably described by log‐log and log‐linear species‐area models and Michaelis‐Menten accumulation functions. However, the latter two models produced markedly better fits. When coupled with projected trade forecasts, the log‐linear species‐area model predicted 16–24% taxon‐specific increases in the number of nonindigenous species established in the United States from 2000 to 2020. The Michaelis‐Menten model predicted much lower 3–6% increases, but even this meant 115 new insect species and 5 new plant pathogens. These results suggest that the ecological and economic costs associated with human‐caused biological invasions may continue to rise substantially over the coming decades.

@article{doi101046j15231739200302038x,
    author = "Levine, Jonathan M. and D’Antonio, Carla M.",
    title = "Forecasting Biological Invasions with Increasing International Trade",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Conservation Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract: We used historical data to parameterize species‐accumulation models relating international trade to the establishment rates of nonindigenous species in the United States over the past century. We then coupled these relationships with published trade forecasts to predict future invasion rates for insects, plant pathogens, and mollusks. Relationships between the accumulation of non‐native species and merchandise imports were reasonably described by log‐log and log‐linear species‐area models and Michaelis‐Menten accumulation functions. However, the latter two models produced markedly better fits. When coupled with projected trade forecasts, the log‐linear species‐area model predicted 16–24\% taxon‐specific increases in the number of nonindigenous species established in the United States from 2000 to 2020. The Michaelis‐Menten model predicted much lower 3–6\% increases, but even this meant 115 new insect species and 5 new plant pathogens. These results suggest that the ecological and economic costs associated with human‐caused biological invasions may continue to rise substantially over the coming decades.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02038.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02038.x",
    openalex = "W2065496891"
}

There is growing recognition that classifying terrestrial plant species on the basis of their function (into 'functional types') rather than their higher taxonomic identity, is a promising way forward for tackling important ecological questions at the scale of ecosystems, landscapes or biomes. These questions include those on vegetation responses to and vegetation effects on, environmental changes (e.g. changes in climate, atmospheric chemistry, land use or other disturbances). There is also growing consensus about a shortlist of plant traits that should underlie such functional plant classifications, because they have strong predictive power of important ecosystem responses to environmental change and/or they themselves have strong impacts on ecosystem processes. The most favoured traits are those that are also relatively easy and inexpensive to measure for large numbers of plant species. Large international research efforts, promoted by the IGBP–GCTE Programme, are underway to screen predominant plant species in various ecosystems and biomes worldwide for such traits. This paper provides an international methodological protocol aimed at standardising this research effort, based on consensus among a broad group of scientists in this field. It features a practical handbook with step-by-step recipes, with relatively brief information about the ecological context, for 28 functional traits recognised as critical for tackling large-scale ecological questions.

@article{doi101071bt02124,
    author = "Cornelissen, J. H. C. and Lavorel, Sandra and Garnier, Éric and Dı́az, Sandra and Buchmann, Nina and Gurvich, Diego E. and Reich, Peter B. and ter Steege, Hans and Morgan, Huw D. and van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. and Pausas, Juli G. and Poorter, Hendrik",
    title = "A handbook of protocols for standardised and easy measurement of plant functional traits worldwide",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Botany",
    abstract = "There is growing recognition that classifying terrestrial plant species on the basis of their function (into 'functional types') rather than their higher taxonomic identity, is a promising way forward for tackling important ecological questions at the scale of ecosystems, landscapes or biomes. These questions include those on vegetation responses to and vegetation effects on, environmental changes (e.g. changes in climate, atmospheric chemistry, land use or other disturbances). There is also growing consensus about a shortlist of plant traits that should underlie such functional plant classifications, because they have strong predictive power of important ecosystem responses to environmental change and/or they themselves have strong impacts on ecosystem processes. The most favoured traits are those that are also relatively easy and inexpensive to measure for large numbers of plant species. Large international research efforts, promoted by the IGBP–GCTE Programme, are underway to screen predominant plant species in various ecosystems and biomes worldwide for such traits. This paper provides an international methodological protocol aimed at standardising this research effort, based on consensus among a broad group of scientists in this field. It features a practical handbook with step-by-step recipes, with relatively brief information about the ecological context, for 28 functional traits recognised as critical for tackling large-scale ecological questions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/bt02124",
    doi = "10.1071/bt02124",
    openalex = "W2144042033",
    references = "doi101006anbo20001261, doi1010160031942281851345, doi101023a1004327224729, doi10103835012241, doi101126science1060391, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150452, doi105860choice324498, openalexw1573494572, openalexw2097450069, openalexw2586781288"
}

Although the impacts of exotic plant invasions on community structure and ecosystem processes are well appreciated, the pathways or mechanisms that underlie these impacts are poorly understood. Better exploration of these processes is essential to understanding why exotic plants impact only certain systems, and why only some invaders have large impacts. Here, we review over 150 studies to evaluate the mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions on plant and animal community structure, nutrient cycling, hydrology and fire regimes. We find that, while numerous studies have examined the impacts of invasions on plant diversity and composition, less than 5% test whether these effects arise through competition, allelopathy, alteration of ecosystem variables or other processes. Nonetheless, competition was often hypothesized, and nearly all studies competing native and alien plants against each other found strong competitive effects of exotic species. In contrast to studies of the impacts on plant community structure and higher trophic levels, research examining impacts on nitrogen cycling, hydrology and fire regimes is generally highly mechanistic, often motivated by specific invader traits. We encourage future studies that link impacts on community structure to ecosystem processes, and relate the controls over invasibility to the controls over impact.

@article{doi101098rspb20032327,
    author = "Levine, Jonathan M. and Vilà, Montserrat and Antonio, Carla M. D and Dukes, Jeffrey S. and Grigulis, Karl and Lavorel, Sandra",
    title = "Mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Although the impacts of exotic plant invasions on community structure and ecosystem processes are well appreciated, the pathways or mechanisms that underlie these impacts are poorly understood. Better exploration of these processes is essential to understanding why exotic plants impact only certain systems, and why only some invaders have large impacts. Here, we review over 150 studies to evaluate the mechanisms underlying the impacts of exotic plant invasions on plant and animal community structure, nutrient cycling, hydrology and fire regimes. We find that, while numerous studies have examined the impacts of invasions on plant diversity and composition, less than 5\% test whether these effects arise through competition, allelopathy, alteration of ecosystem variables or other processes. Nonetheless, competition was often hypothesized, and nearly all studies competing native and alien plants against each other found strong competitive effects of exotic species. In contrast to studies of the impacts on plant community structure and higher trophic levels, research examining impacts on nitrogen cycling, hydrology and fire regimes is generally highly mechanistic, often motivated by specific invader traits. We encourage future studies that link impacts on community structure to ecosystem processes, and relate the controls over invasibility to the controls over impact.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2327",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2003.2327",
    openalex = "W1969996400",
    references = "doi101046j13652745200000473x, openalexw2101875448"
}

Here we present evidence that Centaurea maculosa (spotted knapweed), an invasive species in the western United States, displaces native plant species by exuding the phytotoxin (-)-catechin from its roots. Our results show inhibition of native species' growth and germination in field soils at natural concentrations of (-)-catechin. In susceptible species such as Arabidopsis thaliana, the allelochemical triggers a wave of reactive oxygen species (ROS) initiated at the root meristem, which leads to a Ca2+ signaling cascade triggering genome-wide changes in gene expression and, ultimately, death of the root system. Our results support a "novel weapons hypothesis" for invasive success.

@article{doi101126science1083245,
    author = "Bais, Harsh P. and Vepachedu, Ramarao and Gilroy, Simon and Callaway, Ragan M. and Vivanco, Jorge M.",
    title = "Allelopathy and Exotic Plant Invasion: From Molecules and Genes to Species Interactions",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Here we present evidence that Centaurea maculosa (spotted knapweed), an invasive species in the western United States, displaces native plant species by exuding the phytotoxin (-)-catechin from its roots. Our results show inhibition of native species' growth and germination in field soils at natural concentrations of (-)-catechin. In susceptible species such as Arabidopsis thaliana, the allelochemical triggers a wave of reactive oxygen species (ROS) initiated at the root meristem, which leads to a Ca2+ signaling cascade triggering genome-wide changes in gene expression and, ultimately, death of the root system. Our results support a "novel weapons hypothesis" for invasive success.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083245",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1083245",
    openalex = "W2045762639",
    references = "doi101016s0169534702024953"
}

▪ Abstract In the search to identify factors that make some plant species troublesome invaders, many studies have compared various measures of native and alien invasive plant performance. These comparative studies provide insights into the more general question “Do alien invasive plants usually outperform co-occurring native species, and to what degree does the answer depend on growing conditions?” Based on 79 independent native-invasive plant comparisons, the alien invaders were not statistically more likely to have higher growth rates, competitive ability, or fecundity. Rather, the relative performance of invaders and co-occurring natives often depended on growing conditions. In 94% of 55 comparisons involving more than one growing condition, the native's performance was equal or superior to that of the invader, at least for some key performance measures in some growing conditions. Most commonly, these conditions involved reduced resources (nutrients, light, water) and/or specific disturbance regimes. Independently of growing conditions, invaders were more likely to have higher leaf area and lower tissue construction costs (advantageous under high light and nutrient conditions) and greater phenotypic plasticity (particularly advantageous in disturbed environments where conditions are in frequent flux). There appear to be few “super invaders” that have universal performance advantages over co-occurring natives; rather, increased resource availability and altered disturbance regimes associated with human activities often differentially increase the performance of invaders over that of natives.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys34011802132403,
    author = "Daehler, Curtis C.",
    title = "Performance Comparisons of Co-Occurring Native and Alien Invasive Plants: Implications for Conservation and Restoration",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "▪ Abstract In the search to identify factors that make some plant species troublesome invaders, many studies have compared various measures of native and alien invasive plant performance. These comparative studies provide insights into the more general question “Do alien invasive plants usually outperform co-occurring native species, and to what degree does the answer depend on growing conditions?” Based on 79 independent native-invasive plant comparisons, the alien invaders were not statistically more likely to have higher growth rates, competitive ability, or fecundity. Rather, the relative performance of invaders and co-occurring natives often depended on growing conditions. In 94\% of 55 comparisons involving more than one growing condition, the native's performance was equal or superior to that of the invader, at least for some key performance measures in some growing conditions. Most commonly, these conditions involved reduced resources (nutrients, light, water) and/or specific disturbance regimes. Independently of growing conditions, invaders were more likely to have higher leaf area and lower tissue construction costs (advantageous under high light and nutrient conditions) and greater phenotypic plasticity (particularly advantageous in disturbed environments where conditions are in frequent flux). There appear to be few “super invaders” that have universal performance advantages over co-occurring natives; rather, increased resource availability and altered disturbance regimes associated with human activities often differentially increase the performance of invaders over that of natives.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132403",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132403",
    openalex = "W2151044998",
    references = "doi1010160006320787901224, doi101016s0169534702024953"
}

Abstract The metacommunity concept is an important way to think about linkages between different spatial scales in ecology. Here we review current understanding about this concept. We first investigate issues related to its definition as a set of local communities that are linked by dispersal of multiple potentially interacting species. We then identify four paradigms for metacommunities: the patch‐dynamic view, the species‐sorting view, the mass effects view and the neutral view, that each emphasizes different processes of potential importance in metacommunities. These have somewhat distinct intellectual histories and we discuss elements related to their potential future synthesis. We then use this framework to discuss why the concept is useful in modifying existing ecological thinking and illustrate this with a number of both theoretical and empirical examples. As ecologists strive to understand increasingly complex mechanisms and strive to work across multiple scales of spatio‐temporal organization, concepts like the metacommunity can provide important insights that frequently contrast with those that would be obtained with more conventional approaches based on local communities alone.

@article{doi101111j14610248200400608x,
    author = "Leibold, Mathew A. and Holyoak, Marcel and Mouquet, Nicolas and Amarasekare, Priyanga and Chase, Jonathan M. and Hoopes, Martha F. and Holt, Robert D. and Shurin, Jonathan B. and Law, Richard and Tilman, David and Loreau, Michel and Gonzalez, Andrew",
    title = "The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi‐scale community ecology",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Abstract The metacommunity concept is an important way to think about linkages between different spatial scales in ecology. Here we review current understanding about this concept. We first investigate issues related to its definition as a set of local communities that are linked by dispersal of multiple potentially interacting species. We then identify four paradigms for metacommunities: the patch‐dynamic view, the species‐sorting view, the mass effects view and the neutral view, that each emphasizes different processes of potential importance in metacommunities. These have somewhat distinct intellectual histories and we discuss elements related to their potential future synthesis. We then use this framework to discuss why the concept is useful in modifying existing ecological thinking and illustrate this with a number of both theoretical and empirical examples. As ecologists strive to understand increasingly complex mechanisms and strive to work across multiple scales of spatio‐temporal organization, concepts like the metacommunity can provide important insights that frequently contrast with those that would be obtained with more conventional approaches based on local communities alone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x",
    openalex = "W2129163149",
    references = "doi1010160040580977900429, doi101016s0065250408602883, doi101038260204c0, doi101046j14610248200300530x, doi101086282398, doi101086283817, doi101086284880, doi101093aibsbulletin2214b, doi101093besa153237, doi101093oso97801985406630010001, doi101111j1469185x1977tb01347x, doi101111j20060906759004272x, doi1015159780691206912, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023071439305, doi1023071931600, doi1023071935620, doi1023071939377, doi1023071941447, doi1023072259756, doi1023072389612, doi1023073071998, doi1023074549, doi105860choice332720"
}

Abstract Biotic resistance describes the ability of resident species in a community to reduce the success of exotic invasions. Although resistance is a well‐accepted phenomenon, less clear are the processes that contribute most to it, and whether those processes are strong enough to completely repel invaders. Current perceptions of strong, competition‐driven biotic resistance stem from classic ecological theory, Elton's formulation of ecological resistance, and the general acceptance of the enemies‐release hypothesis. We conducted a meta‐analysis of the plant invasions literature to quantify the contribution of resident competitors, diversity, herbivores and soil fungal communities to biotic resistance. Results indicated large negative effects of all factors except fungal communities on invader establishment and performance. Contrary to predictions derived from the natural enemies hypothesis, resident herbivores reduced invasion success as effectively as resident competitors. Although biotic resistance significantly reduced the establishment of individual invaders, we found little evidence that species interactions completely repelled invasions. We conclude that ecological interactions rarely enable communities to resist invasion, but instead constrain the abundance of invasive species once they have successfully established.

@article{doi101111j14610248200400657x,
    author = "Levine, Jonathan M. and Adler, Peter B. and Yelenik, Stephanie G.",
    title = "A meta‐analysis of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasions",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Abstract Biotic resistance describes the ability of resident species in a community to reduce the success of exotic invasions. Although resistance is a well‐accepted phenomenon, less clear are the processes that contribute most to it, and whether those processes are strong enough to completely repel invaders. Current perceptions of strong, competition‐driven biotic resistance stem from classic ecological theory, Elton's formulation of ecological resistance, and the general acceptance of the enemies‐release hypothesis. We conducted a meta‐analysis of the plant invasions literature to quantify the contribution of resident competitors, diversity, herbivores and soil fungal communities to biotic resistance. Results indicated large negative effects of all factors except fungal communities on invader establishment and performance. Contrary to predictions derived from the natural enemies hypothesis, resident herbivores reduced invasion success as effectively as resident competitors. Although biotic resistance significantly reduced the establishment of individual invaders, we found little evidence that species interactions completely repelled invasions. We conclude that ecological interactions rarely enable communities to resist invasion, but instead constrain the abundance of invasive species once they have successfully established.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00657.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00657.x",
    openalex = "W2157560775",
    references = "doi1010079789400958517, doi1010160198971590900504, doi101016s0169534702024990, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101073pnas6951109, doi101086282146, doi101086283241, doi101086284165, doi101086285357, doi1023071942661, doi1023072257385, doi1023072402622, doi105281zenodo18199125, openalexw2077454220"
}

Plant invasions are widely recognized as significant threats to biodiversity conservation worldwide. One way invasions can affect native ecosystems is by changing fuel properties, which can in turn affect fire behavior and, ultimately, alter fire regime characteristics such as frequency, intensity, extent, type, and seasonality of fire. If the regime changes subsequently promote the dominance of the invaders, then an invasive plant-fire regime cycle can be established. As more ecosystem components and interactions are altered, restoration of preinvasion conditions becomes more difficult. Restoration may require managing fuel conditions, fire regimes, native plant communities, and other ecosystem properties in addition to the invaders that caused the changes in the first place. We present a multiphase model describing the interrelationships between plant invaders and fire regimes, provide a system for evaluating the relative effects of invaders and prioritizing them for control, and recommend ways to restore preinvasion fire regime properties.

@article{doi1016410006356820040540677eoiapo20co2,
    author = "Brooks, Matthew L. and D’Antonio, Carla M. and Richardson, David M. and Grace, James B. and Keeley, Jon E. and DiTomaso, Joseph M. and Hobbs, Richard J. and Pellant, Mike and Pyke, David A.",
    title = "Effects of Invasive Alien Plants on Fire Regimes",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "BioScience",
    abstract = "Plant invasions are widely recognized as significant threats to biodiversity conservation worldwide. One way invasions can affect native ecosystems is by changing fuel properties, which can in turn affect fire behavior and, ultimately, alter fire regime characteristics such as frequency, intensity, extent, type, and seasonality of fire. If the regime changes subsequently promote the dominance of the invaders, then an invasive plant-fire regime cycle can be established. As more ecosystem components and interactions are altered, restoration of preinvasion conditions becomes more difficult. Restoration may require managing fuel conditions, fire regimes, native plant communities, and other ecosystem properties in addition to the invaders that caused the changes in the first place. We present a multiphase model describing the interrelationships between plant invaders and fire regimes, provide a system for evaluating the relative effects of invaders and prioritizing them for control, and recommend ways to restore preinvasion fire regime properties.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0677:eoiapo]2.0.co;2",
    doi = "10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0677:eoiapo]2.0.co;2",
    openalex = "W2117456634",
    references = "doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101146annureves15110184002033"
}

Abstract The number of studies dealing with plant invasions is increasing rapidly, but the accumulating body of knowledge has unfortunately also spawned increasing confusion about terminology. Invasions are a global phenomenon and comparison of geographically distant regions and their introduced biota is a crucially important methodological approach for elucidation of the determinants of invasiveness and invasibility. Comparative studies of alien floras provide substantial new insights to our understanding of general patterns of plant invasions. Such studies, using information in previously published floras and checklists, are fundamentally dependent on the quality of the assessment of particular species with respect to their taxonomic identity, time of immigration and invasion status. Three crucial decisions should be made when defining the status of a plant species in a given region: (1) whether the taxon is native or alien to that region (origin status); (2) what is its position in the invasion process, i.e., when was it introduced (residence status); and (3) what is the degree of its naturalization and possible invasion (invasion status). Standard floras differ hugely in their treatment of non­native species and those with appropriate categorization of alien species according to their status are rather rare. The present paper suggests definitions of terms associated with plant invasions and places these into the context of floras. Recommendations are outlined on how to deal with the issue of plant invasions in standard floras with the aim of contributing to a better understanding between taxonomists and ecologists and allowing more detailed comparative analyses of alien floras of various regions of the world.

@article{doi1023074135498,
    author = "Pyšek, Petr and Richardson, David M. and Rejmánek, Marcel and Webster, Grady L. and Williamson, Mark and Kirschner, Jan",
    title = "Alien plants in checklists and floras: towards better communication between taxonomists and ecologists",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Taxon",
    abstract = "Abstract The number of studies dealing with plant invasions is increasing rapidly, but the accumulating body of knowledge has unfortunately also spawned increasing confusion about terminology. Invasions are a global phenomenon and comparison of geographically distant regions and their introduced biota is a crucially important methodological approach for elucidation of the determinants of invasiveness and invasibility. Comparative studies of alien floras provide substantial new insights to our understanding of general patterns of plant invasions. Such studies, using information in previously published floras and checklists, are fundamentally dependent on the quality of the assessment of particular species with respect to their taxonomic identity, time of immigration and invasion status. Three crucial decisions should be made when defining the status of a plant species in a given region: (1) whether the taxon is native or alien to that region (origin status); (2) what is its position in the invasion process, i.e., when was it introduced (residence status); and (3) what is the degree of its naturalization and possible invasion (invasion status). Standard floras differ hugely in their treatment of non­native species and those with appropriate categorization of alien species according to their status are rather rare. The present paper suggests definitions of terms associated with plant invasions and places these into the context of floras. Recommendations are outlined on how to deal with the issue of plant invasions in standard floras with the aim of contributing to a better understanding between taxonomists and ecologists and allowing more detailed comparative analyses of alien floras of various regions of the world.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/4135498",
    doi = "10.2307/4135498",
    openalex = "W1991762691",
    references = "doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi1023073894769, doi105281zenodo18199125"
}

Predicting the probability of successful establishment of plant species by matching climatic variables has considerable potential for incorporation in early warning systems for the management of biological invasions. We select South Africa as a model source area of invasions worldwide because it is an important exporter of plant species to other parts of the world because of the huge international demand for indigenous flora from this biodiversity hotspot. We first mapped the five ecoregions that occur both in South Africa and other parts of the world, but the very coarse definition of the ecoregions led to unreliable results in terms of predicting invasible areas. We then determined the bioclimatic features of South Africa's major terrestrial biomes and projected the potential distribution of analogous areas throughout the world. This approach is much more powerful, but depends strongly on how particular biomes are defined in donor countries. Finally, we developed bioclimatic niche models for 96 plant taxa (species and subspecies) endemic to South Africa and invasive elsewhere, and projected these globally after successfully evaluating model projections specifically for three well-known invasive species (Carpobrotus edulis, Senecio glastifolius, Vellereophyton dealbatum) in different target areas. Cumulative probabilities of climatic suitability show that high-risk regions are spatially limited globally but that these closely match hotspots of plant biodiversity. These probabilities are significantly correlated with the number of recorded invasive species from South Africa in natural areas, emphasizing the pivotal role of climate in defining invasion potential. Accounting for potential transfer vectors (trade and tourism) significantly adds to the explanatory power of climate suitability as an index of invasibility. The close match that we found between the climatic component of the ecological habitat suitability and the current pattern of occurrence of South Africa alien species in other parts of the world is encouraging. If species' distribution data in the donor country are available, climatic niche modelling offers a powerful tool for efficient and unbiased first-step screening. Given that eradication of an established invasive species is extremely difficult and expensive, areas identified as potential new sites should be monitored and quarantine measures should be adopted.

@article{doi101111j136524862005001018x,
    author = "Thuiller, Wilfried and Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr and Midgley, Guy F. and HUGHES, GREG and Rouget, Mathieu",
    title = "Niche‐based modelling as a tool for predicting the risk of alien plant invasions at a global scale",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Predicting the probability of successful establishment of plant species by matching climatic variables has considerable potential for incorporation in early warning systems for the management of biological invasions. We select South Africa as a model source area of invasions worldwide because it is an important exporter of plant species to other parts of the world because of the huge international demand for indigenous flora from this biodiversity hotspot. We first mapped the five ecoregions that occur both in South Africa and other parts of the world, but the very coarse definition of the ecoregions led to unreliable results in terms of predicting invasible areas. We then determined the bioclimatic features of South Africa's major terrestrial biomes and projected the potential distribution of analogous areas throughout the world. This approach is much more powerful, but depends strongly on how particular biomes are defined in donor countries. Finally, we developed bioclimatic niche models for 96 plant taxa (species and subspecies) endemic to South Africa and invasive elsewhere, and projected these globally after successfully evaluating model projections specifically for three well-known invasive species (Carpobrotus edulis, Senecio glastifolius, Vellereophyton dealbatum) in different target areas. Cumulative probabilities of climatic suitability show that high-risk regions are spatially limited globally but that these closely match hotspots of plant biodiversity. These probabilities are significantly correlated with the number of recorded invasive species from South Africa in natural areas, emphasizing the pivotal role of climate in defining invasion potential. Accounting for potential transfer vectors (trade and tourism) significantly adds to the explanatory power of climate suitability as an index of invasibility. The close match that we found between the climatic component of the ecological habitat suitability and the current pattern of occurrence of South Africa alien species in other parts of the world is encouraging. If species' distribution data in the donor country are available, climatic niche modelling offers a powerful tool for efficient and unbiased first-step screening. Given that eradication of an established invasive species is extremely difficult and expensive, areas identified as potential new sites should be monitored and quarantine measures should be adopted.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.001018.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.001018.x",
    openalex = "W2140263047"
}

ABSTRACT Plant invasions have been attracting increasing attention from ecologists because of their worldwide environmental impacts and huge economic costs. Research on the characteristics of the recipient regions is essential for understanding the process of plant invasion. However, few previous studies on invasibility of habitats include social factors, although human activities are critical in the process of plant invasion. China is a vast country with high plant species diversity and a long history of introduction of exotic plant species and is particularly vulnerable to invasive plant species. Alien plant species are widespread in the country. Therefore, the study of invasive plants in China is urgent in practice and theoretically important for developing invasion ecology. For the present study, 126 species were selected to represent the major invasive plant species in China. We then collected data on their species richness in 31 provincial administrative units of China and performed Spearman rank correlations between species richness and possible natural and socio‐economic factors. We found that socio‐economic factors, such as human density and GDP, correlated positively with the species richness of invasive plants in China. In conjunction with the natural and socio‐economic correlations in the study of regional distribution pattern of the major invasive plants, we discussed the factors influencing the regional distribution pattern of the major invasive plants in China. We suggest that native plant species richness was mainly determined by the natural conditions of the regions, while invasive species richness was influenced by natural conditions and human disturbance together.

@article{doi101111j13669516200500162x,
    author = "Liu, Jian and Liang, Shichu and Liu, Feng‐Hong and Wang, Renqing and Dong, Ming",
    title = "Invasive alien plant species in China: regional distribution patterns",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Diversity and Distributions",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Plant invasions have been attracting increasing attention from ecologists because of their worldwide environmental impacts and huge economic costs. Research on the characteristics of the recipient regions is essential for understanding the process of plant invasion. However, few previous studies on invasibility of habitats include social factors, although human activities are critical in the process of plant invasion. China is a vast country with high plant species diversity and a long history of introduction of exotic plant species and is particularly vulnerable to invasive plant species. Alien plant species are widespread in the country. Therefore, the study of invasive plants in China is urgent in practice and theoretically important for developing invasion ecology. For the present study, 126 species were selected to represent the major invasive plant species in China. We then collected data on their species richness in 31 provincial administrative units of China and performed Spearman rank correlations between species richness and possible natural and socio‐economic factors. We found that socio‐economic factors, such as human density and GDP, correlated positively with the species richness of invasive plants in China. In conjunction with the natural and socio‐economic correlations in the study of regional distribution pattern of the major invasive plants, we discussed the factors influencing the regional distribution pattern of the major invasive plants in China. We suggest that native plant species richness was mainly determined by the natural conditions of the regions, while invasive species richness was influenced by natural conditions and human disturbance together.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00162.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1366-9516.2005.00162.x",
    openalex = "W2152754224"
}

Understanding why some exotic species become invasive is essential to controlling their populations. This review discusses the possibility that two mechanisms of invasion, release from natural enemies and increased resource availability, may interact. When plants invade new continents, they leave many herbivores and pathogens behind. Species most regulated by enemies in their native range have the most potential for enemy release, and enemy regulation may be strongest for high-resource species. High resource availability is associated with low defence investment, high nutritional value, high enemy damage and consequently strong enemy regulation. Therefore, invasive plant species adapted to high resource availability may also gain most from enemy release. Strong release of high-resource species would predict that: (i) both enemy release and resources may underlie plant invasion, leading to potential interactions among control measures; (ii) increases in resource availability due to disturbance or eutrophication may increase the advantage of exotic over native species; (iii) exotic species will tend to have high-resource traits relative to coexisting native species; and (iv) although high-resource plants may experience strong enemy release in ecological time, well-defended low-resource plants may have stronger evolutionary responses to the absence of enemies.

@article{doi101111j14610248200600934x,
    author = "Blumenthal, Dana M.",
    title = "Interactions between resource availability and enemy release in plant invasion",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Understanding why some exotic species become invasive is essential to controlling their populations. This review discusses the possibility that two mechanisms of invasion, release from natural enemies and increased resource availability, may interact. When plants invade new continents, they leave many herbivores and pathogens behind. Species most regulated by enemies in their native range have the most potential for enemy release, and enemy regulation may be strongest for high-resource species. High resource availability is associated with low defence investment, high nutritional value, high enemy damage and consequently strong enemy regulation. Therefore, invasive plant species adapted to high resource availability may also gain most from enemy release. Strong release of high-resource species would predict that: (i) both enemy release and resources may underlie plant invasion, leading to potential interactions among control measures; (ii) increases in resource availability due to disturbance or eutrophication may increase the advantage of exotic over native species; (iii) exotic species will tend to have high-resource traits relative to coexisting native species; and (iv) although high-resource plants may experience strong enemy release in ecological time, well-defended low-resource plants may have stronger evolutionary responses to the absence of enemies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00934.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00934.x",
    openalex = "W2139825132",
    references = "doi101126science1121407"
}

Invasion biologists often suggest that phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in successful plant invasions. Assuming that plasticity enhances ecological niche breadth and therefore confers a fitness advantage, recent studies have posed two main hypotheses: (1) invasive species are more plastic than non-invasive or native ones; (2) populations in the introduced range of an invasive species have evolved greater plasticity than populations in the native range. These two hypotheses largely reflect the disparate interests of ecologists and evolutionary biologists. Because these sciences are typically interested in different temporal and spatial scales, we describe what is required to assess phenotypic plasticity at different levels. We explore the inevitable tradeoffs of experiments conducted at the genotype vs. species level, outline components of experimental design required to identify plasticity at different levels, and review some examples from the recent literature. Moreover, we suggest that a successful invader may benefit from plasticity as either (1) a Jack-of-all-trades, better able to maintain fitness in unfavourable environments; (2) a Master-of-some, better able to increase fitness in favourable environments; or (3) a Jack-and-master that combines some level of both abilities. This new framework can be applied when testing both ecological or evolutionary oriented hypotheses, and therefore promises to bridge the gap between the two perspectives.

@article{doi101111j14610248200600950x,
    author = "Richards, Christina L. and Bossdorf, Oliver and Muth, Norris Z. and Gurevitch, Jessica and Pigliucci, Massimo",
    title = "Jack of all trades, master of some? On the role of phenotypic plasticity in plant invasions",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Invasion biologists often suggest that phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in successful plant invasions. Assuming that plasticity enhances ecological niche breadth and therefore confers a fitness advantage, recent studies have posed two main hypotheses: (1) invasive species are more plastic than non-invasive or native ones; (2) populations in the introduced range of an invasive species have evolved greater plasticity than populations in the native range. These two hypotheses largely reflect the disparate interests of ecologists and evolutionary biologists. Because these sciences are typically interested in different temporal and spatial scales, we describe what is required to assess phenotypic plasticity at different levels. We explore the inevitable tradeoffs of experiments conducted at the genotype vs. species level, outline components of experimental design required to identify plasticity at different levels, and review some examples from the recent literature. Moreover, we suggest that a successful invader may benefit from plasticity as either (1) a Jack-of-all-trades, better able to maintain fitness in unfavourable environments; (2) a Master-of-some, better able to increase fitness in favourable environments; or (3) a Jack-and-master that combines some level of both abilities. This new framework can be applied when testing both ecological or evolutionary oriented hypotheses, and therefore promises to bridge the gap between the two perspectives.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00950.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00950.x",
    openalex = "W2134336181",
    references = "doi101016s0065250401320135, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101086282379, doi101111j13652435200701283x, doi101146annurevecolsys32081501114037, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2"
}

Exotic species are widely assumed to thrive because they lack natural enemies in their new ranges. However, a meta-analysis of 63 manipulative field studies including more than 100 exotic plant species revealed that native herbivores suppressed exotic plants, whereas exotic herbivores facilitated both the abundance and species richness of exotic plants. Both outcomes suggest that plants are especially susceptible to novel, generalist herbivores that they have not been selected to resist. Thus, native herbivores provide biotic resistance to plant invasions, but the widespread replacement of native with exotic herbivores eliminates this ecosystem service, facilitates plant invasions, and triggers an invasional "meltdown."

@article{doi101126science1121407,
    author = "Parker, John D. and Burkepile, Deron E. and Hay, Mark E.",
    title = "Opposing Effects of Native and Exotic Herbivores on Plant Invasions",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = {Exotic species are widely assumed to thrive because they lack natural enemies in their new ranges. However, a meta-analysis of 63 manipulative field studies including more than 100 exotic plant species revealed that native herbivores suppressed exotic plants, whereas exotic herbivores facilitated both the abundance and species richness of exotic plants. Both outcomes suggest that plants are especially susceptible to novel, generalist herbivores that they have not been selected to resist. Thus, native herbivores provide biotic resistance to plant invasions, but the widespread replacement of native with exotic herbivores eliminates this ecosystem service, facilitates plant invasions, and triggers an invasional "meltdown."},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1121407",
    doi = "10.1126/science.1121407",
    openalex = "W2130743533",
    references = "doi1010079781489972149, doi1010079789400958517, doi101016jecolecon200410002, doi101016s0169534702024990, doi101023a1010086329619, doi101038nature01346, doi1011770309133307087089, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023071313420, doi1023072257385, doi1023072265769"
}

This paper considers key issues in plant invasion ecology, where findings published since 1990 have significantly improved our understanding of many aspects of invasions. The review focuses on vascular plants invading natural and semi-natural ecosystems, and on fundamental ecological issues relating to species invasiveness and community invasibility. Three big questions addressed by the SCOPE programme in the 1980s (which species invade; which habitats are invaded; and how can we manage invasions?) still underpin most work in invasion ecology. Some organizing and unifying themes in the field are organism-focused and relate to species invasiveness (the tens rule; the concept of residence time; taxonomic patterns and Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis; issues of phenotypic plasticity and rapid evolutionary change, including evolution of increased competitive ability hypothesis; the role of long-distance dispersal). Others are ecosystem-centred and deal with determinants of the invasibility of communities, habitats and regions (levels of invasion, invasibility and propagule pressure; the biotic resistance hypothesis and the links between diversity and invasibility; synergisms, mutualisms, and invasional meltdown). Some theories have taken an overarching approach to plant invasions by integrating the concepts of species invasiveness and community invasibility (a theory of seed plant invasiveness; fluctuating resources theory of invasibility). Concepts, hypotheses and theories reviewed here can be linked to the naturalization-invasion continuum concept, which relates invasion processes with a sequence of environmental and biotic barriers that an introduced species must negotiate to become casual, naturalized and invasive. New research tools and improved research links between invasion ecology and succession ecology, community ecology, conservation biology and weed science, respectively, have strengthened the conceptual pillars of invasion ecology.

@article{doi1011910309133306pp490pr,
    author = "Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Plant invasions: merging the concepts of species invasiveness and community invasibility",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment",
    abstract = "This paper considers key issues in plant invasion ecology, where findings published since 1990 have significantly improved our understanding of many aspects of invasions. The review focuses on vascular plants invading natural and semi-natural ecosystems, and on fundamental ecological issues relating to species invasiveness and community invasibility. Three big questions addressed by the SCOPE programme in the 1980s (which species invade; which habitats are invaded; and how can we manage invasions?) still underpin most work in invasion ecology. Some organizing and unifying themes in the field are organism-focused and relate to species invasiveness (the tens rule; the concept of residence time; taxonomic patterns and Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis; issues of phenotypic plasticity and rapid evolutionary change, including evolution of increased competitive ability hypothesis; the role of long-distance dispersal). Others are ecosystem-centred and deal with determinants of the invasibility of communities, habitats and regions (levels of invasion, invasibility and propagule pressure; the biotic resistance hypothesis and the links between diversity and invasibility; synergisms, mutualisms, and invasional meltdown). Some theories have taken an overarching approach to plant invasions by integrating the concepts of species invasiveness and community invasibility (a theory of seed plant invasiveness; fluctuating resources theory of invasibility). Concepts, hypotheses and theories reviewed here can be linked to the naturalization-invasion continuum concept, which relates invasion processes with a sequence of environmental and biotic barriers that an introduced species must negotiate to become casual, naturalized and invasive. New research tools and improved research links between invasion ecology and succession ecology, community ecology, conservation biology and weed science, respectively, have strengthened the conceptual pillars of invasion ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1191/0309133306pp490pr",
    doi = "10.1191/0309133306pp490pr",
    openalex = "W2099376388",
    references = "doi101007978146124018114, doi1010079781489972149, doi101016s0169534702000459, doi101016s0169534702024953, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101093oso97801985464120010001, doi101111j14610248200400657x, doi101146annureves23110192000431, doi1023072257385, doi1023073545850, doi105860choice295104"
}

Summary Although invasions by alien plants are major threats to the biodiversity of natural habitats, individual habitats vary considerably in their susceptibility to invasion. Therefore the risk assessment procedures, which are used increasingly by environmental managers to inform effective planning of invasive plant control, require reliable quantitative information on the extent to which different habitats are susceptible to invasion. It is also important to know whether the levels of invasion in different habitats are locally specific or consistent among regions with contrasting climate, flora and history of human impact. We compiled a database of 52 480 vegetation plots from three regions of Europe: Catalonia (Mediterranean–submediterranean region), Czech Republic (subcontinental) and Great Britain (oceanic). We classified plant species into neophytes, archaeophytes and natives, and calculated the proportion of each group in 33 habitats described by the European Nature Information System (EUNIS) classification. Of 545 alien species found in the plots, only eight occurred in all three regions. Despite this large difference in species composition, patterns of habitat invasions were highly consistent between regions. None or few aliens were found in environmentally extreme and nutrient‐poor habitats, e.g. mires, heathlands and high‐mountain grasslands. Many aliens were found in frequently disturbed habitats with fluctuating nutrient availability, e.g. in man‐made habitats. Neophytes were also often found in coastal, littoral and riverine habitats. Neophytes were found commonly in habitats also occupied by archaeophytes. Thus, the number of archaeophytes can be considered as a good predictor of the neophyte invasion risk. However, neophytes had stronger affinity to wet habitats and disturbed woody vegetation while archaeophytes tended to be more common in dry to mesic open habitats. Synthesis and applications. The considerable inter‐regional consistency of the habitat invasion patterns suggests that habitats can be used as a good predictor for the invasion risk assessment. This finding opens promising perspectives for the use of spatially explicit information on habitats, including scenarios of future land‐use change, to identify the areas of highest risk of invasion.

@article{doi101111j13652664200701398x,
    author = "Chytrý, Milan and Maskell, Lindsay C. and Pino, Joan and Pyšek, Petr and Vilà, Montserrat and Font, Xavier and Smart, Simon M.",
    title = "Habitat invasions by alien plants: a quantitative comparison among Mediterranean, subcontinental and oceanic regions of Europe",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary Although invasions by alien plants are major threats to the biodiversity of natural habitats, individual habitats vary considerably in their susceptibility to invasion. Therefore the risk assessment procedures, which are used increasingly by environmental managers to inform effective planning of invasive plant control, require reliable quantitative information on the extent to which different habitats are susceptible to invasion. It is also important to know whether the levels of invasion in different habitats are locally specific or consistent among regions with contrasting climate, flora and history of human impact. We compiled a database of 52 480 vegetation plots from three regions of Europe: Catalonia (Mediterranean–submediterranean region), Czech Republic (subcontinental) and Great Britain (oceanic). We classified plant species into neophytes, archaeophytes and natives, and calculated the proportion of each group in 33 habitats described by the European Nature Information System (EUNIS) classification. Of 545 alien species found in the plots, only eight occurred in all three regions. Despite this large difference in species composition, patterns of habitat invasions were highly consistent between regions. None or few aliens were found in environmentally extreme and nutrient‐poor habitats, e.g. mires, heathlands and high‐mountain grasslands. Many aliens were found in frequently disturbed habitats with fluctuating nutrient availability, e.g. in man‐made habitats. Neophytes were also often found in coastal, littoral and riverine habitats. Neophytes were found commonly in habitats also occupied by archaeophytes. Thus, the number of archaeophytes can be considered as a good predictor of the neophyte invasion risk. However, neophytes had stronger affinity to wet habitats and disturbed woody vegetation while archaeophytes tended to be more common in dry to mesic open habitats. Synthesis and applications. The considerable inter‐regional consistency of the habitat invasion patterns suggests that habitats can be used as a good predictor for the invasion risk assessment. This finding opens promising perspectives for the use of spatially explicit information on habitats, including scenarios of future land‐use change, to identify the areas of highest risk of invasion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01398.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01398.x",
    openalex = "W2124383227",
    references = "doi1011910309133306pp490pr"
}

1 Once neglected, the role of facilitative interactions in plant communities has received considerable attention in the last two decades, and is now widely recognized. It is timely to consider the progress made by research in this field. 2 We review the development of plant facilitation research, focusing on the history of the field, the relationship between plant–plant interactions and environmental severity gradients, and attempts to integrate facilitation into mainstream ecological theory. We then consider future directions for facilitation research. 3 With respect to our fundamental understanding of plant facilitation, clarification of the relationship between interactions and environmental gradients is central for further progress, and necessitates the design and implementation of experiments that move beyond the clear limitations of previous studies. 4 There is substantial scope for exploring indirect facilitative effects in plant communities, including their impacts on diversity and evolution, and future studies should connect the degree of non-transitivity in plant competitive networks to community diversity and facilitative promotion of species coexistence, and explore how the role of indirect facilitation varies with environmental severity. 5 Certain ecological modelling approaches (e.g. individual-based modelling), although thus far largely neglected, provide highly useful tools for exploring these fundamental processes. 6 Evolutionary responses might result from facilitative interactions, and consideration of facilitation might lead to re-assessment of the evolution of plant growth forms. 7 Improved understanding of facilitation processes has direct relevance for the development of tools for ecosystem restoration, and for improving our understanding of the response of plant species and communities to environmental change drivers. 8 Attempts to apply our developing ecological knowledge would benefit from explicit recognition of the potential role of facilitative plant–plant interactions in the design and interpretation of studies from the fields of restoration and global change ecology. 9 Synthesis: Plant facilitation research provides new insights into classic ecological theory and pressing environmental issues. Awareness and understanding of facilitation should be part of the basic ecological knowledge of all plant ecologists.

@article{doi101111j13652745200701295x,
    author = "Brooker, Rob W. and Maestre, Fernando T. and Callaway, Ragan M. and Lortie, Christopher L. and Cavieres, Lohengrin A. and Künstler, Georges and Liancourt, Pierre and Tielbörger, Katja and Travis, Justin M. J. and Anthelme, Fabien and Armas, Cristina and Coll, Lluís and Corcket, Emmanuel and Delzon, Sylvain and Forey, Estelle and Kikvidze, Zaal and Olofsson, Johan and Pugnaire, Francisco I. and Quiroz, Constanza L. and Saccone, Patrick and Schiffers, Katja and Seifan, Merav and Touzard, Blaize and Michalet, Richard",
    title = "Facilitation in plant communities: the past, the present, and the future",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Journal of Ecology",
    abstract = "1 Once neglected, the role of facilitative interactions in plant communities has received considerable attention in the last two decades, and is now widely recognized. It is timely to consider the progress made by research in this field. 2 We review the development of plant facilitation research, focusing on the history of the field, the relationship between plant–plant interactions and environmental severity gradients, and attempts to integrate facilitation into mainstream ecological theory. We then consider future directions for facilitation research. 3 With respect to our fundamental understanding of plant facilitation, clarification of the relationship between interactions and environmental gradients is central for further progress, and necessitates the design and implementation of experiments that move beyond the clear limitations of previous studies. 4 There is substantial scope for exploring indirect facilitative effects in plant communities, including their impacts on diversity and evolution, and future studies should connect the degree of non-transitivity in plant competitive networks to community diversity and facilitative promotion of species coexistence, and explore how the role of indirect facilitation varies with environmental severity. 5 Certain ecological modelling approaches (e.g. individual-based modelling), although thus far largely neglected, provide highly useful tools for exploring these fundamental processes. 6 Evolutionary responses might result from facilitative interactions, and consideration of facilitation might lead to re-assessment of the evolution of plant growth forms. 7 Improved understanding of facilitation processes has direct relevance for the development of tools for ecosystem restoration, and for improving our understanding of the response of plant species and communities to environmental change drivers. 8 Attempts to apply our developing ecological knowledge would benefit from explicit recognition of the potential role of facilitative plant–plant interactions in the design and interpretation of studies from the fields of restoration and global change ecology. 9 Synthesis: Plant facilitation research provides new insights into classic ecological theory and pressing environmental issues. Awareness and understanding of facilitation should be part of the basic ecological knowledge of all plant ecologists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01295.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01295.x",
    openalex = "W1986322390",
    references = "doi101007bf02912621, doi101016s0169534702000459, doi101023a1010086329619, doi101038nrg700, doi101111j13652745200501017x, doi101111j1466822x200600212x, doi1018900012965819970781958cafasa20co2, doi1018900012965819970781966tiofac20co2, doi1023071939337, doi1023072937039"
}

Invasive species are predicted to suffer from reductions in genetic diversity during founding events, reducing adaptive potential. Integrating evidence from two literature reviews and two case studies, we address the following questions: How much genetic diversity is lost in invasions? Do multiple introductions ameliorate this loss? Is there evidence for loss of diversity in quantitative traits? Do invaders that have experienced strong bottlenecks show adaptive evolution? How do multiple introductions influence adaptation on a landscape scale? We reviewed studies of 80 species of animals, plants, and fungi that quantified nuclear molecular diversity within introduced and source populations. Overall, there were significant losses of both allelic richness and heterozygosity in introduced populations, and large gains in diversity were rare. Evidence for multiple introductions was associated with increased diversity, and allelic variation appeared to increase over long timescales (~100 years), suggesting a role for gene flow in augmenting diversity over the long-term. We then reviewed the literature on quantitative trait diversity and found that broad-sense variation rarely declines in introductions, but direct comparisons of additive variance were lacking. Our studies of Hypericum canariense invasions illustrate how populations with diminished diversity may still evolve rapidly. Given the prevalence of genetic bottlenecks in successful invading populations and the potential for adaptive evolution in quantitative traits, we suggest that the disadvantages associated with founding events may have been overstated. However, our work on the successful invader Verbascum thapsus illustrates how multiple introductions may take time to commingle, instead persisting as a 'mosaic of maladaptation' where traits are not distributed in a pattern consistent with adaptation. We conclude that management limiting gene flow among introduced populations may reduce adaptive potential but is unlikely to prevent expansion or the evolution of novel invasive behaviour.

@article{doi101111j1365294x200703538x,
    author = "Dlugosch, Katrina M. and Parker, Ingrid M.",
    title = "Founding events in species invasions: genetic variation, adaptive evolution, and the role of multiple introductions",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Molecular Ecology",
    abstract = "Invasive species are predicted to suffer from reductions in genetic diversity during founding events, reducing adaptive potential. Integrating evidence from two literature reviews and two case studies, we address the following questions: How much genetic diversity is lost in invasions? Do multiple introductions ameliorate this loss? Is there evidence for loss of diversity in quantitative traits? Do invaders that have experienced strong bottlenecks show adaptive evolution? How do multiple introductions influence adaptation on a landscape scale? We reviewed studies of 80 species of animals, plants, and fungi that quantified nuclear molecular diversity within introduced and source populations. Overall, there were significant losses of both allelic richness and heterozygosity in introduced populations, and large gains in diversity were rare. Evidence for multiple introductions was associated with increased diversity, and allelic variation appeared to increase over long timescales (\textasciitilde 100 years), suggesting a role for gene flow in augmenting diversity over the long-term. We then reviewed the literature on quantitative trait diversity and found that broad-sense variation rarely declines in introductions, but direct comparisons of additive variance were lacking. Our studies of Hypericum canariense invasions illustrate how populations with diminished diversity may still evolve rapidly. Given the prevalence of genetic bottlenecks in successful invading populations and the potential for adaptive evolution in quantitative traits, we suggest that the disadvantages associated with founding events may have been overstated. However, our work on the successful invader Verbascum thapsus illustrates how multiple introductions may take time to commingle, instead persisting as a 'mosaic of maladaptation' where traits are not distributed in a pattern consistent with adaptation. We conclude that management limiting gene flow among introduced populations may reduce adaptive potential but is unlikely to prevent expansion or the evolution of novel invasive behaviour.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03538.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-294x.2007.03538.x",
    openalex = "W2168307546",
    references = "doi101007978940100585210, doi101016s0169534702000447, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101146annurevecolsys32081501114037"
}

Summary Four species of Spartina (Spartina anglica, S. alterniflora, S. patens and S. cynosuroides) have been introduced to China, but currently only the first three are present and only the first two successfully reproduce on the Chinese coast. Spartina anglica and S. alterniflora were introduced to China from England in 1963 and from the United States in 1979, respectively. Today, S. alterniflora has expanded its coverage to more than 112 000 ha and S. anglica has declined to <50 ha. This is compared with only 260 ha of S. alterniflora and over 36 000 ha of S. anglica in 1985. The fates of Chinese Spartina, with dramatic expansion of S. alterniflora and significant decline of S. anglica, were different from those in other locations throughout the world. Factors affecting the growth of the two naturalized Spartina species in China include differences in artificial plantation strategy, impacts of tideland reclamation, species competition ability and genetic diversity. Several methods for Spartina control in China, such as harvesting, herbicide application and freshwater irrigation, have been developed, but more research is needed to verify their effectiveness.

@article{doi101111j13653180200700559x,
    author = "An, Shuqing and Gu, Bingxin and Zhou, Changfang and Wang, Zhanshan and Deng, Ziqing and Zhi, Yingbiao and Li, H L and Chen, Lele and YU, DE-HUI and Liu, Yeqing",
    title = "Spartina invasion in China: implications for invasive species management and future research",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Weed Research",
    abstract = "Summary Four species of Spartina (Spartina anglica, S. alterniflora, S. patens and S. cynosuroides) have been introduced to China, but currently only the first three are present and only the first two successfully reproduce on the Chinese coast. Spartina anglica and S. alterniflora were introduced to China from England in 1963 and from the United States in 1979, respectively. Today, S. alterniflora has expanded its coverage to more than 112 000 ha and S. anglica has declined to <50 ha. This is compared with only 260 ha of S. alterniflora and over 36 000 ha of S. anglica in 1985. The fates of Chinese Spartina, with dramatic expansion of S. alterniflora and significant decline of S. anglica, were different from those in other locations throughout the world. Factors affecting the growth of the two naturalized Spartina species in China include differences in artificial plantation strategy, impacts of tideland reclamation, species competition ability and genetic diversity. Several methods for Spartina control in China, such as harvesting, herbicide application and freshwater irrigation, have been developed, but more research is needed to verify their effectiveness.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00559.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00559.x",
    openalex = "W2011210567"
}

Invasive nonindigenous plant species (NIPS) threaten native diversity, alter ecosystem processes, and may interact with other components of global environmental change. Here, a general framework is outlined that attempts to connect patterns of plant invasion to processes underlying these patterns at four well-established spatio-temporal stages of the invasion process: transport, colonization, establishment, and landscape spread. At each stage we organize findings and ideas about the filters that limit NIPS success and the interaction of these filters with historical aspects of introduction events, NIPS traits, and ecosystem properties. While it remains difficult to draw conclusions about the risk of invasion across ecosystems, to delineate universal 'invader traits', or to predict large-scale extinctions following invasions, this review highlights the growing body of research that suggests that the success of invasive NIPS is controlled by a series of key processes or filters. These filters are common to all invasion events, and will interact throughout the stages of plant invasion, although the relative importance of a filter may be stage, species or location specific. It is suggested that both research and management programs may benefit from employing multiscale and stage approaches to studying and controlling invasion. We further use the framework to briefly examine potential interactions between climate change and filters that limit NIPS invasion.

@article{doi101111j14698137200702207x,
    author = "Theoharides, Kathleen A. and Dukes, Jeffrey S.",
    title = "Plant invasion across space and time: factors affecting nonindigenous species success during four stages of invasion",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "Invasive nonindigenous plant species (NIPS) threaten native diversity, alter ecosystem processes, and may interact with other components of global environmental change. Here, a general framework is outlined that attempts to connect patterns of plant invasion to processes underlying these patterns at four well-established spatio-temporal stages of the invasion process: transport, colonization, establishment, and landscape spread. At each stage we organize findings and ideas about the filters that limit NIPS success and the interaction of these filters with historical aspects of introduction events, NIPS traits, and ecosystem properties. While it remains difficult to draw conclusions about the risk of invasion across ecosystems, to delineate universal 'invader traits', or to predict large-scale extinctions following invasions, this review highlights the growing body of research that suggests that the success of invasive NIPS is controlled by a series of key processes or filters. These filters are common to all invasion events, and will interact throughout the stages of plant invasion, although the relative importance of a filter may be stage, species or location specific. It is suggested that both research and management programs may benefit from employing multiscale and stage approaches to studying and controlling invasion. We further use the framework to briefly examine potential interactions between climate change and filters that limit NIPS invasion.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02207.x",
    openalex = "W2058855508",
    references = "doi101016jecolecon200410002, doi101016s0169534702000459, doi101016s0169534702024990, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101111j14610248200400657x, doi101111j152317391991tb00384x, doi101126science1121407, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi101146annurevecolsys32081501114037, doi1011770309133307087089, doi101890040922, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023072257385"
}

@article{doi1011770309133307087089,
    author = "Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Elton, C.S. 1958: The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. London: Methuen",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133307087089",
    doi = "10.1177/0309133307087089",
    openalex = "W2030412562",
    references = "doi101016s0169534702024953, doi101023a1010086329619, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi1011910309133306pp490pr, doi1015159780691206912, doi1018900012965819990801455tecoci20co2, doi1023071929601, doi105281zenodo18199125, openalexw2990282461"
}

Understanding the factors that influence the success of ecologically and economically damaging biological invasions is of prime importance. Recent studies have shown that invasive populations typically exhibit minimal, if any, reductions in genetic diversity, suggesting that large founding populations and/or multiple introductions are required for the success of biological invasions, consistent with predictions of the propagule pressure hypothesis. Through population genetic analysis of neutral microsatellite markers and a gene experiencing balancing selection, we demonstrate that the solitary bee Lasioglossum leucozonium experienced a single and severe bottleneck during its introduction from Europe. Paradoxically, the success of L. leucozonium in its introduced range occurred despite the severe genetic load caused by single-locus complementary sex-determination that still turns 30% of female-destined eggs into sterile diploid males, thereby substantially limiting the growth potential of the introduced population. Using stochastic modeling, we show that L. leucozonium invaded North America through the introduction of a very small number of propagules, most likely a singly-mated female. Our results suggest that chance events and ecological traits of invaders are more important than propagule pressure in determining invasion success, and that the vigilance required to prevent invasions may be considerably greater than has been previously considered.

@article{doi101371journalpone0000868,
    author = "Zayed, Amro and Constantin, Şerban A. and Packer, Laurence",
    title = "Successful Biological Invasion despite a Severe Genetic Load",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "PLoS ONE",
    abstract = "Understanding the factors that influence the success of ecologically and economically damaging biological invasions is of prime importance. Recent studies have shown that invasive populations typically exhibit minimal, if any, reductions in genetic diversity, suggesting that large founding populations and/or multiple introductions are required for the success of biological invasions, consistent with predictions of the propagule pressure hypothesis. Through population genetic analysis of neutral microsatellite markers and a gene experiencing balancing selection, we demonstrate that the solitary bee Lasioglossum leucozonium experienced a single and severe bottleneck during its introduction from Europe. Paradoxically, the success of L. leucozonium in its introduced range occurred despite the severe genetic load caused by single-locus complementary sex-determination that still turns 30\% of female-destined eggs into sterile diploid males, thereby substantially limiting the growth potential of the introduced population. Using stochastic modeling, we show that L. leucozonium invaded North America through the introduction of a very small number of propagules, most likely a singly-mated female. Our results suggest that chance events and ecological traits of invaders are more important than propagule pressure in determining invasion success, and that the vigilance required to prevent invasions may be considerably greater than has been previously considered.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000868",
    doi = "10.1371/journal.pone.0000868",
    openalex = "W2025227606",
    references = "doi1023071292459"
}

We used airborne imaging spectroscopy and scanning light detection and ranging (LiDAR), along with bioacoustic recordings, to determine how a plant species invasion affects avian abundance and community composition across a range of Hawaiian submontane ecosystems. Total avian abundance and the ratio of native to exotic avifauna were highest in habitats with the highest canopy cover and height. Comparing biophysically equivalent sites, stands dominated by native Metrosideros polymorpha trees hosted larger native avian communities than did mixed stands of Metrosideros and the invasive tree Morella faya. A multi-trophic analysis strongly suggests that native avifauna provide biotic resistance against the invasion of Morella trees and exotic birds, thus slowing invasion "meltdowns" that disrupt the functioning of native Hawaiian ecosystems.

@article{doi1018900700041,
    author = "Boelman, Natalie T. and Asner, Gregory P. and Hart, Patrick J. and Martin, Roberta E.",
    title = "MULTI‐TROPHIC INVASION RESISTANCE IN HAWAII: BIOACOUSTICS, FIELD SURVEYS, AND AIRBORNE REMOTE SENSING",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Ecological Applications",
    abstract = {We used airborne imaging spectroscopy and scanning light detection and ranging (LiDAR), along with bioacoustic recordings, to determine how a plant species invasion affects avian abundance and community composition across a range of Hawaiian submontane ecosystems. Total avian abundance and the ratio of native to exotic avifauna were highest in habitats with the highest canopy cover and height. Comparing biophysically equivalent sites, stands dominated by native Metrosideros polymorpha trees hosted larger native avian communities than did mixed stands of Metrosideros and the invasive tree Morella faya. A multi-trophic analysis strongly suggests that native avifauna provide biotic resistance against the invasion of Morella trees and exotic birds, thus slowing invasion "meltdowns" that disrupt the functioning of native Hawaiian ecosystems.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/07-0004.1",
    doi = "10.1890/07-0004.1",
    openalex = "W2060240784",
    references = "doi101126science1121407, mountainspring1985interspecific"
}

@article{doi101016jtree200802002,
    author = "Pyšek, Petr and Richardson, David M. and Pergl, Jan and Jaros̆ı́k, Vojtĕch and Sixtová, Zuzana and Weber, Ewald",
    title = "Geographical and taxonomic biases in invasion ecology",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Trends in Ecology \& Evolution",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.02.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tree.2008.02.002",
    openalex = "W2097739671",
    references = "doi1011910309133306pp490pr"
}

@article{doi101038452034a,
    author = "Ricciardi, Anthony and MacIsaac, Hugh J.",
    title = "The book that began invasion ecology",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/452034a",
    doi = "10.1038/452034a",
    openalex = "W2972697907"
}

To predict the spread of invasive species, we need to understand the mechanisms that underlie their range expansion. Assuming random diffusion through homogeneous environments, invasions are expected to progress at a constant rate. However, environmental heterogeneity is expected to alter diffusion rates, especially by slowing invasions as populations encounter suboptimal environmental conditions. Here, we examine how environmental and landscape factors affect the local invasion speeds of cane toads (Chaunus [Bufo] marinus) in Australia. Using high-resolution cane toad data, we demonstrate heterogeneous regional invasion dynamics that include both decelerating and accelerating range expansions. Toad invasion speed increased in regions characterized by high temperatures, heterogeneous topography, low elevations, dense road networks, and high patch connectivity. Regional increases in the toad invasion rate might be caused by environmental conditions that facilitate toad reproduction and movement, by the evolution of long-distance dispersal ability, or by some combination of these factors. In any case, theoretical predictions that neglect environmental influences on dispersal at multiple spatial scales may prove to be inaccurate. Early predictions of cane toad range expansion rates that assumed constant diffusion across homogeneous landscapes already have been proved wrong. Future attempts to predict range dynamics for invasive species should consider heterogeneity in (1) the environmental factors that determine dispersal rates and (2) the mobility of invasive populations because dispersal-relevant traits can evolve in exotic habitats. As an invasive species spreads, it is likely to encounter conditions that influence dispersal rates via one or both of these mechanisms.

@article{doi101086527494,
    author = "Urban, Mark C. and Phillips, Ben L. and Skelly, David K. and Shine, Richard",
    title = "A Toad More Traveled: The Heterogeneous Invasion Dynamics of Cane Toads in Australia",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "To predict the spread of invasive species, we need to understand the mechanisms that underlie their range expansion. Assuming random diffusion through homogeneous environments, invasions are expected to progress at a constant rate. However, environmental heterogeneity is expected to alter diffusion rates, especially by slowing invasions as populations encounter suboptimal environmental conditions. Here, we examine how environmental and landscape factors affect the local invasion speeds of cane toads (Chaunus [Bufo] marinus) in Australia. Using high-resolution cane toad data, we demonstrate heterogeneous regional invasion dynamics that include both decelerating and accelerating range expansions. Toad invasion speed increased in regions characterized by high temperatures, heterogeneous topography, low elevations, dense road networks, and high patch connectivity. Regional increases in the toad invasion rate might be caused by environmental conditions that facilitate toad reproduction and movement, by the evolution of long-distance dispersal ability, or by some combination of these factors. In any case, theoretical predictions that neglect environmental influences on dispersal at multiple spatial scales may prove to be inaccurate. Early predictions of cane toad range expansion rates that assumed constant diffusion across homogeneous landscapes already have been proved wrong. Future attempts to predict range dynamics for invasive species should consider heterogeneity in (1) the environmental factors that determine dispersal rates and (2) the mobility of invasive populations because dispersal-relevant traits can evolve in exotic habitats. As an invasive species spreads, it is likely to encounter conditions that influence dispersal rates via one or both of these mechanisms.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/527494",
    doi = "10.1086/527494",
    openalex = "W2112390420",
    references = "crossref2000the, doi105860choice381547"
}

Summary Pathways describe the processes that result in the introduction of alien species from one location to another. A framework is proposed to facilitate the comparative analysis of invasion pathways by a wide range of taxa in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Comparisons with a range of data helped identify existing gaps in current knowledge of pathways and highlight the limitations of existing legislation to manage introductions of alien species. The scheme aims for universality but uses the European Union as a case study for the regulatory perspectives. Alien species may arrive and enter a new region through three broad mechanisms: importation of a commodity, arrival of a transport vector, and/or natural spread from a neighbouring region where the species is itself alien. These three mechanisms result in six principal pathways: release, escape, contaminant, stowaway, corridor and unaided. Alien species transported as commodities may be introduced as a deliberate release or as an escape from captivity. Many species are not intentionally transported but arrive as a contaminant of a commodity, for example pathogens and pests. Stowaways are directly associated with human transport but arrive independently of a specific commodity, for example organisms transported in ballast water, cargo and airfreight. The corridor pathway highlights the role transport infrastructures play in the introduction of alien species. The unaided pathway describes situations where natural spread results in alien species arriving into a new region from a donor region where it is also alien. Vertebrate pathways tend to be characterized as deliberate releases, invertebrates as contaminants and plants as escapes. Pathogenic micro‐organisms and fungi are generally introduced as contaminants of their hosts. The corridor and unaided pathways are often ignored in pathway assessments but warrant further detailed consideration. Synthesis and applications. Intentional releases and escapes should be straightforward to monitor and regulate but, in practice, developing legislation has proved difficult. New introductions continue to occur through contaminant, stowaway, corridor and unaided pathways. These pathways represent special challenges for management and legislation. The present framework should enable these trends to be monitored more clearly and hopefully lead to the development of appropriate regulations or codes of practice to stem the number of future introductions.

@article{doi101111j13652664200701442x,
    author = "Hulme, Philip E. and Bacher, Sven and Kenis, Marc and Klotz, Stefan and Kühn, Ingolf and Minchin, Dan and Nentwig, Wolfgang and Olenin, Sergej and Panov, Vadim E. and Pergl, Jan and Pyšek, Petr and Roques, Alain and Sol, Daniel and Solarz, Wojciech and Vilà, Montserrat",
    title = "Grasping at the routes of biological invasions: a framework for integrating pathways into policy",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Ecology",
    abstract = "Summary Pathways describe the processes that result in the introduction of alien species from one location to another. A framework is proposed to facilitate the comparative analysis of invasion pathways by a wide range of taxa in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Comparisons with a range of data helped identify existing gaps in current knowledge of pathways and highlight the limitations of existing legislation to manage introductions of alien species. The scheme aims for universality but uses the European Union as a case study for the regulatory perspectives. Alien species may arrive and enter a new region through three broad mechanisms: importation of a commodity, arrival of a transport vector, and/or natural spread from a neighbouring region where the species is itself alien. These three mechanisms result in six principal pathways: release, escape, contaminant, stowaway, corridor and unaided. Alien species transported as commodities may be introduced as a deliberate release or as an escape from captivity. Many species are not intentionally transported but arrive as a contaminant of a commodity, for example pathogens and pests. Stowaways are directly associated with human transport but arrive independently of a specific commodity, for example organisms transported in ballast water, cargo and airfreight. The corridor pathway highlights the role transport infrastructures play in the introduction of alien species. The unaided pathway describes situations where natural spread results in alien species arriving into a new region from a donor region where it is also alien. Vertebrate pathways tend to be characterized as deliberate releases, invertebrates as contaminants and plants as escapes. Pathogenic micro‐organisms and fungi are generally introduced as contaminants of their hosts. The corridor and unaided pathways are often ignored in pathway assessments but warrant further detailed consideration. Synthesis and applications. Intentional releases and escapes should be straightforward to monitor and regulate but, in practice, developing legislation has proved difficult. New introductions continue to occur through contaminant, stowaway, corridor and unaided pathways. These pathways represent special challenges for management and legislation. The present framework should enable these trends to be monitored more clearly and hopefully lead to the development of appropriate regulations or codes of practice to stem the number of future introductions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01442.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01442.x",
    openalex = "W2111489497"
}

ABSTRACT The publication, in 1958, of Charles Elton's book The ecology of invasions by animals and plants launched the systematic study of biological invasions. Invasion ecology has grown to become an important multi‐disciplinary subfield of ecology with growing links to many other disciplines. This paper examines the citation history of Elton's book using the Web of Science. We also examine Elton's influence in shaping the current research agenda in invasion ecology, for which we use the 28 papers in a special issue of Diversity and Distributions (Volume 14: 2) as a representative sample. After 50 years, Elton's book remains the most cited single source in the field (> 1500 citations), and is cited more often every year (> 100 times) than any other invasion‐related publication, including influential papers in journals. Most citations to Elton's book refer to particular topics/concepts covered in the book, rather than citing it as a general reference about invasions. The shift in the distribution of topics/concepts cited with reference to Elton over time follows the same trend as for biogeography and ecology in general (increasing emphasis on analytical studies, multi‐scale analyses, multi‐disciplinary studies, etc.). Some topics emphasized by Elton are still the focus of current research (dispersal and spread of invasive organisms, impact on biodiversity, role of disturbance and enemy release) but several prominent themes in modern studies were not addressed by Elton. The emergence of new themes can be attributed to a general change in approach and emphasis underpinning research questions in conservation biogeography and applied ecology over the last half century (risk analysis, multi‐scale comparisons, propagule pressure, experimental approaches) and to the recent emergence and increasing availability of large data sets on the distribution of introduced species and to the emergence of key technologies (e.g. geographic information systems, modelling techniques, including niche‐based modelling, and molecular methods). Half a century after its publication, Charles Elton's book on invasions remains influential, but massive changes in the status of invasions and other environmental issues worldwide, together with advances in technology, are reshaping the game rules and priorities of invasion ecology.

@article{doi101111j14724642200700464x,
    author = "Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Fifty years of invasion ecology – the legacy of Charles Elton",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Diversity and Distributions",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The publication, in 1958, of Charles Elton's book The ecology of invasions by animals and plants launched the systematic study of biological invasions. Invasion ecology has grown to become an important multi‐disciplinary subfield of ecology with growing links to many other disciplines. This paper examines the citation history of Elton's book using the Web of Science. We also examine Elton's influence in shaping the current research agenda in invasion ecology, for which we use the 28 papers in a special issue of Diversity and Distributions (Volume 14: 2) as a representative sample. After 50 years, Elton's book remains the most cited single source in the field (> 1500 citations), and is cited more often every year (> 100 times) than any other invasion‐related publication, including influential papers in journals. Most citations to Elton's book refer to particular topics/concepts covered in the book, rather than citing it as a general reference about invasions. The shift in the distribution of topics/concepts cited with reference to Elton over time follows the same trend as for biogeography and ecology in general (increasing emphasis on analytical studies, multi‐scale analyses, multi‐disciplinary studies, etc.). Some topics emphasized by Elton are still the focus of current research (dispersal and spread of invasive organisms, impact on biodiversity, role of disturbance and enemy release) but several prominent themes in modern studies were not addressed by Elton. The emergence of new themes can be attributed to a general change in approach and emphasis underpinning research questions in conservation biogeography and applied ecology over the last half century (risk analysis, multi‐scale comparisons, propagule pressure, experimental approaches) and to the recent emergence and increasing availability of large data sets on the distribution of introduced species and to the emergence of key technologies (e.g. geographic information systems, modelling techniques, including niche‐based modelling, and molecular methods). Half a century after its publication, Charles Elton's book on invasions remains influential, but massive changes in the status of invasions and other environmental issues worldwide, together with advances in technology, are reshaping the game rules and priorities of invasion ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00464.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00464.x",
    openalex = "W2073624616",
    references = "doi1011770309133307087089"
}

ABSTRACT Aim Invasion ecology includes many hypotheses. Empirical evidence suggests that most of these can explain the success of some invaders to some degree in some circumstances. If they all are correct, what does this tell us about invasion? We illustrate the major themes in invasion ecology, and provide an overarching framework that helps organize research and foster links among subfields of invasion ecology and ecology more generally. Location Global. Methods We review and synthesize 29 leading hypotheses in plant invasion ecology. Structured around propagule pressure (P), abiotic characteristics (A) and biotic characteristics (B), with the additional influence of humans (H) on P, A and B (hereon PAB), we show how these hypotheses fit into one paradigm. P is based on the size and frequency of introductions, A incorporates ecosystem invasibility based on physical conditions, and B includes the characteristics of invading species (invasiveness), the recipient community and their interactions. Having justified the PAB framework, we propose a way in which invasion research could progress. Results By highlighting the common ground among hypotheses, we show that invasion ecology is encumbered by theoretical redundancy that can be removed through integration. Using both holistic and incremental approaches, we show how the PAB framework can guide research and quantify the relative importance of different invasion mechanisms. Main conclusions If the prime aim is to identify the main cause of invasion success, we contend that a top‐down approach that focuses on PAB maximizes research efficiency. This approach identifies the most influential factors first, and subsequently narrows the number of potential causal mechanisms. By viewing invasion as a multifaceted process that can be partitioned into major drivers and broken down into a series of sequential steps, invasion theory can be rigorously tested, understanding improved and effective weed management techniques identified.

@article{doi101111j14724642200800521x,
    author = "Catford, Jane A. and Jansson, Roland and Nilsson, Christer",
    title = "Reducing redundancy in invasion ecology by integrating hypotheses into a single theoretical framework",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Diversity and Distributions",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Aim Invasion ecology includes many hypotheses. Empirical evidence suggests that most of these can explain the success of some invaders to some degree in some circumstances. If they all are correct, what does this tell us about invasion? We illustrate the major themes in invasion ecology, and provide an overarching framework that helps organize research and foster links among subfields of invasion ecology and ecology more generally. Location Global. Methods We review and synthesize 29 leading hypotheses in plant invasion ecology. Structured around propagule pressure (P), abiotic characteristics (A) and biotic characteristics (B), with the additional influence of humans (H) on P, A and B (hereon PAB), we show how these hypotheses fit into one paradigm. P is based on the size and frequency of introductions, A incorporates ecosystem invasibility based on physical conditions, and B includes the characteristics of invading species (invasiveness), the recipient community and their interactions. Having justified the PAB framework, we propose a way in which invasion research could progress. Results By highlighting the common ground among hypotheses, we show that invasion ecology is encumbered by theoretical redundancy that can be removed through integration. Using both holistic and incremental approaches, we show how the PAB framework can guide research and quantify the relative importance of different invasion mechanisms. Main conclusions If the prime aim is to identify the main cause of invasion success, we contend that a top‐down approach that focuses on PAB maximizes research efficiency. This approach identifies the most influential factors first, and subsequently narrows the number of potential causal mechanisms. By viewing invasion as a multifaceted process that can be partitioned into major drivers and broken down into a series of sequential steps, invasion theory can be rigorously tested, understanding improved and effective weed management techniques identified.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00521.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00521.x",
    openalex = "W2135464230",
    references = "doi101111j13669516200600302x, doi101111j14610248200400657x, doi101111j14610248200701094x, doi1011910309133306pp490pr"
}

A major aim in ecology is identifying determinants of invasiveness. We performed a meta-analysis of 117 field or experimental-garden studies that measured pair-wise trait differences of a total of 125 invasive and 196 non-invasive plant species in the invasive range of the invasive species. We tested whether invasiveness is associated with performance-related traits (physiology, leaf-area allocation, shoot allocation, growth rate, size and fitness), and whether such associations depend on type of study and on biogeographical or biological factors. Overall, invasive species had significantly higher values than non-invasive species for all six trait categories. More trait differences were significant for invasive vs. native comparisons than for invasive vs. non-invasive alien comparisons. Moreover, for comparisons between invasive species and native species that themselves are invasive elsewhere, no trait differences were significant. Differences in physiology and growth rate were larger in tropical regions than in temperate regions. Trait differences did not depend on whether the invasive alien species originates from Europe, nor did they depend on the test environment. We conclude that invasive alien species had higher values for those traits related to performance than non-invasive species. This suggests that it might become possible to predict future plant invasions from species traits.

@article{doi101111j14610248200901418x,
    author = "van Kleunen, Mark and Weber, Ewald and Fischer, Markus",
    title = "A meta‐analysis of trait differences between invasive and non‐invasive plant species",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "A major aim in ecology is identifying determinants of invasiveness. We performed a meta-analysis of 117 field or experimental-garden studies that measured pair-wise trait differences of a total of 125 invasive and 196 non-invasive plant species in the invasive range of the invasive species. We tested whether invasiveness is associated with performance-related traits (physiology, leaf-area allocation, shoot allocation, growth rate, size and fitness), and whether such associations depend on type of study and on biogeographical or biological factors. Overall, invasive species had significantly higher values than non-invasive species for all six trait categories. More trait differences were significant for invasive vs. native comparisons than for invasive vs. non-invasive alien comparisons. Moreover, for comparisons between invasive species and native species that themselves are invasive elsewhere, no trait differences were significant. Differences in physiology and growth rate were larger in tropical regions than in temperate regions. Trait differences did not depend on whether the invasive alien species originates from Europe, nor did they depend on the test environment. We conclude that invasive alien species had higher values for those traits related to performance than non-invasive species. This suggests that it might become possible to predict future plant invasions from species traits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01418.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01418.x",
    openalex = "W2110328754",
    references = "doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150452"
}

Although most studies of factors contributing to successful establishment and spread of non-native species have focused on species traits and characteristics (both biotic and abiotic), increasing empirical and statistical evidence implicates propagule pressure—propagule sizes, propagule numbers, and temporal and spatial patterns of propagule arrival—as important in both facets of invasion. Increasing propagule size enhances establishment probability primarily by lessening effects of demographic stochasticity, whereas propagule number acts primarily by diminishing impacts of environmental stochasticity. A continuing rain of propagules, particularly from a variety of sources, may erase or vitiate the expected genetic bottleneck for invasions initiated by few individuals (as most are), thereby enhancing likelihood of survival. For a few species, recent molecular evidence suggests ongoing propagule pressure aids an invasion to spread by introducing genetic variation adaptive for new areas and habitats. This phenomenon may also explain some time lags between establishment of a non-native species and its spread to become an invasive pest.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys110308120304,
    author = "Simberloff, Daniel",
    title = "The Role of Propagule Pressure in Biological Invasions",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "Although most studies of factors contributing to successful establishment and spread of non-native species have focused on species traits and characteristics (both biotic and abiotic), increasing empirical and statistical evidence implicates propagule pressure—propagule sizes, propagule numbers, and temporal and spatial patterns of propagule arrival—as important in both facets of invasion. Increasing propagule size enhances establishment probability primarily by lessening effects of demographic stochasticity, whereas propagule number acts primarily by diminishing impacts of environmental stochasticity. A continuing rain of propagules, particularly from a variety of sources, may erase or vitiate the expected genetic bottleneck for invasions initiated by few individuals (as most are), thereby enhancing likelihood of survival. For a few species, recent molecular evidence suggests ongoing propagule pressure aids an invasion to spread by introducing genetic variation adaptive for new areas and habitats. This phenomenon may also explain some time lags between establishment of a non-native species and its spread to become an invasive pest.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120304",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120304",
    openalex = "W2133098229",
    references = "doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101023a1010086329619, doi101111j15231739200800951x, doi101146annurevecolsys39110707173430, doi105281zenodo18199125"
}

Species range limits involve many aspects of evolution and ecology, from species distribution and abundance to the evolution of niches. Theory suggests myriad processes by which range limits arise, including competitive exclusion, Allee effects, and gene swamping; however, most models remain empirically untested. Range limits are correlated with a number of abiotic and biotic factors, but further experimentation is needed to understand underlying mechanisms. Range edges are characterized by increased genetic isolation, genetic differentiation, and variability in individual and population performance, but evidence for decreased abundance and fitness is lacking. Evolution of range limits is understudied in natural systems; in particular, the role of gene flow in shaping range limits is unknown. Biological invasions and rapid distribution shifts caused by climate change represent large-scale experiments on the underlying dynamics of range limits. A better fusion of experimentation and theory will advance our understanding of the causes of range limits.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys110308120317,
    author = "Sexton, Jason P. and McIntyre, Patrick J. and Angert, Amy L. and Rice, Kevin J.",
    title = "Evolution and Ecology of Species Range Limits",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "Species range limits involve many aspects of evolution and ecology, from species distribution and abundance to the evolution of niches. Theory suggests myriad processes by which range limits arise, including competitive exclusion, Allee effects, and gene swamping; however, most models remain empirically untested. Range limits are correlated with a number of abiotic and biotic factors, but further experimentation is needed to understand underlying mechanisms. Range edges are characterized by increased genetic isolation, genetic differentiation, and variability in individual and population performance, but evidence for decreased abundance and fitness is lacking. Evolution of range limits is understudied in natural systems; in particular, the role of gene flow in shaping range limits is unknown. Biological invasions and rapid distribution shifts caused by climate change represent large-scale experiments on the underlying dynamics of range limits. A better fusion of experimentation and theory will advance our understanding of the causes of range limits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120317",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120317",
    openalex = "W2138877869",
    references = "doi1010160169534794902488, doi101016s0169534702025545, doi101046j14610248200200297x, doi101046j15231739199206030324x, doi101093biomet3812196, doi101093oso97801985264070010001, doi101098rspa19270118, doi101111j14610248200500739x, doi101111j14610248200801277x, doi101111j146918091937tb02153x, doi101126science2925517673, doi101146annurevecolsys271597, doi101146annurevecolsys37091305110100, doi101146annurevecolsys39110707173430, doi1015159780691209418, doi1018901051076120000100689bicegc20co2, doi1023072408012, doi102307jctvx5wbbh, doi105962bhltitle59991, openalexw2151235472"
}

Species naturalized in the Czech Republic have significantly smaller genomes than their congeners not known to be naturalized or invasive in any part of the world. This trend is supported at the family level: alien species naturalized in the Czech flora have on average a smaller genome than is the mean value for non-invading confamilials. Moreover, naturalized and non-invading species clearly differed in the frequency of five genome size categories; this difference was mainly due to very small genomes prevailing and intermediate to very large genomes under-represented in the former group. Our results provide the first quantitative support for association of genome size with invasiveness, based on a large set of alien species across a number of plant families.

@article{openalexw1725383119,
    author = "Kubešová, Magdalena and Moravcová, Lenka and Suda, Jan and Jarošík, V. and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Naturalized plants have smaller genomes than their non-invading relatives: a flow cytometric analysis of the Czech alien flora.",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "ASEP",
    abstract = "Species naturalized in the Czech Republic have significantly smaller genomes than their congeners not known to be naturalized or invasive in any part of the world. This trend is supported at the family level: alien species naturalized in the Czech flora have on average a smaller genome than is the mean value for non-invading confamilials. Moreover, naturalized and non-invading species clearly differed in the frequency of five genome size categories; this difference was mainly due to very small genomes prevailing and intermediate to very large genomes under-represented in the former group. Our results provide the first quantitative support for association of genome size with invasiveness, based on a large set of alien species across a number of plant families.",
    openalex = "W1725383119",
    references = "doi101038452034a"
}

Naturalization (the establishment of a self-sustaining population for at least a decade) is a fundamental precondition for plant invasion and so compiling a complete inventory of naturalized alien species is necessary for predicting and hence preventing such invasion. However, nationwide information on naturalized plants in China is still lacking. We compiled a nationwide list of the naturalized plant species of China, based on various literature reports. The list comprised a total of 861 naturalized plant species belonging to 110 families and 465 genera. The three most dominant families were Compositae, Poaceae, and Leguminosae, accounting for 16, 13 and 12% of naturalized plants, respectively. Among genera, Euphorbia and Solanum had the most naturalized species, followed by Ipomoea, Amaranthus, Oenothera, and Trifolium. Over half of all aliens were of American origin (52%), followed by those with European (14%) and Asian (13%) origins. Annuals and perennial herbs were prevalent among naturalized species; comparison to other studies suggests however that the invasive potential is higher among plants with longer life cycles than those of annuals. The taxonomic pattern of plant naturalization in China is similar to patterns worldwide. However, the low proportion of naturalized plants within the Chinese flora overall suggests that the potential for plant invasions in China may be high. Therefore, greater attention should be focused on naturalization of alien plants in China, especially concerning species of dominant families or genera, and those with a perennial life cycle.

@article{doi101007s105310110044x,
    author = "Jiang, Hua and Fan, Qiang and Li, Jin‐tian and Shi, Shi and Li, Shaopeng and Liao, Wen Bo and Shu, Wensheng",
    title = "Naturalization of alien plants in China",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Biodiversity and Conservation",
    abstract = "Naturalization (the establishment of a self-sustaining population for at least a decade) is a fundamental precondition for plant invasion and so compiling a complete inventory of naturalized alien species is necessary for predicting and hence preventing such invasion. However, nationwide information on naturalized plants in China is still lacking. We compiled a nationwide list of the naturalized plant species of China, based on various literature reports. The list comprised a total of 861 naturalized plant species belonging to 110 families and 465 genera. The three most dominant families were Compositae, Poaceae, and Leguminosae, accounting for 16, 13 and 12\% of naturalized plants, respectively. Among genera, Euphorbia and Solanum had the most naturalized species, followed by Ipomoea, Amaranthus, Oenothera, and Trifolium. Over half of all aliens were of American origin (52\%), followed by those with European (14\%) and Asian (13\%) origins. Annuals and perennial herbs were prevalent among naturalized species; comparison to other studies suggests however that the invasive potential is higher among plants with longer life cycles than those of annuals. The taxonomic pattern of plant naturalization in China is similar to patterns worldwide. However, the low proportion of naturalized plants within the Chinese flora overall suggests that the potential for plant invasions in China may be high. Therefore, greater attention should be focused on naturalization of alien plants in China, especially concerning species of dominant families or genera, and those with a perennial life cycle.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0044-x",
    doi = "10.1007/s10531-011-0044-x",
    openalex = "W1608389918"
}

@article{doi101007s1098001195853,
    author = "Vilà, Montserrat and Ibáñez, Inés",
    title = "Plant invasions in the landscape",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Landscape Ecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-011-9585-3",
    doi = "10.1007/s10980-011-9585-3",
    openalex = "W2134894597",
    references = "doi101111j14698137200702207x"
}

The invasion success of introduced plants is frequently explained as a result of competitive interactions with native flora. Although previous theory and experiments have shown that plants are largely equivalent in their competitive effects on each other, competitive nonequivalence is hypothesized to occur in interactions between native and invasive species. Small overlap in resource use with unrelated native species, improved competitiveness, and production of novel allelochemicals are all believed to contribute to the invasiveness of introduced species. I tested all three assumptions in a common-garden experiment by examining the effect of plant origin and relatedness on competition intensity. Competitive interactions were explored within 12 triplets, each consisting of an invasive species, a native congeneric (or confamilial) species, and a native heterogeneric species that are likely to interact in the field. Plants were grown in pots alone or in pairs and in the absence or the presence of activated carbon to control for allelopathy. I found that competition intensity was not influenced by the relatedness or origin of competing neighbors. Although some exotic species may benefit from size advantages and species-specific effects in competitive interactions, none of the three mechanisms investigated is likely to be a principal driver of their invasiveness.

@article{doi101086659060,
    author = "Dostál, Petr",
    title = "Plant Competitive Interactions and Invasiveness: Searching for the Effects of Phylogenetic Relatedness and Origin on Competition Intensity",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "The invasion success of introduced plants is frequently explained as a result of competitive interactions with native flora. Although previous theory and experiments have shown that plants are largely equivalent in their competitive effects on each other, competitive nonequivalence is hypothesized to occur in interactions between native and invasive species. Small overlap in resource use with unrelated native species, improved competitiveness, and production of novel allelochemicals are all believed to contribute to the invasiveness of introduced species. I tested all three assumptions in a common-garden experiment by examining the effect of plant origin and relatedness on competition intensity. Competitive interactions were explored within 12 triplets, each consisting of an invasive species, a native congeneric (or confamilial) species, and a native heterogeneric species that are likely to interact in the field. Plants were grown in pots alone or in pairs and in the absence or the presence of activated carbon to control for allelopathy. I found that competition intensity was not influenced by the relatedness or origin of competing neighbors. Although some exotic species may benefit from size advantages and species-specific effects in competitive interactions, none of the three mechanisms investigated is likely to be a principal driver of their invasiveness.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/659060",
    doi = "10.1086/659060",
    openalex = "W2017241389",
    references = "doi1023073796757"
}

The relationship between resident species diversity and invasion is generally negative in experimental studies but takes various forms in observational studies of natural communities. We hypothesized that stochastic species colonization, which applies to natural communities but not to experimental communities generally assembled through simultaneous species introduction, may lead to nonnegative diversity-invasion relationships via incurring priority effects. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated both resident species diversity and colonization history in sequentially assembled communities of bacterivorous protist species. We found that, despite a significant effect of assembly history on invader abundance, invader abundance decreased with diversity. This result was largely driven by positive selection effects associated with the dominant influence of an invasion-resistant species, which shared the most similar resource use pattern with the invader, and by the overall weak priority effects observed for the resident communities. Increasing species diversity, however, significantly strengthened priority effects, providing the first experimental support for the idea that larger species pools promote alternative community states. We suggest that elucidating mechanisms regulating the strength of priority effects may help in understanding variation in diversity-invasion relationships among natural communities.

@article{doi101086661242,
    author = "Jiang, Lin and Brady, L. Jeannine and Tan, Jiaqi",
    title = "Species Diversity, Invasion, and Alternative Community States in Sequentially Assembled Communities",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "The relationship between resident species diversity and invasion is generally negative in experimental studies but takes various forms in observational studies of natural communities. We hypothesized that stochastic species colonization, which applies to natural communities but not to experimental communities generally assembled through simultaneous species introduction, may lead to nonnegative diversity-invasion relationships via incurring priority effects. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated both resident species diversity and colonization history in sequentially assembled communities of bacterivorous protist species. We found that, despite a significant effect of assembly history on invader abundance, invader abundance decreased with diversity. This result was largely driven by positive selection effects associated with the dominant influence of an invasion-resistant species, which shared the most similar resource use pattern with the invader, and by the overall weak priority effects observed for the resident communities. Increasing species diversity, however, significantly strengthened priority effects, providing the first experimental support for the idea that larger species pools promote alternative community states. We suggest that elucidating mechanisms regulating the strength of priority effects may help in understanding variation in diversity-invasion relationships among natural communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/661242",
    doi = "10.1086/661242",
    openalex = "W2028156068",
    references = "doi1023073796757"
}

Polyploidy can be an important factor in species invasion success through a combination of (1) 'pre-adaptation', whereby polyploid lineages are predisposed to conditions in the new range and, therefore, have higher survival rates and fitness in the earliest establishment phase; and (2) the possibility for subsequent adaptation due to a larger genetic diversity that may assist the 'evolution of invasiveness'. Alternatively, polyploidization may play an important role by (3) restoring sexual reproduction following hybridization or, conversely, (4) asexual reproduction in the absence of suitable mates. We, therefore, encourage invasion biologists to incorporate assessments of ploidy in their studies of invasive alien species.

@article{doi101093aobmcr277,
    author = "te Beest, Mariska and Roux, Johannes J. Le and Richardson, David M. and Brysting, Anne K. and Suda, Jan and Kubešová, Magdalena and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "The more the better? The role of polyploidy in facilitating plant invasions",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Annals of Botany",
    abstract = "Polyploidy can be an important factor in species invasion success through a combination of (1) 'pre-adaptation', whereby polyploid lineages are predisposed to conditions in the new range and, therefore, have higher survival rates and fitness in the earliest establishment phase; and (2) the possibility for subsequent adaptation due to a larger genetic diversity that may assist the 'evolution of invasiveness'. Alternatively, polyploidization may play an important role by (3) restoring sexual reproduction following hybridization or, conversely, (4) asexual reproduction in the absence of suitable mates. We, therefore, encourage invasion biologists to incorporate assessments of ploidy in their studies of invasive alien species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcr277",
    doi = "10.1093/aob/mcr277",
    openalex = "W2061325948",
    references = "doi101016jtplants200912003, doi101038nrg1711, doi101038nrg2600, doi101073pnas0900906106, doi101111j10958339200900996x, doi101111j13669516200600302x, doi1011910309133306pp490pr"
}

Abstract With the growing body of literature assessing the impact of invasive alien plants on resident species and ecosystems, a comprehensive assessment of the relationship between invasive species traits and environmental settings of invasion on the characteristics of impacts is needed. Based on 287 publications with 1551 individual cases that addressed the impact of 167 invasive plant species belonging to 49 families, we present the first global overview of frequencies of significant and non‐significant ecological impacts and their directions on 15 outcomes related to the responses of resident populations, species, communities and ecosystems. Species and community outcomes tend to decline following invasions, especially those for plants, but the abundance and richness of the soil biota, as well as concentrations of soil nutrients and water, more often increase than decrease following invasion. Data mining tools revealed that invasive plants exert consistent significant impacts on some outcomes (survival of resident biota, activity of resident animals, resident community productivity, mineral and nutrient content in plant tissues, and fire frequency and intensity), whereas for outcomes at the community level, such as species richness, diversity and soil resources, the significance of impacts is determined by interactions between species traits and the biome invaded. The latter outcomes are most likely to be impacted by annual grasses, and by wind pollinated trees invading mediterranean or tropical biomes. One of the clearest signals in this analysis is that invasive plants are far more likely to cause significant impacts on resident plant and animal richness on islands rather than mainland. This study shows that there is no universal measure of impact and the pattern observed depends on the ecological measure examined. Although impact is strongly context dependent, some species traits, especially life form, stature and pollination syndrome, may provide a means to predict impact, regardless of the particular habitat and geographical region invaded.

@article{doi101111j13652486201102636x,
    author = "Pyšek, Petr and Jaros̆ı́k, Vojtĕch and Hulme, Philip E. and Pergl, Jan and Hejda, Martin and Schaffner, Urs and Vilà, Montserrat",
    title = "A global assessment of invasive plant impacts on resident species, communities and ecosystems: the interaction of impact measures, invading species' traits and environment",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract With the growing body of literature assessing the impact of invasive alien plants on resident species and ecosystems, a comprehensive assessment of the relationship between invasive species traits and environmental settings of invasion on the characteristics of impacts is needed. Based on 287 publications with 1551 individual cases that addressed the impact of 167 invasive plant species belonging to 49 families, we present the first global overview of frequencies of significant and non‐significant ecological impacts and their directions on 15 outcomes related to the responses of resident populations, species, communities and ecosystems. Species and community outcomes tend to decline following invasions, especially those for plants, but the abundance and richness of the soil biota, as well as concentrations of soil nutrients and water, more often increase than decrease following invasion. Data mining tools revealed that invasive plants exert consistent significant impacts on some outcomes (survival of resident biota, activity of resident animals, resident community productivity, mineral and nutrient content in plant tissues, and fire frequency and intensity), whereas for outcomes at the community level, such as species richness, diversity and soil resources, the significance of impacts is determined by interactions between species traits and the biome invaded. The latter outcomes are most likely to be impacted by annual grasses, and by wind pollinated trees invading mediterranean or tropical biomes. One of the clearest signals in this analysis is that invasive plants are far more likely to cause significant impacts on resident plant and animal richness on islands rather than mainland. This study shows that there is no universal measure of impact and the pattern observed depends on the ecological measure examined. Although impact is strongly context dependent, some species traits, especially life form, stature and pollination syndrome, may provide a means to predict impact, regardless of the particular habitat and geographical region invaded.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02636.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02636.x",
    openalex = "W2043734488",
    references = "doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101111j14610248201101628x, doi101111j1466822x200600212x"
}

A general understanding of biological invasions will provide insights into fundamental ecological and evolutionary problems and contribute to more efficient and effective prediction, prevention and control of invasions. We review recent papers that have proposed conceptual frameworks for invasion biology. These papers offer important advances and signal a maturation of the field, but a broad synthesis is still lacking. Conceptual frameworks for invasion do not require invocation of unique concepts, but rather should reflect the unifying principles of ecology and evolutionary biology. A conceptual framework should incorporate multicausality, include interactions between causal factors and account for lags between various stages. We emphasize the centrality of demography in invasions, and distinguish between explaining three of the most important characteristics by which we recognize invasions: rapid local population increase, monocultures or community dominance, and range expansion. As a contribution towards developing a conceptual synthesis of invasions based on these criteria, we outline a framework that explicitly incorporates consideration of the fundamental ecological and evolutionary processes involved. The development of a more inclusive and mechanistic conceptual framework for invasion should facilitate quantitative and testable evaluation of causal factors, and can potentially lead to a better understanding of the biology of invasions.

@article{doi101111j14610248201101594x,
    author = "Gurevitch, Jessica and Fox, Gordon A. and Wardle, Glenda M. and Inderjit, Inderjit and Taub, Daniel R.",
    title = "Emergent insights from the synthesis of conceptual frameworks for biological invasions",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "A general understanding of biological invasions will provide insights into fundamental ecological and evolutionary problems and contribute to more efficient and effective prediction, prevention and control of invasions. We review recent papers that have proposed conceptual frameworks for invasion biology. These papers offer important advances and signal a maturation of the field, but a broad synthesis is still lacking. Conceptual frameworks for invasion do not require invocation of unique concepts, but rather should reflect the unifying principles of ecology and evolutionary biology. A conceptual framework should incorporate multicausality, include interactions between causal factors and account for lags between various stages. We emphasize the centrality of demography in invasions, and distinguish between explaining three of the most important characteristics by which we recognize invasions: rapid local population increase, monocultures or community dominance, and range expansion. As a contribution towards developing a conceptual synthesis of invasions based on these criteria, we outline a framework that explicitly incorporates consideration of the fundamental ecological and evolutionary processes involved. The development of a more inclusive and mechanistic conceptual framework for invasion should facilitate quantitative and testable evaluation of causal factors, and can potentially lead to a better understanding of the biology of invasions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01594.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01594.x",
    openalex = "W2147452187",
    references = "doi101111j14698137200702207x"
}

Globalization of trade and travel has facilitated the spread of non-native species across the earth. A proportion of these species become established and cause serious environmental, economic, and human health impacts. These species are referred to as invasive, and are now recognized as one of the major drivers of biodiversity change across the globe. As a long-time centre for trade, Europe has seen the introduction and subsequent establishment of at least several thousand non-native species. These range in taxonomy from viruses and bacteria to fungi, plants, and animals. Although invasive species cause major negative impacts across all regions of Europe, they also offer scientists the opportunity to develop and test theory about how species enter and leave communities, how non-native and native species interact with each other, and how different types of species affect ecosystem functions. For these reasons, there has been recent growth in the field of invasion biology as scientists work to understand the process of invasion, the changes that invasive species cause to their recipient ecosystems, and the ways that the problems of invasive species can be reduced. This review covers the process and drivers of species invasions in Europe, the socio-economic factors that make some regions particularly strongly invaded, and the ecological factors that make some species particularly invasive. We describe the impacts of invasive species in Europe, the difficulties involved in reducing these impacts, and explain the policy options currently being considered. We outline the reasons that invasive species create unique policy challenges, and suggest some rules of thumb for designing and implementing management programs. If new management programs are not enacted in Europe, it is inevitable that more invasive species will arrive, and that the total economic, environmental, and human health impacts from these species will continue to grow.

@article{doi101186219047152323,
    author = "Keller, Reuben P. and Geist, Juergen and Jeschke, Jonathan M. and Kühn, Ingolf",
    title = "Invasive species in Europe: ecology, status, and policy",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Environmental Sciences Europe",
    abstract = "Globalization of trade and travel has facilitated the spread of non-native species across the earth. A proportion of these species become established and cause serious environmental, economic, and human health impacts. These species are referred to as invasive, and are now recognized as one of the major drivers of biodiversity change across the globe. As a long-time centre for trade, Europe has seen the introduction and subsequent establishment of at least several thousand non-native species. These range in taxonomy from viruses and bacteria to fungi, plants, and animals. Although invasive species cause major negative impacts across all regions of Europe, they also offer scientists the opportunity to develop and test theory about how species enter and leave communities, how non-native and native species interact with each other, and how different types of species affect ecosystem functions. For these reasons, there has been recent growth in the field of invasion biology as scientists work to understand the process of invasion, the changes that invasive species cause to their recipient ecosystems, and the ways that the problems of invasive species can be reduced. This review covers the process and drivers of species invasions in Europe, the socio-economic factors that make some regions particularly strongly invaded, and the ecological factors that make some species particularly invasive. We describe the impacts of invasive species in Europe, the difficulties involved in reducing these impacts, and explain the policy options currently being considered. We outline the reasons that invasive species create unique policy challenges, and suggest some rules of thumb for designing and implementing management programs. If new management programs are not enacted in Europe, it is inevitable that more invasive species will arrive, and that the total economic, environmental, and human health impacts from these species will continue to grow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-4715-23-23",
    doi = "10.1186/2190-4715-23-23",
    openalex = "W2087079864",
    references = "doi1010079781489972149, doi101016jtree200502004, doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101017s1464793105006950, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101126science28754591770, doi1011770309133307087089, doi1023072257385, doi105962bhltitle59991, doi105962bhltitle82303"
}

Understanding the historical evolution of biotas and the dynamics of contemporary human-mediated species introductions are two central tasks of biology. One hypothesis may address both-the taxon cycle. Taxon cycles are phases of range expansion and contraction coupled to ecological and evolutionary niche shifts. These historical invasion processes resemble human-mediated invasions in pattern and possibly mechanism, but both the existence of historical cycles and the roles of recent introductions are in question. We return to the system that originally inspired the taxon cycle-Melanesian ants-and perform novel tests of the hypothesis. We analyze (i) the habitat distributions of Fiji's entire ant fauna (183 species), (ii) ecological shifts associated with the in situ radiation of Fijian Pheidole in a phylogenetic context, and (iii) the ecological structure of a massive exotic ant invasion of the archipelago. Our analyses indicate lineages shift toward primary habitats, higher elevation, rarity, and ecological specialization with increasing level of endemism, consistent with taxon cycle predictions. The marginal habitats that historically formed a dispersal conduit in the Pacific are now mostly replaced by human-modified habitats dominated by a colonization pulse of exotic species. We propose this may represent the first phase of an incipient global cycle of human-mediated colonization, ecological shifts, and diversification.

@article{doi101086665996,
    author = "Economo, Evan P. and Sarnat, Eli M.",
    title = "Revisiting the Ants of Melanesia and the Taxon Cycle: Historical and Human-Mediated Invasions of a Tropical Archipelago",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "The American Naturalist",
    abstract = "Understanding the historical evolution of biotas and the dynamics of contemporary human-mediated species introductions are two central tasks of biology. One hypothesis may address both-the taxon cycle. Taxon cycles are phases of range expansion and contraction coupled to ecological and evolutionary niche shifts. These historical invasion processes resemble human-mediated invasions in pattern and possibly mechanism, but both the existence of historical cycles and the roles of recent introductions are in question. We return to the system that originally inspired the taxon cycle-Melanesian ants-and perform novel tests of the hypothesis. We analyze (i) the habitat distributions of Fiji's entire ant fauna (183 species), (ii) ecological shifts associated with the in situ radiation of Fijian Pheidole in a phylogenetic context, and (iii) the ecological structure of a massive exotic ant invasion of the archipelago. Our analyses indicate lineages shift toward primary habitats, higher elevation, rarity, and ecological specialization with increasing level of endemism, consistent with taxon cycle predictions. The marginal habitats that historically formed a dispersal conduit in the Pacific are now mostly replaced by human-modified habitats dominated by a colonization pulse of exotic species. We propose this may represent the first phase of an incipient global cycle of human-mediated colonization, ecological shifts, and diversification.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/665996",
    doi = "10.1086/665996",
    openalex = "W2044997990",
    references = "doi1010079783030347215, doi1010079789400958517, doi101086282174, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101126science1124891, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150444, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023072257385, doi1023073071998, doi105860choice382228, openalexw1596646469"
}

The literature on biological invasions is biased in favour of invasive species--those that spread and often reach high abundance following introduction by humans. It is, however, also important to understand previous stages in the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum ('the continuum'), especially the factors that mediate naturalization. The emphasis on invasiveness is partly because most invasions are only recognized once species occupy large adventive ranges or start to spread. Also, many studies lump all alien species, and fail to separate introduced, naturalized and invasive populations and species. These biases impede our ability to elucidate the full suite of drivers of invasion and to predict invasion dynamics, because different factors mediate progression along different sections of the continuum. A better understanding of the determinants of naturalization is important because all naturalized species are potential invaders. Processes leading to naturalization act differently in different regions and global biogeographical patterns of plant invasions result from the interaction of population-biological, macroecological and human-induced factors. We explore what is known about how determinants of naturalization in plants interact at various scales, and how their importance varies along the continuum. Research that is explicitly linked to particular stages of the continuum can generate new information that is appropriate for improving the management of biological invasions if, for example, potentially invasive species are identified before they exert an impact.

@article{doi101111j14698137201204292x,
    author = "Richardson, David M. and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Naturalization of introduced plants: ecological drivers of biogeographical patterns",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "The literature on biological invasions is biased in favour of invasive species--those that spread and often reach high abundance following introduction by humans. It is, however, also important to understand previous stages in the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum ('the continuum'), especially the factors that mediate naturalization. The emphasis on invasiveness is partly because most invasions are only recognized once species occupy large adventive ranges or start to spread. Also, many studies lump all alien species, and fail to separate introduced, naturalized and invasive populations and species. These biases impede our ability to elucidate the full suite of drivers of invasion and to predict invasion dynamics, because different factors mediate progression along different sections of the continuum. A better understanding of the determinants of naturalization is important because all naturalized species are potential invaders. Processes leading to naturalization act differently in different regions and global biogeographical patterns of plant invasions result from the interaction of population-biological, macroecological and human-induced factors. We explore what is known about how determinants of naturalization in plants interact at various scales, and how their importance varies along the continuum. Research that is explicitly linked to particular stages of the continuum can generate new information that is appropriate for improving the management of biological invasions if, for example, potentially invasive species are identified before they exert an impact.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04292.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04292.x",
    openalex = "W2168814022",
    references = "doi101111j13669516200600302x, doi101111j14698137200702207x"
}

Extreme climatic events (ECEs) – such as unusual heat waves, hurricanes, floods, and droughts – can dramatically affect ecological and evolutionary processes, and these events are projected to become more frequent and more intense with ongoing climate change. However, the implications of ECEs for biological invasions remain poorly understood. Using concepts and empirical evidence from invasion ecology, we identify mechanisms by which ECEs may influence the invasion process, from initial introduction through establishment and spread. We summarize how ECEs can enhance invasions by promoting the transport of propagules into new regions, by decreasing the resistance of native communities to establishment, and also sometimes by putting existing non‐native species at a competitive disadvantage. Finally, we outline priority research areas and management approaches for anticipating future risks of unwanted invasions following ECEs. Given predicted increases in both ECE occurrence and rates of species introductions around the globe during the coming decades, there is an urgent need to understand how these two processes interact to affect ecosystem composition and functioning.

@article{doi101890110137,
    author = "Diez, Jeffrey M. and D’Antonio, Carla M. and Dukes, Jeffrey S. and Grosholz, Edwin D. and Olden, Julian D. and Sorte, Cascade J. B. and Blumenthal, Dana M. and Bradley, Bethany A. and Early, Regan and Ibáñez, Inés and Jones, Sierra J. and Lawler, Joshua J. and Miller, Luke P.",
    title = "Will extreme climatic events facilitate biological invasions?",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment",
    abstract = "Extreme climatic events (ECEs) – such as unusual heat waves, hurricanes, floods, and droughts – can dramatically affect ecological and evolutionary processes, and these events are projected to become more frequent and more intense with ongoing climate change. However, the implications of ECEs for biological invasions remain poorly understood. Using concepts and empirical evidence from invasion ecology, we identify mechanisms by which ECEs may influence the invasion process, from initial introduction through establishment and spread. We summarize how ECEs can enhance invasions by promoting the transport of propagules into new regions, by decreasing the resistance of native communities to establishment, and also sometimes by putting existing non‐native species at a competitive disadvantage. Finally, we outline priority research areas and management approaches for anticipating future risks of unwanted invasions following ECEs. Given predicted increases in both ECE occurrence and rates of species introductions around the globe during the coming decades, there is an urgent need to understand how these two processes interact to affect ecosystem composition and functioning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1890/110137",
    doi = "10.1890/110137",
    openalex = "W2091074640",
    references = "doi101111j14698137200702207x"
}

Plant functional traits are the features (morphological, physiological, phenological) that represent ecological strategies and determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels and influence ecosystem properties. Variation in plant functional traits, and trait syndromes, has proven useful for tackling many important ecological questions at a range of scales, giving rise to a demand for standardised ways to measure ecologically meaningful plant traits. This line of research has been among the most fruitful avenues for understanding ecological and evolutionary patterns and processes. It also has the potential both to build a predictive set of local, regional and global relationships between plants and environment and to quantify a wide range of natural and human-driven processes, including changes in biodiversity, the impacts of species invasions, alterations in biogeochemical processes and vegetation–atmosphere interactions. The importance of these topics dictates the urgent need for more and better data, and increases the value of standardised protocols for quantifying trait variation of different species, in particular for traits with power to predict plant- and ecosystem-level processes, and for traits that can be measured relatively easily. Updated and expanded from the widely used previous version, this handbook retains the focus on clearly presented, widely applicable, step-by-step recipes, with a minimum of text on theory, and not only includes updated methods for the traits previously covered, but also introduces many new protocols for further traits. This new handbook has a better balance between whole-plant traits, leaf traits, root and stem traits and regenerative traits, and puts particular emphasis on traits important for predicting species’ effects on key ecosystem properties. We hope this new handbook becomes a standard companion in local and global efforts to learn about the responses and impacts of different plant species with respect to environmental changes in the present, past and future.

@article{doi101071bt12225,
    author = "Harguindeguy, Natalia Pérez and Dı́az, Sandra and Garnier, Éric and Lavorel, Sandra and Poorter, Hendrik and Jaureguiberry, Pedro and Bret‐Harte, M. Syndonia and Cornwell, William K. and Craine, Joseph M. and Gurvich, Diego E. and Urcelay, Carlos and Veneklaas, Erik J. and Reich, Peter B. and Poorter, Lourens and Wright, Ian J. and Ray, Peter M. and Enrico, Lucas and Pausas, Juli G. and de Vos, Arjen C. and Buchmann, Nina and Funes, Guillermo and Quétier, Fabien and Hodgson, John and Thompson, K. and Morgan, Huw D. and ter Steege, Hans and van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. and Sack, Lawren and Blonder, B. and Poschlod, Peter and Vaieretti, María V. and Conti, Georgina and Staver, A. Carla and Aquino, Sâmia and Cornelissen, J. H. C.",
    title = "New handbook for standardised measurement of plant functional traits worldwide",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Botany",
    abstract = "Plant functional traits are the features (morphological, physiological, phenological) that represent ecological strategies and determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels and influence ecosystem properties. Variation in plant functional traits, and trait syndromes, has proven useful for tackling many important ecological questions at a range of scales, giving rise to a demand for standardised ways to measure ecologically meaningful plant traits. This line of research has been among the most fruitful avenues for understanding ecological and evolutionary patterns and processes. It also has the potential both to build a predictive set of local, regional and global relationships between plants and environment and to quantify a wide range of natural and human-driven processes, including changes in biodiversity, the impacts of species invasions, alterations in biogeochemical processes and vegetation–atmosphere interactions. The importance of these topics dictates the urgent need for more and better data, and increases the value of standardised protocols for quantifying trait variation of different species, in particular for traits with power to predict plant- and ecosystem-level processes, and for traits that can be measured relatively easily. Updated and expanded from the widely used previous version, this handbook retains the focus on clearly presented, widely applicable, step-by-step recipes, with a minimum of text on theory, and not only includes updated methods for the traits previously covered, but also introduces many new protocols for further traits. This new handbook has a better balance between whole-plant traits, leaf traits, root and stem traits and regenerative traits, and puts particular emphasis on traits important for predicting species’ effects on key ecosystem properties. We hope this new handbook becomes a standard companion in local and global efforts to learn about the responses and impacts of different plant species with respect to environmental changes in the present, past and future.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/bt12225",
    doi = "10.1071/bt12225",
    openalex = "W2101020813",
    references = "doi101006anbo20001261, doi101007s004420050100x, doi1010160031942281851345, doi101016b9780124735422x50007, doi101016jtree200602002, doi101023a1004327224729, doi10103835012241, doi101038nature02403, doi101038nature11148, doi101098rspb20081919, doi101104pp107101352, doi101111j00301299200715559x, doi101111j13652486201102451x, doi101111j14610248200801219x, doi101111j14610248200901285x, doi101111j14610248200901314x, doi101111j14610248200901410x, doi101146annurevecolsys33010802150452, doi101146annurevpp40060189002443, doi1023073241344, doi105860choice324498, openalexw1573494572, openalexw2058502945, openalexw2764433274, openalexw569951484"
}

Abstract Aim A major implication of natural selection is that species from different parts of the world will vary in their efficiency in converting resources into offspring for a given type of environment. This insight, articulated by D arwin, is usually overlooked in more recent studies of invasion biology that are often based on the more modern E ltonian perspective of imbalanced ecosystems. We formulate a renewed D arwinian framework for invasion biology, the evolutionary imbalance hypothesis (EIH), based only on the action of natural selection in historically isolated populations operating within a global network of repeated environments. This framework predicts that successful invaders are more likely to come from biotic regions of high genetic potential (with independent lineages of large population size), experiencing a given environment for many generations and under strong competition from other lineages. Location Global. Methods We test the predictive power of this framework by examining disparities in recent species exchanges between global biotic regions, including patterns of plant invasions across temperate regions and exchanges of aquatic fauna as a result of modern canal building. Results Our framework successfully predicts global invasion patterns using phylogenetic diversity of the world's biotic regions as a proxy that reflects their genetic potential, historical stability and competitive intensity, in line with the D arwinian expectation. Floristic regions of higher phylogenetic diversity are more likely to be source areas of invasive plants, and regions of lower phylogenetic diversity are more likely to be invaded. Similar patterns are evident for formerly isolated marine or freshwater assemblages that have been connected via canals. Main conclusions We advocate an approach to understanding modern species invasions that recognizes the potential significance of both the original D arwinian explanation and the more modern view that emphasizes novel ecological or evolutionary mechanisms arising in the introduced range. Moreover, if biological invasions are a natural outcome of D arwinian evolution in an increasingly connected world, then invasive species should continue to displace native species and drive widespread shifts in the functioning of ecosystems.

@article{doi101111geb12221,
    author = "Fridley, Jason D. and Sax, Dov F.",
    title = "The imbalance of nature: revisiting a D arwinian framework for invasion biology",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Global Ecology and Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Aim A major implication of natural selection is that species from different parts of the world will vary in their efficiency in converting resources into offspring for a given type of environment. This insight, articulated by D arwin, is usually overlooked in more recent studies of invasion biology that are often based on the more modern E ltonian perspective of imbalanced ecosystems. We formulate a renewed D arwinian framework for invasion biology, the evolutionary imbalance hypothesis (EIH), based only on the action of natural selection in historically isolated populations operating within a global network of repeated environments. This framework predicts that successful invaders are more likely to come from biotic regions of high genetic potential (with independent lineages of large population size), experiencing a given environment for many generations and under strong competition from other lineages. Location Global. Methods We test the predictive power of this framework by examining disparities in recent species exchanges between global biotic regions, including patterns of plant invasions across temperate regions and exchanges of aquatic fauna as a result of modern canal building. Results Our framework successfully predicts global invasion patterns using phylogenetic diversity of the world's biotic regions as a proxy that reflects their genetic potential, historical stability and competitive intensity, in line with the D arwinian expectation. Floristic regions of higher phylogenetic diversity are more likely to be source areas of invasive plants, and regions of lower phylogenetic diversity are more likely to be invaded. Similar patterns are evident for formerly isolated marine or freshwater assemblages that have been connected via canals. Main conclusions We advocate an approach to understanding modern species invasions that recognizes the potential significance of both the original D arwinian explanation and the more modern view that emphasizes novel ecological or evolutionary mechanisms arising in the introduced range. Moreover, if biological invasions are a natural outcome of D arwinian evolution in an increasingly connected world, then invasive species should continue to displace native species and drive widespread shifts in the functioning of ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12221",
    doi = "10.1111/geb.12221",
    openalex = "W1553171779",
    references = "crossref2000the, darlington1959area, doi1010160006320792912013, doi101016s0031405623006017, doi101016s0169534702024990, doi101046j13652745200000473x, doi101046j15231739199206030324x, doi101126science860134, doi101146annurevecolsys311343, doi1023072257385, doi1023072485224, doi105860choice381547, doi105962bhltitle27468"
}

Despite increasing evidence that plant diversity in experimental systems may enhance ecosystem productivity, the mechanisms causing this overyielding remain debated. Here, we review studies of overyielding observed in agricultural intercropping systems, and show that a potentially important mechanism underlying such facilitation is the ability of some crop species to chemically mobilize otherwise-unavailable forms of one or more limiting soil nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and micronutrients (iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn)). Phosphorus-mobilizing crop species improve P nutrition for themselves and neighboring non-P-mobilizing species by releasing acid phosphatases, protons and/or carboxylates into the rhizosphere which increases the concentration of soluble inorganic P in soil. Similarly, on calcareous soils with a very low availability of Fe and Zn, Fe- and Zn-mobilizing species, such as graminaceous monocotyledonous and cluster-rooted species, benefit themselves, and also reduce Fe or Zn deficiency in neighboring species, by releasing chelating substances. Based on this review, we hypothesize that mobilization-based facilitative interactions may be an unsuspected, but potentially important mechanism enhancing productivity in both natural ecosystems and biodiversity experiments. We discuss cases in which nutrient mobilization might be occurring in natural ecosystems, and suggest that the nutrient mobilization hypothesis merits formal testing in natural ecosystems.

@article{doi101111nph12778,
    author = "Li, Long and Tilman, David and Lambers, Hans and Zhang, Fusuo",
    title = "Plant diversity and overyielding: insights from belowground facilitation of intercropping in agriculture",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "Despite increasing evidence that plant diversity in experimental systems may enhance ecosystem productivity, the mechanisms causing this overyielding remain debated. Here, we review studies of overyielding observed in agricultural intercropping systems, and show that a potentially important mechanism underlying such facilitation is the ability of some crop species to chemically mobilize otherwise-unavailable forms of one or more limiting soil nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and micronutrients (iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn)). Phosphorus-mobilizing crop species improve P nutrition for themselves and neighboring non-P-mobilizing species by releasing acid phosphatases, protons and/or carboxylates into the rhizosphere which increases the concentration of soluble inorganic P in soil. Similarly, on calcareous soils with a very low availability of Fe and Zn, Fe- and Zn-mobilizing species, such as graminaceous monocotyledonous and cluster-rooted species, benefit themselves, and also reduce Fe or Zn deficiency in neighboring species, by releasing chelating substances. Based on this review, we hypothesize that mobilization-based facilitative interactions may be an unsuspected, but potentially important mechanism enhancing productivity in both natural ecosystems and biodiversity experiments. We discuss cases in which nutrient mobilization might be occurring in natural ecosystems, and suggest that the nutrient mobilization hypothesis merits formal testing in natural ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12778",
    doi = "10.1111/nph.12778",
    openalex = "W2166701358",
    references = "doi101073pnas0708328105"
}

Invasions by alien plants provide a unique opportunity to examine competitive interactions among plants. While resource competition has long been regarded as a major mechanism responsible for successful invasions, given a well-known capacity for many invaders to become dominant and reduce plant diversity in the invaded communities, few studies have measured resource competition directly or have assessed its importance relative to that of other mechanisms, at different stages of an invasion process. Here, we review evidence comparing the competitive ability of invasive species vs. that of co-occurring native plants, along a range of environmental gradients, showing that many invasive species have a superior competitive ability over native species, although invasive congeners are not necessarily competitively superior over native congeners, nor are alien dominants are better competitors than native dominants. We discuss how the outcomes of competition depend on a number of factors, such as the heterogeneous distribution of resources, the stage of the invasion process, as well as phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary adaptation, which may result in increased or decreased competitive ability in both invasive and native species. Competitive advantages of invasive species over natives are often transient and only important at the early stages of an invasion process. It remains unclear how important resource competition is relative to other mechanisms (competition avoidance via phenological differences, niche differentiation in space associated with phylogenetic distance, recruitment and dispersal limitation, indirect competition, and allelopathy). Finally, we identify the conceptual and methodological issues characterizing competition studies in plant invasions, and we discuss future research needs, including examination of resource competition dynamics and the impact of global environmental change on competitive interactions between invasive and native species.

@article{doi103389fpls201400501,
    author = "Gioria, Margherita and Osborne, Bruce",
    title = "Resource competition in plant invasions: emerging patterns and research needs",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Frontiers in Plant Science",
    abstract = "Invasions by alien plants provide a unique opportunity to examine competitive interactions among plants. While resource competition has long been regarded as a major mechanism responsible for successful invasions, given a well-known capacity for many invaders to become dominant and reduce plant diversity in the invaded communities, few studies have measured resource competition directly or have assessed its importance relative to that of other mechanisms, at different stages of an invasion process. Here, we review evidence comparing the competitive ability of invasive species vs. that of co-occurring native plants, along a range of environmental gradients, showing that many invasive species have a superior competitive ability over native species, although invasive congeners are not necessarily competitively superior over native congeners, nor are alien dominants are better competitors than native dominants. We discuss how the outcomes of competition depend on a number of factors, such as the heterogeneous distribution of resources, the stage of the invasion process, as well as phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary adaptation, which may result in increased or decreased competitive ability in both invasive and native species. Competitive advantages of invasive species over natives are often transient and only important at the early stages of an invasion process. It remains unclear how important resource competition is relative to other mechanisms (competition avoidance via phenological differences, niche differentiation in space associated with phylogenetic distance, recruitment and dispersal limitation, indirect competition, and allelopathy). Finally, we identify the conceptual and methodological issues characterizing competition studies in plant invasions, and we discuss future research needs, including examination of resource competition dynamics and the impact of global environmental change on competitive interactions between invasive and native species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00501",
    doi = "10.3389/fpls.2014.00501",
    openalex = "W2001790803",
    references = "doi101007bf02857949, doi101023a1026208327014, doi101111j14698137200702207x, doi101126science1121407"
}

@article{doi101007s1053001610531,
    author = "Simberloff, Daniel",
    title = "Jodi Frawley and Iain McCalman (eds): Rethinking invasion ecologies from the environmental humanities",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Biological Invasions",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-016-1053-1",
    doi = "10.1007/s10530-016-1053-1",
    openalex = "W2252520895",
    references = "doi103197096734012x13303670112731"
}

Invasive species that successfully establish, persist, and expand within an area of introduction, in spite of demographic bottlenecks that reduce their genetic diversity, represent a paradox. Bottlenecks should inhibit population growth and invasive expansion, as a decrease in genetic diversity should result in inbreeding depression, increased fixation of deleterious mutations by genetic drift (drift load), and reduced evolutionary potential to respond to novel selection pressures. Here, we focus on the problems of inbreeding depression and drift load in introduced populations as key components of the Genetic Paradox of Invasions (GPI). We briefly review published explanations for the GPI, which are based on various mechanisms (invasion history events, reproductive traits, genetic characteristics) that mediate the avoidance of inbreeding depression and drift load. We find that there is still a substantial lack of explanation and empirical evidence for explaining the GPI for strongly bottlenecked invasions, or for during critical invasion phases (e.g. initial colonization, leading edges of range expansion) where strong genetic depletion, inbreeding depression and drift load occurs. Accordingly, we suggest that discussion of the GPI should be revived to find additional mechanisms applicable to explaining invasion success for such species and invasion phases. Based on a synthesis of the literature on the population genetics of invaders and the ecology of invaded habitats, we propose that inbreeding × environment (I × E) interactions are one such mechanism that may have strong explanatory power to address the GPI. Specifically, we suggest that a temporary or permanent release from stress in invaded habitats may alleviate the negative effects of genetic depletion on fitness via I × E interactions, and present published empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis. We additionally discuss that I × E interactions can result in rapid evolutionary changes, and may even contribute to adaptation of invaders in the absence of high genetic variation. With a view to encouraging further empirical research, we propose an experimental approach to investigate the occurrence of I × E interactions in ongoing invasions. Revived research on the GPI should provide new fundamental insights into eco-evolutionary invasion biology, and more generally into the evolutionary consequences of the interactions between inbreeding and environment.

@article{doi101111brv12263,
    author = "Schrieber, Karin and Lachmuth, Susanne",
    title = "The Genetic Paradox of Invasions revisited: the potential role of inbreeding × environment interactions in invasion success",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Invasive species that successfully establish, persist, and expand within an area of introduction, in spite of demographic bottlenecks that reduce their genetic diversity, represent a paradox. Bottlenecks should inhibit population growth and invasive expansion, as a decrease in genetic diversity should result in inbreeding depression, increased fixation of deleterious mutations by genetic drift (drift load), and reduced evolutionary potential to respond to novel selection pressures. Here, we focus on the problems of inbreeding depression and drift load in introduced populations as key components of the Genetic Paradox of Invasions (GPI). We briefly review published explanations for the GPI, which are based on various mechanisms (invasion history events, reproductive traits, genetic characteristics) that mediate the avoidance of inbreeding depression and drift load. We find that there is still a substantial lack of explanation and empirical evidence for explaining the GPI for strongly bottlenecked invasions, or for during critical invasion phases (e.g. initial colonization, leading edges of range expansion) where strong genetic depletion, inbreeding depression and drift load occurs. Accordingly, we suggest that discussion of the GPI should be revived to find additional mechanisms applicable to explaining invasion success for such species and invasion phases. Based on a synthesis of the literature on the population genetics of invaders and the ecology of invaded habitats, we propose that inbreeding × environment (I × E) interactions are one such mechanism that may have strong explanatory power to address the GPI. Specifically, we suggest that a temporary or permanent release from stress in invaded habitats may alleviate the negative effects of genetic depletion on fitness via I × E interactions, and present published empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis. We additionally discuss that I × E interactions can result in rapid evolutionary changes, and may even contribute to adaptation of invaders in the absence of high genetic variation. With a view to encouraging further empirical research, we propose an experimental approach to investigate the occurrence of I × E interactions in ongoing invasions. Revived research on the GPI should provide new fundamental insights into eco-evolutionary invasion biology, and more generally into the evolutionary consequences of the interactions between inbreeding and environment.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12263",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12263",
    openalex = "W2304820298",
    references = "crossref2000the, doi105860choice381547"
}

Large old trees are some of the most iconic biota on earth and are integral parts of many terrestrial ecosystems including those in tropical, temperate and boreal forests, deserts, savannas, agro-ecological areas, and urban environments. In this review, we provide new insights into the ecology, function, evolution and management of large old trees through broad cross-disciplinary perspectives from literatures in plant physiology, growth and development, evolution, habitat value for fauna and flora, and conservation management. Our review reveals that the diameter, height and longevity of large old trees varies greatly on an inter-specific basis, thereby creating serious challenges in defining large old trees and demanding an ecosystem- and species-specific definition that will only rarely be readily transferable to other species or ecosystems. Such variation is also manifested by marked inter-specific differences in the key attributes of large old trees (beyond diameter and height) such as the extent of buttressing, canopy architecture, the extent of bark micro-environments and the prevalence of cavities. We found that large old trees play an extraordinary range of critical ecological roles including in hydrological regimes, nutrient cycles and numerous ecosystem processes. Large old trees strongly influence the spatial and temporal distribution and abundance of individuals of the same species and populations of numerous other plant and animal species. We suggest many key characteristics of large old trees such as extreme height, prolonged lifespans, and the presence of cavities - which confer competitive and evolutionary advantages in undisturbed environments - can render such trees highly susceptible to a range of human influences. Large old trees are vulnerable to threats ranging from droughts, fire, pests and pathogens, to logging, land clearing, landscape fragmentation and climate change. Tackling such diverse threats is challenging because they often interact and manifest in different ways in different ecosystems, demanding targeted species- or ecosystem-specific responses. We argue that novel management actions will often be required to protect existing large old trees and ensure the recruitment of new cohorts of such trees. For example, fine-scale tree-level conservation such as buffering individual stems will be required in many environments such as in agricultural areas and urban environments. Landscape-level approaches like protecting places where large old trees are most likely to occur will be needed. However, this brings challenges associated with likely changes in tree distributions associated with climate change, because long-lived trees may presently exist in places unsuitable for the development of new cohorts of the same species. Appropriate future environmental domains for a species could exist in new locations where it has never previously occurred. The future distribution and persistence of large old trees may require controversial responses including assisted migration via seed or seedling establishment in new locales. However, the effectiveness of such approaches may be limited where key ecological features of large old trees (such as cavity presence) depend on other species such as termites, fungi and bacteria. Unless other species with similar ecological roles are present to fulfil these functions, these taxa might need to be moved concurrently with the target tree species.

@article{doi101111brv12290,
    author = "Lindenmayer, David B. and Laurance, William F.",
    title = "The ecology, distribution, conservation and management of large old trees",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Large old trees are some of the most iconic biota on earth and are integral parts of many terrestrial ecosystems including those in tropical, temperate and boreal forests, deserts, savannas, agro-ecological areas, and urban environments. In this review, we provide new insights into the ecology, function, evolution and management of large old trees through broad cross-disciplinary perspectives from literatures in plant physiology, growth and development, evolution, habitat value for fauna and flora, and conservation management. Our review reveals that the diameter, height and longevity of large old trees varies greatly on an inter-specific basis, thereby creating serious challenges in defining large old trees and demanding an ecosystem- and species-specific definition that will only rarely be readily transferable to other species or ecosystems. Such variation is also manifested by marked inter-specific differences in the key attributes of large old trees (beyond diameter and height) such as the extent of buttressing, canopy architecture, the extent of bark micro-environments and the prevalence of cavities. We found that large old trees play an extraordinary range of critical ecological roles including in hydrological regimes, nutrient cycles and numerous ecosystem processes. Large old trees strongly influence the spatial and temporal distribution and abundance of individuals of the same species and populations of numerous other plant and animal species. We suggest many key characteristics of large old trees such as extreme height, prolonged lifespans, and the presence of cavities - which confer competitive and evolutionary advantages in undisturbed environments - can render such trees highly susceptible to a range of human influences. Large old trees are vulnerable to threats ranging from droughts, fire, pests and pathogens, to logging, land clearing, landscape fragmentation and climate change. Tackling such diverse threats is challenging because they often interact and manifest in different ways in different ecosystems, demanding targeted species- or ecosystem-specific responses. We argue that novel management actions will often be required to protect existing large old trees and ensure the recruitment of new cohorts of such trees. For example, fine-scale tree-level conservation such as buffering individual stems will be required in many environments such as in agricultural areas and urban environments. Landscape-level approaches like protecting places where large old trees are most likely to occur will be needed. However, this brings challenges associated with likely changes in tree distributions associated with climate change, because long-lived trees may presently exist in places unsuitable for the development of new cohorts of the same species. Appropriate future environmental domains for a species could exist in new locations where it has never previously occurred. The future distribution and persistence of large old trees may require controversial responses including assisted migration via seed or seedling establishment in new locales. However, the effectiveness of such approaches may be limited where key ecological features of large old trees (such as cavity presence) depend on other species such as termites, fungi and bacteria. Unless other species with similar ecological roles are present to fulfil these functions, these taxa might need to be moved concurrently with the target tree species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12290",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12290",
    openalex = "W2492388958",
    references = "doi101038nature12914, doi101038nature14910, doi101371journalpone0062111, doi107208chicago97802268933340010001"
}

Plants are a hyperdiverse clade that plays a key role in maintaining ecological and evolutionary processes as well as human livelihoods. Biases, gaps and uncertainties in plant occurrence information remain a central problem in ecology and conservation, but these limitations remain largely unassessed globally. In this synthesis, we propose a conceptual framework for analysing gaps in information coverage, information uncertainties and biases in these metrics along taxonomic, geographical and temporal dimensions, and apply it to all c. 370 000 species of land plants. To this end, we integrated 120 million point-occurrence records with independent databases on plant taxonomy, distributions and conservation status. We find that different data limitations are prevalent in each dimension. Different metrics of information coverage and uncertainty are largely uncorrelated, and reducing taxonomic, spatial or temporal uncertainty by filtering out records would usually come at great costs to coverage. In light of these multidimensional data limitations, we discuss prospects for global plant ecological and biogeographical research, monitoring and conservation and outline critical next steps towards more effective information usage and mobilisation. Our study provides an empirical baseline for evaluating and improving global floristic knowledge, along with a conceptual framework that can be applied to study other hyperdiverse clades.

@article{doi101111ele12624,
    author = "Meyer, Carsten and Weigelt, Patrick and Kreft, Holger",
    title = "Multidimensional biases, gaps and uncertainties in global plant occurrence information",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Ecology Letters",
    abstract = "Plants are a hyperdiverse clade that plays a key role in maintaining ecological and evolutionary processes as well as human livelihoods. Biases, gaps and uncertainties in plant occurrence information remain a central problem in ecology and conservation, but these limitations remain largely unassessed globally. In this synthesis, we propose a conceptual framework for analysing gaps in information coverage, information uncertainties and biases in these metrics along taxonomic, geographical and temporal dimensions, and apply it to all c. 370 000 species of land plants. To this end, we integrated 120 million point-occurrence records with independent databases on plant taxonomy, distributions and conservation status. We find that different data limitations are prevalent in each dimension. Different metrics of information coverage and uncertainty are largely uncorrelated, and reducing taxonomic, spatial or temporal uncertainty by filtering out records would usually come at great costs to coverage. In light of these multidimensional data limitations, we discuss prospects for global plant ecological and biogeographical research, monitoring and conservation and outline critical next steps towards more effective information usage and mobilisation. Our study provides an empirical baseline for evaluating and improving global floristic knowledge, along with a conceptual framework that can be applied to study other hyperdiverse clades.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12624",
    doi = "10.1111/ele.12624",
    openalex = "W1144607668",
    references = "doi101038nature14910"
}

Abstract Aim To use global databases to (1) provide a visualization of global geographical patterns of species invasions, origins and pathways and (2) depict the international uptake of legislative and policy responses to invasive alien species (IAS). Location Global. Methods Patterns of recorded species invasions and pathways of introduction were mapped and visualized using data from the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) and the CABI Invasive Species Compendium (CABI ISC), along with associated legal instruments relevant to IAS compiled from the ECOLEX database. A novel indicator of the asymmetry between each country's ‘ingress/egress’ of IAS (kappa, Κ), was developed to further explore spatial patterns. Results Substantial variation in the spatial patterns of invasion was determined, with the Global North, some newly industrialized countries and small tropical islands being the main recipients of IAS and asymmetry (Κ) being highest in New World countries and small islands. Of the 1517 recorded IAS, 39% were introduced only intentionally and 26% only unintentionally, 22% both intentionally and unintentionally, while 13% had no information available. The dominant pathway for species invasions was horticulture and the nursery trade, with 31% of the species introduced outside of their natural geographical range. Large increases in legislation on IAS have occurred since the 1990s, particularly for those countries that have high numbers of species invasions. Main conclusions Clear global patterns in the distributions of IAS are determined, supporting arguments emphasizing the role of colonial history, economic development and trade in driving the human‐mediated movement of species. Dominant pathways for species invasions are similar across different regions. Policy responses towards IAS show an increasing desire from the international community to act on species invasions. Current patterns suggest that Africa and Central Asia are priority areas for future IAS research and control.

@article{doi101111geb12517,
    author = "Turbelin, Anna J. and Malamud, Bruce D. and Francis, Robert A.",
    title = "Mapping the global state of invasive alien species: patterns of invasion and policy responses",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Global Ecology and Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Aim To use global databases to (1) provide a visualization of global geographical patterns of species invasions, origins and pathways and (2) depict the international uptake of legislative and policy responses to invasive alien species (IAS). Location Global. Methods Patterns of recorded species invasions and pathways of introduction were mapped and visualized using data from the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) and the CABI Invasive Species Compendium (CABI ISC), along with associated legal instruments relevant to IAS compiled from the ECOLEX database. A novel indicator of the asymmetry between each country's ‘ingress/egress’ of IAS (kappa, Κ), was developed to further explore spatial patterns. Results Substantial variation in the spatial patterns of invasion was determined, with the Global North, some newly industrialized countries and small tropical islands being the main recipients of IAS and asymmetry (Κ) being highest in New World countries and small islands. Of the 1517 recorded IAS, 39\% were introduced only intentionally and 26\% only unintentionally, 22\% both intentionally and unintentionally, while 13\% had no information available. The dominant pathway for species invasions was horticulture and the nursery trade, with 31\% of the species introduced outside of their natural geographical range. Large increases in legislation on IAS have occurred since the 1990s, particularly for those countries that have high numbers of species invasions. Main conclusions Clear global patterns in the distributions of IAS are determined, supporting arguments emphasizing the role of colonial history, economic development and trade in driving the human‐mediated movement of species. Dominant pathways for species invasions are similar across different regions. Policy responses towards IAS show an increasing desire from the international community to act on species invasions. Current patterns suggest that Africa and Central Asia are priority areas for future IAS research and control.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12517",
    doi = "10.1111/geb.12517",
    openalex = "W2516224018"
}

Tribal community of Jhabua district uses the forest resources especially plants primarily for curing various ailments. Ethnobotanical practice has prevailed in this area since the ancient time and the invasive plants are not the exception. Thus, we documented the medicinal uses of the invasive plants. Exhaustive field surveys were conducted during 2008–2013 for the collection of the ethnobotanical data and voucher specimen. Information regarding ethnobotanical uses of plants was collected from the tribals using a semi-structured questionnaire. Several extensive reviews which studied invasive plant species are available. From this survey, a total of 102 plant species belonging to 38 families were reported for curing 37 types of ailments. Asteraceae was the dominant family and in lifeform category herbs stand dominant. Leaf is the most frequently used plant part, whereas decoction is the highly preferred preparatory method for medicine preparation in the study area. 56% of the invasive plants showed a use value of more than 0.50. This indicates the high acceptance of these plants in the primary health care. We also discussed the degree of invasiveness and habitat preference of these species. The use of invasive alien plant species relieves the pressure on the native plant species that leads to the native plant diversity conservation. Finding of this study can be used as an ethnopharmacological basis for selecting plants for future phytochemical pharmacological studies.

@article{doi101016jsajb201711008,
    author = "Wagh, Vijay V. and Jain, Ashok K.",
    title = "Status of ethnobotanical invasive plants in western Madhya Pradesh, India",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "South African Journal of Botany",
    abstract = "Tribal community of Jhabua district uses the forest resources especially plants primarily for curing various ailments. Ethnobotanical practice has prevailed in this area since the ancient time and the invasive plants are not the exception. Thus, we documented the medicinal uses of the invasive plants. Exhaustive field surveys were conducted during 2008–2013 for the collection of the ethnobotanical data and voucher specimen. Information regarding ethnobotanical uses of plants was collected from the tribals using a semi-structured questionnaire. Several extensive reviews which studied invasive plant species are available. From this survey, a total of 102 plant species belonging to 38 families were reported for curing 37 types of ailments. Asteraceae was the dominant family and in lifeform category herbs stand dominant. Leaf is the most frequently used plant part, whereas decoction is the highly preferred preparatory method for medicine preparation in the study area. 56\% of the invasive plants showed a use value of more than 0.50. This indicates the high acceptance of these plants in the primary health care. We also discussed the degree of invasiveness and habitat preference of these species. The use of invasive alien plant species relieves the pressure on the native plant species that leads to the native plant diversity conservation. Finding of this study can be used as an ethnopharmacological basis for selecting plants for future phytochemical pharmacological studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.11.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.sajb.2017.11.008",
    openalex = "W2770293970",
    references = "crossref2000the, doi105860choice381547"
}

Chytridiomycota, often referred to as chytrids, can be virulent parasites with the potential to inflict mass mortalities on hosts, causing e.g. changes in phytoplankton size distributions and succession, and the delay or suppression of bloom events. Molecular environmental surveys have revealed an unexpectedly large diversity of chytrids across a wide range of aquatic ecosystems worldwide. As a result, scientific interest towards fungal parasites of phytoplankton has been gaining momentum in the past few years. Yet, we still know little about the ecology of chytrids, their life cycles, phylogeny, host specificity and range. Information on the contribution of chytrids to trophic interactions, as well as co-evolutionary feedbacks of fungal parasitism on host populations is also limited. This paper synthesizes ideas stressing the multifaceted biological relevance of phytoplankton chytridiomycosis, resulting from discussions among an international team of chytrid researchers. It presents our view on the most pressing research needs for promoting the integration of chytrid fungi into aquatic ecology.

@article{doi1011111462292013827,
    author = "Frenken, Thijs and Alacid, Elisabet and Berger, Stella A. and Bourne, Elizabeth C. and Gerphagnon, Mélanie and Grossart, Hans‐Peter and Gsell, Alena S. and Ibelings, Bas W. and Kagami, Maiko and Küpper, Frithjof C. and Letcher, Peter M. and Loyau, Adeline and Miki, Takeshi and Nejstgaard, Jens C. and Rasconi, Séréna and Reñé, Albert and Rohrlack, Thomas and Rojas-Jiménez, Keilor and Schmeller, Dirk S. and Scholz, Bettina and Seto, Kensuke and Sime‐Ngando, Télesphore and Sukenik, Assaf and de Waal, Dedmer B. Van and den Wyngaert, Silke Van and van Donk, Ellen and Wolinska, Justyna and Wurzbacher, Christian and Agha, Ramsy",
    title = "Integrating chytrid fungal parasites into plankton ecology: research gaps and needs",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "Chytridiomycota, often referred to as chytrids, can be virulent parasites with the potential to inflict mass mortalities on hosts, causing e.g. changes in phytoplankton size distributions and succession, and the delay or suppression of bloom events. Molecular environmental surveys have revealed an unexpectedly large diversity of chytrids across a wide range of aquatic ecosystems worldwide. As a result, scientific interest towards fungal parasites of phytoplankton has been gaining momentum in the past few years. Yet, we still know little about the ecology of chytrids, their life cycles, phylogeny, host specificity and range. Information on the contribution of chytrids to trophic interactions, as well as co-evolutionary feedbacks of fungal parasitism on host populations is also limited. This paper synthesizes ideas stressing the multifaceted biological relevance of phytoplankton chytridiomycosis, resulting from discussions among an international team of chytrid researchers. It presents our view on the most pressing research needs for promoting the integration of chytrid fungi into aquatic ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13827",
    doi = "10.1111/1462-2920.13827",
    openalex = "W2727924889",
    references = "doi103389fmicb201200361"
}

Escherichia coli is classified as a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium in the family Enterobacteriaceae. The bacterium mainly inhabits the lower intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans, and is often discharged into the environment through faeces or wastewater effluent. The presence of E. coli in environmental waters has long been considered as an indicator of recent faecal pollution. However, numerous recent studies have reported that some specific strains of E. coli can survive for long periods of time, and potentially reproduce, in extraintestinal environments. This indicates that E. coli can be integrated into indigenous microbial communities in the environment. This naturalization phenomenon calls into question the reliability of E. coli as a faecal indicator bacterium (FIB). Recently, many studies reported that E. coli populations in the environment are affected by ambient environmental conditions affecting their long-term survival. Large-scale studies of population genetics revealed the diversity and complexity of E. coli strains in various environments, which are affected by multiple environmental factors. This review examines the current knowledge on the ecology of E. coli strains in various environments with regard to its role as a FIB and as a naturalized member of indigenous microbial communities. Special emphasis is given on the growth of pathogenic E. coli in the environment, and the population genetics of environmental members of the genus Escherichia. The impact of environmental E. coli on water quality and public health is also discussed.

@article{doi101111jam13468,
    author = "Jang, Jeonghwan and Hur, Hor‐Gil and Sadowsky, Michael J. and Byappanahalli, Muruleedhara N. and Yan, Tao and Ishii, Satoshi",
    title = "Environmental Escherichia coli: ecology and public health implications-a review",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Journal of Applied Microbiology",
    abstract = "Escherichia coli is classified as a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium in the family Enterobacteriaceae. The bacterium mainly inhabits the lower intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans, and is often discharged into the environment through faeces or wastewater effluent. The presence of E. coli in environmental waters has long been considered as an indicator of recent faecal pollution. However, numerous recent studies have reported that some specific strains of E. coli can survive for long periods of time, and potentially reproduce, in extraintestinal environments. This indicates that E. coli can be integrated into indigenous microbial communities in the environment. This naturalization phenomenon calls into question the reliability of E. coli as a faecal indicator bacterium (FIB). Recently, many studies reported that E. coli populations in the environment are affected by ambient environmental conditions affecting their long-term survival. Large-scale studies of population genetics revealed the diversity and complexity of E. coli strains in various environments, which are affected by multiple environmental factors. This review examines the current knowledge on the ecology of E. coli strains in various environments with regard to its role as a FIB and as a naturalized member of indigenous microbial communities. Special emphasis is given on the growth of pathogenic E. coli in the environment, and the population genetics of environmental members of the genus Escherichia. The impact of environmental E. coli on water quality and public health is also discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.13468",
    doi = "10.1111/jam.13468",
    openalex = "W2604761724",
    references = "doi101038nrmicro2695"
}

The number of alien plants escaping from cultivation into native ecosystems is increasing steadily. We provide an overview of the historical, contemporary and potential future roles of ornamental horticulture in plant invasions. We show that currently at least 75% and 93% of the global naturalised alien flora is grown in domestic and botanical gardens, respectively. Species grown in gardens also have a larger naturalised range than those that are not. After the Middle Ages, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, a global trade network in plants emerged. Since then, cultivated alien species also started to appear in the wild more frequently than non-cultivated aliens globally, particularly during the 19th century. Horticulture still plays a prominent role in current plant introduction, and the monetary value of live-plant imports in different parts of the world is steadily increasing. Historically, botanical gardens - an important component of horticulture - played a major role in displaying, cultivating and distributing new plant discoveries. While the role of botanical gardens in the horticultural supply chain has declined, they are still a significant link, with one-third of institutions involved in retail-plant sales and horticultural research. However, botanical gardens have also become more dependent on commercial nurseries as plant sources, particularly in North America. Plants selected for ornamental purposes are not a random selection of the global flora, and some of the plant characteristics promoted through horticulture, such as fast growth, also promote invasion. Efforts to breed non-invasive plant cultivars are still rare. Socio-economical, technological, and environmental changes will lead to novel patterns of plant introductions and invasion opportunities for the species that are already cultivated. We describe the role that horticulture could play in mediating these changes. We identify current research challenges, and call for more research efforts on the past and current role of horticulture in plant invasions. This is required to develop science-based regulatory frameworks to prevent further plant invasions.

@article{doi101111brv12402,
    author = "van Kleunen, Mark and Essl, Franz and Pergl, Jan and Brundu, Giuseppe and Carboni, Marta and Dullinger, Stefan and Early, Regan and González‐Moreno, Pablo and Groom, Quentin and Hulme, Philip E. and Kueffer, Christoph and Kühn, Ingolf and Máguas, Cristina and Maurel, Noëlie and Novoa, Ana and Parepa, Madalin and Pyšek, Petr and Seebens, Hanno and Tanner, Rob and Touza, Julia and Verbrugge, Laura and Weber, Ewald and Dawson, Wayne and Kreft, Holger and Weigelt, Patrick and Winter, Marten and Klonner, Günther and Talluto, Lauren and Dehnen‐Schmutz, Katharina",
    title = "The changing role of ornamental horticulture in alien plant invasions",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "The number of alien plants escaping from cultivation into native ecosystems is increasing steadily. We provide an overview of the historical, contemporary and potential future roles of ornamental horticulture in plant invasions. We show that currently at least 75\% and 93\% of the global naturalised alien flora is grown in domestic and botanical gardens, respectively. Species grown in gardens also have a larger naturalised range than those that are not. After the Middle Ages, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, a global trade network in plants emerged. Since then, cultivated alien species also started to appear in the wild more frequently than non-cultivated aliens globally, particularly during the 19th century. Horticulture still plays a prominent role in current plant introduction, and the monetary value of live-plant imports in different parts of the world is steadily increasing. Historically, botanical gardens - an important component of horticulture - played a major role in displaying, cultivating and distributing new plant discoveries. While the role of botanical gardens in the horticultural supply chain has declined, they are still a significant link, with one-third of institutions involved in retail-plant sales and horticultural research. However, botanical gardens have also become more dependent on commercial nurseries as plant sources, particularly in North America. Plants selected for ornamental purposes are not a random selection of the global flora, and some of the plant characteristics promoted through horticulture, such as fast growth, also promote invasion. Efforts to breed non-invasive plant cultivars are still rare. Socio-economical, technological, and environmental changes will lead to novel patterns of plant introductions and invasion opportunities for the species that are already cultivated. We describe the role that horticulture could play in mediating these changes. We identify current research challenges, and call for more research efforts on the past and current role of horticulture in plant invasions. This is required to develop science-based regulatory frameworks to prevent further plant invasions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12402",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.12402",
    openalex = "W2789506049",
    references = "doi101038nature14910, doi101038ncomms14435, doi101111geb12221, doi1023072598477"
}

Human-caused shifts in carbon (C) cycling and biotic exchange are defining characteristics of the Anthropocene. In marine systems, saltmarsh, seagrass, and mangrove habitats-collectively known as "blue carbon" and coastal vegetated habitats (CVHs)-are a leading sequester of global C and increasingly impacted by exotic species invasions. There is growing interest in the effect of invasion by a diverse pool of exotic species on C storage and the implications for ecosystem-based management of these systems. In a global meta-analysis, we synthesized data from 104 papers that provided 345 comparisons of habitat-level response (plant and soil C storage) from paired invaded and uninvaded sites. We found an overall net effect of significantly higher C pools in invaded CVHs amounting to 40% (±16%) higher C storage than uninvaded habitat, but effects differed among types of invaders. Elevated C storage was driven by blue C-forming plant invaders (saltmarsh grasses, seagrasses, and mangrove trees) that intensify biomass per unit area, extend and elevate coastal wetlands, and convert coastal mudflats into C-rich vegetated habitat. Introduced animal and structurally distinct primary producers had significant negative effects on C pools, driven by herbivory, trampling, and native species displacement. The role of invasion manifested differently among habitat types, with significant C storage increases in saltmarshes, decreases in seagrass, and no significant effect in mangroves. There were also counter-directional effects by the same species in different systems or locations, which underscores the importance of combining data mining with analyses of mean effect sizes in meta-analyses. Our study provides a quantitative basis for understanding differential effects of invasion on blue C habitats and will inform conservation strategies that need to balance management decisions involving invasion, C storage, and a range of other marine biodiversity and habitat functions in these coastal systems.

@article{doi101111gcb14426,
    author = "Davidson, Ian and Cott, Grace M. and Devaney, John L. and Simkanin, Christina",
    title = "Differential effects of biological invasions on coastal blue carbon: A global review and meta‐analysis",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = {Human-caused shifts in carbon (C) cycling and biotic exchange are defining characteristics of the Anthropocene. In marine systems, saltmarsh, seagrass, and mangrove habitats-collectively known as "blue carbon" and coastal vegetated habitats (CVHs)-are a leading sequester of global C and increasingly impacted by exotic species invasions. There is growing interest in the effect of invasion by a diverse pool of exotic species on C storage and the implications for ecosystem-based management of these systems. In a global meta-analysis, we synthesized data from 104 papers that provided 345 comparisons of habitat-level response (plant and soil C storage) from paired invaded and uninvaded sites. We found an overall net effect of significantly higher C pools in invaded CVHs amounting to 40\% (±16\%) higher C storage than uninvaded habitat, but effects differed among types of invaders. Elevated C storage was driven by blue C-forming plant invaders (saltmarsh grasses, seagrasses, and mangrove trees) that intensify biomass per unit area, extend and elevate coastal wetlands, and convert coastal mudflats into C-rich vegetated habitat. Introduced animal and structurally distinct primary producers had significant negative effects on C pools, driven by herbivory, trampling, and native species displacement. The role of invasion manifested differently among habitat types, with significant C storage increases in saltmarshes, decreases in seagrass, and no significant effect in mangroves. There were also counter-directional effects by the same species in different systems or locations, which underscores the importance of combining data mining with analyses of mean effect sizes in meta-analyses. Our study provides a quantitative basis for understanding differential effects of invasion on blue C habitats and will inform conservation strategies that need to balance management decisions involving invasion, C storage, and a range of other marine biodiversity and habitat functions in these coastal systems.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14426",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.14426",
    openalex = "W2894384640",
    references = "doi101038452034a"
}

Fall armyworm, Spodopterafrugiperda, is a crop pest native to the Americas, which has invaded and spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa within two years. Recent estimates of 20–50% maize yield loss in Africa suggest severe impact on livelihoods. Fall armyworm is still infilling its potential range in Africa and could spread to other continents. In order to understand fall armyworm’s year-round, global, potential distribution, we used evidence of the effects of temperature and precipitation on fall armyworm life-history, combined with data on native and African distributions to construct Species Distribution Models (SDMs). We also investigated the strength of trade and transportation pathways that could carry fall armyworm beyond Africa. Up till now, fall armyworm has only invaded areas that have a climate similar to the native distribution, validating the use of climatic SDMs. The strongest climatic limits on fall armyworm’s year-round distribution are the coldest annual temperature and the amount of rain in the wet season. Much of sub-Saharan Africa can host year-round fall armyworm populations, but the likelihoods of colonising North Africa and seasonal migrations into Europe are hard to predict. South and Southeast Asia and Australia have climate conditions that would permit fall armyworm to invade. Current trade and transportation routes reveal Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand face high threat of fall armyworm invasions originating from Africa.

@article{doi103897neobiota4028165,
    author = "Early, Regan and González‐Moreno, Pablo and Murphy, Sean T. and Day, Roger",
    title = "Forecasting the global extent of invasion of the cereal pest Spodoptera frugiperda, the fall armyworm",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "NeoBiota",
    abstract = "Fall armyworm, Spodopterafrugiperda, is a crop pest native to the Americas, which has invaded and spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa within two years. Recent estimates of 20–50\% maize yield loss in Africa suggest severe impact on livelihoods. Fall armyworm is still infilling its potential range in Africa and could spread to other continents. In order to understand fall armyworm’s year-round, global, potential distribution, we used evidence of the effects of temperature and precipitation on fall armyworm life-history, combined with data on native and African distributions to construct Species Distribution Models (SDMs). We also investigated the strength of trade and transportation pathways that could carry fall armyworm beyond Africa. Up till now, fall armyworm has only invaded areas that have a climate similar to the native distribution, validating the use of climatic SDMs. The strongest climatic limits on fall armyworm’s year-round distribution are the coldest annual temperature and the amount of rain in the wet season. Much of sub-Saharan Africa can host year-round fall armyworm populations, but the likelihoods of colonising North Africa and seasonal migrations into Europe are hard to predict. South and Southeast Asia and Australia have climate conditions that would permit fall armyworm to invade. Current trade and transportation routes reveal Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand face high threat of fall armyworm invasions originating from Africa.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.40.28165",
    doi = "10.3897/neobiota.40.28165",
    openalex = "W2887781670",
    references = "doi101073pnas1602205113"
}

Abstract This chapter will recount how badgers came to play a surprisingly important role in the professionalisation of ecology in British academic and government science during the late twentieth century. It will explore the world and work of a second epistemic community clustering around disease ecology, alongside its adoption of the caring practices of naturalists and the newly developing field of animal welfare science. It discusses the developing connections between applied ecologists and the UK state under the aegis of pest control, including their engagement with previous episodes of wildlife disease and ‘badger conflict’ long before connections were made with bovine TB. The chapter then investigates how MAFF’s applied ecologists researched the new problem of badger/bTB, making major contributions to field biology along the way.

@incollection{doi10100797830301918634,
    author = "Cassidy, Angela",
    title = "Pest Control and Ecology",
    year = "2019",
    abstract = "Abstract This chapter will recount how badgers came to play a surprisingly important role in the professionalisation of ecology in British academic and government science during the late twentieth century. It will explore the world and work of a second epistemic community clustering around disease ecology, alongside its adoption of the caring practices of naturalists and the newly developing field of animal welfare science. It discusses the developing connections between applied ecologists and the UK state under the aegis of pest control, including their engagement with previous episodes of wildlife disease and ‘badger conflict’ long before connections were made with bovine TB. The chapter then investigates how MAFF’s applied ecologists researched the new problem of badger/bTB, making major contributions to field biology along the way.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19186-3\_4",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-19186-3\_4",
    openalex = "W2975982772",
    references = "doi103197096734012x13303670112731"
}

Abstract Understanding how introduced species succeed and become widely distributed within non‐native areas is critical to reduce the threats posed by them. Our goal was to reconstruct the main invasion routes and invasion dynamics of a global freshwater invader, the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, through the analysis of its genetic variability in both native and invasive ranges. We inferred invasion routes and population structure from the analysis of a fragment (608 base pairs) of the mitochondrial marker cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from 1,062 individuals of P. clarkii in addition to 354 GenBank sequences, for a total of 122 populations (22 natives and 100 invaded). Genetic structure was assessed using analysis of molecular variance and non‐metric multidimensional scaling analyses. We analysed haplotype frequencies for the genetic variability in each locality and region. The haplotype network was depicted by using Pop ART software. A high haplotype diversity was found in the native range (haplotype diversity [Hd]: 0.90), but also in some non‐native areas, such as western U.S.A. (Hd: 0.80), areas of Mexico (Hd: 0.78), and some hotspots in Europe (e.g. southern Spain or Italy), suggesting a complex pattern of multiple introductions. We grouped all localities in five differentiated groups according to biogeographic origin: the native area, west Americas, east U.S.A., Asia, and Europe. Additionally, the identification of 15 haplotypes shared between at least two localities, the phylogenetic network estimation and indices of genetic differentiation among localities allowed us to identify a large genetic admixture in the native range; the two independent invasion routes (i.e. westwards and eastwards) in U.S.A. from the native range (Louisiana and Texas) with translocations within each area; a stepping‐stone introduction from U.S.A. to Japan (involving few individuals) themselves introduced to China afterwards; the entry of P. clarkii from Louisiana (U.S.A.) into southern Spain and their multiple secondary introductions over Europe as well as other possible introductions in central Europe. Our study emphasises the need for unravelling the global invasion routes and the demographic processes underlying the introduction of exotic species (i.e. admixture, bridgehead invasion effect, and propagule pressure) to control the spread of invasive species. Our findings highlight the value of genetic analyses to identify the geographic origin of source populations as well as the variability of invaded areas in order to reconstruct invasion dynamics and facilitate management of invasive species (e.g. through environmental DNA monitoring).

@article{doi101111fwb13312,
    author = "Oficialdegui, Francisco J. and Clavero, Miguel and Sánchez, Marta I. and Green, Andy J. and Boyero, Luz and Michot, Thomas C. and Klose, Kristie and Kawai, Tadashi and Lejeusne, Christophe",
    title = "Unravelling the global invasion routes of a worldwide invader, the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)",
    year = "2019",
    journal = "Freshwater Biology",
    abstract = "Abstract Understanding how introduced species succeed and become widely distributed within non‐native areas is critical to reduce the threats posed by them. Our goal was to reconstruct the main invasion routes and invasion dynamics of a global freshwater invader, the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, through the analysis of its genetic variability in both native and invasive ranges. We inferred invasion routes and population structure from the analysis of a fragment (608 base pairs) of the mitochondrial marker cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from 1,062 individuals of P. clarkii in addition to 354 GenBank sequences, for a total of 122 populations (22 natives and 100 invaded). Genetic structure was assessed using analysis of molecular variance and non‐metric multidimensional scaling analyses. We analysed haplotype frequencies for the genetic variability in each locality and region. The haplotype network was depicted by using Pop ART software. A high haplotype diversity was found in the native range (haplotype diversity [Hd]: 0.90), but also in some non‐native areas, such as western U.S.A. (Hd: 0.80), areas of Mexico (Hd: 0.78), and some hotspots in Europe (e.g. southern Spain or Italy), suggesting a complex pattern of multiple introductions. We grouped all localities in five differentiated groups according to biogeographic origin: the native area, west Americas, east U.S.A., Asia, and Europe. Additionally, the identification of 15 haplotypes shared between at least two localities, the phylogenetic network estimation and indices of genetic differentiation among localities allowed us to identify a large genetic admixture in the native range; the two independent invasion routes (i.e. westwards and eastwards) in U.S.A. from the native range (Louisiana and Texas) with translocations within each area; a stepping‐stone introduction from U.S.A. to Japan (involving few individuals) themselves introduced to China afterwards; the entry of P. clarkii from Louisiana (U.S.A.) into southern Spain and their multiple secondary introductions over Europe as well as other possible introductions in central Europe. Our study emphasises the need for unravelling the global invasion routes and the demographic processes underlying the introduction of exotic species (i.e. admixture, bridgehead invasion effect, and propagule pressure) to control the spread of invasive species. Our findings highlight the value of genetic analyses to identify the geographic origin of source populations as well as the variability of invaded areas in order to reconstruct invasion dynamics and facilitate management of invasive species (e.g. through environmental DNA monitoring).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.13312",
    doi = "10.1111/fwb.13312",
    openalex = "W2946436119",
    references = "doi101899122031"
}

@book{doi1010079783030347215,
    author = "Elton, Charles",
    title = "The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants",
    year = "2020",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34721-5",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-030-34721-5",
    openalex = "W4285064242",
    references = "doi101038128243c0, doi101038452034a, doi101038ncomms12986, doi101038ncomms14435, doi101073pnas1602205113, doi1023071292459, doi1023071331, doi1023071781423, doi103197096734012x13303670112731, openalexw571029325"
}

sensors enabled optical monitoring of plant health in response to stresses including UV-B light (-11%), high light (-6%), and a pathogen-related peptide (flg22) (-10%), but not mechanical leaf wounding (<3%). The sensor's high biocompatibility was reflected on similar leaf cell death (<5%) and photosynthetic rates to controls without SWCNT. These optical nanosensors report early signs of stress and will improve our understanding of plant stress communication, provide novel tools for precision agriculture, and optimize the use of agrochemicals in the environment.

@article{doi101021acsnanolett9b05159,
    author = "Wu, Honghong and Nißler, Robert and Morris, Victoria and Herrmann, Niklas and Hu, Peiguang and Jeon, Su‐Ji and Kruss, Sebastian and Giraldo, Juan Pablo",
    title = "Monitoring Plant Health with Near-Infrared Fluorescent H 2 O 2 Nanosensors",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Nano Letters",
    abstract = "sensors enabled optical monitoring of plant health in response to stresses including UV-B light (-11\%), high light (-6\%), and a pathogen-related peptide (flg22) (-10\%), but not mechanical leaf wounding (<3\%). The sensor's high biocompatibility was reflected on similar leaf cell death (<5\%) and photosynthetic rates to controls without SWCNT. These optical nanosensors report early signs of stress and will improve our understanding of plant stress communication, provide novel tools for precision agriculture, and optimize the use of agrochemicals in the environment.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b05159",
    doi = "10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b05159",
    openalex = "W3006850886",
    references = "doi101073pnas1602205113"
}

Biological invasions are responsible for tremendous impacts globally, including huge economic losses and management expenditures. Efficiently mitigating this major driver of global change requires the improvement of public awareness and policy regarding its substantial impacts on our socio-ecosystems. One option to contribute to this overall objective is to inform people on the economic costs linked to these impacts; however, until now, a reliable synthesis of invasion costs has never been produced at a global scale. Here, we introduce InvaCost as the most up-to-date, comprehensive, harmonised and robust compilation and description of economic cost estimates associated with biological invasions worldwide. We have developed a systematic, standardised methodology to collect information from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature, while ensuring data validity and method repeatability for further transparent inputs. Our manuscript presents the methodology and tools used to build and populate this living and publicly available database. InvaCost provides an essential basis (2419 cost estimates currently compiled) for worldwide research, management efforts and, ultimately, for data-driven and evidence-based policymaking.

@article{doi101038s4159702000586z,
    author = "Diagne, Christophe and Leroy, Boris and Gozlan, Rodolphe E. and Vaissière, Anne‐Charlotte and Assailly, Claire and Nuninger, Laure and Roiz, David and Jourdain, Frédéric and Jarić, Ivan and Courchamp, Franck",
    title = "InvaCost, a public database of the economic costs of biological invasions worldwide",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Scientific Data",
    abstract = "Biological invasions are responsible for tremendous impacts globally, including huge economic losses and management expenditures. Efficiently mitigating this major driver of global change requires the improvement of public awareness and policy regarding its substantial impacts on our socio-ecosystems. One option to contribute to this overall objective is to inform people on the economic costs linked to these impacts; however, until now, a reliable synthesis of invasion costs has never been produced at a global scale. Here, we introduce InvaCost as the most up-to-date, comprehensive, harmonised and robust compilation and description of economic cost estimates associated with biological invasions worldwide. We have developed a systematic, standardised methodology to collect information from peer-reviewed articles and grey literature, while ensuring data validity and method repeatability for further transparent inputs. Our manuscript presents the methodology and tools used to build and populate this living and publicly available database. InvaCost provides an essential basis (2419 cost estimates currently compiled) for worldwide research, management efforts and, ultimately, for data-driven and evidence-based policymaking.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-00586-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41597-020-00586-z",
    openalex = "W3083980261",
    references = "doi101038ncomms12986, doi101073pnas1602205113"
}

Unprecedented rates of introduction and spread of non-native species pose burgeoning challenges to biodiversity, natural resource management, regional economies, and human health. Current biosecurity efforts are failing to keep pace with globalization, revealing critical gaps in our understanding and response to invasions. Here, we identify four priority areas to advance invasion science in the face of rapid global environmental change. First, invasion science should strive to develop a more comprehensive framework for predicting how the behavior, abundance, and interspecific interactions of non-native species vary in relation to conditions in receiving environments and how these factors govern the ecological impacts of invasion. A second priority is to understand the potential synergistic effects of multiple co-occurring stressors— particularly involving climate change—on the establishment and impact of non-native species. Climate adaptation and mitigation strategies will need to consider the possible consequences of promoting non-native species, and appropriate management responses to non-native species will need to be developed. The third priority is to address the taxonomic impediment. The ability to detect and evaluate invasion risks is compromised by a growing deficit in taxonomic expertise, which cannot be adequately compensated by new molecular technologies alone. Management of biosecurity risks will become increasingly challenging unless academia, industry, and governments train and employ new personnel in taxonomy and systematics. Fourth, we recommend that internationally cooperative biosecurity strategies consider the bridgehead effects of global dispersal networks, in which organisms tend to invade new regions from locations where they have already established. Cooperation among countries to eradicate or control species established in bridgehead regions should yield greater benefit than independent attempts by individual countries to exclude these species from arriving and establishing.

@article{doi101139er20200088,
    author = "Ricciardi, Anthony and Iacarella, Josephine C. and Aldridge, David C. and Blackburn, Tim M. and Carlton, James T. and Catford, Jane A. and Dick, Jaimie T. A. and Hulme, Philip E. and Jeschke, Jonathan M. and Liebhold, Andrew M. and Lockwood, Julie L. and MacIsaac, Hugh J. and Meyerson, Laura A. and Pyšek, Petr and Richardson, David M. and Ruiz, Gregory M. and Simberloff, Daniel and Vilà, Montserrat and Wardle, David A.",
    title = "Four priority areas to advance invasion science in the face of rapid environmental change",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Environmental Reviews",
    abstract = "Unprecedented rates of introduction and spread of non-native species pose burgeoning challenges to biodiversity, natural resource management, regional economies, and human health. Current biosecurity efforts are failing to keep pace with globalization, revealing critical gaps in our understanding and response to invasions. Here, we identify four priority areas to advance invasion science in the face of rapid global environmental change. First, invasion science should strive to develop a more comprehensive framework for predicting how the behavior, abundance, and interspecific interactions of non-native species vary in relation to conditions in receiving environments and how these factors govern the ecological impacts of invasion. A second priority is to understand the potential synergistic effects of multiple co-occurring stressors— particularly involving climate change—on the establishment and impact of non-native species. Climate adaptation and mitigation strategies will need to consider the possible consequences of promoting non-native species, and appropriate management responses to non-native species will need to be developed. The third priority is to address the taxonomic impediment. The ability to detect and evaluate invasion risks is compromised by a growing deficit in taxonomic expertise, which cannot be adequately compensated by new molecular technologies alone. Management of biosecurity risks will become increasingly challenging unless academia, industry, and governments train and employ new personnel in taxonomy and systematics. Fourth, we recommend that internationally cooperative biosecurity strategies consider the bridgehead effects of global dispersal networks, in which organisms tend to invade new regions from locations where they have already established. Cooperation among countries to eradicate or control species established in bridgehead regions should yield greater benefit than independent attempts by individual countries to exclude these species from arriving and establishing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2020-0088",
    doi = "10.1139/er-2020-0088",
    openalex = "W3110863112",
    references = "doi101016jtree201602017, doi101038452034a"
}

, mycorrhizal and endophytic fungi are the main groups of filamentous fungi studied and used as biological control agents (BCAs) against nematodes as resistance inducers. They are able to reduce the damage caused by plant-parasitic nematodes directly by parasitism, antibiosis, paralysis and by the production of lytic enzymes. But they also minimize harm by space and resource-competition, by providing higher nutrient and water uptake to the plant, or by modifying the root morphology, and/or rhizosphere interactions, that constitutes an advantage for the plant-growth. Besides, filamentous fungi are able to induce resistance against nematodes by activating hormone-mediated (salicylic and jasmonic acid, strigolactones among others) plant-defense mechanisms. Additionally, the alteration of the transport of chemical defense components through the plant or the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites and different enzymes can also contribute to enhancing plant defenses. Therefore, the use of filamentous fungi of the mentioned groups as BCAs is a promising durable biocontrol strategy in agriculture against plant-parasitic nematodes.

@article{doi103389fmicb202000992,
    author = "Poveda, Jorge and Abril‐Urías, Patricia and Escobar, Carolina",
    title = "Biological Control of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes by Filamentous Fungi Inducers of Resistance: Trichoderma, Mycorrhizal and Endophytic Fungi",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Frontiers in Microbiology",
    abstract = ", mycorrhizal and endophytic fungi are the main groups of filamentous fungi studied and used as biological control agents (BCAs) against nematodes as resistance inducers. They are able to reduce the damage caused by plant-parasitic nematodes directly by parasitism, antibiosis, paralysis and by the production of lytic enzymes. But they also minimize harm by space and resource-competition, by providing higher nutrient and water uptake to the plant, or by modifying the root morphology, and/or rhizosphere interactions, that constitutes an advantage for the plant-growth. Besides, filamentous fungi are able to induce resistance against nematodes by activating hormone-mediated (salicylic and jasmonic acid, strigolactones among others) plant-defense mechanisms. Additionally, the alteration of the transport of chemical defense components through the plant or the synthesis of plant secondary metabolites and different enzymes can also contribute to enhancing plant defenses. Therefore, the use of filamentous fungi of the mentioned groups as BCAs is a promising durable biocontrol strategy in agriculture against plant-parasitic nematodes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00992",
    doi = "10.3389/fmicb.2020.00992",
    openalex = "W3026215261",
    references = "doi101038ncomms12986"
}

Biological invasions are synonymous with international trade. The direct effects of trade have largely been quantified using relationships between imports and the number of alien species in a region or patterns in the global spread of species linked to shipping and air traffic networks. But trade also has an indirect role on biological invasions by transforming the environments and societies of exporting and importing nations. Here, both the direct and indirect roles of trade on biological invasions, as well as their interaction, are examined for the first time. Future trends in international trade, including e-commerce, new trade routes, and major infrastructure developments, will lead to the pressure on national borders soon outstripping the resources available for intervention. The current legislative and scientific tools targeting biological invasions are insufficient to deal with this growing threat and require a new mindset that focuses on curbing the pandemic risk posed by alien species.

@article{doi101016joneear202104015,
    author = "Hulme, Philip E.",
    title = "Unwelcome exchange: International trade as a direct and indirect driver of biological invasions worldwide",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "One Earth",
    abstract = "Biological invasions are synonymous with international trade. The direct effects of trade have largely been quantified using relationships between imports and the number of alien species in a region or patterns in the global spread of species linked to shipping and air traffic networks. But trade also has an indirect role on biological invasions by transforming the environments and societies of exporting and importing nations. Here, both the direct and indirect roles of trade on biological invasions, as well as their interaction, are examined for the first time. Future trends in international trade, including e-commerce, new trade routes, and major infrastructure developments, will lead to the pressure on national borders soon outstripping the resources available for intervention. The current legislative and scientific tools targeting biological invasions are insufficient to deal with this growing threat and require a new mindset that focuses on curbing the pandemic risk posed by alien species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.015",
    doi = "10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.015",
    openalex = "W3165417549",
    references = "doi101073pnas1602205113"
}

Invasive species have caused severe impacts on biodiversity and human society. Although the estimation of environmental impacts caused by invasive species has increased in recent years, economic losses associated with biological invasions are only sporadically estimated in space and time. In this study, we synthesized the losses incurred by invasions in Asia, based on the most comprehensive database of economic costs of invasive species worldwide, including 560 cost records for 88 invasive species in 22 countries. We also assessed the differences in economic costs across taxonomic groups, geographical regions and impacted sectors, and further identified the major gaps of current knowledge in Asia. Reported economic costs of biological invasions were estimated between 1965 and 2017, and reached a total of US$ 432.6 billion (2017 value), with dramatic increases in 2000–2002 and in 2004. The highest costs were recorded for terrestrial ectotherms, for species estimated in South Asia, and for species estimated at the country level, and were related to more than one impacted sector. Two taxonomic groups with the highest reported costs were insects and mammals, and two countries with the highest costs were India and China. Non-English data covered all of 12 taxonomic groups, whereas English data only covered six groups, highlighting the importance of considering data from non-English sources to have a more comprehensive estimation of economic costs associated with biological invasions. However, we found that the estimation of economic costs was lacking for most Asian countries and for more than 96% of introduced species in Asia. Further, the estimation is heavily biased towards insects and mammals and is very limited concerning expenditures on invasion management. To optimize the allocation of limited resources, there is an important need to better and more widely study the economic costs of invasive alien species. In this way, improved cost reporting and more collaborations between scientists and stakeholders are needed across Asia.

@article{doi103897neobiota6758147,
    author = "Liu, Chunlong and Diagne, Christophe and Angulo, Elena and Banerjee, Achyut Kumar and Chen, Yi‐Feng and Cuthbert, Ross N. and Haubrock, Phillip J. and Kirichenko, Natalia and Pattison, Zarah and Watari, Yuya and Xiong, Wen and Courchamp, Franck",
    title = "Economic costs of biological invasions in Asia",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "NeoBiota",
    abstract = "Invasive species have caused severe impacts on biodiversity and human society. Although the estimation of environmental impacts caused by invasive species has increased in recent years, economic losses associated with biological invasions are only sporadically estimated in space and time. In this study, we synthesized the losses incurred by invasions in Asia, based on the most comprehensive database of economic costs of invasive species worldwide, including 560 cost records for 88 invasive species in 22 countries. We also assessed the differences in economic costs across taxonomic groups, geographical regions and impacted sectors, and further identified the major gaps of current knowledge in Asia. Reported economic costs of biological invasions were estimated between 1965 and 2017, and reached a total of US$ 432.6 billion (2017 value), with dramatic increases in 2000–2002 and in 2004. The highest costs were recorded for terrestrial ectotherms, for species estimated in South Asia, and for species estimated at the country level, and were related to more than one impacted sector. Two taxonomic groups with the highest reported costs were insects and mammals, and two countries with the highest costs were India and China. Non-English data covered all of 12 taxonomic groups, whereas English data only covered six groups, highlighting the importance of considering data from non-English sources to have a more comprehensive estimation of economic costs associated with biological invasions. However, we found that the estimation of economic costs was lacking for most Asian countries and for more than 96\% of introduced species in Asia. Further, the estimation is heavily biased towards insects and mammals and is very limited concerning expenditures on invasion management. To optimize the allocation of limited resources, there is an important need to better and more widely study the economic costs of invasive alien species. In this way, improved cost reporting and more collaborations between scientists and stakeholders are needed across Asia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.67.58147",
    doi = "10.3897/neobiota.67.58147",
    openalex = "W3189473481",
    references = "doi101899122031"
}

• The latest 403 invasive alien plants in China are updated. • A summary of five volumes of ‘Alien Invasive Flora of China’ and recent invasive plants reports. • Compared with weeds, invasive plants emphasis on the destruction of biodiversity and native ecosystems. • Classical plant taxonomy is the basis of invasive plants research.

@article{doi101016jpld202211004,
    author = "Hao, Qiang and Ma, Jinshuang",
    title = "Invasive alien plants in China: An update",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Plant Diversity",
    abstract = "• The latest 403 invasive alien plants in China are updated. • A summary of five volumes of ‘Alien Invasive Flora of China’ and recent invasive plants reports. • Compared with weeds, invasive plants emphasis on the destruction of biodiversity and native ecosystems. • Classical plant taxonomy is the basis of invasive plants research.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2022.11.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.pld.2022.11.004",
    openalex = "W4310365409",
    references = "doi1010079783030347215, doi101007s1053000892163, doi101007s105310110044x, doi101023a1016695609745, doi101038nature14910, doi101111geb12517, doi101111j13653180200700559x, doi101111j13669516200500162x, doi1023072257385, doi1023074135498"
}

Human activities have caused the exchange of species among different parts of the world. When introduced species become naturalized and invasive, they may cause great negative impacts on the environment and human societies, and pose significant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem structure. Knowledge on phylogenetic relatedness between native and non-native species and among non-native species at different stages of species invasion may help for better understanding the drivers of species invasion. Here, I analyze a comprehensive data set including both native and non-native angiosperm species in China to determine phylogenetic relatedness of introduced species across a full invasion continuum (from introduction through naturalization to invasion). This study found that (1) introduced plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of overall (i.e. native plus non-native) angiosperm flora, (2) naturalized plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of introduced plants, and (3) invasive plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of naturalized plants. These patterns hold regardless of spatial scales examined (i.e. national versus provincial scale) and whether basal- or tip-weighted metric of phylogenetic relatedness is considered. These findings are consistent with Darwin's preadaptation hypothesis.

@article{doi101016jpld202212005,
    author = "Qian, Hong",
    title = "Patterns of phylogenetic relatedness of non-native plants across the introduction–naturalization–invasion continuum in China",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Plant Diversity",
    abstract = "Human activities have caused the exchange of species among different parts of the world. When introduced species become naturalized and invasive, they may cause great negative impacts on the environment and human societies, and pose significant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem structure. Knowledge on phylogenetic relatedness between native and non-native species and among non-native species at different stages of species invasion may help for better understanding the drivers of species invasion. Here, I analyze a comprehensive data set including both native and non-native angiosperm species in China to determine phylogenetic relatedness of introduced species across a full invasion continuum (from introduction through naturalization to invasion). This study found that (1) introduced plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of overall (i.e. native plus non-native) angiosperm flora, (2) naturalized plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of introduced plants, and (3) invasive plants are a phylogenetically clustered subset of naturalized plants. These patterns hold regardless of spatial scales examined (i.e. national versus provincial scale) and whether basal- or tip-weighted metric of phylogenetic relatedness is considered. These findings are consistent with Darwin's preadaptation hypothesis.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2022.12.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.pld.2022.12.005",
    openalex = "W4312054950",
    references = "doi101016jpld202211004"
}

Freshwater fish have been widely introduced worldwide, and freshwater ecosystems are among those most affected by biological invasions. Consequently, freshwater fish invasions are one of the most documented invasions among animal taxa, with much information available about invasive species, their characteristics, invaded regions, invasion pathways, impacts, and management. While existing reviews address specific aspects of freshwater fish invasions, there is still a gaping lack of comprehensive assessments of freshwater fish invasions that simultaneously address pivotal and connected elements of the invasion process. Here, we provide a holistic review, together with quantitative assessments, divided into four major parts: (a) introduction pathways, (b) characteristics of nonnative species andinvaded ecosystems that explain successful invasion processes, (c) invasion impacts and their mechanisms, and (d) management. We highlight data gaps and biases in the current databases and highlight a basic lack of understanding of several aspects of freshwater fish invasions. In addition, we provide recommendations for future studies.

@article{doi101146annurevecolsys032522015551,
    author = "Bernery, Camille and Bellard, Céline and Courchamp, Franck and Brosse, Sébastien and Gozlan, Rodolphe E. and Jarić, Ivan and Teletchea, Fabrice and Leroy, Boris",
    title = "Freshwater Fish Invasions: A Comprehensive Review",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics",
    abstract = "Freshwater fish have been widely introduced worldwide, and freshwater ecosystems are among those most affected by biological invasions. Consequently, freshwater fish invasions are one of the most documented invasions among animal taxa, with much information available about invasive species, their characteristics, invaded regions, invasion pathways, impacts, and management. While existing reviews address specific aspects of freshwater fish invasions, there is still a gaping lack of comprehensive assessments of freshwater fish invasions that simultaneously address pivotal and connected elements of the invasion process. Here, we provide a holistic review, together with quantitative assessments, divided into four major parts: (a) introduction pathways, (b) characteristics of nonnative species andinvaded ecosystems that explain successful invasion processes, (c) invasion impacts and their mechanisms, and (d) management. We highlight data gaps and biases in the current databases and highlight a basic lack of understanding of several aspects of freshwater fish invasions. In addition, we provide recommendations for future studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-032522-015551",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-032522-015551",
    openalex = "W4225925735",
    references = "doi1010079783030347215, doi101007s1075001421660, doi101016jtree200309010, doi101016jtree201103023, doi101038nature01346, doi101038ncomms14435, doi101046j13652699199900305x, doi101093conphyscox031, doi101098rspb20032327, doi101111j15231739200800950x, doi101111j1755263x201000158x, doi101146annurevecolsys110308120304, doi101146annurevenviron033009095548"
}

Understanding the large-scale distribution patterns of invasive alien plants can not only identify potential high-risk areas but also provide key information for developing management strategies to mitigate plant invasion. Here, for the first time, we mapped the spatial distribution of 239 invasive plant species in China at much finer spatial resolution (50 × 50 km2). We also developed a new metric, invasion level score (ILS), which represent both invasive plant richness and the number of high-risk invasive plants per grid cell, to identify hotspots of plant invasion. Finally, we compared differences in invasive plant richness and ILS between protected and non-protected areas. We found that the counties and grids in the southern and eastern coastal regions of China have the highest species richness and ILS. The richness and ILS decrease from southeast to northwest China. Meanwhile, the high-risk areas for invasion level are concentrated in and around provincial capitals in the southern, eastern, and northern China. We also found that protected areas in China have significantly more invasive plants and higher ILS than non-protected areas. The grid cells with high invasive plant richness and ILS are mostly distributed in regions with high population density, likely due to urban effect. The need to direct management attention towards the southern and eastern China and particularly within protected areas was suggested by our findings. Our study provides a comprehensive assessment of the distribution and risk of invasive plants in China, as well as a scientific foundation for further advancing the prevention and management of invasive plants.

@article{doi101016jgecco2023e02424,
    author = "Yang, Yingbo and Bian, Zhenghan and Ren, Wenjing and Wu, Jihua and Liu, Jianquan and Shrestha, Nawal",
    title = "Spatial patterns and hotspots of plant invasion in China",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Global Ecology and Conservation",
    abstract = "Understanding the large-scale distribution patterns of invasive alien plants can not only identify potential high-risk areas but also provide key information for developing management strategies to mitigate plant invasion. Here, for the first time, we mapped the spatial distribution of 239 invasive plant species in China at much finer spatial resolution (50 × 50 km2). We also developed a new metric, invasion level score (ILS), which represent both invasive plant richness and the number of high-risk invasive plants per grid cell, to identify hotspots of plant invasion. Finally, we compared differences in invasive plant richness and ILS between protected and non-protected areas. We found that the counties and grids in the southern and eastern coastal regions of China have the highest species richness and ILS. The richness and ILS decrease from southeast to northwest China. Meanwhile, the high-risk areas for invasion level are concentrated in and around provincial capitals in the southern, eastern, and northern China. We also found that protected areas in China have significantly more invasive plants and higher ILS than non-protected areas. The grid cells with high invasive plant richness and ILS are mostly distributed in regions with high population density, likely due to urban effect. The need to direct management attention towards the southern and eastern China and particularly within protected areas was suggested by our findings. Our study provides a comprehensive assessment of the distribution and risk of invasive plants in China, as well as a scientific foundation for further advancing the prevention and management of invasive plants.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02424",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02424",
    openalex = "W4323038480",
    references = "doi101016jpld202211004"
}

Image 1.

@article{doi101016jpld202301005,
    author = "Wang, Congyan and Li, Yue and Li, Chuang and Zhong, Shanshan and Xu, Zhelun and Yu, Youli and Du, Daolin",
    title = "A method for quantifying relative competitive advantage and the combined effect of co-invasion for two invasive plants",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Plant Diversity",
    abstract = "Image 1.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2023.01.005",
    doi = "10.1016/j.pld.2023.01.005",
    openalex = "W4321378648",
    references = "doi101016jpld202211004"
}

Abstract Aims Most naturalized plants are escapees from cultivation. Inventories of cultivated introduced species thus offer unique, still underutilized, opportunities to assess naturalization drivers of introduced plants. We used a comprehensive inventory of 13,718 introduced species cultivated in China's botanical gardens to test which species characteristics distinguish the 739 species that have naturalized. Locations China. Methods We used generalized linear models to test whether the naturalization of cultivated introduced plants in China is associated with functional traits, propagule pressure, environmental niche and introduction history. To test direct and indirect effects of those variables and their relative importance in driving naturalization, we used structural equation models. Results We showed that species were more likely to naturalize when they originate from the Americas, are more widely cultivated, and have a longer residence time. Moreover, species were more likely to naturalize if they have a good environmental match, are short‐lived herbs, are predominantly propagated from seeds, and, in the case of herbs, are relatively tall compared to other herbs. Part of the latter effects are mediated by how these variables relate to propagule pressure proxies, and this varies among short‐lived herbs, long‐lived herbs and woody plants. Main Conclusions Naturalization is partly driven by life‐form‐dependent cultivation biases.

@article{doi101111ddi13788,
    author = "Dong, Bi‐Cheng and Yang, Qiang and Kinlock, Nicole L. and Pouteau, Robin and Pyšek, Petr and Weigelt, Patrick and Yu, Fei‐Hai and van Kleunen, Mark",
    title = "Naturalization of introduced plants is driven by life‐form‐dependent cultivation biases",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Diversity and Distributions",
    abstract = "Abstract Aims Most naturalized plants are escapees from cultivation. Inventories of cultivated introduced species thus offer unique, still underutilized, opportunities to assess naturalization drivers of introduced plants. We used a comprehensive inventory of 13,718 introduced species cultivated in China's botanical gardens to test which species characteristics distinguish the 739 species that have naturalized. Locations China. Methods We used generalized linear models to test whether the naturalization of cultivated introduced plants in China is associated with functional traits, propagule pressure, environmental niche and introduction history. To test direct and indirect effects of those variables and their relative importance in driving naturalization, we used structural equation models. Results We showed that species were more likely to naturalize when they originate from the Americas, are more widely cultivated, and have a longer residence time. Moreover, species were more likely to naturalize if they have a good environmental match, are short‐lived herbs, are predominantly propagated from seeds, and, in the case of herbs, are relatively tall compared to other herbs. Part of the latter effects are mediated by how these variables relate to propagule pressure proxies, and this varies among short‐lived herbs, long‐lived herbs and woody plants. Main Conclusions Naturalization is partly driven by life‐form‐dependent cultivation biases.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13788",
    doi = "10.1111/ddi.13788",
    openalex = "W4388099483",
    references = "doi101016jpld202211004"
}

Introduction: is an invasive plant in China, which can hyperaccumulate the heavy metal Mn. Methods:. Results: and is higher than its native populations, native and exotic congeners. In addition, heavy metal Mn caused the quantitative resistance of the exotic congener significantly higher than that of the native congeners. Discussion: and promote its invasion, and also increase the invasion risk of exotic species.

@article{doi103389fpls20231222867,
    author = "Zhou, Yue and Chen, Chao and Xiong, Yuntao and Xiao, Feng and Wang, Yi",
    title = "Heavy metal induced resistance to herbivore of invasive plant: implications from inter- and intraspecific comparisons",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Frontiers in Plant Science",
    abstract = "Introduction: is an invasive plant in China, which can hyperaccumulate the heavy metal Mn. Methods:. Results: and is higher than its native populations, native and exotic congeners. In addition, heavy metal Mn caused the quantitative resistance of the exotic congener significantly higher than that of the native congeners. Discussion: and promote its invasion, and also increase the invasion risk of exotic species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1222867",
    doi = "10.3389/fpls.2023.1222867",
    openalex = "W4385877463",
    references = "crossref2001the"
}

Climate change is causing rapid shifts in the abiotic and biotic environmental conditions experienced by plant populations, but we lack generalizable frameworks for predicting the consequences for species. These changes may cause individuals to become poorly matched to their environments, potentially inducing shifts in the distributions of populations and altering species' habitat and geographic ranges. We present a trade-off-based framework for understanding and predicting whether plant species may undergo range shifts, based on ecological strategies defined by functional trait variation. We define a species' capacity for undergoing range shifts as the product of its colonization ability and the ability to express a phenotype well-suited to the environment across life stages (phenotype-environment matching), which are both strongly influenced by a species' ecological strategy and unavoidable trade-offs in function. While numerous strategies may be successful in an environment, severe phenotype-environment mismatches result in habitat filtering: propagules reach a site but cannot establish there. Operating within individuals and populations, these processes will affect species' habitat ranges at small scales, and aggregated across populations, will determine whether species track climatic changes and undergo geographic range shifts. This trade-off-based framework can provide a conceptual basis for species distribution models that are generalizable across plant species, aiding in the prediction of shifts in plant species' ranges in response to climate change.

@article{doi103390plants12061248,
    author = "McNichol, Bailey H. and Russo, Sabrina E.",
    title = "Plant Species’ Capacity for Range Shifts at the Habitat and Geographic Scales: A Trade-Off-Based Framework",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Plants",
    abstract = "Climate change is causing rapid shifts in the abiotic and biotic environmental conditions experienced by plant populations, but we lack generalizable frameworks for predicting the consequences for species. These changes may cause individuals to become poorly matched to their environments, potentially inducing shifts in the distributions of populations and altering species' habitat and geographic ranges. We present a trade-off-based framework for understanding and predicting whether plant species may undergo range shifts, based on ecological strategies defined by functional trait variation. We define a species' capacity for undergoing range shifts as the product of its colonization ability and the ability to express a phenotype well-suited to the environment across life stages (phenotype-environment matching), which are both strongly influenced by a species' ecological strategy and unavoidable trade-offs in function. While numerous strategies may be successful in an environment, severe phenotype-environment mismatches result in habitat filtering: propagules reach a site but cannot establish there. Operating within individuals and populations, these processes will affect species' habitat ranges at small scales, and aggregated across populations, will determine whether species track climatic changes and undergo geographic range shifts. This trade-off-based framework can provide a conceptual basis for species distribution models that are generalizable across plant species, aiding in the prediction of shifts in plant species' ranges in response to climate change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12061248",
    doi = "10.3390/plants12061248",
    openalex = "W4323848625",
    references = "doi101086665996"
}

Invasive plant species pose a significant threat to the integrity and biodiversity of local ecosystems. Microplastic pollution and nitrogen deposition, as detrimental consequences of human activities, impact the growth of wetland plants. However, the combined impacts of nitrogen deposition and microplastics on invaded plant communities remain unexplored. Here, we conducted a greenhouse experiment to examine the effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on the performance of invaded plant communities under polyethylene addition (PE, polyethylene addition alone, at ratios of 0.1 %, 0.5 %, 1 %; PEN, polyethylene addition combined nitrogen deposition, 30 kg N hm −2 a −1). Our findings suggested that both PE and PEN treatments reduced the morphological traits of invaded plant communities, including plant community abundance, height and biomass. Notably, the height and stem diameter of Amaranthus palmeri increased with higher PE ratios, indicating that invasive species has greater pollution tolerance than native plant Chenopodium album. Additionally, our results showed that the diversity and stability values of the PEN treatments were higher than those of the PE treatments, suggesting that the detrimental effects of microplastics on the community diversity and stability can be mitigated to some extent by the combined nitrogen deposition. We also demonstrated changes in the soil may have altered interspecific relationships among dominant plant species, with A. palmeri potentially modifying these relationships to enhance its survival. Overall, most PE and PEN treatments resulted in a decrease of 1.05∼41.44 % in community invasibility and 2.02∼88.73 % in invasion intensity of invasive species, which could be linked to changes in community diversity. This research enhances our understanding of the influence of microplastics alone or combined nitrogen deposition on the invaded plant communities, providing valuable insights for the environmental management of these ecosystems. • Invasive species has greater pollution tolerance than native plants. • Nitrogen deposition mitigates the negative impacts of microplastics on community diversity and stability. • Community invasibility and invasion intensity were reduced under microplastics alone or combined nitrogen deposition.

@article{doi101016jgecco2024e03314,
    author = "Wang, Ziyi and He, Mengxuan and Meng, Zirui and Lang, Jingqi and Lu, Xueqiang and Xue, Qing and Liang, Limin and Mo, Xunqiang",
    title = "Nitrogen deposition modulates invasibility and stability of plant communities in microplastic-contaminated wetlands",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Global Ecology and Conservation",
    abstract = "Invasive plant species pose a significant threat to the integrity and biodiversity of local ecosystems. Microplastic pollution and nitrogen deposition, as detrimental consequences of human activities, impact the growth of wetland plants. However, the combined impacts of nitrogen deposition and microplastics on invaded plant communities remain unexplored. Here, we conducted a greenhouse experiment to examine the effects of simulated nitrogen deposition on the performance of invaded plant communities under polyethylene addition (PE, polyethylene addition alone, at ratios of 0.1 \%, 0.5 \%, 1 \%; PEN, polyethylene addition combined nitrogen deposition, 30 kg N hm −2 a −1). Our findings suggested that both PE and PEN treatments reduced the morphological traits of invaded plant communities, including plant community abundance, height and biomass. Notably, the height and stem diameter of Amaranthus palmeri increased with higher PE ratios, indicating that invasive species has greater pollution tolerance than native plant Chenopodium album. Additionally, our results showed that the diversity and stability values of the PEN treatments were higher than those of the PE treatments, suggesting that the detrimental effects of microplastics on the community diversity and stability can be mitigated to some extent by the combined nitrogen deposition. We also demonstrated changes in the soil may have altered interspecific relationships among dominant plant species, with A. palmeri potentially modifying these relationships to enhance its survival. Overall, most PE and PEN treatments resulted in a decrease of 1.05∼41.44 \% in community invasibility and 2.02∼88.73 \% in invasion intensity of invasive species, which could be linked to changes in community diversity. This research enhances our understanding of the influence of microplastics alone or combined nitrogen deposition on the invaded plant communities, providing valuable insights for the environmental management of these ecosystems. • Invasive species has greater pollution tolerance than native plants. • Nitrogen deposition mitigates the negative impacts of microplastics on community diversity and stability. • Community invasibility and invasion intensity were reduced under microplastics alone or combined nitrogen deposition.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03314",
    doi = "10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03314",
    openalex = "W4404512455",
    references = "doi1023073796757"
}

In the Anthropocene, non-native freshwater fish introductions and translocations have occurred extensively worldwide. However, their global distribution patterns and the factors influencing their establishment remain poorly understood. We analyze a comprehensive database of 14953 freshwater fish species across 3119 river basins and identify global hotspots for exotic and translocated non-native fishes. We show that both types of non-native fishes are more likely to occur when closely related to native fishes. This finding is consistent across measures of phylogenetic relatedness, biogeographical realms, and highly invaded countries, even after accounting for the influence of native diversity. This contradicts Darwin's naturalization hypothesis, suggesting that the presence of close relatives more often signifies suitable habitats than intensified competition, predicting the establishment of non-native fish species. Our study provides a comprehensive assessment of global non-native freshwater fish patterns and their phylogenetic correlates, laying the groundwork for understanding and predicting future fish invasions in freshwater ecosystems.

@article{doi101038s41467024457368,
    author = "Xu, Meng and Li, Shaopeng and Liu, Chunlong and Tedesco, Pablo A. and Dick, Jaimie T. A. and Fang, Miao and Wei, Hui and Yu, Fandong and Shu, Lu and Wang, Xuejie and Gu, Dangen and Mu, Xidong",
    title = "Global freshwater fish invasion linked to the presence of closely related species",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Nature Communications",
    abstract = "In the Anthropocene, non-native freshwater fish introductions and translocations have occurred extensively worldwide. However, their global distribution patterns and the factors influencing their establishment remain poorly understood. We analyze a comprehensive database of 14953 freshwater fish species across 3119 river basins and identify global hotspots for exotic and translocated non-native fishes. We show that both types of non-native fishes are more likely to occur when closely related to native fishes. This finding is consistent across measures of phylogenetic relatedness, biogeographical realms, and highly invaded countries, even after accounting for the influence of native diversity. This contradicts Darwin's naturalization hypothesis, suggesting that the presence of close relatives more often signifies suitable habitats than intensified competition, predicting the establishment of non-native fish species. Our study provides a comprehensive assessment of global non-native freshwater fish patterns and their phylogenetic correlates, laying the groundwork for understanding and predicting future fish invasions in freshwater ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45736-8",
    doi = "10.1038/s41467-024-45736-8",
    openalex = "W4391847557",
    references = "doi101146annurevecolsys032522015551"
}

Standardised terminology in science is important for clarity of interpretation and communication. In invasion science - a dynamic and rapidly evolving discipline - the proliferation of technical terminology has lacked a standardised framework for its development. The result is a convoluted and inconsistent usage of terminology, with various discrepancies in descriptions of damage and interventions. A standardised framework is therefore needed for a clear, universally applicable, and consistent terminology to promote more effective communication across researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers. Inconsistencies in terminology stem from the exponential increase in scientific publications on the patterns and processes of biological invasions authored by experts from various disciplines and countries since the 1990s, as well as publications by legislators and policymakers focusing on practical applications, regulations, and management of resources. Aligning and standardising terminology across stakeholders remains a challenge in invasion science. Here, we review and evaluate the multiple terms used in invasion science (e.g. 'non-native', 'alien', 'invasive' or 'invader', 'exotic', 'non-indigenous', 'naturalised', 'pest') to propose a more simplified and standardised terminology. The streamlined framework we propose and translate into 28 other languages is based on the terms (i) 'non-native', denoting species transported beyond their natural biogeographic range, (ii) 'established non-native', i.e. those non-native species that have established self-sustaining populations in their new location(s) in the wild, and (iii) 'invasive non-native' - populations of established non-native species that have recently spread or are spreading rapidly in their invaded range actively or passively with or without human mediation. We also highlight the importance of conceptualising 'spread' for classifying invasiveness and 'impact' for management. Finally, we propose a protocol for classifying populations based on (i) dispersal mechanism, (ii) species origin, (iii) population status, and (iv) impact. Collectively and without introducing new terminology, the framework that we present aims to facilitate effective communication and collaboration in invasion science and management of non-native species.

@article{doi101111brv13071,
    author = "Soto, Ismael and Balzani, Paride and Carneiro, Laís and Cuthbert, Ross N. and Macêdo, Rafael L. and Tarkan, Ali Serhan and Ahmed, Danish A. and Bang, Alok and Bącela‐Spychalska, Karolina and Bailey, Sarah A. and Baudry, Thomas and Ballesteros‐Mejia, Liliana and Bortolus, Alejandro and Briski, Elizabeta and Britton, J. Robert and Buřič, Miloš and Camacho‐Cervantes, Morelia and Cano‐Barbacil, Carlos and Copilaş‐Ciocianu, Denis and Coughlan, Neil E. and Courtois, Pierre and Csabai, Zoltán and Dalu, Tatenda and Santis, Vanessa De and Dickey, James W. E. and Dimarco, Romina D. and Falk‐Andersson, Jannike and Fernández, Romina and Florencio, Margarita and Franco, Ana Clara Sampaio and García‐Berthou, Emili and Giannetto, Daniela and Glavendekić, Milka and Grabowski, Michał and Heringer, Gustavo and Herrera, Ileana and Huang, Wei and Kamelamela, Katie and Kirichenko, Natalia and Kouba, Antonín and Kourantidou, Melina and Kurtul, Irmak and Laufer, Gabriel and Lipták, Boris and Liu, Chunlong and López‐López, Eugenia and Lozano, Vanessa and Mammola, Stefano and Marchini, Agnese and Meshkova, Valentyna and Milardi, Marco and Musolin, Dmitry L. and Núñez, Martín A. and Oficialdegui, Francisco J. and Patoka, Jiří and Pattison, Zarah and Pincheira‐Donoso, Daniel and Piria, Marina and Probert, Anna F. and Rasmussen, Jes Jessen and Renault, David and Ribeiro, Filipe and Rilov, Gil and Robinson, Tamara B. and Sanchez, Axel E. and Schwindt, Evangelina and South, Josie and Stoett, Peter and Verreycken, Hugo and Vilizzi, Lorenzo and Wang, Yong‐Jian and Watari, Yuya and Wehi, Priscilla M. and Weiperth, András and Wiberg‐Larsen, Peter and Yapıcı, Sercan and Yoğurtçuoğlu, Baran and Zenni, Rafael Dudeque and Galil, Bella and Dick, Jaimie T. A. and Russell, James C. and Ricciardi, Anthony and Simberloff, Daniel and Bradshaw, Corey J. A. and Haubrock, Phillip J.",
    title = "Taming the terminological tempest in invasion science",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Standardised terminology in science is important for clarity of interpretation and communication. In invasion science - a dynamic and rapidly evolving discipline - the proliferation of technical terminology has lacked a standardised framework for its development. The result is a convoluted and inconsistent usage of terminology, with various discrepancies in descriptions of damage and interventions. A standardised framework is therefore needed for a clear, universally applicable, and consistent terminology to promote more effective communication across researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers. Inconsistencies in terminology stem from the exponential increase in scientific publications on the patterns and processes of biological invasions authored by experts from various disciplines and countries since the 1990s, as well as publications by legislators and policymakers focusing on practical applications, regulations, and management of resources. Aligning and standardising terminology across stakeholders remains a challenge in invasion science. Here, we review and evaluate the multiple terms used in invasion science (e.g. 'non-native', 'alien', 'invasive' or 'invader', 'exotic', 'non-indigenous', 'naturalised', 'pest') to propose a more simplified and standardised terminology. The streamlined framework we propose and translate into 28 other languages is based on the terms (i) 'non-native', denoting species transported beyond their natural biogeographic range, (ii) 'established non-native', i.e. those non-native species that have established self-sustaining populations in their new location(s) in the wild, and (iii) 'invasive non-native' - populations of established non-native species that have recently spread or are spreading rapidly in their invaded range actively or passively with or without human mediation. We also highlight the importance of conceptualising 'spread' for classifying invasiveness and 'impact' for management. Finally, we propose a protocol for classifying populations based on (i) dispersal mechanism, (ii) species origin, (iii) population status, and (iv) impact. Collectively and without introducing new terminology, the framework that we present aims to facilitate effective communication and collaboration in invasion science and management of non-native species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.13071",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.13071",
    openalex = "W4392965917",
    references = "doi1010079783030347215, doi101016jtree200502004, doi101016jtree201103023, doi101016jtree201207013, doi101016s0169534701021012, doi101046j14724642200000083x, doi101111brv12627, doi1018900012965819990801522gpopia20co2, doi1023071578, doi1023074510159, doi105962bhltitle82303"
}

Biological invasions pose a rapidly expanding threat to the persistence, functioning and service provisioning of ecosystems globally, and to socio-economic interests. The stages of successful invasions are driven by the same mechanism that underlies adaptive changes across species in general-via natural selection on intraspecific variation in traits that influence survival and reproductive performance (i.e., fitness). Surprisingly, however, the rapid progress in the field of invasion science has resulted in a predominance of species-level approaches (such as deny lists), often irrespective of natural selection theory, local adaptation and other population-level processes that govern successful invasions. To address these issues, we analyse non-native species dynamics at the population level by employing a database of European freshwater macroinvertebrate time series, to investigate spreading speed, abundance dynamics and impact assessments among populations. Our findings reveal substantial variability in spreading speed and abundance trends within and between macroinvertebrate species across biogeographic regions, indicating that levels of invasiveness and impact differ markedly. Discrepancies and inconsistencies among species-level risk screenings and real population-level data were also identified, highlighting the inherent challenges in accurately assessing population-level effects through species-level assessments. In recognition of the importance of population-level assessments, we urge a shift in invasive species management frameworks, which should account for the dynamics of different populations and their environmental context. Adopting an adaptive, region-specific and population-focused approach is imperative, considering the diverse ecological contexts and varying degrees of susceptibility. Such an approach could improve and refine risk assessments while promoting mechanistic understandings of risks and impacts, thereby enabling the development of more effective conservation and management strategies.

@article{doi101111gcb17312,
    author = "Haubrock, Phillip J. and Soto, Ismael and Ahmed, Danish A. and Ansari, Ali and Tarkan, Ali Serhan and Kurtul, Irmak and Macêdo, Rafael L. and Lázaro‐Lobo, Adrián and Toutain, Mathieu and Parker, Ben and Błońska, Dagmara and Guareschi, Simone and Cano‐Barbacil, Carlos and Almela, Victoria Dominguez and Andreou, Demetra and Moyano, Jaime and Akalın, Sencer and Kaya, Çüneyt and Bayçelebi, Esra and Yoğurtçuoğlu, Baran and Briski, Elizabeta and Aksu, Sadi̇ and Emiroğlu, Özgür and Mammola, Stefano and Santis, Vanessa De and Kourantidou, Melina and Pincheira‐Donoso, Daniel and Britton, J. Robert and Kouba, Antonín and Dolan, Ellen J. and Kirichenko, Natalia and García‐Berthou, Emili and Renault, David and Fernández, Romina and Yapıcı, Sercan and Giannetto, Daniela and Núñez, Martín A. and Hudgins, Emma J. and Pergl, Jan and Milardi, Marco and Musolin, Dmitry L. and Cuthbert, Ross N.",
    title = "Biological invasions are a population‐level rather than a species‐level phenomenon",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Biological invasions pose a rapidly expanding threat to the persistence, functioning and service provisioning of ecosystems globally, and to socio-economic interests. The stages of successful invasions are driven by the same mechanism that underlies adaptive changes across species in general-via natural selection on intraspecific variation in traits that influence survival and reproductive performance (i.e., fitness). Surprisingly, however, the rapid progress in the field of invasion science has resulted in a predominance of species-level approaches (such as deny lists), often irrespective of natural selection theory, local adaptation and other population-level processes that govern successful invasions. To address these issues, we analyse non-native species dynamics at the population level by employing a database of European freshwater macroinvertebrate time series, to investigate spreading speed, abundance dynamics and impact assessments among populations. Our findings reveal substantial variability in spreading speed and abundance trends within and between macroinvertebrate species across biogeographic regions, indicating that levels of invasiveness and impact differ markedly. Discrepancies and inconsistencies among species-level risk screenings and real population-level data were also identified, highlighting the inherent challenges in accurately assessing population-level effects through species-level assessments. In recognition of the importance of population-level assessments, we urge a shift in invasive species management frameworks, which should account for the dynamics of different populations and their environmental context. Adopting an adaptive, region-specific and population-focused approach is imperative, considering the diverse ecological contexts and varying degrees of susceptibility. Such an approach could improve and refine risk assessments while promoting mechanistic understandings of risks and impacts, thereby enabling the development of more effective conservation and management strategies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17312",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.17312",
    openalex = "W4396868052",
    references = "doi101111brv13071"
}

Invasion scientists need to focus on the population level, not the species level, if aiming to unravel the complexities of invasion dynamics at meaningful spatial and temporal scales and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how invasive non‐native species interact with and impact ecosystems.

@article{doi101111gcb17396,
    author = "Sousa, Ronaldo and Nogueira, Joana Garrido and Padilha, Janeide",
    title = "Moving from the species to the population level in biological invasions",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Invasion scientists need to focus on the population level, not the species level, if aiming to unravel the complexities of invasion dynamics at meaningful spatial and temporal scales and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how invasive non‐native species interact with and impact ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17396",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.17396",
    openalex = "W4400293695",
    references = "doi101111brv13071"
}

The ever-increasing and expanding globalisation of trade and transport underpins the escalating global problem of biological invasions. Developing biosecurity infrastructures is crucial to anticipate and prevent the transport and introduction of invasive alien species. Still, robust and defensible forecasts of potential invaders are rare, especially for species without known invasion history. Here, we aim to support decision-making by developing a quantitative invasion risk assessment tool based on invasion syndromes (i.e., generalising typical attributes of invasive alien species). We implemented a workflow based on 'Multiple Imputation with Chain Equation' to estimate invasion syndromes from imputed datasets of species' life-history and ecological traits and macroecological patterns. Importantly, our models disentangle the factors explaining (i) transport and introduction and (ii) establishment. We showcase our tool by modelling the invasion syndromes of 466 amphibians and reptile species with invasion history. Then, we project these models to amphibians and reptiles worldwide (16,236 species [c.76% global coverage]) to identify species with a risk of being unintentionally transported and introduced, and risk of establishing alien populations. Our invasion syndrome models showed high predictive accuracy with a good balance between specificity and generality. Unintentionally transported and introduced species tend to be common and thrive well in human-disturbed habitats. In contrast, those with established alien populations tend to be large-sized, are habitat generalists, thrive well in human-disturbed habitats, and have large native geographic ranges. We forecast that 160 amphibians and reptiles without known invasion history could be unintentionally transported and introduced in the future. Among them, 57 species have a high risk of establishing alien populations. Our reliable, reproducible, transferable, statistically robust and scientifically defensible quantitative invasion risk assessment tool is a significant new addition to the suite of decision-support tools needed for developing a future-proof preventative biosecurity globally.

@article{doi101111gcb17399,
    author = "Pili, Arman and Leroy, Boris and Measey, John and Farquhar, Jules E. and Toomes, Adam and Cassey, Phillip and Chekunov, Sebastian and Grenié, Matthias and van Winkel, Dylan and Maria, Lisa and Diesmos, Mae Lowe L. and Diesmos, Arvin C. and Zurell, Damaris and Courchamp, Franck and Chapple, David G.",
    title = "Forecasting potential invaders to prevent future biological invasions worldwide",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "The ever-increasing and expanding globalisation of trade and transport underpins the escalating global problem of biological invasions. Developing biosecurity infrastructures is crucial to anticipate and prevent the transport and introduction of invasive alien species. Still, robust and defensible forecasts of potential invaders are rare, especially for species without known invasion history. Here, we aim to support decision-making by developing a quantitative invasion risk assessment tool based on invasion syndromes (i.e., generalising typical attributes of invasive alien species). We implemented a workflow based on 'Multiple Imputation with Chain Equation' to estimate invasion syndromes from imputed datasets of species' life-history and ecological traits and macroecological patterns. Importantly, our models disentangle the factors explaining (i) transport and introduction and (ii) establishment. We showcase our tool by modelling the invasion syndromes of 466 amphibians and reptile species with invasion history. Then, we project these models to amphibians and reptiles worldwide (16,236 species [c.76\% global coverage]) to identify species with a risk of being unintentionally transported and introduced, and risk of establishing alien populations. Our invasion syndrome models showed high predictive accuracy with a good balance between specificity and generality. Unintentionally transported and introduced species tend to be common and thrive well in human-disturbed habitats. In contrast, those with established alien populations tend to be large-sized, are habitat generalists, thrive well in human-disturbed habitats, and have large native geographic ranges. We forecast that 160 amphibians and reptiles without known invasion history could be unintentionally transported and introduced in the future. Among them, 57 species have a high risk of establishing alien populations. Our reliable, reproducible, transferable, statistically robust and scientifically defensible quantitative invasion risk assessment tool is a significant new addition to the suite of decision-support tools needed for developing a future-proof preventative biosecurity globally.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17399",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.17399",
    openalex = "W4400657875",
    references = "doi101146annurevecolsys032522015551"
}

The Anthropocene is characterised by a continuous human-mediated reshuffling of the distributions of species globally. Both intentional and unintentional introductions have resulted in numerous species being translocated beyond their native ranges, often leading to their establishment and subsequent spread - a process referred to as biological invasion. Biological invasions are associated with profound changes in the composition, structure, and functioning of recipient ecosystems, plus substantial financial losses and disruptions to society, culture, and human well-being. These ecological, economic, and socio-cultural impacts are interrelated, ubiquitous, and detrimental, yet they are often subjectively perceived or inaccurately quantified. Persistent knowledge gaps remain, however, which limit our understanding of the complex and multifaceted causes and mechanisms of invasion impacts. To overcome these gaps and comprehensively capture all related facets pertaining to the nature and diversity of invasion impact, this scoping review of academic studies, grey literature, and expert reports provides a conceptual model for interpreting invasion impacts, structured around three interrelated pillars: impact domains, challenges in the study of impacts, and available risk- and impact assessments. We initially explore the various mechanisms and consequences of ecological, economic, and socio-cultural invasion impacts and their temporal dynamics, substantiating these with relevant empirical examples. We then review common challenges and fallacies in studying invasion impacts, including context specificity and inter-comparability of impact magnitudes, challenges associated with quantifying non-ecological impacts, and research biases, before synthesising how risks are analysed and impacts assessed, and how these assessments ultimately inform management decisions. Our review underscores the multifaceted and complex nature of invasion impacts, and that effectively addressing biological invasions requires more than isolated, reactive interventions; it calls for globally coordinated, proactive action underpinned by reliable scientific knowledge, sincere political commitment, and broad public engagement. Drawing on nearly a century of literature and global expert contributions, this work offers a comprehensive, nuanced, and timely overview of the potential consequences of biological invasions, providing a valuable foundation for informing future research directions, management interventions, and policy development.

@article{doi101002brv70124,
    author = "Haubrock, Phillip J. and Everts, Teun and Abreo, Neil Angelo S. and Bojko, Jamie and Deklerck, Victor and Dickey, James W. E. and Franco, Ana Clara S. and García‐Berthou, Emili and Katsanevakis, Stelios and Kirichenko, Natalia and Mammola, Stefano and Núñez, Martín A. and Parker, Ben and Scalerà, Riccardo and Soto, Ismael Reyes and Strubbe, Diederik and Tarkan, Ali Serhan and Vilizzi, Lorenzo and Adriaens, Tim and Balzani, Paride and Błońska, Dagmara and Briski, Elizabeta and Brys, Rein and Burgess, Amy L. and Byers, James E. and Cano‐Barbacil, Carlos and Castaldelli, Giuseppe and Dick, Jaimie T.A. and Almela, Victoria Dominguez and Dimarco, Romina D. and Florencio, Margarita and Kouba, Antonín and Kourantidou, Melina and KURTUL, Irmak and Martín‐Forés, Irene and Morissette, O and Olden, Julian D. and Soares, Bruno Eleres and Truszkowski, Jakub and Verreycken, Hugo and Kenis, Marc and Sousa, Ronaldo and Britton, J. Robert",
    title = "The impacts of biological invasions",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "The Anthropocene is characterised by a continuous human-mediated reshuffling of the distributions of species globally. Both intentional and unintentional introductions have resulted in numerous species being translocated beyond their native ranges, often leading to their establishment and subsequent spread - a process referred to as biological invasion. Biological invasions are associated with profound changes in the composition, structure, and functioning of recipient ecosystems, plus substantial financial losses and disruptions to society, culture, and human well-being. These ecological, economic, and socio-cultural impacts are interrelated, ubiquitous, and detrimental, yet they are often subjectively perceived or inaccurately quantified. Persistent knowledge gaps remain, however, which limit our understanding of the complex and multifaceted causes and mechanisms of invasion impacts. To overcome these gaps and comprehensively capture all related facets pertaining to the nature and diversity of invasion impact, this scoping review of academic studies, grey literature, and expert reports provides a conceptual model for interpreting invasion impacts, structured around three interrelated pillars: impact domains, challenges in the study of impacts, and available risk- and impact assessments. We initially explore the various mechanisms and consequences of ecological, economic, and socio-cultural invasion impacts and their temporal dynamics, substantiating these with relevant empirical examples. We then review common challenges and fallacies in studying invasion impacts, including context specificity and inter-comparability of impact magnitudes, challenges associated with quantifying non-ecological impacts, and research biases, before synthesising how risks are analysed and impacts assessed, and how these assessments ultimately inform management decisions. Our review underscores the multifaceted and complex nature of invasion impacts, and that effectively addressing biological invasions requires more than isolated, reactive interventions; it calls for globally coordinated, proactive action underpinned by reliable scientific knowledge, sincere political commitment, and broad public engagement. Drawing on nearly a century of literature and global expert contributions, this work offers a comprehensive, nuanced, and timely overview of the potential consequences of biological invasions, providing a valuable foundation for informing future research directions, management interventions, and policy development.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/brv.70124",
    doi = "10.1002/brv.70124",
    openalex = "W7117538782",
    references = "doi101111brv13071"
}

Biological invasions are one of the major drivers of biodiversity decline and have been shown to have far-reaching consequences for society and the economy. Preventing the introduction and spread of alien species represents the most effective solution to reducing their impacts on nature and human well-being. However, implementing effective solutions requires a good understanding of where the species are established and how biological invasions develop over time. Knowledge of the status and trends of biological invasions is thus key for guiding research efforts, informing stakeholders and policymakers, for targeted management efforts, and preparing for the future. However, information about the status and trends of alien species is scattered, patchy, and highly incomplete, making it difficult to assess. Published reports for individual regions and taxonomic groups are available, but large-scale overviews are scarce. A global assessment therefore requires a review of available knowledge with careful consideration of sampling and reporting biases. This paper provides a comprehensive global assessment of the status and trends of alien species for major taxonomic groups [Bacteria, Protozoa, Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria (SAR), fungi, plants, and animals] for Intergovernmental Panel of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) regions. The review provides irrefutable evidence that alien species have been introduced to all regions worldwide including Antarctica and have spread to even the most remote islands. The numbers of alien species are increasing within all taxa and across all regions, and are often even accelerating. Large knowledge gaps exist, particularly for taxonomic groups other than vascular plants and vertebrates, for regions in Africa and Central Asia, and for aquatic realms. In fact, for inconspicuous species, such as Bacteria, Protozoa, and to some degree SAR and fungi, we found records for very few species and regions. Observed status and trends are thus highly influenced by research effort. More generally, it is likely that all lists for alien species of any taxonomic group and region are incomplete. The reported species numbers therefore represent minima, and we can expect additions to all lists in the near future. We identified six key challenges which need to be addressed to reduce knowledge gaps and to improve our ability to assess trends and status of biological invasions.

@article{doi101111brv70058,
    author = "Seebens, Hanno and Meyerson, Laura A. and Richardson, David M. and Lenzner, Bernd and Tricarico, Elena and Courchamp, Franck and Aleksanyan, Alla and Keskin, Emre and Saeedi, Hanieh and Akite, Perpetra and Alexander, Jake M. and Bailey, Sarah A. and Biancolini, Dino and Blackburn, Tim M. and Boehmer, Hans Juergen and Bortolus, Alejandro and Cadotte, Marc W. and Capinha, César and Carlton, James T. and Crouch, Jo Anne and Daehler, Curtis C. and Essl, Franz and Foxcroft, Llewellyn C. and Fridley, Jason D. and Fuentes, Nicol and Gaertner, Mirijam and Galil, Bella and García‐Berthou, Emili and García‐Díaz, Pablo and Haider, Sylvia and Heneghan, Liam and Hughes, Kevin A. and Hui, Cang and Kaplan, Ekin and Liebhold, Andrew M. and Liu, Chunlong and Marchante, Elizabete and Marchante, Hélia and Marticorena, Alicia and Minter, D. W. and Moreno, Rodrigo A. and Nentwig, Wolfgang and Niamir, Aidin and Novoa, Ana and Nunes, Ana L. and Pauchard, Aníbal and Rahlao, Sebataolo and Ricciardi, Anthony and Russell, James C. and Sankaran, Kavileveettil V. and Schertler, Anna and Schwindt, Evangelina and Shackleton, Ross T. and Simberloff, Daniel and Strayer, David L. and Tawake, Alifereti and Thines, Marco and Villaseñor‐Parada, Cristóbal and Vitule, Jean Ricardo Simões and Wagner, Viktoria and Werenkraut, Victoria and Wesche, Karsten and Willette, Demian A. and Zenni, Rafael Dudeque and Pyšek, Petr",
    title = "Biological invasions: a global assessment of geographic distributions, long‐term trends, and data gaps",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society",
    abstract = "Biological invasions are one of the major drivers of biodiversity decline and have been shown to have far-reaching consequences for society and the economy. Preventing the introduction and spread of alien species represents the most effective solution to reducing their impacts on nature and human well-being. However, implementing effective solutions requires a good understanding of where the species are established and how biological invasions develop over time. Knowledge of the status and trends of biological invasions is thus key for guiding research efforts, informing stakeholders and policymakers, for targeted management efforts, and preparing for the future. However, information about the status and trends of alien species is scattered, patchy, and highly incomplete, making it difficult to assess. Published reports for individual regions and taxonomic groups are available, but large-scale overviews are scarce. A global assessment therefore requires a review of available knowledge with careful consideration of sampling and reporting biases. This paper provides a comprehensive global assessment of the status and trends of alien species for major taxonomic groups [Bacteria, Protozoa, Stramenopila, Alveolata, and Rhizaria (SAR), fungi, plants, and animals] for Intergovernmental Panel of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) regions. The review provides irrefutable evidence that alien species have been introduced to all regions worldwide including Antarctica and have spread to even the most remote islands. The numbers of alien species are increasing within all taxa and across all regions, and are often even accelerating. Large knowledge gaps exist, particularly for taxonomic groups other than vascular plants and vertebrates, for regions in Africa and Central Asia, and for aquatic realms. In fact, for inconspicuous species, such as Bacteria, Protozoa, and to some degree SAR and fungi, we found records for very few species and regions. Observed status and trends are thus highly influenced by research effort. More generally, it is likely that all lists for alien species of any taxonomic group and region are incomplete. The reported species numbers therefore represent minima, and we can expect additions to all lists in the near future. We identified six key challenges which need to be addressed to reduce knowledge gaps and to improve our ability to assess trends and status of biological invasions.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.70058",
    doi = "10.1111/brv.70058",
    openalex = "W4413107227",
    references = "doi101016jforeco201205016, doi101016jpld202211004"
}

Multiple stressors, such as pollution, climate change, invasive species and fragmentation, threaten global ecosystems, requiring holistic management actions. Freshwater ecosystems are disproportionately biodiverse and particularly impacted by fragmentation and biological invasions. Artificial barriers, such as dams and weirs, are long-standing features of global landscapes, with a divergence of views on their benefits and disbenefits. Recognition of the negative impacts of barriers on the river continuum and native biota, particularly for migratory aquatic species, has led to a rapid rate of barrier removals in recent decades, especially in North America and Europe. However, since the rise in riverine barrier construction centuries ago, global biological invasion rates have concurrently surged. Artificial barriers can paradoxically slow the spread of invasive species through freshwaters, and barrier removal efforts thus risk proliferating invasive species that disperse rapidly through connected habitats. Despite well-intended plans for river restoration through barrier removals, the subsequent spread and colonisation of invasive species have been largely overlooked. This presents a 'connectivity conundrum': the removal of barriers intuitively addresses the issues of native species migrations and dispersals, but could perversely exacerbate the spread of invasive species. Basin-scale data collection around the short- and long-term impacts on invasive species will help to underpin future restoration projects and maximise the potential beneficial outcomes of barrier removals for native species.

@article{doi101111gcb70093,
    author = "Dolan, Ellen J. and Soto, Ismael and Dick, Jaimie T. A. and He, Fengzhi and Cuthbert, Ross N.",
    title = "Riverine Barrier Removals Could Proliferate Biological Invasions",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Global Change Biology",
    abstract = "Multiple stressors, such as pollution, climate change, invasive species and fragmentation, threaten global ecosystems, requiring holistic management actions. Freshwater ecosystems are disproportionately biodiverse and particularly impacted by fragmentation and biological invasions. Artificial barriers, such as dams and weirs, are long-standing features of global landscapes, with a divergence of views on their benefits and disbenefits. Recognition of the negative impacts of barriers on the river continuum and native biota, particularly for migratory aquatic species, has led to a rapid rate of barrier removals in recent decades, especially in North America and Europe. However, since the rise in riverine barrier construction centuries ago, global biological invasion rates have concurrently surged. Artificial barriers can paradoxically slow the spread of invasive species through freshwaters, and barrier removal efforts thus risk proliferating invasive species that disperse rapidly through connected habitats. Despite well-intended plans for river restoration through barrier removals, the subsequent spread and colonisation of invasive species have been largely overlooked. This presents a 'connectivity conundrum': the removal of barriers intuitively addresses the issues of native species migrations and dispersals, but could perversely exacerbate the spread of invasive species. Basin-scale data collection around the short- and long-term impacts on invasive species will help to underpin future restoration projects and maximise the potential beneficial outcomes of barrier removals for native species.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.70093",
    doi = "10.1111/gcb.70093",
    openalex = "W4408245868",
    references = "doi101111brv13071"
}

Genomics has revolutionised the study of invasive species, allowing evolutionary biologists to dissect mechanisms of invasion in unprecedented detail. Botanical research has played an important role in these advances, driving much of what we currently know about key determinants of invasion success (e.g. hybridisation, whole-genome duplication). Despite this, a comprehensive review of plant invasion genomics has been lacking. Here, we aim to address this gap, highlighting recent discoveries that have helped progress the field. For example, by leveraging genomics in natural and experimental populations, botanical research has confirmed the importance of large-effect standing variation during adaptation in invasive species. Further, genomic investigations of plants are increasingly revealing that large structural variants, as well as genetic changes induced by whole-genome duplication such as genomic redundancy or the breakdown of dosage-sensitive reproductive barriers, can play an important role during adaptive evolution of invaders. However, numerous questions remain, including when chromosomal inversions might help or hinder invasions, whether adaptive gene reuse is common during invasions, and whether epigenetically induced mutations can underpin the adaptive evolution of plasticity in invasive populations. We conclude by highlighting these and other outstanding questions that genomic studies of invasive plants are poised to help answer.

@article{doi101111nph20368,
    author = "Hodgins, Kathryn A. and Battlay, Paul and Bock, Dan G.",
    title = "The genomic secrets of invasive plants",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "New Phytologist",
    abstract = "Genomics has revolutionised the study of invasive species, allowing evolutionary biologists to dissect mechanisms of invasion in unprecedented detail. Botanical research has played an important role in these advances, driving much of what we currently know about key determinants of invasion success (e.g. hybridisation, whole-genome duplication). Despite this, a comprehensive review of plant invasion genomics has been lacking. Here, we aim to address this gap, highlighting recent discoveries that have helped progress the field. For example, by leveraging genomics in natural and experimental populations, botanical research has confirmed the importance of large-effect standing variation during adaptation in invasive species. Further, genomic investigations of plants are increasingly revealing that large structural variants, as well as genetic changes induced by whole-genome duplication such as genomic redundancy or the breakdown of dosage-sensitive reproductive barriers, can play an important role during adaptive evolution of invaders. However, numerous questions remain, including when chromosomal inversions might help or hinder invasions, whether adaptive gene reuse is common during invasions, and whether epigenetically induced mutations can underpin the adaptive evolution of plasticity in invasive populations. We conclude by highlighting these and other outstanding questions that genomic studies of invasive plants are poised to help answer.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20368",
    doi = "10.1111/nph.20368",
    openalex = "W4406045047",
    references = "doi101038452034a"
}

, are found only in farmland areas. (2) In different urban areas, native plant species and phylogenetic diversity vary in their resistance to invasive alien plants. Compared with those in other areas, the coverage and importance values of alien invasive plants in the urban countryside significantly decreased with increasing quantity of native plant species and phylogenetic diversity. (3) GDP per capita, the proportion of built-up land and road density were the main factors affecting the distribution of invasive alien plants, but there were differences in the influence of human activities in different urban areas. The importance values of invasive alien plants increased significantly with increasing population density and GDP per capita in the countryside, but there was no such trend in urban green space or farmland areas. Overall, these findings suggest that urban planning and landscape management strategies should target the management of invasive alien plants based on the characteristics in different urban areas to maintain the stability and sustainability of urban ecosystems.

@article{doi103389fpls20251539457,
    author = "Liu, Yubing and Ren, Yueheng and Zhang, Hua and Qiu, Dongdong and Zhu, Yanpeng",
    title = "Characteristics of invasive alien plants in different urban areas: the case of Kunshan City, Jiangsu Province, China",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Frontiers in Plant Science",
    abstract = ", are found only in farmland areas. (2) In different urban areas, native plant species and phylogenetic diversity vary in their resistance to invasive alien plants. Compared with those in other areas, the coverage and importance values of alien invasive plants in the urban countryside significantly decreased with increasing quantity of native plant species and phylogenetic diversity. (3) GDP per capita, the proportion of built-up land and road density were the main factors affecting the distribution of invasive alien plants, but there were differences in the influence of human activities in different urban areas. The importance values of invasive alien plants increased significantly with increasing population density and GDP per capita in the countryside, but there was no such trend in urban green space or farmland areas. Overall, these findings suggest that urban planning and landscape management strategies should target the management of invasive alien plants based on the characteristics in different urban areas to maintain the stability and sustainability of urban ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1539457",
    doi = "10.3389/fpls.2025.1539457",
    openalex = "W4408693494",
    references = "doi1023073796757"
}

expanded significantly in both total and highly suitable habitat. All species shifted their distribution centroids northward, aligning with warming trends. Overall, these findings highlight the critical role of temperature in driving range dynamics and underscore the need for latitude-specific monitoring strategies to mitigate invasion risks, providing a scientific basis for adaptive management under global climate change.

@article{doi103390plants14152363,
    author = "Lin, Mao and Ye, Xingzhuang and Zhao, Zixin and Chen, Shipin and Liu, Bao",
    title = "Comparative Analysis of Habitat Expansion Mechanisms for Four Invasive Amaranthaceae Plants Under Current and Future Climates Using MaxEnt",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Plants",
    abstract = "expanded significantly in both total and highly suitable habitat. All species shifted their distribution centroids northward, aligning with warming trends. Overall, these findings highlight the critical role of temperature in driving range dynamics and underscore the need for latitude-specific monitoring strategies to mitigate invasion risks, providing a scientific basis for adaptive management under global climate change.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152363",
    doi = "10.3390/plants14152363",
    openalex = "W4412841047",
    references = "doi101016jpld202211004"
}