Krakatau

Inmitten der Sundastrasse, zwischen Java und Sumatra, liegt eine Gruppe kleiner Inseln, welche vor einem Vierteljahrhundert Schauplatz des grossten vulkanischen Ausbruchs in historischen Zeiten gewesen sind: Krakatau 1), Verlaten Eiland und Lang Eiland. Die drei Inseln umschliessen ein fast kreisformiges Becken von etwa vierzig Quadratkilometer Flache. An dessen Stelle dehnte sich vor dem furchtbaren Ausbruch vom 26. bis 28. August 1883, von den beiden anderen Inseln nur durch schmale Meeresarme getrennt, der nordliche Teil der damals noch 9 km langen und 5 km breiten Krakatauinsel. In ihrem sudlichen Teil erhob sich als steiler Kegel der 832 m hohe Rak ā ta, an welchen sich im Zentrum der Insel der mehrgipfelige,

@book{openalexw562708344,
    author = "Alfred, Ernst",
    title = "Die neue Flora der Vulkaninsel Krakatau",
    year = "1907",
    abstract = "Inmitten der Sundastrasse, zwischen Java und Sumatra, liegt eine Gruppe kleiner Inseln, welche vor einem Vierteljahrhundert Schauplatz des grossten vulkanischen Ausbruchs in historischen Zeiten gewesen sind: Krakatau 1), Verlaten Eiland und Lang Eiland. Die drei Inseln umschliessen ein fast kreisformiges Becken von etwa vierzig Quadratkilometer Flache. An dessen Stelle dehnte sich vor dem furchtbaren Ausbruch vom 26. bis 28. August 1883, von den beiden anderen Inseln nur durch schmale Meeresarme getrennt, der nordliche Teil der damals noch 9 km langen und 5 km breiten Krakatauinsel. In ihrem sudlichen Teil erhob sich als steiler Kegel der 832 m hohe Rak ā ta, an welchen sich im Zentrum der Insel der mehrgipfelige,",
    openalex = "W562708344"
}

@misc{dammerman1948the1,
    author = "Dammerman, K. W",
    title = "The fauna of Krakatau",
    year = "1948",
    howpublished = "1883-1933: Verhandel. Kon-Inkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap. Afdel. Natuurk., v. 44, p. 1-594",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dammerman, K. W., 1948, The fauna of Krakatau: 1883-1933: Verhandel. Kon-Inkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap. Afdel. Natuurk., v. 44, p. 1-594.}"
}

@article{openalexw2971204647,
    author = "Dammerman, K. W.",
    title = "The Fauna of Krakatau",
    year = "1948",
    journal = "Utah State Research and Scholarship (Utah State University)",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W2971204647",
    openalex = "W2971204647"
}

Uploaded by Plazi for TaxoDros. We do not have abstracts.

@article{doi105281zenodo10755352,
    author = "Lindroth, Carl H. and Andersson, Hugo and Bodvarsson, Högni and Richter, S.",
    title = "Surtsey, Iceland. The Development of a New Fauna, 1963-1970. Terrestrial Invertebrates.",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)",
    abstract = "Uploaded by Plazi for TaxoDros. We do not have abstracts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10755352",
    doi = "10.5281/zenodo.10755352",
    openalex = "W2279678009"
}

Minute genera, whose shell measures less than 100 mm, form 60.0% of the Pacific land snail fauna. In contrast to this, the minute class only represents 27.1% of the continental fauna. The mean generic size in the Pacific fauna is correspondingly lower: 11.9 mm vs. 20.6. The difference between the 2 groups is statistically highly significant. Similarly to the Pacific, the eastern Pacific and eastern Atlantic insular land snail faunas and the wide-spread fauna also are dominated by the minute genera. From these observations it is concluded that minute body size is advantageous for long distance dispersal, both overseas and overland, in the land snails. This in turn indicates that the mechanism involved must be aerial, since only in this type of dispersal are small size and light weight advantageous. The minute species also are, as a rule, more abundant than the large ones, which constitutes a further advantage. Support to the hypothesis is provided by the facts that land snails have been recovered from the plumage of birds; that recently formed volcanic islands have been colonized predominantly by minute land snails, and that mineral particles considerably larger and heavier than the minute land snails have been collected at high altitudes by airplanes. Alternative hypotheses are considered and rejected on the grounds that their tenets are unproven, unnecessary or erroneous; however, it is emphasized that the relationship between body size and area size needs further analysis. The characteristics of insular land snail faunas are summarized as follows: predominance of minute genera; high frequency of primitive, orthurethran genera and families; resemblance to the fauna of the nearest continent; low degree of endemism on the family level, increasingly higher, on the genus and species level, relatively recent origin, through aerial immigration. [Biogeography; body size; aerial dispersal; Pacific land snail fauna.]

@article{doi101093sysbio244465,
    author = "Vagvolgyi, Joseph",
    title = "Body Size, Aerial Dispersal, and Origin of the Pacific Land Snail Fauna",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Systematic Biology",
    abstract = "Minute genera, whose shell measures less than 100 mm, form 60.0\% of the Pacific land snail fauna. In contrast to this, the minute class only represents 27.1\% of the continental fauna. The mean generic size in the Pacific fauna is correspondingly lower: 11.9 mm vs. 20.6. The difference between the 2 groups is statistically highly significant. Similarly to the Pacific, the eastern Pacific and eastern Atlantic insular land snail faunas and the wide-spread fauna also are dominated by the minute genera. From these observations it is concluded that minute body size is advantageous for long distance dispersal, both overseas and overland, in the land snails. This in turn indicates that the mechanism involved must be aerial, since only in this type of dispersal are small size and light weight advantageous. The minute species also are, as a rule, more abundant than the large ones, which constitutes a further advantage. Support to the hypothesis is provided by the facts that land snails have been recovered from the plumage of birds; that recently formed volcanic islands have been colonized predominantly by minute land snails, and that mineral particles considerably larger and heavier than the minute land snails have been collected at high altitudes by airplanes. Alternative hypotheses are considered and rejected on the grounds that their tenets are unproven, unnecessary or erroneous; however, it is emphasized that the relationship between body size and area size needs further analysis. The characteristics of insular land snail faunas are summarized as follows: predominance of minute genera; high frequency of primitive, orthurethran genera and families; resemblance to the fauna of the nearest continent; low degree of endemism on the family level, increasingly higher, on the genus and species level, relatively recent origin, through aerial immigration. [Biogeography; body size; aerial dispersal; Pacific land snail fauna.]",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/24.4.465",
    doi = "10.1093/sysbio/24.4.465",
    openalex = "W2326745875",
    references = "openalexw2971204647"
}

@article{doi101038294699a0,
    author = "Self, Stephen and Rampino, Michael R.",
    title = "The 1883 eruption of Krakatau",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/294699a0",
    doi = "10.1038/294699a0",
    openalex = "W2070209458"
}

@article{doi101038scientificamerican1183172,
    author = "Francis, P. W. and Self, Stephen",
    title = "The Eruption of Krakatau",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Scientific American",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1183-172",
    doi = "10.1038/scientificamerican1183-172",
    openalex = "W2086436959"
}

@article{doi101127zfg281984347,
    author = "Bird, Eric and Rosengren, Neville",
    title = "The changing coastline of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1127/zfg/28/1984/347",
    doi = "10.1127/zfg/28/1984/347",
    openalex = "W4387517876"
}

@article{doi101177030913338400800103,
    author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Richards, Keith and Wiriadinata, Harry and Flenley, J. R.",
    title = "Krakatau 1883 to 1983",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Progress in Physical Geography Earth and Environment",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1177/030913338400800103",
    doi = "10.1177/030913338400800103",
    openalex = "W2031194434",
    references = "doi1010079789400958005, doi1010160378112776900104, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101111j155856461969tb03503x, doi102136sssaj195503615995001900010026x, doi1023072257036, doi1023072481776, doi1023072806589, doi1023072844658, openalexw2055699291"
}

@article{doi1018960seitai344383,
    author = "Suzuki, Eizi",
    title = "Ecesic pattern of Saccharum spontaneum L. on Anak Krakatau Island, Indonesia",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Nihon Seitai Gakkaishi",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18960/seitai.34.4\_383",
    doi = "10.18960/seitai.34.4\_383",
    openalex = "W2185553485"
}

@article{doi1018984lepid35247,
    author = "Yukawa, Junichi",
    title = "Geographical Ecology of the Butterfly Fauna of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Lepidoptera Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.18984/lepid.35.2\_47",
    doi = "10.18984/lepid.35.2\_47",
    openalex = "W3216466927"
}

@article{openalexw3172748047,
    author = "Abe, Takuya",
    title = "Colonization of the Krakatau Islands by termites (Insecta: Isoptera)",
    year = "1984",
    journal = "Medical Entomology and Zoology",
    openalex = "W3172748047"
}

@article{doi101007bf00039928,
    author = "Tagawa, Hideo and Suzuki, Eizi and Partomihardjo, T. and Suriadarma, A.",
    title = "Vegetation and succession on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Vegetatio",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00039928",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00039928",
    openalex = "W37945992",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav21i32664, doi1018960seitai344383, openalexw2334406281, openalexw2768877344, openalexw2904247728, openalexw562708344, openalexw628524763, openalexw880346101"
}

MacArthur and Wilson [MacArthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ)] used the rate of recolonization of the Krakatau Islands (sterilized in the cataclysmic 1883 eruption) by birds and vascular plants to test their equilibrium model of immigration and extinction processes on islands. Working with data only up to 1933, they concluded that the number of resident land bird species had approached equilibrium by 1908-1919, 25-36 years after the eruption, when the number of vascular plant species was still increasing. Recent surveys of vertebrates on the archipelago show continuing colonization, as well as species turnover. Nonmigrant nonmarine birds and reptiles are only now approaching equilibrium species numbers; archipelago acquisition rates for these groups are lower than in the 40 years following the 1883 eruption. Apparent (minimal) annual extinction rates are an order of magnitude lower than those calculated for equilibrium by MacArthur and Wilson. The active volcano Anak Krakatau emerged in 1930 and suffered an eruption in 1952 that destroyed the vegetation. It is still at an early stage of succession and on the threshold of major vegetational change. This island and a physically dynamic, ever-young spit on Sertung I, also held at an early successional stage, may provide (i) ecological refuges for some species whose optimal habitat on the older islands is being extirpated by vegetational succession and (ii) ecological "windows" through which such species may still establish from the mainland, thus postponing their extinction on the archipelago.

@article{doi101073pnas852515,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Zann, Richard and Rawlinson, P. A. and Tidemann, Christopher R. and Adikerana, A S and Widjoya, A. H. T.",
    title = "Colonization of the Krakatau Islands by vertebrates: equilibrium, succession, and possible delayed extinction.",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = {MacArthur and Wilson [MacArthur, R. H. \& Wilson, E. O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ)] used the rate of recolonization of the Krakatau Islands (sterilized in the cataclysmic 1883 eruption) by birds and vascular plants to test their equilibrium model of immigration and extinction processes on islands. Working with data only up to 1933, they concluded that the number of resident land bird species had approached equilibrium by 1908-1919, 25-36 years after the eruption, when the number of vascular plant species was still increasing. Recent surveys of vertebrates on the archipelago show continuing colonization, as well as species turnover. Nonmigrant nonmarine birds and reptiles are only now approaching equilibrium species numbers; archipelago acquisition rates for these groups are lower than in the 40 years following the 1883 eruption. Apparent (minimal) annual extinction rates are an order of magnitude lower than those calculated for equilibrium by MacArthur and Wilson. The active volcano Anak Krakatau emerged in 1930 and suffered an eruption in 1952 that destroyed the vegetation. It is still at an early stage of succession and on the threshold of major vegetational change. This island and a physically dynamic, ever-young spit on Sertung I, also held at an early successional stage, may provide (i) ecological refuges for some species whose optimal habitat on the older islands is being extirpated by vegetational succession and (ii) ecological "windows" through which such species may still establish from the mainland, thus postponing their extinction on the archipelago.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.85.2.515",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.85.2.515",
    openalex = "W2118265518",
    references = "doi101073pnas64157, doi1015159781400881376"
}

Abstract This paper is a general introduction to a series of papers reporting the results of the 1984 and 1985 Zoological Expeditions to the Krakataus. The geological history, history of human habitation, climate, morphology and vegetation of the archipelago are outlined. Previous zoological expeditions are noted, and the coverage and methods used in the 1984 and 1985 expeditions are provided. The biogeographical significance of the archipelago for studies of ecosystem succession, colonization and island biogeography is briefly discussed.

@article{doi101098rstb19880126,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Rosengren, Neville",
    title = "Zoological expeditions to the Krakatau Islands, 1984 and 1985: General introduction",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract This paper is a general introduction to a series of papers reporting the results of the 1984 and 1985 Zoological Expeditions to the Krakataus. The geological history, history of human habitation, climate, morphology and vegetation of the archipelago are outlined. Previous zoological expeditions are noted, and the coverage and methods used in the 1984 and 1985 expeditions are provided. The biogeographical significance of the archipelago for studies of ecosystem succession, colonization and island biogeography is briefly discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1988.0126",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1988.0126",
    openalex = "W2014824664",
    references = "doi101038scientificamerican1183172, doi101073pnas69113199, doi101111j155856461963tb03295x, doi101126science1844138803, doi1011639789004646698, doi1014203treubiav22i22676, doi1023071365812, doi1023071367103, doi1033112surtsey79, doi105281zenodo10755352, openalexw2583877882"
}

Abstract The land molluscs collected on the 1984-85 Zoological Expeditions to the Krakatau Islands are reported on, and a synopsis provided of all previous land mollusc records since the 1883 eruption. The current fauna of the islands is 19 species, 16 from Rakata, 12 from Sertung, 7 from Panjang and 1 from Anak Krakatau, the latter being the first record of a land snail from that island. Six species are recorded for the first time from the Krakatau Islands. These are Filicaulis bleekerii, Pupisoma orcula, Elasmias sundanum, Lamellidea (Lamellidea) subcylindrica, Microcystina gratilla and Landouria rotatoria. Radulae of several of the species are figured. The expeditions produced 19 new records for individual islands.

@article{doi101098rstb19880133,
    author = "Smith, Brian J. and Djajasasmita, Machfudz",
    title = "The land molluscs of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract The land molluscs collected on the 1984-85 Zoological Expeditions to the Krakatau Islands are reported on, and a synopsis provided of all previous land mollusc records since the 1883 eruption. The current fauna of the islands is 19 species, 16 from Rakata, 12 from Sertung, 7 from Panjang and 1 from Anak Krakatau, the latter being the first record of a land snail from that island. Six species are recorded for the first time from the Krakatau Islands. These are Filicaulis bleekerii, Pupisoma orcula, Elasmias sundanum, Lamellidea (Lamellidea) subcylindrica, Microcystina gratilla and Landouria rotatoria. Radulae of several of the species are figured. The expeditions produced 19 new records for individual islands.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1988.0133",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1988.0133",
    openalex = "W2099058136",
    references = "doi101098rstb19880126, doi101177030913338400800103, doi1014203treubiav3i01618"
}

Abstract Collections of butterflies from the Krakatau Islands made from 1982-85 are discussed. Twenty species new to the island group and many new records to particular islands imply that the butterfly fauna is far from equilibrium. The colonization trends are discussed in relation to the habitats available, and conservation measures are suggested.

@article{doi101098rstb19880137,
    author = "New, T. R. and Bush, Mark B. and Thornton, I. W. B. and Sudarman, H. K.",
    title = "The butterfly fauna of the Krakatau Islands after a century of colonization",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Collections of butterflies from the Krakatau Islands made from 1982-85 are discussed. Twenty species new to the island group and many new records to particular islands imply that the butterfly fauna is far from equilibrium. The colonization trends are discussed in relation to the habitats available, and conservation measures are suggested.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1988.0137",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1988.0137",
    openalex = "W2079519575",
    references = "doi101086283689, doi101098rstb19880126, doi1018984lepid35247, doi105962p266773"
}

Abstract This paper describes aspects of the chalcid fauna of the Krakatau Islands in relation to recolonization and floral succession. Chalcids of the family Agaonidae (fig wasps) are the obligate pollinators of fig trees (Ficusspp.). The years 1984-86 appear to have spanned a critical period in the colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus and its associated animals. Within this period, flowering and successful pollination have taken place for the first time and the diversity of fruit-eating vertebrates has multiplied. The chalcids present on Anak Krakatau were compared with those found on other islands in the group. The chalcid fauna of Anak Krakatau had most in common with that of the spit area of northern Sertung, with which it shares a Casuarina-dominated vegetation. Comparisons between chalcids collected by similar methods on the Krakatau Islands and in tropical West Africa indicated that at the family level the faunas are remarkably similar.

@article{doi101098rstb19880138,
    author = "Compton, Stephen G. and Thornton, I. W. B. and New, T. R. and Underhill, Les G",
    title = "The colonization of the Krakatau Islands by fig wasps and other chalcids (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea)",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract This paper describes aspects of the chalcid fauna of the Krakatau Islands in relation to recolonization and floral succession. Chalcids of the family Agaonidae (fig wasps) are the obligate pollinators of fig trees (Ficusspp.). The years 1984-86 appear to have spanned a critical period in the colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus and its associated animals. Within this period, flowering and successful pollination have taken place for the first time and the diversity of fruit-eating vertebrates has multiplied. The chalcids present on Anak Krakatau were compared with those found on other islands in the group. The chalcid fauna of Anak Krakatau had most in common with that of the spit area of northern Sertung, with which it shares a Casuarina-dominated vegetation. Comparisons between chalcids collected by similar methods on the Krakatau Islands and in tropical West Africa indicated that at the family level the faunas are remarkably similar.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1988.0138",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1988.0138",
    openalex = "W2074689882",
    references = "doi10100797814613342178, doi101017cbo9780511623332, doi10108000222938200770261, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880137, doi101111j143886771957tb00577x, doi101111j155856461970tb01804x, doi101146annureves10110179000305, doi1023071930989, doi1023071934454, doi1023072531266, openalexw1584591141"
}

Abstract The results of surveys made of the invertebrate fauna of the Krakatau Islands in the 1980s, about 100 years since Krakatau’s destructive eruption, are reviewed in the context of earlier surveys, and as a reference for future work on the islands as colonization continues. The possibility of invertebrates surviving the 1883 eruption is discussed and, on balance, rejected. Dispersal modes of invertebrate groups are related to their archipelagic distributions; prerequisites for successful establishment and the sequence of colonization are discussed. The present fauna of the young island of Anak Krakatau (emerged 1930) is discussed in relation to records of recolonization of the three older islands in the first fifty years after 1883. We identify three early pioneer animal communities that exploit energy sources outside the island system and thus are able to establish themselves before plants have successfully colonized. Invertebrate groups are at differing stages on the route towards an equilibrium number of species, and ecological changes involved in equilibration of the fauna as a whole should be the subject of future studies.

@article{doi101098rstb19880142,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and New, T. R.",
    title = "Krakatau invertebrates: The 1980s fauna in the context of a century of recolonization",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract The results of surveys made of the invertebrate fauna of the Krakatau Islands in the 1980s, about 100 years since Krakatau’s destructive eruption, are reviewed in the context of earlier surveys, and as a reference for future work on the islands as colonization continues. The possibility of invertebrates surviving the 1883 eruption is discussed and, on balance, rejected. Dispersal modes of invertebrate groups are related to their archipelagic distributions; prerequisites for successful establishment and the sequence of colonization are discussed. The present fauna of the young island of Anak Krakatau (emerged 1930) is discussed in relation to records of recolonization of the three older islands in the first fifty years after 1883. We identify three early pioneer animal communities that exploit energy sources outside the island system and thus are able to establish themselves before plants have successfully colonized. Invertebrate groups are at differing stages on the route towards an equilibrium number of species, and ecological changes involved in equilibration of the fauna as a whole should be the subject of future studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1988.0142",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1988.0142",
    openalex = "W2056539382",
    references = "doi1010079783642748646, doi101007bf00039928, doi101073pnas852515, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880138, doi101177030913338400800103, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1023071934598, doi1024199jmmv19884913, doi105281zenodo10755352, openalexw3172748047"
}

@article{doi1024199jmmv19884913,
    author = "Harvey, Mark S.",
    title = "Pseudoscorpions from Krakatau Islands and adjacent regions, Indonesia (Chelicerata: Pseudoscorpionida)",
    year = "1988",
    journal = "Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.24199/j.mmv.1988.49.13",
    doi = "10.24199/j.mmv.1988.49.13",
    openalex = "W2755710394"
}

The development of the vegetation and floras of the Krakatau Islands in the Sunda Straits, Indonesia, since their "sterilization" in 1883 is described. Key features of the post—1883 environment, such as pedogenesis, geomorphology (coastal change), human influence, and recent volcanic activity are detailed, and their possible influence on spatial and temporal patterns in both vegetation and flora is discussed. Field work conducted in 1979, 1983, and 1984 has enabled an assessment of the present state of vegetation development, aided by plot—based sampling and analysis of the arboreal component, employing numerical classification (by TWINSPAN) and ordination (by DCA). The coastal communities were established early and have remained little changed, although the distribution of the various components has changed according to the influence of a dynamic coastal geomorphology. Fifty years after forest closure, the forest of the interiors remain species—poor and composed of typical early—seral species. Rakata was dominated inland by Neonauclea calycina and Ficus pubinervis up to ≈550 m altitude, above which a mossy forest of Ficus spp. and Schefflera polybotrya scrub was recorded. The main inland forest types on Rakata Kecil and Sertung were of young, evenaged stands of Timonius compressicaulis (extensive) and older stands of Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (often with a T. compressicaulis understory). The principal axes of variation within the data were found to be between extremes of the Rakata forest types, with Sertung and R. Kecil stands remaining undifferentiated until lower levels of the analyses. These patterns were ascribed to a mix of environmental variation (coastal and altitudinal factors), chance variations in colonization, and to volcanic action following the emergence of Anak Krakatau in 1927. Disturbance by volcanism (e.g., in 1930, 1934—1936, 1939, 1952—1953, 1961) has resulted in the deflection of vegetation succession on R. Kecil and Sertung into a different pathway from that followed on Rakata, which has remained unaffected by the activity. On Anak Krakatau, volcanic action has prevented successful colonization away from accreting coastal deposits, and has several times eliminated the entire flora. In addition, the major source of propagules for Anak Krakatau is from within the group, and for these several reasons the new island is shown to be a poor analogue for the early recovery phases of the other islands. Complete floral lists are given for each recorded survey for each island in the group, including data from surveys in 1979, 1982, and 1983. These data have been revised from previous publications on the basis of recent herbarium work and literature searches. The data are analyzed according to several different models: cumulative species totals, species totals for particular combinations of surveys, and totals calculated on the assumption of minimum turnover. The early beach spermatophyte assemblages of Rakata have undergone relatively few losses in comparison to the assemblages of the interior, while within the latter there has been a relatively high proportion of losses among the pioneering pteridophytes. The possession of major habitat types has been identified as critical in determining the shape of the overall colonization curve, through the passive sampling of different source pools. The diversity of the floras of the group as a whole and of Rakata and Anak Krakatau has continued to increase. The curves of species present on Sertung and R. Kecil have levelled and fallen respectively, as a result of the volcanic activity of Anak Krakatau. It is shown that the number of animal—transported species on the Krakatau group has continued to increase over the last 50 yr, and that this accounts for the majority of the increase in the size of the spermatophyte flora. The animal—transported species and the early sea—dispersed species appear to be species—stable groups. Later sea—dispersed species included ephemerals and species of temporary habitats, and have experienced a relatively high proportion of losses. Few beach species that have established on all of the three main islands have subsequently become extinct from the group. The number of pteridophytes on the islands has increased over the last 50 yr, mainly through the addition of forest species. A large proportion of plant species has been found only on Rakata, which samples an upland source pool not represented on the other islands. It is argued that the assumptions of "classical" island biogeography are inappropriate to these data and that the pattern in floral recolonization can best be understood as a successional process involving broad habitat and dispersal mechanism determinants. The implication of these findings is that community dynamics are highly significant in determining rates of immigration, colonization (i.e., successful immigration), and extinction, and that the probabilities of each vary among different groups of species and through time.

@article{doi1023072937282,
    author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Bush, Mark B. and Richards, Karen",
    title = "Plant Recolonization and Vegetation Succession on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Ecological Monographs",
    abstract = {The development of the vegetation and floras of the Krakatau Islands in the Sunda Straits, Indonesia, since their "sterilization" in 1883 is described. Key features of the post—1883 environment, such as pedogenesis, geomorphology (coastal change), human influence, and recent volcanic activity are detailed, and their possible influence on spatial and temporal patterns in both vegetation and flora is discussed. Field work conducted in 1979, 1983, and 1984 has enabled an assessment of the present state of vegetation development, aided by plot—based sampling and analysis of the arboreal component, employing numerical classification (by TWINSPAN) and ordination (by DCA). The coastal communities were established early and have remained little changed, although the distribution of the various components has changed according to the influence of a dynamic coastal geomorphology. Fifty years after forest closure, the forest of the interiors remain species—poor and composed of typical early—seral species. Rakata was dominated inland by Neonauclea calycina and Ficus pubinervis up to ≈550 m altitude, above which a mossy forest of Ficus spp. and Schefflera polybotrya scrub was recorded. The main inland forest types on Rakata Kecil and Sertung were of young, evenaged stands of Timonius compressicaulis (extensive) and older stands of Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (often with a T. compressicaulis understory). The principal axes of variation within the data were found to be between extremes of the Rakata forest types, with Sertung and R. Kecil stands remaining undifferentiated until lower levels of the analyses. These patterns were ascribed to a mix of environmental variation (coastal and altitudinal factors), chance variations in colonization, and to volcanic action following the emergence of Anak Krakatau in 1927. Disturbance by volcanism (e.g., in 1930, 1934—1936, 1939, 1952—1953, 1961) has resulted in the deflection of vegetation succession on R. Kecil and Sertung into a different pathway from that followed on Rakata, which has remained unaffected by the activity. On Anak Krakatau, volcanic action has prevented successful colonization away from accreting coastal deposits, and has several times eliminated the entire flora. In addition, the major source of propagules for Anak Krakatau is from within the group, and for these several reasons the new island is shown to be a poor analogue for the early recovery phases of the other islands. Complete floral lists are given for each recorded survey for each island in the group, including data from surveys in 1979, 1982, and 1983. These data have been revised from previous publications on the basis of recent herbarium work and literature searches. The data are analyzed according to several different models: cumulative species totals, species totals for particular combinations of surveys, and totals calculated on the assumption of minimum turnover. The early beach spermatophyte assemblages of Rakata have undergone relatively few losses in comparison to the assemblages of the interior, while within the latter there has been a relatively high proportion of losses among the pioneering pteridophytes. The possession of major habitat types has been identified as critical in determining the shape of the overall colonization curve, through the passive sampling of different source pools. The diversity of the floras of the group as a whole and of Rakata and Anak Krakatau has continued to increase. The curves of species present on Sertung and R. Kecil have levelled and fallen respectively, as a result of the volcanic activity of Anak Krakatau. It is shown that the number of animal—transported species on the Krakatau group has continued to increase over the last 50 yr, and that this accounts for the majority of the increase in the size of the spermatophyte flora. The animal—transported species and the early sea—dispersed species appear to be species—stable groups. Later sea—dispersed species included ephemerals and species of temporary habitats, and have experienced a relatively high proportion of losses. Few beach species that have established on all of the three main islands have subsequently become extinct from the group. The number of pteridophytes on the islands has increased over the last 50 yr, mainly through the addition of forest species. A large proportion of plant species has been found only on Rakata, which samples an upland source pool not represented on the other islands. It is argued that the assumptions of "classical" island biogeography are inappropriate to these data and that the pattern in floral recolonization can best be understood as a successional process involving broad habitat and dispersal mechanism determinants. The implication of these findings is that community dynamics are highly significant in determining rates of immigration, colonization (i.e., successful immigration), and extinction, and that the probabilities of each vary among different groups of species and through time.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2937282",
    doi = "10.2307/2937282",
    openalex = "W2297946273"
}

Abstract The results of terrestrial vertebrate collecting on the Krakatau Islands, Sunda Strait, during La Trobe University-L.I.P.I. expeditions in 1984, 1985 and 1986 are reported and previous records from the islands are consolidated and reviewed. Since the 1883 eruption of Krakatau, 15 species of terrestrial vertebrates (13 reptiles and 2 mammals) have been recorded from the Krakatau Group. Two of the species records (Crocodylus porosus and Cosymbotus platyursare only incidental but the remaining thirteen species have at some stage established breeding populations on one or more islands. In the first 50 years up to 1933, ten species (eight reptiles and two mammals) reached the islands, eight of which (Hemidactylus frenatus, Lepidodactylus lugubris, Emoia atrocostata, Mabuya multifasciata,Varanus salvator, Python reticulatus, Rattus rattus and Rattus tiomanicus) had established breeding populations. Results of collections made over the period 1982-1986 showed that two of the species (L. lugubris and E. atrocostata) with breeding populations in 1933 had become extinct, whereas five new species (Gekko gecko, Gekko monarchus, Hemiphyllodactylus typus, Chrysopelea paradisi and Ramphotyphlops braminus) have reached the islands and established breeding populations. Therefore at the end of 100 years, eleven species of terrestrial vertebrates have extant breeding populations on one or more islands in the Krakatau group; two species have become extinct; and two species have incidental records. Significant ecological changes in the development of the present day terrestrial fauna are discussed. These include canopy closure of the forests and continual marine erosion of the coasts that together have eliminated most of the open habitats on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang; heavy ash falls from volcanic eruptions on Anak Krakatau that have periodically disrupted successional stages and habitats on Sertung, Panjang and Anak Krakatau. The dispersal of terrestrial vertebrates in the Sunda Strait is discussed in the light of the heavy boat traffic and the predominant southwest ocean currents. It is concluded that dispersal by human agency on boats is highly significant, seven of the 15 recorded species (46%) being most likely to have reached the islands in this way; and the prevailing southwest flow of water in Sunda Strait makes Sebesi and Sumatra the probable source areas for the eight species most likely to have dispersed on ocean currents by swimming or rafting. Anak Krakatau, the volcanic island that became permanent in Aug. 1930, has three species of terrestrial vertebrates (H. frenatus, V. salvator. and C. paradisi) all of which have established breeding populations on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang. The early arrival of H. frenatus and V. salvator and their present abundance on all four islands distinguishes them as the most successful terrestrial vertebrate colonizers of the Krakatau group.

@article{doi101098rstb19900107,
    author = "Rawlinson, P. A. and Widjoya, A. H. T. and Hutchinson, Mark N. and Brown, George W.",
    title = "The terrestrial vertebrate fauna of the krakatau islands, sunda strait, 1883-1986",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract The results of terrestrial vertebrate collecting on the Krakatau Islands, Sunda Strait, during La Trobe University-L.I.P.I. expeditions in 1984, 1985 and 1986 are reported and previous records from the islands are consolidated and reviewed. Since the 1883 eruption of Krakatau, 15 species of terrestrial vertebrates (13 reptiles and 2 mammals) have been recorded from the Krakatau Group. Two of the species records (Crocodylus porosus and Cosymbotus platyursare only incidental but the remaining thirteen species have at some stage established breeding populations on one or more islands. In the first 50 years up to 1933, ten species (eight reptiles and two mammals) reached the islands, eight of which (Hemidactylus frenatus, Lepidodactylus lugubris, Emoia atrocostata, Mabuya multifasciata,Varanus salvator, Python reticulatus, Rattus rattus and Rattus tiomanicus) had established breeding populations. Results of collections made over the period 1982-1986 showed that two of the species (L. lugubris and E. atrocostata) with breeding populations in 1933 had become extinct, whereas five new species (Gekko gecko, Gekko monarchus, Hemiphyllodactylus typus, Chrysopelea paradisi and Ramphotyphlops braminus) have reached the islands and established breeding populations. Therefore at the end of 100 years, eleven species of terrestrial vertebrates have extant breeding populations on one or more islands in the Krakatau group; two species have become extinct; and two species have incidental records. Significant ecological changes in the development of the present day terrestrial fauna are discussed. These include canopy closure of the forests and continual marine erosion of the coasts that together have eliminated most of the open habitats on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang; heavy ash falls from volcanic eruptions on Anak Krakatau that have periodically disrupted successional stages and habitats on Sertung, Panjang and Anak Krakatau. The dispersal of terrestrial vertebrates in the Sunda Strait is discussed in the light of the heavy boat traffic and the predominant southwest ocean currents. It is concluded that dispersal by human agency on boats is highly significant, seven of the 15 recorded species (46\%) being most likely to have reached the islands in this way; and the prevailing southwest flow of water in Sunda Strait makes Sebesi and Sumatra the probable source areas for the eight species most likely to have dispersed on ocean currents by swimming or rafting. Anak Krakatau, the volcanic island that became permanent in Aug. 1930, has three species of terrestrial vertebrates (H. frenatus, V. salvator. and C. paradisi) all of which have established breeding populations on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang. The early arrival of H. frenatus and V. salvator and their present abundance on all four islands distinguishes them as the most successful terrestrial vertebrate colonizers of the Krakatau group.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1990.0107",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1990.0107",
    openalex = "W2073061111",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511703409, doi101127zfg281984347, doi1014203treubiav16i02539, doi1014203treubiav16i12505, doi1014203treubiav3i01618, openalexw2999945524"
}

Abstract Fifty-five species of birds were recorded from the four islands of the Krakatau archipelago during three expeditions that took place in 1984, 1985 and 1986, just over a century after the destructive eruption of 1883. Thirty-six of these species were non-migrant land birds, the remainder seabirds, shorebirds or migrants. Fourteen species were recorded for the first time in this decade, eight of which are resident land birds. There were many new records for individual islands, especially for Panjang, an island ignored by previous expeditions; Anak Krakatau supported 24 species of resident land birds on some 12-14 ha (1 hectare = 104 m2) of vegetation. The avifauna of the Krakataus is compared and contrasted with that of two other islands in the Sunda Strait, Sebesi and Panaitan.

@article{doi101098rstb19900108,
    author = "Zann, Richard and Walker, Marcus and Adhikerana, Asep S. and Davison, Geoffrey and Male, E. B. and Darjono",
    title = "The birds of Krakatau Islands (Indonesia)",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Fifty-five species of birds were recorded from the four islands of the Krakatau archipelago during three expeditions that took place in 1984, 1985 and 1986, just over a century after the destructive eruption of 1883. Thirty-six of these species were non-migrant land birds, the remainder seabirds, shorebirds or migrants. Fourteen species were recorded for the first time in this decade, eight of which are resident land birds. There were many new records for individual islands, especially for Panjang, an island ignored by previous expeditions; Anak Krakatau supported 24 species of resident land birds on some 12-14 ha (1 hectare = 104 m2) of vegetation. The avifauna of the Krakataus is compared and contrasted with that of two other islands in the Sunda Strait, Sebesi and Panaitan.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1990.0108",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1990.0108",
    openalex = "W1971904704",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav22i22676"
}

Abstract Bird colonization of Anak Krakatau in the 1980s serves as a model for the early colonization processes, which were mostly undocumented, that occurred on the archipelago in the first two decades of this century. Anak Krakatau, which emerged from the sea in 1930, also provides an opportunity to study the formation of an avian community de novo. Thirty-seven species of birds have been recorded since 1951. Shore birds and aerial insectivores were the first species to exploit the newly emerged island. Plant succession, which is proceeding at different rates on different parts of the island, has provided niches for birds to permanently colonize. Species of open habitats (Caprimulgus affinis, Centropus bengalensis) were the first colonists, followed next by ecological generalists with good dispersal ability (Pycnonotus Goiavier, Halcyon chloris); the next species were those that exploit casuarina woodland and forest and the most recent wave of colonists have been frugivores that arrived after figs began to bear fruit in 1985. Three raptors that hunt on the island have limited the colonization of three large frugivores. Most, but not all, colonists have come from the older islands, including those species denied open habitats by plant succession. Comparisons are made with the bird colonization of Rakata during the first two decades of this century. Most birds on Anak Krakatau are insectivores and are restricted to two areas of trees some 12 hectares in total. Foraging methods and sites show little overlap, but dietary analysis in August 1986 showed some common prey items. The very high density of insectivores may be a function of insect abundance on the island and high fecundity and tolerance of crowding by early bird colonists.

@article{doi101098rstb19900110,
    author = "Zann, Richard and Male, E. B. and Darjono",
    title = "Bird colonization of Anak Krakatau, an emergent volcanic island",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Bird colonization of Anak Krakatau in the 1980s serves as a model for the early colonization processes, which were mostly undocumented, that occurred on the archipelago in the first two decades of this century. Anak Krakatau, which emerged from the sea in 1930, also provides an opportunity to study the formation of an avian community de novo. Thirty-seven species of birds have been recorded since 1951. Shore birds and aerial insectivores were the first species to exploit the newly emerged island. Plant succession, which is proceeding at different rates on different parts of the island, has provided niches for birds to permanently colonize. Species of open habitats (Caprimulgus affinis, Centropus bengalensis) were the first colonists, followed next by ecological generalists with good dispersal ability (Pycnonotus Goiavier, Halcyon chloris); the next species were those that exploit casuarina woodland and forest and the most recent wave of colonists have been frugivores that arrived after figs began to bear fruit in 1985. Three raptors that hunt on the island have limited the colonization of three large frugivores. Most, but not all, colonists have come from the older islands, including those species denied open habitats by plant succession. Comparisons are made with the bird colonization of Rakata during the first two decades of this century. Most birds on Anak Krakatau are insectivores and are restricted to two areas of trees some 12 hectares in total. Foraging methods and sites show little overlap, but dietary analysis in August 1986 showed some common prey items. The very high density of insectivores may be a function of insect abundance on the island and high fecundity and tolerance of crowding by early bird colonists.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1990.0110",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1990.0110",
    openalex = "W2029999201",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav22i22676"
}

Abstract Since the cataclysmic eruption of 1883, 25 species of bats, of which 11 are pteropodids, have recolonized the Krakatau Islands and adjacent areas of West Java, Indonesia. Sixteen have been recorded on the Krakatau Islands. Documentation of the recolonization process has been sporadic, and almost certainly incomplete, but it is apparent that pteropodids have been the first bat colonists of the Krakatau archipelago. On the main island of Rakata, and on the more recently formed island of Anak Krakatau, Cynopterus sphinx had established itself about 20-30 years after the cessation of major eruptive activity. Movements of pteropodids between the islands and the mainland are of clear importance in the reestablishment of vegetation. Microchiropterans have been recent arrivals, probably recolonizing Rakata between 50 and 70 years after the 1883 eruption, but they were still absent from Anak in 1986.

@article{doi101098rstb19900111,
    author = "Tidermann, C. R. and Kitchener, D. J. and Zann, Richard and Thornton, I. W. B.",
    title = "Recolonization of the Krakatau Islands and adjacent areas of West Java, Indonesia, by bats (Chiroptera) 1883-1986",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract Since the cataclysmic eruption of 1883, 25 species of bats, of which 11 are pteropodids, have recolonized the Krakatau Islands and adjacent areas of West Java, Indonesia. Sixteen have been recorded on the Krakatau Islands. Documentation of the recolonization process has been sporadic, and almost certainly incomplete, but it is apparent that pteropodids have been the first bat colonists of the Krakatau archipelago. On the main island of Rakata, and on the more recently formed island of Anak Krakatau, Cynopterus sphinx had established itself about 20-30 years after the cessation of major eruptive activity. Movements of pteropodids between the islands and the mainland are of clear importance in the reestablishment of vegetation. Microchiropterans have been recent arrivals, probably recolonizing Rakata between 50 and 70 years after the 1883 eruption, but they were still absent from Anak in 1986.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1990.0111",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1990.0111",
    openalex = "W2065920133",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav22i22676"
}

Abstract An examination of cases of turnover in animal species on the Krakataus since 1883, particularly vertebrates, supports the findings of plant ecologists that very little, if any, turnover is stochastic. Successional, rather than equilibrium turnover is still occurring in all animal groups for which analyses can be made; for no group of animals is there evidence that an equilibrium of species number has been achieved, although for resident land birds there are indications that this is now imminent. Approach to equilibrium is not uniform; the colonization curves for resident land birds, reptiles, cockroaches and nymphalid and hesperiid Lepidoptera, as examples, have flattened markedly in the past 50 years, whereas numbers of species of land molluscs and many other insect groups are still increasing at a rate similar to that in the first half century since 1883. The period of the beginning of forest formation (1908-21) was the time when immigration reached a peak, and the period of canopy closure (1921-33) was the time of highest extinction rates. Successful colonists, over a range of animal groups, appear to be species with wide distributions and broad ecological tolerances. There is indirect evidence that successional processes have precluded colonization by several animal groups present in the mainland pool because of unavailability of their preferred habitat, and it is suggested that the effective available pool, as opposed to the theoretical one, changes in size and species complement as succession proceeds on the target islands. We believe that the brief open-habitat phase was too short for the establishment of several animal groups that were available in the pool. Animals of mature forest are, in general, absent as the archipelago’s forests are still relatively impoverished and early successional. Anak Krakatau, in general terms, offers an analogy with the early decades of colonization after 1883. The role of animals in the first stages of forest diversification from casuarina woodland has been monitored on this island, and an ash-lava aeolian ecosystem based on an allochthonous energy source was identified, which parallels similar systems on volcanic substrates in Sicily, the Canaries and, particularly, the island of Hawaii.

@article{doi101098rstb19900112,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and New, T. R. and Zann, Richard and Rawlinson, P. A.",
    title = "Colonization of the Krakatau Islands by animals: a perspective from the 1980s",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract An examination of cases of turnover in animal species on the Krakataus since 1883, particularly vertebrates, supports the findings of plant ecologists that very little, if any, turnover is stochastic. Successional, rather than equilibrium turnover is still occurring in all animal groups for which analyses can be made; for no group of animals is there evidence that an equilibrium of species number has been achieved, although for resident land birds there are indications that this is now imminent. Approach to equilibrium is not uniform; the colonization curves for resident land birds, reptiles, cockroaches and nymphalid and hesperiid Lepidoptera, as examples, have flattened markedly in the past 50 years, whereas numbers of species of land molluscs and many other insect groups are still increasing at a rate similar to that in the first half century since 1883. The period of the beginning of forest formation (1908-21) was the time when immigration reached a peak, and the period of canopy closure (1921-33) was the time of highest extinction rates. Successful colonists, over a range of animal groups, appear to be species with wide distributions and broad ecological tolerances. There is indirect evidence that successional processes have precluded colonization by several animal groups present in the mainland pool because of unavailability of their preferred habitat, and it is suggested that the effective available pool, as opposed to the theoretical one, changes in size and species complement as succession proceeds on the target islands. We believe that the brief open-habitat phase was too short for the establishment of several animal groups that were available in the pool. Animals of mature forest are, in general, absent as the archipelago’s forests are still relatively impoverished and early successional. Anak Krakatau, in general terms, offers an analogy with the early decades of colonization after 1883. The role of animals in the first stages of forest diversification from casuarina woodland has been monitored on this island, and an ash-lava aeolian ecosystem based on an allochthonous energy source was identified, which parallels similar systems on volcanic substrates in Sicily, the Canaries and, particularly, the island of Hawaii.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1990.0112",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1990.0112",
    openalex = "W1969072046",
    references = "doi101177030913338400800103, doi1014203treubiav22i22676, doi1014203treubiav3i01618, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1024199jmmv19884913, doi105962p266773"
}

The Islands of Krakatau, Indonesia, provide a study site where a 106-year history of primary colonization leading to the establishment of lowland tropical forest can be documented. The results of field studies of higher plant, butterfly and bird assemblages conducted since 1883 indicate that the forests have not attained maturity, continue to accumulate species, and that extinctions remain relatively rare events. Successional processes account for a great number of apparent species losses and some identifiable groups of colonists stand a better-than-average chance of long-term survival. The primary colonization of these islands is demonstrated to involve non-monotonic rate changes in observed immigration and extinction. Although motile and relatively short-lived organisms such as birds and butterflies may respond on relatively short time-scales, their hierarchical connections with plants link their pattems of colonization and tumover to the population and community dynamics of the dominant life forms of the system, i.e. to forest trees. The time-scale of response of the system is thus lengthened beyond reasonable expectations of environmental stasis. Simple notions of equilibria are thus shown to be inadequate in such complex ecosystems.

@article{doi1023072845404,
    author = "Bush, Mark B. and Whittaker, Robert J.",
    title = "Krakatau: Colonization Patterns and Hierarchies",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "The Islands of Krakatau, Indonesia, provide a study site where a 106-year history of primary colonization leading to the establishment of lowland tropical forest can be documented. The results of field studies of higher plant, butterfly and bird assemblages conducted since 1883 indicate that the forests have not attained maturity, continue to accumulate species, and that extinctions remain relatively rare events. Successional processes account for a great number of apparent species losses and some identifiable groups of colonists stand a better-than-average chance of long-term survival. The primary colonization of these islands is demonstrated to involve non-monotonic rate changes in observed immigration and extinction. Although motile and relatively short-lived organisms such as birds and butterflies may respond on relatively short time-scales, their hierarchical connections with plants link their pattems of colonization and tumover to the population and community dynamics of the dominant life forms of the system, i.e. to forest trees. The time-scale of response of the system is thus lengthened beyond reasonable expectations of environmental stasis. Simple notions of equilibria are thus shown to be inadequate in such complex ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2845404",
    doi = "10.2307/2845404",
    openalex = "W2321229390",
    references = "doi101073pnas852515, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880142, doi101177030913338400800103, doi1018984lepid35247"
}

@article{doi101007bf00177233,
    author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Bush, Mark B. and Partomihardjo, T. and Asquith, Nigel and Richards, Karen",
    title = "Ecological aspects of plant colonisation of the Krakatau Islands",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00177233",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00177233",
    openalex = "W2055733786",
    references = "openalexw2971204647"
}

@article{doi101007bf00177236,
    author = "Rawlinson, P. A. and Zann, Richard and van Balen, S. and Thornton, I. W. B.",
    title = "Colonization of the Krakatau islands by vertebrates",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00177236",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00177236",
    openalex = "W2088576727",
    references = "doi101007bf00379083, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880133, doi101098rstb19880137, doi101098rstb19880138, doi101098rstb19880142, doi101098rstb19900107, doi101111j109583121986tb01752x, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1023072845404, doi105962p27997, openalexw2188932295, openalexw2560279735, openalexw2583877882"
}

@article{doi101007bf00177238,
    author = "Partomihardjo, T. and Mirmanto, Edi and Whittaker, Robert J.",
    title = "Anak Krakatau's vegetation and flora circa 1991, with observations on a decade of development and change",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00177238",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00177238",
    openalex = "W2013438328",
    references = "doi101007bf00039928, doi101007bf00177236, doi101098rstb19880126"
}

@article{doi101007bf00177241,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Ward, S. A. and Zann, Richard and New, T. R.",
    title = "Anak Krakatau? a colonization model within a colonization model?",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00177241",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00177241",
    openalex = "W2037399124",
    references = "doi101007bf00039928, doi101007bf00177228, doi101007bf00177236, doi101007bf00177238, doi101038294699a0, doi101073pnas852515, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880137, doi101098rstb19900107, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1023072387865, doi1023072484044, doi1023072845404, doi1023072937282, openalexw1584591141"
}

@article{doi101007bf00177242,
    author = "FRIDRIKSSON, STURLA and Magn�sson, B.",
    title = "Development of the ecosystem on surtsey with references to Anak Krakatau",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00177242",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00177242",
    openalex = "W102819747",
    references = "doi101098rstb19880126"
}

@article{doi101007bf00807546,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Ward, S. A. and Zann, Richard and New, T. R.",
    title = "The Anak Krakatau question",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "GeoJournal",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00807546",
    doi = "10.1007/bf00807546",
    openalex = "W2089578114",
    references = "openalexw565500816"
}

I. W. B. Thornton, R. A. Zann, S. van Balen, Colonization of Rakata (Krakatau Is.) by Non-Migrant Land Birds from 1883 to 1992 and Implications for the Value of Island Equilibrium Theory, Journal of Biogeography, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Jul., 1993), pp. 441-452

@article{doi1023072845592,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Zann, Richard and van Balen, S.",
    title = "Colonization of Rakata (Krakatau Is.) by Non-Migrant Land Birds from 1883 to 1992 and Implications for the Value of Island Equilibrium Theory",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "I. W. B. Thornton, R. A. Zann, S. van Balen, Colonization of Rakata (Krakatau Is.) by Non-Migrant Land Birds from 1883 to 1992 and Implications for the Value of Island Equilibrium Theory, Journal of Biogeography, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Jul., 1993), pp. 441-452",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2845592",
    doi = "10.2307/2845592",
    openalex = "W2024501083",
    references = "doi101007bf00177236, doi101098rstb19880137, doi1015159781400881376, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1023071940559, doi1023072418771, doi1023075487, openalexw1483991839"
}

A division of opinion is apparent among researchers investigating the colonization of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, concerning the applicability of the Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography (see: Thornton, Zann & van Balen, this volume). In order to clarify our position in this debate, we first highlight some of the key limitations of the theory and subsequently present a model which incorporates some of the important ecological features lacking from the original models. Our model allows for differing outcomes depending on the life history characteristics and position in the ecological hierarchy of the taxa considered, and depending on frequency and degree of disturbance to the ecosystem: such that interactive equilibria, non-interactive equilibria or disequilibria may each be possible.

@article{doi1023072845593,
    author = "Bush, Mark B. and Whittaker, Robert J.",
    title = "Non-Equilibration in Island Theory of Krakatau",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "A division of opinion is apparent among researchers investigating the colonization of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, concerning the applicability of the Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography (see: Thornton, Zann \& van Balen, this volume). In order to clarify our position in this debate, we first highlight some of the key limitations of the theory and subsequently present a model which incorporates some of the important ecological features lacking from the original models. Our model allows for differing outcomes depending on the life history characteristics and position in the ecological hierarchy of the taxa considered, and depending on frequency and degree of disturbance to the ecosystem: such that interactive equilibria, non-interactive equilibria or disequilibria may each be possible.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2845593",
    doi = "10.2307/2845593",
    openalex = "W2317243289",
    references = "doi101007bf00177236, doi101177030913338400800103"
}

@article{openalexw565500816,
    author = "Maetô, Kaoru and Thornton, I. W. B.",
    title = "A preliminary appraisal of the braconid (Hymenoptera) fauna of the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, in 1984-1986, with comments on the colonizing abilities of the parasitoid modes.",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Japanese journal of entomology",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W565500816",
    openalex = "W565500816"
}

Each species of fig tree (Ficus spp., Moraceae) is pollinated by its own unique species of fig wasp (Agaonidae). We examined pollination rates and functional sex-ratios among the fig trees that have colonized the recently formed volcanic island of Anak Krakatau. Four fruiting Ficus species were present. Two of these, F. fistulosa and F. hispida, occurred in small numbers and were receiving sufficient pollinators. In contrast, pollination rates were estimated at 81 percent for F. septica (80 trees fruiting) and only 18 percent for F. fulva (approximately 200 trees fruiting). Both these species had higher pollination rates on the older islands in the Krakatau group. Their functional sex ratios (the proportion of male/female trees bearing fruits) did not differ significantly from 50:50, and there were indications of preferential pollination of female figs. The shortage of pollinators (and therefore mature figs) on Anak Krakatau is likely to have consequences for the frugivorous birds and bats on the island.

@article{doi1023072388807,
    author = "Compton, Stephen G. and Ross, S. J. and Thornton, I. W. B.",
    title = "Pollinator Limitation of Fig Tree Reproduction on the Island of Anak Krakatau (Indonesia)",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Biotropica",
    abstract = "Each species of fig tree (Ficus spp., Moraceae) is pollinated by its own unique species of fig wasp (Agaonidae). We examined pollination rates and functional sex-ratios among the fig trees that have colonized the recently formed volcanic island of Anak Krakatau. Four fruiting Ficus species were present. Two of these, F. fistulosa and F. hispida, occurred in small numbers and were receiving sufficient pollinators. In contrast, pollination rates were estimated at 81 percent for F. septica (80 trees fruiting) and only 18 percent for F. fulva (approximately 200 trees fruiting). Both these species had higher pollination rates on the older islands in the Krakatau group. Their functional sex ratios (the proportion of male/female trees bearing fruits) did not differ significantly from 50:50, and there were indications of preferential pollination of female figs. The shortage of pollinators (and therefore mature figs) on Anak Krakatau is likely to have consequences for the frugivorous birds and bats on the island.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2388807",
    doi = "10.2307/2388807",
    openalex = "W2330516879",
    references = "doi101007bf00177241"
}

Robert J. Whittaker, Stephen H. Jones, The Role of Frugivorous Bats and Birds in the Rebuilding of a Tropical Forest Ecosystem, Krakatau, Indonesia, Journal of Biogeography, Vol. 21, No. 3 (May, 1994), pp. 245-258

@article{doi1023072845528,
    author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Jones, Stephen H.",
    title = "The Role of Frugivorous Bats and Birds in the Rebuilding of a Tropical Forest Ecosystem, Krakatau, Indonesia",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Robert J. Whittaker, Stephen H. Jones, The Role of Frugivorous Bats and Birds in the Rebuilding of a Tropical Forest Ecosystem, Krakatau, Indonesia, Journal of Biogeography, Vol. 21, No. 3 (May, 1994), pp. 245-258",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2845528",
    doi = "10.2307/2845528",
    openalex = "W2017412773",
    references = "doi101007bf00177236, doi1014203treubiav22i22676, doi1014203treubiav3i01618"
}

Vines are significant components of rain forests, yet their role in succession has received little attention. Changes in vine communities on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, during the last 111 years provide an insight into colonizational patterns in a regenerating tropical rain forest. In surveys of Krakatau between 1979 and 1992, 71 species of plants that may be described as having a vining growth habit are identified out of a total of 306 spermatophytes (i.e., 23% of the flora). Most vines on Krakatau are hermaphrodite, approximately 24.6 percent are dioecious, and just 3.7 percent are monoecious. All the vines are insect-pollinated, but the proportion of wind-, animal- and sea-dispersed vines varies according to the recent history of the islands. Rakata, the least disturbed island in the group carries the greatest diversity of vines and the highest proportion of sea-dispersed species. As with many island biotas the vine flora of Krakatau is a disharmonic subset of the mainland (southeast Asian) pool and certain families, e.g., Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Bignoniaceae, are relatively under- or unrepresented.

@article{doi1023072388921,
    author = "Bush, Mark B. and Whittaker, Robert J. and Partomihardjo, Tukurin",
    title = "Colonization and Succession on Krakatau: An Analysis of the Guild of Vining Plants",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Biotropica",
    abstract = "Vines are significant components of rain forests, yet their role in succession has received little attention. Changes in vine communities on the Krakatau Islands, Indonesia, during the last 111 years provide an insight into colonizational patterns in a regenerating tropical rain forest. In surveys of Krakatau between 1979 and 1992, 71 species of plants that may be described as having a vining growth habit are identified out of a total of 306 spermatophytes (i.e., 23\% of the flora). Most vines on Krakatau are hermaphrodite, approximately 24.6 percent are dioecious, and just 3.7 percent are monoecious. All the vines are insect-pollinated, but the proportion of wind-, animal- and sea-dispersed vines varies according to the recent history of the islands. Rakata, the least disturbed island in the group carries the greatest diversity of vines and the highest proportion of sea-dispersed species. As with many island biotas the vine flora of Krakatau is a disharmonic subset of the mainland (southeast Asian) pool and certain families, e.g., Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Bignoniaceae, are relatively under- or unrepresented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2388921",
    doi = "10.2307/2388921",
    openalex = "W2322117856",
    references = "doi101007bf00177241"
}

Review of the Pseudoscorpion Fauna of China (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpionida).-The known pseudoscorpions from China (including Tibet, excluding Mongolia and Taiwan) and new material are compiled.47 species

@article{doi105962bhlpart80489,
    author = "Schawaller, Wolfgang and Waller and Orites, Anatemnus and (Thorell and Eremochernes, Beier and Beier, M and Beoer, M and Beier, M and Beoer, M and Chamberlin, J and Curcic, B and Dashdamirov, S and Schawaller, W and Harvey, M and Hong, Y and Kim, T and Kim, T and Hong, Y and Mahnert, V and Redkorzev, V and Sato, H and Schawaller, W and Schawaller, W and Schawaller, W and Schawaller, W",
    title = "A review of the pseudoscorpion fauna of China (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpionida)",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Revue suisse de zoologie",
    abstract = "Review of the Pseudoscorpion Fauna of China (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpionida).-The known pseudoscorpions from China (including Tibet, excluding Mongolia and Taiwan) and new material are compiled.47 species",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.80489",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.part.80489",
    openalex = "W2498468072",
    references = "doi1024199jmmv19884913"
}

Abstract. Since the biologically extirpating eruption of Krakatau (Sunda Strait) in 1883, Rakata (Krakatau's remnant) and two closely adjacent islands, Sertung and Panjang, have been colonized by over 200 species of vascular plants. They now carry species‐poor mixed tropical forest, including some twenty‐three species of Ficus. Data on the sequence of colonization over the last century by twenty‐four Ficus species, twenty‐three species of volant frugivores, and by agaonid fig‐wasps, presumably from the large islands of Java and Sumatra, each some 44 km distant, are summarized. The potential of the volant frugivores as dispersers of fig seeds is assessed, the pollination problems involved in the colonization of islands by figs are reviewed and patterns of colonization by fig species and by their bird and bat dispersers are identified and discussed. In 1930 a new island, Anak Krakatau, emerged from Krakatau's submerged caldera. This active volcano suffered a self‐sterilizing eruption in 1952/1953 and has been colonized, under considerable constraint from its own volcanic activity, probably largely from the (selected) species pool present on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang, 2–4 km away. Its vegetation is at an earlier successional stage (grassland and Casuarina woodland) than that of the three older islands, and in 1992 the Casuarina woodland was in an early stage of transition to mixed forest. The colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus species, agaonid wasps and volant frugivores over a critical decade (1982–92) is reviewed, including preliminary assessments of the effects of pollinator limitation on four pioneer fig species and indications of a possible effect of the presence of avian raptors, particularly the peregrine falcon, on fig colonization and forest diversification.

@article{doi101111j136526991996tb00019x,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Compton, Stephen G. and Wilson, Craig N.",
    title = "The role of animals in the colonization of the Krakatau Islands by fig trees (Ficus species)",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract. Since the biologically extirpating eruption of Krakatau (Sunda Strait) in 1883, Rakata (Krakatau's remnant) and two closely adjacent islands, Sertung and Panjang, have been colonized by over 200 species of vascular plants. They now carry species‐poor mixed tropical forest, including some twenty‐three species of Ficus. Data on the sequence of colonization over the last century by twenty‐four Ficus species, twenty‐three species of volant frugivores, and by agaonid fig‐wasps, presumably from the large islands of Java and Sumatra, each some 44 km distant, are summarized. The potential of the volant frugivores as dispersers of fig seeds is assessed, the pollination problems involved in the colonization of islands by figs are reviewed and patterns of colonization by fig species and by their bird and bat dispersers are identified and discussed. In 1930 a new island, Anak Krakatau, emerged from Krakatau's submerged caldera. This active volcano suffered a self‐sterilizing eruption in 1952/1953 and has been colonized, under considerable constraint from its own volcanic activity, probably largely from the (selected) species pool present on Rakata, Sertung and Panjang, 2–4 km away. Its vegetation is at an earlier successional stage (grassland and Casuarina woodland) than that of the three older islands, and in 1992 the Casuarina woodland was in an early stage of transition to mixed forest. The colonization of Anak Krakatau by Ficus species, agaonid wasps and volant frugivores over a critical decade (1982–92) is reviewed, including preliminary assessments of the effects of pollinator limitation on four pioneer fig species and indications of a possible effect of the presence of avian raptors, particularly the peregrine falcon, on fig colonization and forest diversification.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00019.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00019.x",
    openalex = "W2167322132",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav22i22676"
}

Abstract Aim Few data sets exist that allow measurement of long‐term extinction and turnover rates for islands of the size of the three main islands of the Krakatau group. We test the reliability of previous estimates of plant species extinction and examine structure within the extinction data. Location The data analysed are for the three older Krakatau islands: Rakata, Sertung and Panjang in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. Methods Our analysis is based on a comprehensive database incorporating all species records for each island since recolonization began after the 1883 sterilization, plus attributes such as distribution, phylogeny, population status and dispersal mechanism for each species. We employ a combination of univariate and multi‐term analyses in analysing structure, and derive Minimal Adequate Models using binary logistic analyses of variance and covariance. We compare the 1883–1934 data set with the contemporary flora as represented by (1) 1979–83 records (as used in previous analyses) and (2) 1979–94 data (original). Results The improved data for the contemporary flora reduces the number of missing species by one‐third. We show that a variety of estimates of extinction rate can be produced depending on what assumptions are made concerning the status of particular species groups. Structural features in the extinction data persist despite the reduction in overall numbers of losses. Losses relate to: (1) the number of islands on which a species originally occurred, (2) the primary dispersal mode, and (3) the original abundance of a species (e.g. whether it was known to have established a successful resident population, and whether it was in decline or increasing in c. 1930). The ‘best’ descriptive model employs the variables denoted under (3). A high proportion of losses comprised species introduced by people and rare or ephemeral species. Losses of ‘residents’ that had colonized naturally could largely be accounted for by reference to (1) successional loss of habitat and, to a lesser degree, (2) other habitat disturbance or loss. Main conclusions Previous analyses, based on a more limited data set, have significantly over‐estimated extinction from the Krakatau flora. Few naturally colonizing and established species have become extinct. The findings indicate that caution is necessary in interpreting ‘headline’ island ecological rates, and in analysing and modelling such data. Examination of structural features of the data appear to be valuable both in providing ecological insights in their own right, and in enabling refinements to estimates of extinction and thus turnover.

@article{doi101046j13652699200000487x,
    author = "Whittaker, Robert J. and Field, Richard and Partomihardjo, Tukirin",
    title = "How to go extinct: lessons from the lost plants of Krakatau",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Aim Few data sets exist that allow measurement of long‐term extinction and turnover rates for islands of the size of the three main islands of the Krakatau group. We test the reliability of previous estimates of plant species extinction and examine structure within the extinction data. Location The data analysed are for the three older Krakatau islands: Rakata, Sertung and Panjang in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. Methods Our analysis is based on a comprehensive database incorporating all species records for each island since recolonization began after the 1883 sterilization, plus attributes such as distribution, phylogeny, population status and dispersal mechanism for each species. We employ a combination of univariate and multi‐term analyses in analysing structure, and derive Minimal Adequate Models using binary logistic analyses of variance and covariance. We compare the 1883–1934 data set with the contemporary flora as represented by (1) 1979–83 records (as used in previous analyses) and (2) 1979–94 data (original). Results The improved data for the contemporary flora reduces the number of missing species by one‐third. We show that a variety of estimates of extinction rate can be produced depending on what assumptions are made concerning the status of particular species groups. Structural features in the extinction data persist despite the reduction in overall numbers of losses. Losses relate to: (1) the number of islands on which a species originally occurred, (2) the primary dispersal mode, and (3) the original abundance of a species (e.g. whether it was known to have established a successful resident population, and whether it was in decline or increasing in c. 1930). The ‘best’ descriptive model employs the variables denoted under (3). A high proportion of losses comprised species introduced by people and rare or ephemeral species. Losses of ‘residents’ that had colonized naturally could largely be accounted for by reference to (1) successional loss of habitat and, to a lesser degree, (2) other habitat disturbance or loss. Main conclusions Previous analyses, based on a more limited data set, have significantly over‐estimated extinction from the Krakatau flora. Few naturally colonizing and established species have become extinct. The findings indicate that caution is necessary in interpreting ‘headline’ island ecological rates, and in analysing and modelling such data. Examination of structural features of the data appear to be valuable both in providing ecological insights in their own right, and in enabling refinements to estimates of extinction and thus turnover.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00487.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00487.x",
    openalex = "W2040276137",
    references = "doi1023072845592"
}

The termite assemblages of the Krakatau islands and five sites in Sumatra and Java were investigated, using a standardized transect sampling method. Five species were found on the Krakatau islands that have not been collected there before. The total number of termites recorded on the islands since the 1883 volcanic eruption is now twelve species, all of which are wood feeders. No termites nesting in or feeding on the soil were found on the Krakataus, suggesting that rafting in wood is the primary method by which the termites recolonized the islands.

@article{doi101111j109583122000tb01257x,
    author = "Gathorne-Hardy, F. J. and Jones, David T. and Mawdsley, Nick",
    title = "The recolonization of the Krakatau islands by termites (Isoptera), and their biogeographical origins",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "The termite assemblages of the Krakatau islands and five sites in Sumatra and Java were investigated, using a standardized transect sampling method. Five species were found on the Krakatau islands that have not been collected there before. The total number of termites recorded on the islands since the 1883 volcanic eruption is now twelve species, all of which are wood feeders. No termites nesting in or feeding on the soil were found on the Krakataus, suggesting that rafting in wood is the primary method by which the termites recolonized the islands.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01257.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01257.x",
    openalex = "W1977250469",
    references = "doi101016b978012395529650012x, doi101046j13652664199904464x, doi101046j13652664200000464x, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19960004, doi1014203treubiav27i11556, doi1014203treubiav30i3635, doi1014203treubiav3i01618, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023072806633, doi1023072807020, doi1023072937282, openalexw2037503630, thakur2015termite"
}

In theory, one factor determining the rate and nature of the assembly of island biotas is the presence or absence of stepping stone islands, yet no field studies have demonstrated stepping stone function in practice. Krakatau, in Sunda Strait, is about equidistant from Java and Sumatra. Sebesi lies about half way between Krakatau and Sumatra, but no island intervenes between Krakatau and the nearest coast of Java. We assess the evidence that Sebesi has acted as an important stepping stone for Krakatau's recolonization since the devastating 1883 volcanic eruption. About a quarter of Krakatau's resident land birds, two-fifths of its reptiles, bats and land molluscs, and about two-thirds of its termites, pteridophytes, butterflies and spermatophytes are unknown on Sebesi, evidently having colonized without stepping stone involvement. Identifiable Sumatran taxa do not outnumber identifiable Javan ones on Krakatau, nor do historical distribution records indicate movement from Sebesi to Krakatau in animal groups. Krakatau's biota is not a subset of Sebesi's in predominantly anemochorous or thallassochorous plant groups, butterflies, reptiles or bats, and is only marginally so in termites. It is a subset in predominantly zoochorous spermatophyte groups, except Ficus species, and in birds and land molluscs. Comparison with a weaker stepping stone candidate, Panaitan, provides no evidence for a stepping stone role for Sebesi in butterflies or termites. We discuss the dispersal and establishment constraints on colonization by the groups involved, and conclude that, overall, Sebesi had little impact as a stepping stone. Instead, it is more probable that divergence of the environments of the two islands has led to an increasingly independent recolonization of Krakatau.

@article{doi101046j10958312200200113x,
    author = "Thornton, I. W. B. and Runciman, David and Cook, Simon J. and Lumsden, Linda F. and Partomihardjo, Tukirin and SCHEDVID, NATASHA K. and Yukawa, Junichi and Ward, S. A.",
    title = "How important were stepping stones in the colonization of Krakatau?",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society",
    abstract = "In theory, one factor determining the rate and nature of the assembly of island biotas is the presence or absence of stepping stone islands, yet no field studies have demonstrated stepping stone function in practice. Krakatau, in Sunda Strait, is about equidistant from Java and Sumatra. Sebesi lies about half way between Krakatau and Sumatra, but no island intervenes between Krakatau and the nearest coast of Java. We assess the evidence that Sebesi has acted as an important stepping stone for Krakatau's recolonization since the devastating 1883 volcanic eruption. About a quarter of Krakatau's resident land birds, two-fifths of its reptiles, bats and land molluscs, and about two-thirds of its termites, pteridophytes, butterflies and spermatophytes are unknown on Sebesi, evidently having colonized without stepping stone involvement. Identifiable Sumatran taxa do not outnumber identifiable Javan ones on Krakatau, nor do historical distribution records indicate movement from Sebesi to Krakatau in animal groups. Krakatau's biota is not a subset of Sebesi's in predominantly anemochorous or thallassochorous plant groups, butterflies, reptiles or bats, and is only marginally so in termites. It is a subset in predominantly zoochorous spermatophyte groups, except Ficus species, and in birds and land molluscs. Comparison with a weaker stepping stone candidate, Panaitan, provides no evidence for a stepping stone role for Sebesi in butterflies or termites. We discuss the dispersal and establishment constraints on colonization by the groups involved, and conclude that, overall, Sebesi had little impact as a stepping stone. Instead, it is more probable that divergence of the environments of the two islands has led to an increasingly independent recolonization of Krakatau.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00113.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00113.x",
    openalex = "W2114211982",
    references = "doi101007bf00177241, doi101017s1464793101005760, doi101038260204c0, doi101038sjhdy6885841, doi1010719780643109773, doi1010719781486309702, doi101098rstb19870030, doi101098rstb19880126, doi101098rstb19880137, doi101098rstb19880138, doi1014203treubiav16i12493, doi1014203treubiav22i22676, doi1014203treubiav27i11556, doi1014203treubiav30i3635, doi1014203treubiav3i01618, doi1015159781400881376, doi1018984lepid35247, doi1023071935620, doi105281zenodo13417191, openalexw1596646469, openalexw3172748047, thakur2015termite"
}

We investigated the development of soil macrofauna and mesofauna in the successional chronosequence of an Alpine glacier foreland located above the treeline. Sampling transects 10 m long were established at eight successional stages from 4 to 150 yr of age since deglaciation, and in addition two reference sites in front of the terminal moraine. Within the first 50 yr, macrofauna biomass and mesofauna abundance increased rapidly, attaining levels typical for all older stages (macrofauna 0.5–7 g m–2, microarthropods 50–120 103 ind. m–2). Among the macrofauna nematoceran Diptera were dominant at most sites, only the early colonizing stages being dominated by carabid and lepidopteran larvae and enchytraeids. Acari were more abundant than Collembola. Temporal sequences of occurrence were documented for macrofauna families and for collembolan species. Successional age was the major determinant of community composition, additional influences being local variations in microclimatic conditions and soil properties. Biomass increased over the short alpine summer, but community composition remained largely constant. The high aggregation of soil fauna affected the precision of abundance estimates. An outline of the trophic structure of evolving soil communities is presented.

@article{doi10108015230430200212003491,
    author = "Kaufmann, Rüdiger and Fuchs, Markus and Gosterxeier, Nina",
    title = "The Soil Fauna of an Alpine Glacier Foreland: Colonization and Succession",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research",
    abstract = "We investigated the development of soil macrofauna and mesofauna in the successional chronosequence of an Alpine glacier foreland located above the treeline. Sampling transects 10 m long were established at eight successional stages from 4 to 150 yr of age since deglaciation, and in addition two reference sites in front of the terminal moraine. Within the first 50 yr, macrofauna biomass and mesofauna abundance increased rapidly, attaining levels typical for all older stages (macrofauna 0.5–7 g m–2, microarthropods 50–120 103 ind. m–2). Among the macrofauna nematoceran Diptera were dominant at most sites, only the early colonizing stages being dominated by carabid and lepidopteran larvae and enchytraeids. Acari were more abundant than Collembola. Temporal sequences of occurrence were documented for macrofauna families and for collembolan species. Successional age was the major determinant of community composition, additional influences being local variations in microclimatic conditions and soil properties. Biomass increased over the short alpine summer, but community composition remained largely constant. The high aggregation of soil fauna affected the precision of abundance estimates. An outline of the trophic structure of evolving soil communities is presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/15230430.2002.12003491",
    doi = "10.1080/15230430.2002.12003491",
    openalex = "W2051521823",
    references = "doi105281zenodo10755352"
}

Aerial dispersal using silk ('ballooning') has evolved in spiders (Araneae), spider mites (Acari) and in the larvae of moths (Lepidoptera). Since the 17th century, over 500 observations of ballooning behaviours have been published, yet there is an absence of any evolutionary synthesis of these data. In this paper the literature is reviewed, extensively documenting the known world fauna that balloon and the principal behaviours involved. This knowledge is then incorporated into the current evolutionary phylogenies to examine how ballooning might have arisen. Whilst it is possible that ballooning co-evolved with silk and emerged as early as the Devonian (410-355 mya), it is arguably more likely that ballooning evolved in parallel with deciduous trees, herbaceous annuals and grasses in the Cretaceous (135-65 mya). During this period, temporal (e.g. bud burst, chlorophyll thresholds) and spatial (e.g. herbivory, trampling) heterogeneities in habitat structuring predominated and intensified into the Cenozoic (65 mya to the present). It is hypothesized that from the ancestral launch mechanism known as 'suspended ballooning', widely used by individuals in plant canopies, 'tip-toe' and 'rearing' take-off behaviours were strongly selected for as habitats changed. It is contended that ballooning behaviour in all three orders can be described as a mixed Evolutionary Stable Strategy. This comprises individual bet-hedging due to habitat unpredictability, giving an underlying randomness to individual ballooning, with adjustments to the individual ballooning probability being conferred by more predictable habitat changes or colonization strategies. Finally, current methods used to study ballooning, including modelling and genetic research, are illustrated and an indication of future prospects given.

@article{doi101079ber2004350,
    author = "Bell, James R. and Bohan, David A. and Shaw, Emma and Weyman, Gabriel S.",
    title = "Ballooning dispersal using silk: world fauna, phylogenies, genetics and models",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Bulletin of Entomological Research",
    abstract = "Aerial dispersal using silk ('ballooning') has evolved in spiders (Araneae), spider mites (Acari) and in the larvae of moths (Lepidoptera). Since the 17th century, over 500 observations of ballooning behaviours have been published, yet there is an absence of any evolutionary synthesis of these data. In this paper the literature is reviewed, extensively documenting the known world fauna that balloon and the principal behaviours involved. This knowledge is then incorporated into the current evolutionary phylogenies to examine how ballooning might have arisen. Whilst it is possible that ballooning co-evolved with silk and emerged as early as the Devonian (410-355 mya), it is arguably more likely that ballooning evolved in parallel with deciduous trees, herbaceous annuals and grasses in the Cretaceous (135-65 mya). During this period, temporal (e.g. bud burst, chlorophyll thresholds) and spatial (e.g. herbivory, trampling) heterogeneities in habitat structuring predominated and intensified into the Cenozoic (65 mya to the present). It is hypothesized that from the ancestral launch mechanism known as 'suspended ballooning', widely used by individuals in plant canopies, 'tip-toe' and 'rearing' take-off behaviours were strongly selected for as habitats changed. It is contended that ballooning behaviour in all three orders can be described as a mixed Evolutionary Stable Strategy. This comprises individual bet-hedging due to habitat unpredictability, giving an underlying randomness to individual ballooning, with adjustments to the individual ballooning probability being conferred by more predictable habitat changes or colonization strategies. Finally, current methods used to study ballooning, including modelling and genetic research, are illustrated and an indication of future prospects given.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1079/ber2004350",
    doi = "10.1079/ber2004350",
    openalex = "W2122018321",
    references = "doi101007978146847862422, doi101017cbo9780511623431, doi101017s1464793101005735, doi10103835069000, doi101038374027a0, doi101093oso97801985406630010001, doi101098rstb19880142, doi101146annureves21110190002313, doi1015259780520335431, doi1023071443891, doi1024199jmmv19884913, doi1043249780203407219, doi105281zenodo10755352, openalexw2142469467"
}

@article{doi101007s1084100891554,
    author = "New, T. R.",
    title = "Insect conservation in early succession on islands: lessons from Surtsey, Iceland, and the Krakatau Archipelago, Indonesia",
    year = "2008",
    journal = "Journal of Insect Conservation",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-008-9155-4",
    doi = "10.1007/s10841-008-9155-4",
    openalex = "W2031709540",
    references = "openalexw565500816"
}

On 27 August 1883, the island of Krakatau was destroyed in one of the most violent volcanic events ever recorded. This caused the 'year without a summer', thousands of deaths (mainly from tsunamis), fabulous sunsets and a measurable cooling of the oceans over nearly a century. Krakatau also provided evolutionary biologists with a unique opportunity to investigate the mechanisms of plant dispersal. This had been the subject of laborious research for Charles Darwin, who had speculated upon and, it seems, accurately postulated how an 'unstocked island' might be recolonised. In this 1908 volume, Alfred Ernst analysed the effects of wind, birds and sea currents in the transport not only of seeds but also of trees, branches and even of substantial animals. Krakatau's ecosystem, at a more primitive stage than that Darwin had seen on the Galapagos Islands, demonstrated how simple but continuous natural forces might re-establish a complex ecology.

@book{doi101017cbo9780511703409,
    author = "Alfred, Ernst",
    title = "The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau",
    year = "2009",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "On 27 August 1883, the island of Krakatau was destroyed in one of the most violent volcanic events ever recorded. This caused the 'year without a summer', thousands of deaths (mainly from tsunamis), fabulous sunsets and a measurable cooling of the oceans over nearly a century. Krakatau also provided evolutionary biologists with a unique opportunity to investigate the mechanisms of plant dispersal. This had been the subject of laborious research for Charles Darwin, who had speculated upon and, it seems, accurately postulated how an 'unstocked island' might be recolonised. In this 1908 volume, Alfred Ernst analysed the effects of wind, birds and sea currents in the transport not only of seeds but also of trees, branches and even of substantial animals. Krakatau's ecosystem, at a more primitive stage than that Darwin had seen on the Galapagos Islands, demonstrated how simple but continuous natural forces might re-establish a complex ecology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511703409",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9780511703409",
    openalex = "W1567479966"
}

Aim To examine whether island parasitoid faunas are biased towards generalists when compared with the mainland and their species pool, and to evaluate the effects of climate, island characteristics and regional factors on the relative proportions of idiobionts (i.e. generalists) and koinobionts (i.e. specialists) of two parasitic wasp families, Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Location Seventy-three archipelagos distributed world-wide. Methods We used data on the distribution and biology obtained from a digital catalogue and several literature sources. We related level of generalism, measured as the ratio between the number of idiobiont and koinobiont species, to climatic, physiographic and regional factors using generalized linear models. We compared models by means of Akaike weighting, and evaluated the spatial structure of their residuals. We used partial regressions to determine whether the final models account for all latitudinal structure in the level of generalism. Results Islands host comparatively more idiobionts than continental areas. Although there is a latitudinal gradient in the level of generalism of island faunas correlating with both environmental factors and island characteristics, the most important determinant of island community structure is their source pool. This effect is stronger for ichneumonids, where generalism is higher in the Indomalayan region, arguably due to the higher diversity of endophytic hosts in its large rain forests. Main conclusions The level of generalism of island parasitoid faunas is largely constrained by regional factors, namely by the structure of the species pool, which emphasizes the importance of including regional processes in our understanding of the functioning of ecological communities. The fact that generalist species are more predominant in islands with a large cover of rain forests pinpoints the importance of the indirect effects of ecological requirements on community structure, highlighting the complex nature of geographical gradients of diversity.

@article{doi101111j13652699201102521x,
    author = "Santos, Ana M. C. and Quicke, Donаld L. J. and Borges, Paulo A. V. and Hortal, Joaquín",
    title = "Species pool structure determines the level of generalism of island parasitoid faunas",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Aim To examine whether island parasitoid faunas are biased towards generalists when compared with the mainland and their species pool, and to evaluate the effects of climate, island characteristics and regional factors on the relative proportions of idiobionts (i.e. generalists) and koinobionts (i.e. specialists) of two parasitic wasp families, Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Location Seventy-three archipelagos distributed world-wide. Methods We used data on the distribution and biology obtained from a digital catalogue and several literature sources. We related level of generalism, measured as the ratio between the number of idiobiont and koinobiont species, to climatic, physiographic and regional factors using generalized linear models. We compared models by means of Akaike weighting, and evaluated the spatial structure of their residuals. We used partial regressions to determine whether the final models account for all latitudinal structure in the level of generalism. Results Islands host comparatively more idiobionts than continental areas. Although there is a latitudinal gradient in the level of generalism of island faunas correlating with both environmental factors and island characteristics, the most important determinant of island community structure is their source pool. This effect is stronger for ichneumonids, where generalism is higher in the Indomalayan region, arguably due to the higher diversity of endophytic hosts in its large rain forests. Main conclusions The level of generalism of island parasitoid faunas is largely constrained by regional factors, namely by the structure of the species pool, which emphasizes the importance of including regional processes in our understanding of the functioning of ecological communities. The fact that generalist species are more predominant in islands with a large cover of rain forests pinpoints the importance of the indirect effects of ecological requirements on community structure, highlighting the complex nature of geographical gradients of diversity.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02521.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02521.x",
    openalex = "W2101003084",
    references = "openalexw565500816"
}

Abstract Aim To relate variation in the migration capacity and colonization ability of island communities to island geography and species island occupancy. Location Islands off mainland Britain and Ireland. Methods Mean migration (transfer) capacity and colonization (establishment) ability (ecological indices), indexed from 12 ecological variables for 56 butterfly species living on 103 islands, were related to species nestedness, island and mainland source geography and indices using linear regression models, RLQ analysis and fourth‐corner analysis. Random creation of faunas from source species, rank correlation and rank regression were used to examine differences between island and source ecological indices, and relationships to island geography. Results Island butterfly faunas are highly nested. The two ecological indices related closely to island occupancy, nestedness rank of species, island richness and geography. The key variables related to migration capacity were island area and isolation; for colonization ability they were area, isolation and longitude. Compared with colonization ability, migration capacity was found to correlate more strongly with island species occupancy and species richness. For island faunas, the means for both ecological indices decreased, and variation increased, with increasing island species richness. Mean colonization ability and migration capacity values were significantly higher for island faunas than for mainland source faunas, but these differences decreased with island latitude. Main conclusions The nested pattern of butterfly species on islands off mainland Britain and Ireland relates strongly to colonization ability but especially to migration capacity. Differences in colonization ability among species are most obvious for large, topographically varied islands. Generalists with abundant multiple resources and greater migration capacity are found on all islands, whereas specialists are restricted to large islands with varied and long‐lived biotopes, and islands close to shore. The inference is that source–sink dynamics dominate butterfly distributions on British and Irish islands; species are capable of dispersing to new areas, but, with the exception of large and northern islands, facilities (resources) for permanent colonization are limited. The pattern of colonization ability and migration capacity is likely to be repeated for mainland areas, where such indices should provide useful independent measures for assessing the conservation status of faunas within spatial units.

@article{doi101111j13652699201202698x,
    author = "Dennis, Roger L. H. and Hardy, Peter B. and Dapporto, Leonardo",
    title = "Nestedness in island faunas: novel insights into island biogeography through butterfly community profiles of colonization ability and migration capacity",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Aim To relate variation in the migration capacity and colonization ability of island communities to island geography and species island occupancy. Location Islands off mainland Britain and Ireland. Methods Mean migration (transfer) capacity and colonization (establishment) ability (ecological indices), indexed from 12 ecological variables for 56 butterfly species living on 103 islands, were related to species nestedness, island and mainland source geography and indices using linear regression models, RLQ analysis and fourth‐corner analysis. Random creation of faunas from source species, rank correlation and rank regression were used to examine differences between island and source ecological indices, and relationships to island geography. Results Island butterfly faunas are highly nested. The two ecological indices related closely to island occupancy, nestedness rank of species, island richness and geography. The key variables related to migration capacity were island area and isolation; for colonization ability they were area, isolation and longitude. Compared with colonization ability, migration capacity was found to correlate more strongly with island species occupancy and species richness. For island faunas, the means for both ecological indices decreased, and variation increased, with increasing island species richness. Mean colonization ability and migration capacity values were significantly higher for island faunas than for mainland source faunas, but these differences decreased with island latitude. Main conclusions The nested pattern of butterfly species on islands off mainland Britain and Ireland relates strongly to colonization ability but especially to migration capacity. Differences in colonization ability among species are most obvious for large, topographically varied islands. Generalists with abundant multiple resources and greater migration capacity are found on all islands, whereas specialists are restricted to large islands with varied and long‐lived biotopes, and islands close to shore. The inference is that source–sink dynamics dominate butterfly distributions on British and Irish islands; species are capable of dispersing to new areas, but, with the exception of large and northern islands, facilities (resources) for permanent colonization are limited. The pattern of colonization ability and migration capacity is likely to be repeated for mainland areas, where such indices should provide useful independent measures for assessing the conservation status of faunas within spatial units.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2012.02698.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-2699.2012.02698.x",
    openalex = "W1491000399",
    references = "doi1023072845592"
}

Species on islands tend to use a wider range of resources than their mainland counterparts. In this thesis I investigated whether island parasitoid communities have proportionally more idiobiont species (which tend to have a wider host range; i.e. are more generalist) than their mainland source, and which factors determine island community structure. These questions were approached using data on the distribution of Ichneumonoidea species worldwide and data from a survey conducted in the Macaronesian islands and mainland. Prior to the global analyses, I assessed whether islands and archipelagos follow the same species-area relationship, and identified which islands have comparable inventories. Globally, islands have proportionally more idiobionts than continental areas, and the species pool for colonization is the most important determinant of island community structure. Specimens collected in the Macaronesian region were tentatively identified using a protocol based on host dissection and DNA barcoding. At this scale, mainland faunas have proportionally more koinobiont species and island communities have a greater proportion of idiobionts.

@article{doi1021425f54112551,
    author = "Santos, Ana M. C.",
    title = "thesis abstract: Ecology and biogeography of island parasitoid faunas",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Frontiers of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Species on islands tend to use a wider range of resources than their mainland counterparts. In this thesis I investigated whether island parasitoid communities have proportionally more idiobiont species (which tend to have a wider host range; i.e. are more generalist) than their mainland source, and which factors determine island community structure. These questions were approached using data on the distribution of Ichneumonoidea species worldwide and data from a survey conducted in the Macaronesian islands and mainland. Prior to the global analyses, I assessed whether islands and archipelagos follow the same species-area relationship, and identified which islands have comparable inventories. Globally, islands have proportionally more idiobionts than continental areas, and the species pool for colonization is the most important determinant of island community structure. Specimens collected in the Macaronesian region were tentatively identified using a protocol based on host dissection and DNA barcoding. At this scale, mainland faunas have proportionally more koinobiont species and island communities have a greater proportion of idiobionts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.21425/f54112551",
    doi = "10.21425/f54112551",
    openalex = "W4231398095",
    references = "openalexw565500816"
}

Species on islands tend to use a wider range of resources than their mainland counterparts.In this thesis I investigated whether island parasitoid communities have proportionally more idiobiont species (which tend to have a wider host range; i.e. are more generalist) than their mainland source, and which factors determine island community structure.These questions were approached using data on the distribution of Ichneumonoidea species worldwide and data from a survey conducted in the Macaronesian islands and mainland.Prior to the global analyses, I assessed whether islands and archipelagos follow the same species-area relationship, and identified which islands have comparable inventories.Globally, islands have proportionally more idiobionts than continental areas, and the species pool for colonization is the most important determinant of island community structure.Specimens collected in the Macaronesian region were tentatively identified using a protocol based on host dissection and DNA barcoding.At this scale, mainland faunas have proportionally more koinobiont species and island communities have a greater proportion of idiobionts.

@article{doi1021425f5fbg12551,
    author = "Santos, Ana M. C.",
    title = "thesis abstract: Ecology and biogeography of island parasitoid faunas",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Frontiers of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Species on islands tend to use a wider range of resources than their mainland counterparts.In this thesis I investigated whether island parasitoid communities have proportionally more idiobiont species (which tend to have a wider host range; i.e. are more generalist) than their mainland source, and which factors determine island community structure.These questions were approached using data on the distribution of Ichneumonoidea species worldwide and data from a survey conducted in the Macaronesian islands and mainland.Prior to the global analyses, I assessed whether islands and archipelagos follow the same species-area relationship, and identified which islands have comparable inventories.Globally, islands have proportionally more idiobionts than continental areas, and the species pool for colonization is the most important determinant of island community structure.Specimens collected in the Macaronesian region were tentatively identified using a protocol based on host dissection and DNA barcoding.At this scale, mainland faunas have proportionally more koinobiont species and island communities have a greater proportion of idiobionts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.21425/f5fbg12551",
    doi = "10.21425/f5fbg12551",
    openalex = "W7677318",
    references = "openalexw565500816"
}

The ant fauna of the Krakataus, and Sebesi and Sebuku islands, based oncollections made by RU in 2005 by intensive sweep-netting are reported. Thirty-sevenspecies of ant were collected on the Krakataus (Rakata, Sertung, Panjang, and AnakKrakatau), 15 species on Sebesi, and 4 species on Sebuku. The ant species diversity onAnak Krakatau (20 species) was remarkably more diverse than those known from Rakata(15 species), Sertung (13 species), and Panjang (12 species). The ant species distributionon the Krakataus is discussedants

@article{doi1014203treubiav36i0104,
    author = "Asfiya, Wara and Yamane, Seiki and Ubaidillah, Rosichon",
    title = "ANT (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE) OF THE KRAKATAUS, AND SEBESI AND SEBUKU ISLANDS",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "The ant fauna of the Krakataus, and Sebesi and Sebuku islands, based oncollections made by RU in 2005 by intensive sweep-netting are reported. Thirty-sevenspecies of ant were collected on the Krakataus (Rakata, Sertung, Panjang, and AnakKrakatau), 15 species on Sebesi, and 4 species on Sebuku. The ant species diversity onAnak Krakatau (20 species) was remarkably more diverse than those known from Rakata(15 species), Sertung (13 species), and Panjang (12 species). The ant species distributionon the Krakataus is discussedants",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v36i0.104",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v36i0.104",
    openalex = "W2188359247",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav16i12493"
}

Frequent volcanic eruptions, submergence and emergence of some of theIndonesian islands has made them ail object of intense biogeographical significance. These geological catastrophies resulted in complete sterilization of the area biologically, wiping out all forms of life. Subsequent reuegetation and establishment of new fauna attracted many scientists, some of them having made very significant contributions. The present contribution deals with termite fauna of Krakatau and associated islands. In all, twenty five species and 13 genera, the highest number so far reported, from Carita (9 species), Panaitan Islands (6 species), Rahota Besar (2 species), Anak Krakatau and Sertung (1 species each) have been recorded in this publication. Of these, while, Prorhinotermes panaitanensis is new to science, two species (Glyptotermes besarensis and G. panaitanensis) have been described recently by the senior author (MLT). Similarly Glyptotermes minutus, Nasutitermes culasiensis and Hospitalitermes buzpnensis have been recorded for the first time from the Indonesia. Several other species are new distributional records. Nasutitermes matagensis matagensiformisand Schedorhinotermes javanicus are the most successfully colonizedspecies, recorded almost in all the islands under reference. Besides the taxonomic treatment of the fauna, the paper also gives key to genera based on soldier caste.

@article{doi1014203treubiav30i3635,
    author = "Thakur, M. L. and Thakur, Rahul",
    title = "TERMITE FAUNA OF KRAKATAU AND ASSOCIATED ISLANDS, SUNDA STRAITS, INDONESIA",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "Frequent volcanic eruptions, submergence and emergence of some of theIndonesian islands has made them ail object of intense biogeographical significance. These geological catastrophies resulted in complete sterilization of the area biologically, wiping out all forms of life. Subsequent reuegetation and establishment of new fauna attracted many scientists, some of them having made very significant contributions. The present contribution deals with termite fauna of Krakatau and associated islands. In all, twenty five species and 13 genera, the highest number so far reported, from Carita (9 species), Panaitan Islands (6 species), Rahota Besar (2 species), Anak Krakatau and Sertung (1 species each) have been recorded in this publication. Of these, while, Prorhinotermes panaitanensis is new to science, two species (Glyptotermes besarensis and G. panaitanensis) have been described recently by the senior author (MLT). Similarly Glyptotermes minutus, Nasutitermes culasiensis and Hospitalitermes buzpnensis have been recorded for the first time from the Indonesia. Several other species are new distributional records. Nasutitermes matagensis matagensiformisand Schedorhinotermes javanicus are the most successfully colonizedspecies, recorded almost in all the islands under reference. Besides the taxonomic treatment of the fauna, the paper also gives key to genera based on soldier caste.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v30i3.635",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v30i3.635",
    openalex = "W2753803909",
    references = "doi101111j109636421898tb00405x, doi1014203treubiav27i11556, openalexw3172748047"
}

@article{doi1014203treubiav16i02539,
    author = "Dammerman, K. W.",
    title = "ON JALORENSIS-RATS AND OTHER MAMMALS FROM THE KRAKATAU ISLANDS.",
    year = "2016",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v16i0.2539",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v16i0.2539",
    openalex = "W2600812916"
}

-

@article{doi1014203treubiav22i22676,
    author = "Hoogerwerf, A.",
    title = "NOTES ON THE VERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE KRAKATAU ISLANDS, with special reference to the birds",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v22i2.2676",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v22i2.2676",
    openalex = "W2600157477"
}

The Krakatau Islands in the Sunda Strait have been significantly impacted by catastrophic volcanic eruptions in 1883 and 2018. The marine habitats are not well studied, neither in the past nor in the present. This research is a report on the distribution and ecology of corals and sponges in the Krakatau Volcanic Complex at the three islands of Anak Krakatau, Rakata, and Panjang. This study used 100 m transects long in 5–7 m depth. Hard coral and soft coral communities are found to live with a coverage varied between 25-53% and 0-24%. Dead coral skeletons covered 14–40% of the surveyed area and did not seem to affect the abundance of sponges recorded. The Sponges occupied 0–6% of the area, and they often acted as coral competitors, shaping the benthic ecosystems. The recorded sponges only belong to the Demospongiae class, which are the Suberitid species that are commonly found in Indonesian waters, e.g., Amorphinopsis excavans, Protosuberites collaris, and Terpios sp. The excavating sponge Cliona cf. orientalis was frequently found to be a successful competitor of massive Porites sp., aggressively overgrowing live parts of the coral. Two Haliclona species and Mycale relicta colonized dead coral skeleton. Overall, the benthic communities appear healthy and are comparable to other similar locations that are not affected by volcanic activity.

@article{doi1014203beritabiologiv19i13779,
    author = "Putra, Singgih Afifa",
    title = "RAPID SURVEYS REVEAL HEALTHY CORAL-SPONGE COMMUNITIES ON KRAKATAU REEFS",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "BERITA BIOLOGI",
    abstract = "The Krakatau Islands in the Sunda Strait have been significantly impacted by catastrophic volcanic eruptions in 1883 and 2018. The marine habitats are not well studied, neither in the past nor in the present. This research is a report on the distribution and ecology of corals and sponges in the Krakatau Volcanic Complex at the three islands of Anak Krakatau, Rakata, and Panjang. This study used 100 m transects long in 5–7 m depth. Hard coral and soft coral communities are found to live with a coverage varied between 25-53\% and 0-24\%. Dead coral skeletons covered 14–40\% of the surveyed area and did not seem to affect the abundance of sponges recorded. The Sponges occupied 0–6\% of the area, and they often acted as coral competitors, shaping the benthic ecosystems. The recorded sponges only belong to the Demospongiae class, which are the Suberitid species that are commonly found in Indonesian waters, e.g., Amorphinopsis excavans, Protosuberites collaris, and Terpios sp. The excavating sponge Cliona cf. orientalis was frequently found to be a successful competitor of massive Porites sp., aggressively overgrowing live parts of the coral. Two Haliclona species and Mycale relicta colonized dead coral skeleton. Overall, the benthic communities appear healthy and are comparable to other similar locations that are not affected by volcanic activity.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/beritabiologi.v19i1.3779",
    doi = "10.14203/beritabiologi.v19i1.3779",
    openalex = "W3039689460",
    references = "doi101007bf00177241"
}

@article{doi101007s42690025015758,
    author = "Subedi, Indra Prasad and Wachkoo, Aijaz Ahmad and Akbar, Shahid",
    title = "Synopsis of the formicine ant fauna (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae) of Nepal",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "International Journal of Tropical Insect Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01575-8",
    doi = "10.1007/s42690-025-01575-8",
    openalex = "W4412817969",
    references = "doi1014203treubiav16i12493"
}

-

@article{doi1014203treubiav16i12493,
    author = "Wheeler, William Morton",
    title = "ADDITIONS TO THE ANT-FAUNA OF KRAKATAU AND VERLATEN ISLAND.",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v16i1.2493",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v16i1.2493",
    openalex = "W2295390470"
}

-

@article{doi1014203treubiav16i12505,
    author = "Dammerman, K. W.",
    title = "SECOND CONTRIBUTION TO. A STUDY OF THE TROPICAL SOIL AND SURFACE FAUNA",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v16i1.2505",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v16i1.2505",
    openalex = "W2620709051"
}

-

@article{doi1014203treubiav3i01618,
    author = "Dammerman, K. W.",
    title = "THE FAUNA OF KRAKATAU, VERLATEN ISLAND AND SEBESY",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "TREUBIA",
    abstract = "-",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.14203/treubia.v3i0.1618",
    doi = "10.14203/treubia.v3i0.1618",
    openalex = "W2618337882"
}