Lamarck

@misc{lamarck1809zoological2,
    author = "Lamarck, J. B",
    title = "Zoological Philosophy",
    year = "1809",
    howpublished = "Translated into English by H. Elliott, 1914. Macmillan \& Co., New York",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Lamarck, J. B., 1809, Zoological Philosophy. Translated into English by H. Elliott, 1914. Macmillan \& Co., New York.}"
}

How the environment acts upon the organisation, general form and structure of animals; how changes subsequently occurring in their environment, mode of life, etc., involve corresponding changes in the activities of animals; lastly, how a change in the activities, which has become permanent, involves on the one hand more frequent use of certain parts of the animal, thus developing and enlarging them proportionally; while, on the other hand, this same change diminishes and sometimes abolishes PAGE 47 56 68 '0k CHAP, 4] the use of certain other parts, thus acting unfavourably on their development, reducing them, and finally causing their disappearance.(See the Additions at the end of Part I.)

@book{doi105962bhltitle101794,
    author = "Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste and Elliot, Hugh",
    title = "Zoological philosophy /",
    year = "1914",
    abstract = "How the environment acts upon the organisation, general form and structure of animals; how changes subsequently occurring in their environment, mode of life, etc., involve corresponding changes in the activities of animals; lastly, how a change in the activities, which has become permanent, involves on the one hand more frequent use of certain parts of the animal, thus developing and enlarging them proportionally; while, on the other hand, this same change diminishes and sometimes abolishes PAGE 47 56 68 '0k CHAP, 4] the use of certain other parts, thus acting unfavourably on their development, reducing them, and finally causing their disappearance.(See the Additions at the end of Part I.)",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.101794",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.101794",
    openalex = "W4253211029"
}

The actions of animals only take place by means of movements that are stimulated, and not transmitted from without. Irri- tability is a faculty which they all possess, and is not found except in animals: it is the source of their actions. It is not true that all animals possess feeling, nor the faculty of carrying out acts of will.

@book{doi105962bhltitle57305,
    author = "de Monet de Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine",
    title = "Zoological philosophy; an exposition with regard to the natural history of animals...",
    year = "1914",
    booktitle = "Macmillan and Co eBooks",
    abstract = "The actions of animals only take place by means of movements that are stimulated, and not transmitted from without. Irri- tability is a faculty which they all possess, and is not found except in animals: it is the source of their actions. It is not true that all animals possess feeling, nor the faculty of carrying out acts of will.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.57305",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.57305",
    openalex = "W2157685505"
}

The actions of animals only take place by means of movements that are stimulated, and not transmitted from without.Irri- tability is a faculty which they all possess, and is not found except in animals: it is the source of their actions.It is not true that all animals possess feeling, nor the faculty of carrying out acts of will.V. On the True Arrangement and Classification of Animals 56That animals may be arranged, as regards their larger groups, in a series which exhibits a gradually increasing complexity of organisation; that the knowledge of the affinities between the various animals is our only guide in determining this series, and that the use of this method dispenses with arbitrary judgments; lastly, that the number of the lines of demarcation, by which classes are established, has to be increased in correspondence with our knowledge of the different systems of organisation, so that the series now presents fourteen distinct classes, of great service in the study of animals.VI. Degradation and Simplification of Organisation, from one Extremity to the other of the Ani- mal Chain, proceeding from the most complex TO THE simplest - -68That it is a positive fact that on following the animal chain in the usual direction from the most perfect to the most imperfect animals, we observe an increasing degradation and simplification of organisation; that, consequently on traversing the animal scale in the opposite direction, that is to say, in the same order as Nature's, we shall find an increasing complexity in the organisation of animals, a complexity which would advance with evenness and regularity, if the environmental conditions, mode of life, etc., did not occasion many anomalies in it. VII. Of the Influence of the Environment on theActivities and Habits of Animals, and the Influence of the Activities and Habits of these Living Bodies in modifying their Organisation and Structure -106How the environment acts upon the organisation, general form and structure of animals; how changes subsequently occurring in their environment, mode of life, etc., involve corresponding changes in the activities of animals; lastly, how a change in the activities, which has become permanent, involves on the one hand more frequent use of certain parts of the animal, thus developing and enlarging them proportionally; while, on the other hand, this same change diminishes and sometimes abolishes TABLE OF CONTENTS xi CHAP.PAOK that they are controlled by laws peculiar to themselves; but, on the contrary, that it is true that the laws, which regulate the changes occurring in bodies, meet with very different conditions in living bodies from those that they find in lifeless bodies, and hence work upon the former results very different from those worked upon the latter.That living bodies have the faculty of building up their own substance for themselves and thus forming combinations which would never have come into existence without them; hence their remains furnish the material which serves for the formation of the various minerals.VIII.Of the Faculties common to all Living Bodies - 259 That life endows all bodies which possess it with certain faculties in common, and that the production of these faculties requires no special organ whatever, but only such a state of things in the parts of these bodies as may enable life to exist in them.IX.Of the Faculties peculiar to certain Living Bodies 265That, in addition to the faculties conferred by life on all living bodies, some living bodies have faculties which are altogether peculiar to themselves.Now observation shows that these latter faculties only arise, when special organs, capable of producing them, exist in the animals possessing such faculties.

@book{doi105962bhltitle6432,
    author = "de Monet de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine",
    title = "Zoological philosophy; an exposition with regard to the natural history of animals...",
    year = "1963",
    booktitle = "Biodiversity Heritage Library (Smithsonian Institution)",
    abstract = "The actions of animals only take place by means of movements that are stimulated, and not transmitted from without.Irri- tability is a faculty which they all possess, and is not found except in animals: it is the source of their actions.It is not true that all animals possess feeling, nor the faculty of carrying out acts of will.V. On the True Arrangement and Classification of Animals 56That animals may be arranged, as regards their larger groups, in a series which exhibits a gradually increasing complexity of organisation; that the knowledge of the affinities between the various animals is our only guide in determining this series, and that the use of this method dispenses with arbitrary judgments; lastly, that the number of the lines of demarcation, by which classes are established, has to be increased in correspondence with our knowledge of the different systems of organisation, so that the series now presents fourteen distinct classes, of great service in the study of animals.VI. Degradation and Simplification of Organisation, from one Extremity to the other of the Ani- mal Chain, proceeding from the most complex TO THE simplest - -68That it is a positive fact that on following the animal chain in the usual direction from the most perfect to the most imperfect animals, we observe an increasing degradation and simplification of organisation; that, consequently on traversing the animal scale in the opposite direction, that is to say, in the same order as Nature's, we shall find an increasing complexity in the organisation of animals, a complexity which would advance with evenness and regularity, if the environmental conditions, mode of life, etc., did not occasion many anomalies in it. VII. Of the Influence of the Environment on theActivities and Habits of Animals, and the Influence of the Activities and Habits of these Living Bodies in modifying their Organisation and Structure -106How the environment acts upon the organisation, general form and structure of animals; how changes subsequently occurring in their environment, mode of life, etc., involve corresponding changes in the activities of animals; lastly, how a change in the activities, which has become permanent, involves on the one hand more frequent use of certain parts of the animal, thus developing and enlarging them proportionally; while, on the other hand, this same change diminishes and sometimes abolishes TABLE OF CONTENTS xi CHAP.PAOK that they are controlled by laws peculiar to themselves; but, on the contrary, that it is true that the laws, which regulate the changes occurring in bodies, meet with very different conditions in living bodies from those that they find in lifeless bodies, and hence work upon the former results very different from those worked upon the latter.That living bodies have the faculty of building up their own substance for themselves and thus forming combinations which would never have come into existence without them; hence their remains furnish the material which serves for the formation of the various minerals.VIII.Of the Faculties common to all Living Bodies - 259 That life endows all bodies which possess it with certain faculties in common, and that the production of these faculties requires no special organ whatever, but only such a state of things in the parts of these bodies as may enable life to exist in them.IX.Of the Faculties peculiar to certain Living Bodies 265That, in addition to the faculties conferred by life on all living bodies, some living bodies have faculties which are altogether peculiar to themselves.Now observation shows that these latter faculties only arise, when special organs, capable of producing them, exist in the animals possessing such faculties.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.6432",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.6432",
    openalex = "W2485740435"
}

@book{burkhardt1977the1,
    author = "Burkhardt, R. W. and Jr",
    title = "The Spirit of System",
    year = "1977",
    publisher = "Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology: Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Burkhardt, R. W., Jr., 1977, The Spirit of System: Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology: Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.}"
}

@article{hull1978the,
    author = "Hull, David L. and Burkhardt, Richard W.",
    title = "The Spirit of System: Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology.",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Systematic Zoology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/2412986",
    doi = "10.2307/2412986",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2079634647",
    pages = "248",
    volume = "27"
}

@article{crossref1985zoological,
    title = "Zoological Philosophy: An Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals. J. B. Lamarck, Hugh Elliot",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Isis",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/353922",
    doi = "10.1086/353922",
    number = "3",
    openalex = "W4248812516",
    pages = "422-423",
    volume = "76"
}

@article{ruse1985zoological,
    author = "Ruse, Michael",
    title = "Zoological Philosophy. An Exposition With Regard to the Natural History of Animals. J. B. Lamarck, Hugh Elliot",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "The Quarterly Review of Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/414580",
    doi = "10.1086/414580",
    number = "4",
    openalex = "W2513683004",
    pages = "488-488",
    volume = "60"
}

@article{flay1990hegels,
    author = "Flay, Joseph C.",
    title = "Hegel’s Philosophy of Spirit",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "International Studies in Philosophy",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5840/intstudphil1990221129",
    doi = "10.5840/intstudphil1990221129",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2328176664",
    pages = "135-137",
    volume = "22"
}

We are not here concerned with an argument, but with the examination of a positive fact—a fact which is of more general application than is supposed, and which has not received the attention that it deserves, no doubt because it is usually very difficult to...

@incollection{baptistedelamarck2009from,
    author = "Baptiste De Lamarck, Jean",
    title = "From Zoological Philosophy (1809)",
    year = "2009",
    booktitle = "Literature and Science in the Nineteenth Century",
    abstract = "We are not here concerned with an argument, but with the examination of a positive fact—a fact which is of more general application than is supposed, and which has not received the attention that it deserves, no doubt because it is usually very difficult to...",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/owc/9780199554652.003.0073",
    doi = "10.1093/owc/9780199554652.003.0073",
    openalex = "W3113984892"
}

The great French zoologist Lamarck (1744–1829) was best known for his theory of evolution, called 'soft inheritance', whereby organisms pass down acquired characteristics to their offspring. Originally a soldier, Lamarck later studied medicine and biology. His distinguished career included admission to the French Academy of Sciences (1779), and appointments as Royal Botanist (1781) and as professor of zoology at the Musée Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle in 1793. Acknowledged as the premier authority on invertebrate zoology, he is credited with coining the term 'invertebrates'. In this 1809 work, translated into English in 1914, he outlines his theory that under the pressure of different external circumstances, species can develop variations, and that new species and genera can eventually evolve as a result. Darwin paid tribute to Lamarck as the man who 'first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change … being the result of law'.

@misc{lamarck2011zoological,
    author = "Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de",
    title = "Zoological Philosophy",
    year = "2011",
    abstract = "The great French zoologist Lamarck (1744–1829) was best known for his theory of evolution, called 'soft inheritance', whereby organisms pass down acquired characteristics to their offspring. Originally a soldier, Lamarck later studied medicine and biology. His distinguished career included admission to the French Academy of Sciences (1779), and appointments as Royal Botanist (1781) and as professor of zoology at the Musée Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle in 1793. Acknowledged as the premier authority on invertebrate zoology, he is credited with coining the term 'invertebrates'. In this 1809 work, translated into English in 1914, he outlines his theory that under the pressure of different external circumstances, species can develop variations, and that new species and genera can eventually evolve as a result. Darwin paid tribute to Lamarck as the man who 'first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change … being the result of law'.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139105323",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9781139105323",
    openalex = "W4235210320"
}

Following the recent 150th anniversary of the publication of The Origin of Species, we are in the midst of a surge of Darwinian models of social change in international relations and even genetic and sociobiological analyses of politics more generally. But does being correct biologically make the Darwin/Mendel synthesis an appropriate model of change in world politics? This is an open question and one made interesting by the existence of multiple discarded models of biological evolution, most prominent among them being Lamarck's model of inheritance of acquired characteristics. So we can also ask, conversely, does being incorrect biologically disqualify a model for use in international relations? In this article, we explore this question by examining the challenges of evolutionary analysis and analyzing Lamarckian evolution side by side with Darwinian evolution. If IR is to pursue evolutionary analysis, we argue that Lamarck deserves a second look.

@article{doi101111misr12060,
    author = "Gilady, Lilach and Hoffmann, Matthew J.",
    title = "Darwin's Finches or Lamarck's Giraffe, Does International Relations Get Evolution Wrong?",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "International Studies Review",
    abstract = "Following the recent 150th anniversary of the publication of The Origin of Species, we are in the midst of a surge of Darwinian models of social change in international relations and even genetic and sociobiological analyses of politics more generally. But does being correct biologically make the Darwin/Mendel synthesis an appropriate model of change in world politics? This is an open question and one made interesting by the existence of multiple discarded models of biological evolution, most prominent among them being Lamarck's model of inheritance of acquired characteristics. So we can also ask, conversely, does being incorrect biologically disqualify a model for use in international relations? In this article, we explore this question by examining the challenges of evolutionary analysis and analyzing Lamarckian evolution side by side with Darwinian evolution. If IR is to pursue evolutionary analysis, we argue that Lamarck deserves a second look.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/misr.12060",
    doi = "10.1111/misr.12060",
    openalex = "W2012367864",
    references = "crossref2021zoological, doi101016s0024630196902952, doi101017cbo9780511612183, doi101017s0020818300027764, doi10109301992477570010001, doi101093owc97801995525800010001, doi1023072149594, doi1023072586011, doi10230730040740, doi10230740201892, openalexw2624262714"
}

@incollection{crossref2021zoological,
    title = "Zoological Philosophy",
    year = "2021",
    booktitle = "Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3\_305626",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3\_305626",
    openalex = "W4233268073",
    pages = "8605-8605"
}

Physarum polycephalum, also known more colloquially as 'the blob', 'acellular slime mould', or just 'slime mould', is a unicellular multinucleate protist that has continued to attract the interest of biologists over the past century because of its complex life cycle, unique physiology, morphology, and behaviour. More recently, attention has shifted to Physarum as a model organism for investigating putative cognitive capacities such as decision making, learning, and memory in organisms without nervous systems. The aim of this Element is to illustrate how Physarum can be used as a valuable tool for approaching various topics in the philosophy of biology. Physarum and its behaviour not only pose a challenge to some of the received views of biological processes but also, I shall argue, provide an opportunity to clarify and appropriately sharpen the concepts underlying such received views.

@book{doi1010179781009488648,
    author = "Sims, Matthew",
    title = "Slime Mould and Philosophy",
    year = "2024",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Physarum polycephalum, also known more colloquially as 'the blob', 'acellular slime mould', or just 'slime mould', is a unicellular multinucleate protist that has continued to attract the interest of biologists over the past century because of its complex life cycle, unique physiology, morphology, and behaviour. More recently, attention has shifted to Physarum as a model organism for investigating putative cognitive capacities such as decision making, learning, and memory in organisms without nervous systems. The aim of this Element is to illustrate how Physarum can be used as a valuable tool for approaching various topics in the philosophy of biology. Physarum and its behaviour not only pose a challenge to some of the received views of biological processes but also, I shall argue, provide an opportunity to clarify and appropriately sharpen the concepts underlying such received views.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009488648",
    doi = "10.1017/9781009488648",
    openalex = "W4405203880",
    references = "doi1010179781009028745, doi1010179781108616751"
}