Lasar ranging

Plate theory has successfully related sea floor spreading to the focal mechanisms of earthquakes and the deep structure of island arcs. It is used here to calculate the temperature distribution in the lithosphere thrust beneath island arcs, and to determine the flow and the stress elsewhere in the mantle. Comparison with observations demonstrates that earthquakes are restricted to those regions of the mantle which are colder than a definite temperature. The flow and the stress heating in the mantle can maintain the high heat flow anomaly observed behind island arcs. Plate theory also suggests a new approach to the convection problem. The most obvious mechanism causing surface motion is the force on the plates due to the sinking lithosphere. This does not appear to be the way in which the motions are maintained. However, the input of large volumes of cold material can control convection and cause general downward movements in the mantle near island arcs. This input of cold lithosphere must cease when the island arc tries to consume a continent, since the light continental crust cannot sink through the denser mantle. Attempts to assimilate continental crust in this way can produce fold mountains, and also permit a rearrangement of convection cells.

@article{doi101111j1365246x1969tb00259x,
    author = "McKenzie, Dan",
    title = "Speculations on the Consequences and Causes of Plate Motions",
    year = "1969",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "Plate theory has successfully related sea floor spreading to the focal mechanisms of earthquakes and the deep structure of island arcs. It is used here to calculate the temperature distribution in the lithosphere thrust beneath island arcs, and to determine the flow and the stress elsewhere in the mantle. Comparison with observations demonstrates that earthquakes are restricted to those regions of the mantle which are colder than a definite temperature. The flow and the stress heating in the mantle can maintain the high heat flow anomaly observed behind island arcs. Plate theory also suggests a new approach to the convection problem. The most obvious mechanism causing surface motion is the force on the plates due to the sinking lithosphere. This does not appear to be the way in which the motions are maintained. However, the input of large volumes of cold material can control convection and cause general downward movements in the mantle near island arcs. This input of cold lithosphere must cease when the island arc tries to consume a continent, since the light continental crust cannot sink through the denser mantle. Attempts to assimilate continental crust in this way can produce fold mountains, and also permit a rearrangement of convection cells.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1969.tb00259.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1969.tb00259.x",
    openalex = "W2074105632",
    references = "crittenden1963effective, doi1010160016003266902705, doi101017cbo9780511800955, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038190854a0, doi101038199947a0, doi101038207343a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038224125a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101126science15437531164, doi101126science15437551405, doi101130petrologic1962599, doi101785bssa0590010369, doi1023072317984"
}

Abstract Evidence shows that volcanic island chains and aseismic ridges are formed by plate motion over fixed-mantle “hot-spots” (Iceland, Hawaii, Galapagos, etc.) and new arguments link these hot-spots with the driving mechanism of continental drift. It is assumed that the hot-spots are surface expressions of deep mantle plumes roughly 150 km in diameter, rising 2 m/year, and extending to the lowest part of the mantle. The rising material spreads out in the asthenosphere, producing stresses on the plate bottoms. Order-of-magnitude estimates show these stresses are sufficiently large to influence plate motion significantly. The total upward flow in the plumes is estimated at 500 cu km/year, which would require the entire mantle to overturn once each 2 billion years.

@article{doi101306819a3e5016c511d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Morgan, W. Jason",
    title = "Deep Mantle Convection Plumes and Plate Motions",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Evidence shows that volcanic island chains and aseismic ridges are formed by plate motion over fixed-mantle “hot-spots” (Iceland, Hawaii, Galapagos, etc.) and new arguments link these hot-spots with the driving mechanism of continental drift. It is assumed that the hot-spots are surface expressions of deep mantle plumes roughly 150 km in diameter, rising 2 m/year, and extending to the lowest part of the mantle. The rising material spreads out in the asthenosphere, producing stresses on the plate bottoms. Order-of-magnitude estimates show these stresses are sufficiently large to influence plate motion significantly. The total upward flow in the plumes is estimated at 500 cu km/year, which would require the entire mantle to overturn once each 2 billion years.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/819a3e50-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/819a3e50-16c5-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2085338101",
    references = "doi101038230042a0, doi101038scientificamerican046386"
}

Geodetic data along the San Andreas fault between Parkfield and San Francisco, California \n(latitudes 36°N and 38°N, respectively), have been re-examined to estimate the current relative \nmovement between the American and Pacific plates across the San Andreas fault system. \nThe average relative right lateral motion is estimated to be 32 ± 5 mm/yr for the period \n1907-1971. Between 36°N and 37°N it appears that most, if not all, of the plate motion is \naccommodated by fault creep. Although strain is presumably accumulating north of 37°N \n(San Francisco Bay area), the geodetic evidence for accumulation is not conclusive.

@article{doi101029jb078i005p00832,
    author = "Savage, J. C. and Burford, R. O.",
    title = "Geodetic determination of relative plate motion in central California",
    year = "1973",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Geodetic data along the San Andreas fault between Parkfield and San Francisco, California \n(latitudes 36°N and 38°N, respectively), have been re-examined to estimate the current relative \nmovement between the American and Pacific plates across the San Andreas fault system. \nThe average relative right lateral motion is estimated to be 32 ± 5 mm/yr for the period \n1907-1971. Between 36°N and 37°N it appears that most, if not all, of the plate motion is \naccommodated by fault creep. Although strain is presumably accumulating north of 37°N \n(San Francisco Bay area), the geodetic evidence for accumulation is not conclusive.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb078i005p00832",
    doi = "10.1029/jb078i005p00832",
    openalex = "W2111061528"
}

@article{bender1975present,
    author = "Bender, P.L. and Silverberg, E.C.",
    title = "Present tectonic-plate motions from lunar ranging",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(75)90127-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0040-1951(75)90127-4",
    number = "1-4",
    openalex = "W2059028274",
    pages = "1-7",
    volume = "29",
    references = "doi101017s0252921100050946, doi101029jz070i009p02267, doi101086111484, doi101126science1824109229, doi101364ao13000565"
}

@incollection{crossref1975present,
    title = "Present Tectonic-Plate Motions from Lunar Ranging",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "Developments in Geotectonics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-41420-5.50008-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-444-41420-5.50008-3",
    openalex = "W4241039095",
    pages = "1-7",
    references = "doi101017s0252921100050946, doi101029jz070i009p02267, doi101086111484, doi101126science1824109229, doi101364ao13000565"
}

A number of possible mechanisms have recently been proposed for driving the motions of the lithospheric plates, such as pushing from mid-ocean ridges, pulling by downgoing slabs, suction toward trenches, and coupling of the plates to flow in the mantle. We advance a new observational method of testing these theories of the driving mechanism. Our basic approach is to solve the inverse problem of determining the relative strength of the plausible driving forces, given the observed motions and geometries of the lithospheric plates. Since the inertia of the plates is negligible, each plate must be in dynamic equilibrium, so that the sum of the torques acting on a plate must be zero. Thus, our problem is to determine the relative sizes of the forces that minimize the components of net torque on each plate. The results indicate that the forces acting on the downgoing slab control the velocity of the oceanic plates and are an order of magnitude stronger than any other force. Namely, all the oceanic plates attached to substantial amounts of downgoing slabs move with a ' terminal velocity ' at which the gravitational body force pulling the slabs downward is nearly balanced with the resistance acting on the slab; regardless of the other features of the trailing horizontal part of the plates. The drag on the bottom of the plates which resist motion is stronger under the continents than under the oceans.

@article{doi101111j1365246x1975tb00631x,
    author = "Forsyth, Donald W. and Uyeda, Seiya",
    title = "On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion",
    year = "1975",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "A number of possible mechanisms have recently been proposed for driving the motions of the lithospheric plates, such as pushing from mid-ocean ridges, pulling by downgoing slabs, suction toward trenches, and coupling of the plates to flow in the mantle. We advance a new observational method of testing these theories of the driving mechanism. Our basic approach is to solve the inverse problem of determining the relative strength of the plausible driving forces, given the observed motions and geometries of the lithospheric plates. Since the inertia of the plates is negligible, each plate must be in dynamic equilibrium, so that the sum of the torques acting on a plate must be zero. Thus, our problem is to determine the relative sizes of the forces that minimize the components of net torque on each plate. The results indicate that the forces acting on the downgoing slab control the velocity of the oceanic plates and are an order of magnitude stronger than any other force. Namely, all the oceanic plates attached to substantial amounts of downgoing slabs move with a ' terminal velocity ' at which the gravitational body force pulling the slabs downward is nearly balanced with the resistance acting on the slab; regardless of the other features of the trailing horizontal part of the plates. The drag on the bottom of the plates which resist motion is stronger under the continents than under the oceans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1975.tb00631.x",
    openalex = "W2011893217",
    references = "doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101029jb073i022p07089, doi101029jb075i014p02625, doi101029jb075i020p03941, doi101029jb076i011p02542, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101029rg009i001p00103, doi101029rg011i002p00223, doi101038190854a0, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038230042a0, doi101111j1365246x1969tb00259x, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101126science1533739990, doi101130001676061970813513ioptft20co2, doi101130mem132p7, sykes1967mechanism"
}

A data set comprising 110 spreading rates, 78 transform fault azimuths, and 142 earthquake slip vectors has been inverted to yield a new instantaneous plate motion model, designated Relative Motion 2 (RM2). The model represents a considerable improvement over our previous estimate, RM1 [Minster et al., 1974]. The mean averaging interval for the spreading rate data has been reduced to less than 3 m.y. A detailed comparison of RM2 with angular velocity vectors which best fit the data along individual plate boundaries indicates that RM2 performs close to optimally in most regions, with several notable exceptions. The model systematically misfits data along the India‐Antarctica and Pacific‐India plate boundaries. We hypothesize that these discrepancies are manifestations of internal deformation within the Indian plate; the data are compatible with northwest‐southeast compression across the Ninetyeast Ridge at a rate of about 1 cm/yr. RM2 also fails to satisfy the east‐west trending transform fault azimuths observed in the French‐American Mid‐Ocean Undersea Study area, which is shown to be a consequence of closure constraints about the Azores triple junction. Slow movement between North and South America is required by the data set, although the angular velocity vector describing this motion remains poorly constrained. The existence of a Bering plate, postulated in our previous study, is not necessary if we accept the proposal of Engdahl and others that the Aleutian slip vector data are biased by slab effects. Absolute motion models are derived from several kinematical hypotheses and compared with the data from hot spot traces younger than 10 m.y. Although some of the models are inconsistent with the Wilson‐Morgan hypothesis, the overall resolving power of the hot spot data is poor, and the directions of absolute motion for the several slower‐moving plates are not usefully constrained.

@article{doi101029jb083ib11p05331,
    author = "Minster, J. B. and Jordan, T. H.",
    title = "Present‐day plate motions",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A data set comprising 110 spreading rates, 78 transform fault azimuths, and 142 earthquake slip vectors has been inverted to yield a new instantaneous plate motion model, designated Relative Motion 2 (RM2). The model represents a considerable improvement over our previous estimate, RM1 [Minster et al., 1974]. The mean averaging interval for the spreading rate data has been reduced to less than 3 m.y. A detailed comparison of RM2 with angular velocity vectors which best fit the data along individual plate boundaries indicates that RM2 performs close to optimally in most regions, with several notable exceptions. The model systematically misfits data along the India‐Antarctica and Pacific‐India plate boundaries. We hypothesize that these discrepancies are manifestations of internal deformation within the Indian plate; the data are compatible with northwest‐southeast compression across the Ninetyeast Ridge at a rate of about 1 cm/yr. RM2 also fails to satisfy the east‐west trending transform fault azimuths observed in the French‐American Mid‐Ocean Undersea Study area, which is shown to be a consequence of closure constraints about the Azores triple junction. Slow movement between North and South America is required by the data set, although the angular velocity vector describing this motion remains poorly constrained. The existence of a Bering plate, postulated in our previous study, is not necessary if we accept the proposal of Engdahl and others that the Aleutian slip vector data are biased by slab effects. Absolute motion models are derived from several kinematical hypotheses and compared with the data from hot spot traces younger than 10 m.y. Although some of the models are inconsistent with the Wilson‐Morgan hypothesis, the overall resolving power of the hot spot data is poor, and the directions of absolute motion for the several slower‐moving plates are not usefully constrained.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb083ib11p05331",
    doi = "10.1029/jb083ib11p05331",
    openalex = "W2009930154",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101038226243a0, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1975tb00631x, doi101126science1894201419, doi101130001676061969801639totcam20co2, doi10113000167606197283619ssitna20co2, doi101130mem132p7, sykes1967mechanism"
}

Doppler observations of Navy Navigation Satellites have yielded precisions in the determination of rates of change of station position of 2 cm/yr, based on data sampled over a 14-yr period, and 3 cm/yr for nearly continuous data over a 6-yr period. The accuracy of the determination is better than 10 cm/yr in horizontal position and 15 cm/yr in height for either data span. A number of changes in data acquisition and data reduction are proposed which will improve the accuracy of the results and lead to the determination of plate tectonic motion from this data. The computed latitude rate for Australia, which is 12.1 + or - 1.5 cm/yr, is consistent with geologic estimates. Maintenance of the base station network is critical to obtaining such results for other components of station position, other geographic areas, and other time periods. (Author)

@article{openalexw1528046578,
    author = "Anderle, R. J.",
    title = "Determination of Plate Tectonic Motion From Doppler Observations of Navy Navigation Satellites",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC)",
    abstract = "Doppler observations of Navy Navigation Satellites have yielded precisions in the determination of rates of change of station position of 2 cm/yr, based on data sampled over a 14-yr period, and 3 cm/yr for nearly continuous data over a 6-yr period. The accuracy of the determination is better than 10 cm/yr in horizontal position and 15 cm/yr in height for either data span. A number of changes in data acquisition and data reduction are proposed which will improve the accuracy of the results and lead to the determination of plate tectonic motion from this data. The computed latitude rate for Australia, which is 12.1 + or - 1.5 cm/yr, is consistent with geologic estimates. Maintenance of the base station network is critical to obtaining such results for other components of station position, other geographic areas, and other time periods. (Author)",
    openalex = "W1528046578"
}

About 50% of the Doppler observations made on a Navy Navigation Satellite over a 9 year period were analyzed to determine the motion of 8 sites on the North American plate and 12 sites on 7 other plates. The computed plate motions were not statistically significant compared with the standard errors of measurement of 1 to 5 cm/yr except for the Australian plate, European plate and Pacific plate. The measured motions of these plates are about twice those inferred from geologic records, but are in the proper direction. Processing of the balance of the data on one satellite over the 9 year time interval would improve the accuracy of the determination by about 60%, improving the possibility of detecting additional statistically significant motions. Unreasonable altitude changes at most sites are probably due to neglected higher order ionospheric refraction effects on the observations.

@article{anderle1983current,
    author = "Anderle, R. J. and Malyevac, C. A.",
    title = "Current plate motions based on Doppler satellite observations",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "About 50\% of the Doppler observations made on a Navy Navigation Satellite over a 9 year period were analyzed to determine the motion of 8 sites on the North American plate and 12 sites on 7 other plates. The computed plate motions were not statistically significant compared with the standard errors of measurement of 1 to 5 cm/yr except for the Australian plate, European plate and Pacific plate. The measured motions of these plates are about twice those inferred from geologic records, but are in the proper direction. Processing of the balance of the data on one satellite over the 9 year time interval would improve the accuracy of the determination by about 60\%, improving the possibility of detecting additional statistically significant motions. Unreasonable altitude changes at most sites are probably due to neglected higher order ionospheric refraction effects on the observations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/gl010i001p00067",
    doi = "10.1029/gl010i001p00067",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W1974882337",
    pages = "67-70",
    volume = "10",
    references = "doi101029jb083ib11p05331, openalexw1528046578"
}

Contributions of Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) in the fields of geodesy, oceanography, geodynamics, and geopotential are reviewed. With the best current systems SLR has successfully defined an absolute vertical datum to 3 cm and a relative horizontal datum with comparable accuracy. In the areas of Earth and space physics SLR has demonstrated its ability to provide information regarding the vertical and horizontal movements of the lithosphere, the rheology of the Earth, improved understanding of the evolution of the Earth-Moon system, the Earth's albedo and upper atmosphere, the polar wander, the frequency structure of the polar motion and in the definition of fundamental constants. Future options are discussed. It is indicated that SLR will continue to provide a unique and powerful tool for the study of space and geosciences.

@article{openalexw1619618674,
    author = "Christodoulidis, D. C. and Smith, David E.",
    title = "The role of satellite laser ranging through the 1990's",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)",
    abstract = "Contributions of Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) in the fields of geodesy, oceanography, geodynamics, and geopotential are reviewed. With the best current systems SLR has successfully defined an absolute vertical datum to 3 cm and a relative horizontal datum with comparable accuracy. In the areas of Earth and space physics SLR has demonstrated its ability to provide information regarding the vertical and horizontal movements of the lithosphere, the rheology of the Earth, improved understanding of the evolution of the Earth-Moon system, the Earth's albedo and upper atmosphere, the polar wander, the frequency structure of the polar motion and in the definition of fundamental constants. Future options are discussed. It is indicated that SLR will continue to provide a unique and powerful tool for the study of space and geosciences.",
    openalex = "W1619618674"
}

For the first time satellite laser ranging (SLR) measurements from LAGEOS are revealing changes in geodetic station positions suggestive of predicted global tectonic plate motions. A detailed discussion of the latest SLR results is given herein. Since the accuracy of tectonic plate velocities increases with the repetition rate and accuracy in the measurement of interplate distances, activities are also described for increasing the temporal resolution and precision of baseline determinations. The LAGEOS laser data for the period January 1979 to the end of 1982 have been reanalyzed. The results of this analysis are now approaching the useful accuracies required by geophysics. For the better annually determined stations they include consistencies of 2–3 cm in station heights and 2 cm in annual baselines. The SLR results show overall agreement with the geologic tectonic rate model of Minster and Jordan with a linear cross correlation of 0.61 for 34 observed interstation rates. Improved temporal resolution was obtained in the measurement of specific baselines of moderate length through the large number of simultaneously observed passes.

@article{christodoulidis1985observing,
    author = "Christodoulidis, D. C. and Smith, D. E. and Kolenkiewicz, R. and Klosko, S. M. and Torrence, M. H. and Dunn, P. J.",
    title = "Observing tectonic plate motions and deformations from satellite laser ranging",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth",
    abstract = "For the first time satellite laser ranging (SLR) measurements from LAGEOS are revealing changes in geodetic station positions suggestive of predicted global tectonic plate motions. A detailed discussion of the latest SLR results is given herein. Since the accuracy of tectonic plate velocities increases with the repetition rate and accuracy in the measurement of interplate distances, activities are also described for increasing the temporal resolution and precision of baseline determinations. The LAGEOS laser data for the period January 1979 to the end of 1982 have been reanalyzed. The results of this analysis are now approaching the useful accuracies required by geophysics. For the better annually determined stations they include consistencies of 2–3 cm in station heights and 2 cm in annual baselines. The SLR results show overall agreement with the geologic tectonic rate model of Minster and Jordan with a linear cross correlation of 0.61 for 34 observed interstation rates. Improved temporal resolution was obtained in the measurement of specific baselines of moderate length through the large number of simultaneously observed passes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb090ib11p09249",
    doi = "10.1029/jb090ib11p09249",
    number = "B11",
    openalex = "W2011868168",
    pages = "9249-9263",
    volume = "90",
    references = "doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb090ib11p09221, doi101029jb090ib11p09265, doi101029jb090ib11p09301, doi101029jb090ib11p09312, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, openalexw1619618674, openalexw2989834496, openalexw3162917349, openalexw755083091"
}

@article{christodoulidis1985observing1,
    author = "Christodoulidis, D. C. and Smith, D. E. and Kelenkiewicz, R. and Klosko, S. M. and Dunn, P. J",
    title = "Observing plate motions and deformations from satellite lasar ranging",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 90, p. 9249-9263",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Christodoulidis, D. C., Smith, D. E., Kelenkiewicz, R., Klosko, S. M., and Dunn, P. J., 1985, Observing plate motions and deformations from satellite lasar ranging: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 90, p. 9249-9263.}"
}

For the first time satellite laser ranging (SLR) measurements from LAGEOS are revealing changes in geodetic station positions suggestive of predicted global tectonic plate motions. A detailed discussion of the latest SLR results is given herein. Since the accuracy of tectonic plate velocities increases with the repetition rate and accuracy in the measurement of interplate distances, activities are also described for increasing the temporal resolution and precision of baseline determinations. The LAGEOS laser data for the period January 1979 to the end of 1982 have been reanalyzed. The results of this analysis are now approaching the useful accuracies required by geophysics. For the better annually determined stations they include consistencies of 2–3 cm in station heights and 2 cm in annual baselines. The SLR results show overall agreement with the geologic tectonic rate model of Minster and Jordan with a linear cross correlation of 0.61 for 34 observed interstation rates. Improved temporal resolution was obtained in the measurement of specific baselines of moderate length through the large number of simultaneously observed passes.

@article{doi101029jb090ib11p09249,
    author = "Christodoulidis, D. and Smith, David E. and Kolenkiewicz, R. and Klosko, S. and Torrence, M. and Dunn, P.",
    title = "Observing tectonic plate motions and deformations from satellite laser ranging",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research",
    abstract = "For the first time satellite laser ranging (SLR) measurements from LAGEOS are revealing changes in geodetic station positions suggestive of predicted global tectonic plate motions. A detailed discussion of the latest SLR results is given herein. Since the accuracy of tectonic plate velocities increases with the repetition rate and accuracy in the measurement of interplate distances, activities are also described for increasing the temporal resolution and precision of baseline determinations. The LAGEOS laser data for the period January 1979 to the end of 1982 have been reanalyzed. The results of this analysis are now approaching the useful accuracies required by geophysics. For the better annually determined stations they include consistencies of 2–3 cm in station heights and 2 cm in annual baselines. The SLR results show overall agreement with the geologic tectonic rate model of Minster and Jordan with a linear cross correlation of 0.61 for 34 observed interstation rates. Improved temporal resolution was obtained in the measurement of specific baselines of moderate length through the large number of simultaneously observed passes.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/3f47d777d23eda09ef691bfe96d60f250ab724c6",
    doi = "10.1029/JB090IB11P09249",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "B11",
    pages = "9249-9263",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "90",
    semanticscholar_id = "3f47d777d23eda09ef691bfe96d60f250ab724c6",
    volume = "90"
}

The NASA Crustal Dynamics Project uses satellite laser ranging (SLR) and very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) data collected and analyzed by the Goddard Space Flight Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the measurement of geodynamic and geodetic parameters. An important parameter is the determination of the baseline length or intersite distance. Since October 1979, baselines determined from SLR data and VLBI data have been compared to help assess the accuracy of the baseline measurements from these independent techniques. Eight locations in the continental United States participated in the comparison: Westford, Massachusetts; Fort Davis, Texas; Platteville, Colorado; and Quincy, Owens Valley, Goldstone, Pasadena, and Monument Peak, California. Twenty‐two baseline lengths between these locations, as determined by SLR, were differenced from the corresponding VLBI determinations. The rms scatter about zero for the length differences is 5.2 cm with a mean of 1.0±1.1 cm, and there is no apparent scale factor between these two distance determinations. For this result, the Monument Peak‐Quincy baseline has been adjusted for tectonic plate motion by using the SLR‐determined baseline rate. For the eight other baselines crossing a plate boundary, tectonic motion was not modeled. If a model for this motion based upon baseline changes derived from strain rates is applied, the rms scatter about zero for the 22 differences becomes 7.2 cm, with a mean of 1.0±1.1 cm. The above results are within the combined error budgets of the SLR and VLBI baseline length determinations.

@article{doi101029jb090ib11p09265,
    author = "Kolenkiewicz, R. and Ryan, James W. and Torrence, M. H.",
    title = "A comparison between LAGEOS laser ranging and very long baseline interferometry determined baseline lengths",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The NASA Crustal Dynamics Project uses satellite laser ranging (SLR) and very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) data collected and analyzed by the Goddard Space Flight Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the measurement of geodynamic and geodetic parameters. An important parameter is the determination of the baseline length or intersite distance. Since October 1979, baselines determined from SLR data and VLBI data have been compared to help assess the accuracy of the baseline measurements from these independent techniques. Eight locations in the continental United States participated in the comparison: Westford, Massachusetts; Fort Davis, Texas; Platteville, Colorado; and Quincy, Owens Valley, Goldstone, Pasadena, and Monument Peak, California. Twenty‐two baseline lengths between these locations, as determined by SLR, were differenced from the corresponding VLBI determinations. The rms scatter about zero for the length differences is 5.2 cm with a mean of 1.0±1.1 cm, and there is no apparent scale factor between these two distance determinations. For this result, the Monument Peak‐Quincy baseline has been adjusted for tectonic plate motion by using the SLR‐determined baseline rate. For the eight other baselines crossing a plate boundary, tectonic motion was not modeled. If a model for this motion based upon baseline changes derived from strain rates is applied, the rms scatter about zero for the 22 differences becomes 7.2 cm, with a mean of 1.0±1.1 cm. The above results are within the combined error budgets of the SLR and VLBI baseline length determinations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb090ib11p09265",
    doi = "10.1029/jb090ib11p09265",
    openalex = "W2046327462",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi101007bf01230417, doi1010160040195185900502, doi101029gl009i011p01263, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb090ib11p09221, doi101029rg018i001p00243, doi101111j1365246x1981tb02691x, openalexw1679803979, openalexw3162917349"
}

@article{doi1010160273117786903492,
    author = "Christodoulidis, D. C. and Smith, David E. and Klosko, S. M. and Dunn, Peter J. and Robbins, J. W. and Torrence, M. H.",
    title = "Contemporary plate motions from Lageos: A decade later",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Advances in Space Research",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(86)90349-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0273-1177(86)90349-2",
    openalex = "W2034301251",
    references = "openalexw3162917349"
}

Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) has been used to measure three baselines of 150–300 km length within California and three baselines of 1500 km length between California and Texas. These measurements, which span nearly 4 years beginning in 1980 and have typical individual uncertainties of approximately 2 cm, have been fitted to a steady plane strain/rotation model. After solving for internal network strains and velocities with respect to the North American plate interior, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory site (35 km SW of the San Andreas fault trace) is found to move toward the northwest with respect to points > 100 km NE of the fault, at an average rate of 25 ± 4 mm yr −1, along an azimuth of N40°W ± 7°. No reliably determined motion is registered between the other sites, all of which are > 100 km from the inferred Pacific‐North American plate boundary. The observed rate of displacement across the San Andreas fault agrees with independent determinations of contemporary slip rates but appears to conflict with the rigid global plate tectonic rate. Differences between this rate determination and those from satellite laser ranging observations provide potentially important constraints on the distribution of tectonic strain in the region. These results are taken as evidence for a regional distribution of elastic strain that is offset in approximately the same sense and amount as the Big Bend of the southern San Andreas fault. Finite element simulations support the conjecture that tractions on the base of the crust that accompany mantle downwelling beneath the Transverse Ranges, could contribute to these strain inhomogeneities.

@article{doi101029jb091ib09p09473,
    author = "Lyzenga, G. A. and Wallace, Karen S. and Fanselow, J. L. and Raefsky, A. and Groth, Polly M.",
    title = "Tectonic motions in California inferred from Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations, 1980–1984",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) has been used to measure three baselines of 150–300 km length within California and three baselines of 1500 km length between California and Texas. These measurements, which span nearly 4 years beginning in 1980 and have typical individual uncertainties of approximately 2 cm, have been fitted to a steady plane strain/rotation model. After solving for internal network strains and velocities with respect to the North American plate interior, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory site (35 km SW of the San Andreas fault trace) is found to move toward the northwest with respect to points > 100 km NE of the fault, at an average rate of 25 ± 4 mm yr −1, along an azimuth of N40°W ± 7°. No reliably determined motion is registered between the other sites, all of which are > 100 km from the inferred Pacific‐North American plate boundary. The observed rate of displacement across the San Andreas fault agrees with independent determinations of contemporary slip rates but appears to conflict with the rigid global plate tectonic rate. Differences between this rate determination and those from satellite laser ranging observations provide potentially important constraints on the distribution of tectonic strain in the region. These results are taken as evidence for a regional distribution of elastic strain that is offset in approximately the same sense and amount as the Big Bend of the southern San Andreas fault. Finite element simulations support the conjecture that tractions on the base of the crust that accompany mantle downwelling beneath the Transverse Ranges, could contribute to these strain inhomogeneities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb091ib09p09473",
    doi = "10.1029/jb091ib09p09473",
    openalex = "W2041544159",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi101007bf00126985, doi101016c20100688109, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb088ib07p05893, doi101130001676061977881469ssottr20co2, doi10113000167606198495883haotsa20co2, doi10113000167606198596793hrosat20co2, doi101785bssa0710051391, doi101785bssa0750030811, openalexw611583727"
}

Cenozoic global plate motions relative to the hot spots are investigated and compared to plate motions in a mean‐lithosphere reference frame. Plate motions were analyzed over six time intervals divided by ages (10, 25, 43, 48, and 56 Ma) chosen, as much as possible, to coincide with key plate reorganizations. Alternative motion circuits and rotational parameters were considered and evaluated with paleomagnetic data from the Pacific and North American plates. The circuit found to be in best agreement with the paleomagnetic data is one in which the hot spots in the Atlantic region are assumed to be fixed relative to the hot spots in the Pacific region. Throughout the Cenozoic, the hot spot and mean‐lithosphere reference frames have been in continual, slow relative motion. The rate of motion is nonuniform, however, most of the motion having occurred during the middle Cenozoic. The net Cenozoic rotation of the lithosphere relative to the hot spots is described by a right‐handed rotation of 7° about a Euler pole at 46°S, 87°E, which yields a 5° displacement of the north poles of the two reference frames. This motion is small enough that inferences drawn about plate speeds in one reference frame should be valid in the other. Analysis of the global motions resulting from our preferred model showed that many characteristics of current plate motions have persisted throughout the Cenozoic. Plate speeds correlate with latitude, plates moving faster near the equator than near the poles throughout the Cenozoic. As at present, continental plates (except for the Indian plate) moved slower than oceanic plates throughout the Cenozoic. Even the structure of the velocity fields as revealed in a contour of root‐mean‐square velocities in equatorial bands persists throughout the Cenozoic. The migration of the paleomagnetic axis over time is also compared to the hot spot and mean‐lithosphere reference frames. The paleomagnetic axis has shifted 5°–10° relative to the hot spot frame, and a lesser amount relative to the mean‐lithosphere frame.

@article{doi101029jb091ib12p12389,
    author = "Gordon, Richard G. and Jurdy, Donna M.",
    title = "Cenozoic global plate motions",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Cenozoic global plate motions relative to the hot spots are investigated and compared to plate motions in a mean‐lithosphere reference frame. Plate motions were analyzed over six time intervals divided by ages (10, 25, 43, 48, and 56 Ma) chosen, as much as possible, to coincide with key plate reorganizations. Alternative motion circuits and rotational parameters were considered and evaluated with paleomagnetic data from the Pacific and North American plates. The circuit found to be in best agreement with the paleomagnetic data is one in which the hot spots in the Atlantic region are assumed to be fixed relative to the hot spots in the Pacific region. Throughout the Cenozoic, the hot spot and mean‐lithosphere reference frames have been in continual, slow relative motion. The rate of motion is nonuniform, however, most of the motion having occurred during the middle Cenozoic. The net Cenozoic rotation of the lithosphere relative to the hot spots is described by a right‐handed rotation of 7° about a Euler pole at 46°S, 87°E, which yields a 5° displacement of the north poles of the two reference frames. This motion is small enough that inferences drawn about plate speeds in one reference frame should be valid in the other. Analysis of the global motions resulting from our preferred model showed that many characteristics of current plate motions have persisted throughout the Cenozoic. Plate speeds correlate with latitude, plates moving faster near the equator than near the poles throughout the Cenozoic. As at present, continental plates (except for the Indian plate) moved slower than oceanic plates throughout the Cenozoic. Even the structure of the velocity fields as revealed in a contour of root‐mean‐square velocities in equatorial bands persists throughout the Cenozoic. The migration of the paleomagnetic axis over time is also compared to the hot spot and mean‐lithosphere reference frames. The paleomagnetic axis has shifted 5°–10° relative to the hot spot frame, and a lesser amount relative to the mean‐lithosphere frame.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb091ib12p12389",
    doi = "10.1029/jb091ib12p12389",
    openalex = "W2055763953"
}

The rate‐of‐slip vector on the San Andreas fault in central California estimated from geodetic and Holocene geological data (34 ± 3 mm/yr, N41°W ± 2°) is inconsistent with the prediction of rigid plate models such as RM2 (56 ± 3 mm/yr, N35°W ± 2°). This well‐known “San Andreas discrepancy” is diagnostic of plate deformation distributed both east of the fault in the Basin and Range and west of the fault along the California continental margin. We construct constraints on the integrated deformation rates across these two regions consistent with (1) the kinematical boundary conditions imposed by the rigid plate model, (2) neotectonic and paleoseismic estimates of deformation rates, (3) ground‐based geodetic measurements, and (4) rates of change observed by very long baseline interferometry along seven baselines to western U.S. sites. The space‐geodetic data on Basin and Range extension taken over a 4‐year interval are compatible with geological observations averaged over the Holocene; the best estimate of its integrated deformation rate, provided by the joint inversion of both data types, is 9.7 ± 2.1 mm/yr, N56°W ±10°, too small and in the wrong direction to account entirely for the San Andreas discrepancy. We therefore attribute much of it to deformation west of the Sierra Nevada‐Great Valley block accommodated, for example, on faults such as the San Gregorio‐Hosgri system of coastal California. The integral of this deformation, estimated by subtracting the Basin and Range contribution from the discrepancy vector, requires significant right‐lateral shear parallel to the San Andreas (13 ± 5 mm/yr) and some compression perpendicular to it (9 ± 3 mm/yr).

@article{doi101029jb092ib06p04798,
    author = "Minster, J. B. and Jordan, T. H.",
    title = "Vector constraints on western U.S. deformation from space geodesy, neotectonics, and plate motions",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The rate‐of‐slip vector on the San Andreas fault in central California estimated from geodetic and Holocene geological data (34 ± 3 mm/yr, N41°W ± 2°) is inconsistent with the prediction of rigid plate models such as RM2 (56 ± 3 mm/yr, N35°W ± 2°). This well‐known “San Andreas discrepancy” is diagnostic of plate deformation distributed both east of the fault in the Basin and Range and west of the fault along the California continental margin. We construct constraints on the integrated deformation rates across these two regions consistent with (1) the kinematical boundary conditions imposed by the rigid plate model, (2) neotectonic and paleoseismic estimates of deformation rates, (3) ground‐based geodetic measurements, and (4) rates of change observed by very long baseline interferometry along seven baselines to western U.S. sites. The space‐geodetic data on Basin and Range extension taken over a 4‐year interval are compatible with geological observations averaged over the Holocene; the best estimate of its integrated deformation rate, provided by the joint inversion of both data types, is 9.7 ± 2.1 mm/yr, N56°W ±10°, too small and in the wrong direction to account entirely for the San Andreas discrepancy. We therefore attribute much of it to deformation west of the Sierra Nevada‐Great Valley block accommodated, for example, on faults such as the San Gregorio‐Hosgri system of coastal California. The integral of this deformation, estimated by subtracting the Basin and Range contribution from the discrepancy vector, requires significant right‐lateral shear parallel to the San Andreas (13 ± 5 mm/yr) and some compression perpendicular to it (9 ± 3 mm/yr).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb092ib06p04798",
    doi = "10.1029/jb092ib06p04798",
    openalex = "W2043458211",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi1010079781489928870, doi1010160012821x78900511, doi101029jb078i005p00832, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb085ib11p06113, doi101029jb089ib07p05763, doi101029rg020i002p00219, doi101126science2244651869, doi10113000167606198495883haotsa20co2, doi101785bssa0710051607"
}

The measurement of relative plate velocities during the past few years is a signal accomplishment in earth science, leading to refinement of the precepts of steady motion of plate interiors and cyclic deformation along plate margins. Regrettably, deformation premonitory to an earthquake has yet to be detected with confidence. Delineation of the spatial and temporal buildup of strain between earthquakes, however, has put limits on models of the earthquake cycle. A diverse set of fault structures and crustal rheologic conditions can explain the pattern of surface strain accumulation and release along strike‐slip faults. In contrast, the geometry of thrusts and normal faults, revealed by earthquake deformation, has been found to differ markedly from expectations. Geodetic observations have proved vital to monitor the ascent of magma through the Earth's crust and to predict volcanic eruptions at the Earth's surface. Episodic vertical and horizontal deformation in southern California remains a subject of dispute; if anything, it is less certain than it once seemed.

@article{doi101029rg025i005p00855,
    author = "Stein, Ross S.",
    title = "Contemporary plate motion and crustal deformation",
    year = "1987",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "The measurement of relative plate velocities during the past few years is a signal accomplishment in earth science, leading to refinement of the precepts of steady motion of plate interiors and cyclic deformation along plate margins. Regrettably, deformation premonitory to an earthquake has yet to be detected with confidence. Delineation of the spatial and temporal buildup of strain between earthquakes, however, has put limits on models of the earthquake cycle. A diverse set of fault structures and crustal rheologic conditions can explain the pattern of surface strain accumulation and release along strike‐slip faults. In contrast, the geometry of thrusts and normal faults, revealed by earthquake deformation, has been found to differ markedly from expectations. Geodetic observations have proved vital to monitor the ascent of magma through the Earth's crust and to predict volcanic eruptions at the Earth's surface. Episodic vertical and horizontal deformation in southern California remains a subject of dispute; if anything, it is less certain than it once seemed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/rg025i005p00855",
    doi = "10.1029/rg025i005p00855",
    openalex = "W2162712425",
    references = "anderle1983current"
}

We examine the closure of the current plate motion circuit between the African, North American, and Eurasian plates to test whether these plates are rigid and whether the Gloria fault is an active transform fault. We also investigate the possible existence of microplates that have been previously proposed to lie along these plate boundaries, and compare the predicted direction of motion along the African‐Eurasian plate boundary in the Mediterranean with the direction of slip observed in earthquakes. From marine geophysical data we obtain 13 transform fault azimuths and 40 3‐m.y.‐average spreading rates, 34 of which are determined from comparison of synthetic magnetic anomaly profiles to ∼140 observed profiles. Slip vectors from 32 earthquake focal mechanisms further describe plate motion. Detailed magnetic surveys north of Iceland provide 11 rates in a region where prior plate motion models had few data. Magnetic profiles north of the Azores triple junction record a rate of 24 mm/yr, 4 mm/yr slower than used by prior models. Gloria and Sea Beam surveys accurately measure the azimuths of seven transform faults; our plate motion model fits six of the seven within 2°. Two transform faults surveyed by Gloria side scan sonar lie near FAMOUS area transform faults A and B and give azimuths 13° clockwise of them. Because recent studies show that short‐offset transforms, such as transforms A and B, are in many places oblique to the direction of plate motion, we exclude azimuths from transforms with less than 35‐km offset. The best fitting and closure‐enforced vectors fit the data well, except for a small systematic misfit to the slip vectors: On right‐lateral slipping transforms, slip vectors tend to be a few degrees clockwise of plate motion and mapped fault azimuths, whereas on left‐lateral slipping transforms, slip vectors tend to be a few degrees counterclockwise of plate motion and mapped fault azimuths. We search the long Eurasia‐North America boundary for evidence of an additional plate, but find no systematic misfits to the data. In particular, if a Spitsbergen plate exists and moves relative to Eurasia, its motion is less than 3 mm/yr. An Africa‐Eurasia Euler vector determined by adding the Eurasia‐North America and Africa‐North America Euler vectors is consistent with the Gloria fault trend and with slip vectors from eastern Azores‐Gibraltar Ridge focal mechanisms. A small circle, centered at the Africa‐Eurasia closure‐enforced pole, fits the trace of the Gloria fault. The model in which closure was enforced predicts ∼4 mm/yr slip across the Azores‐Gibraltar Ridge, and west‐northwest convergence near Gibraltar, ∼45° more oblique than suggested by a recent model based on compressive axes of focal mechanisms. Moreover, our model predicts directions of plate motion that agree well with northwest trending slip vectors from thrust earthquakes between Gibraltar and Sicily. Because closure‐enforced vectors fit the data nearly as well as the best fitting vectors, we conclude that the data are consistent with a rigid plate model and with the Gloria fault being a transform fault.

@article{doi101029jb094ib05p05585,
    author = "Argus, Donald F. and Gordon, Richard G. and DeMets, Charles and Stein, Seth",
    title = "Closure of the Africa‐Eurasia‐North America Plate motion circuit and tectonics of the Gloria Fault",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We examine the closure of the current plate motion circuit between the African, North American, and Eurasian plates to test whether these plates are rigid and whether the Gloria fault is an active transform fault. We also investigate the possible existence of microplates that have been previously proposed to lie along these plate boundaries, and compare the predicted direction of motion along the African‐Eurasian plate boundary in the Mediterranean with the direction of slip observed in earthquakes. From marine geophysical data we obtain 13 transform fault azimuths and 40 3‐m.y.‐average spreading rates, 34 of which are determined from comparison of synthetic magnetic anomaly profiles to ∼140 observed profiles. Slip vectors from 32 earthquake focal mechanisms further describe plate motion. Detailed magnetic surveys north of Iceland provide 11 rates in a region where prior plate motion models had few data. Magnetic profiles north of the Azores triple junction record a rate of 24 mm/yr, 4 mm/yr slower than used by prior models. Gloria and Sea Beam surveys accurately measure the azimuths of seven transform faults; our plate motion model fits six of the seven within 2°. Two transform faults surveyed by Gloria side scan sonar lie near FAMOUS area transform faults A and B and give azimuths 13° clockwise of them. Because recent studies show that short‐offset transforms, such as transforms A and B, are in many places oblique to the direction of plate motion, we exclude azimuths from transforms with less than 35‐km offset. The best fitting and closure‐enforced vectors fit the data well, except for a small systematic misfit to the slip vectors: On right‐lateral slipping transforms, slip vectors tend to be a few degrees clockwise of plate motion and mapped fault azimuths, whereas on left‐lateral slipping transforms, slip vectors tend to be a few degrees counterclockwise of plate motion and mapped fault azimuths. We search the long Eurasia‐North America boundary for evidence of an additional plate, but find no systematic misfits to the data. In particular, if a Spitsbergen plate exists and moves relative to Eurasia, its motion is less than 3 mm/yr. An Africa‐Eurasia Euler vector determined by adding the Eurasia‐North America and Africa‐North America Euler vectors is consistent with the Gloria fault trend and with slip vectors from eastern Azores‐Gibraltar Ridge focal mechanisms. A small circle, centered at the Africa‐Eurasia closure‐enforced pole, fits the trace of the Gloria fault. The model in which closure was enforced predicts ∼4 mm/yr slip across the Azores‐Gibraltar Ridge, and west‐northwest convergence near Gibraltar, ∼45° more oblique than suggested by a recent model based on compressive axes of focal mechanisms. Moreover, our model predicts directions of plate motion that agree well with northwest trending slip vectors from thrust earthquakes between Gibraltar and Sicily. Because closure‐enforced vectors fit the data nearly as well as the best fitting vectors, we conclude that the data are consistent with a rigid plate model and with the Gloria fault being a transform fault.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb094ib05p05585",
    doi = "10.1029/jb094ib05p05585",
    openalex = "W2025021642",
    references = "doi1010160040195181901311, doi101029jb084ib03p01071, doi101029jb093ib08p09027"
}

Source parameter inversion of P and SH waveforms and amplitudes for 20 shallow earthquakes using a singular value decomposition technique provides important constraints on the tectonics and relative plate motions of the Scotia Sea region. The derived focal mechanisms show both thrust and strike‐slip faulting along the North Scotia Ridge and normal and strike‐slip faulting along the South Scotia Ridge. Two thrust faulting mechanisms south of Tierra del Fuego indicate diffuse convergence of the Antarctic plate along the western margin of the Scotia plate. Earthquakes are consistent with active subduction and back arc spreading along the South Shetland Trench and Bransfield Strait. The depths of two earthquakes (35 km and 55 km) and one shallow thrust faulting event suggest continued subduction along the South Shetland Trench, but the underthrusting is largely aseismic due to the young plate age and slow subduction rate. The magnitude and depth of normal faulting earthquakes along Bransfield Strait and the South Scotia Ridge are suggestive of diffuse extension rather than typical organized mid‐ocean spreading, which is generally associated with smaller and shallower earthquakes. Eight strike‐slip and thrust faulting events provide well‐constrained slip vectors showing Scotia plate motion relative to the surrounding larger plates. Using a four‐plate model (Scotia (SC), South Sandwich (SS), Antarctica (AN) and South America (SA)) and a fixed SA‐AN Euler vector, we inverted these data together with published centroid moment tensor slip vectors along the South Sandwich Trench and published marine magnetic data from the SS back arc spreading center to derive the first quantitative plate motion model for the Scotia region. The SC‐SA Euler pole is located in the South Atlantic and shows large latitudinal uncertainties. The SC‐AN pole is better constrained and located in the Weddell Sea. These results predict left‐lateral strike‐slip motion with a component of compression along the North Scotia Ridge, left‐lateral strike‐slip with a component of extension along the South Scotia Ridge, and east‐west compression in Drake Passage. Although no rate data have been published connecting the Scotia plate with the global plate system, Euler vector magnitudes are obtained through closure. The results, though poorly constrained, suggest relative motion rates of 0.5 cm/yr along the North Scotia Ridge and 1.0 cm/yr along the South Scotia Ridge and in Drake Passage.

@article{doi101029jb094ib06p07293,
    author = "Pelayo, Aristeo M. and Wiens, Douglas A.",
    title = "Seismotectonics and relative plate motions in the Scotia Sea region",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Source parameter inversion of P and SH waveforms and amplitudes for 20 shallow earthquakes using a singular value decomposition technique provides important constraints on the tectonics and relative plate motions of the Scotia Sea region. The derived focal mechanisms show both thrust and strike‐slip faulting along the North Scotia Ridge and normal and strike‐slip faulting along the South Scotia Ridge. Two thrust faulting mechanisms south of Tierra del Fuego indicate diffuse convergence of the Antarctic plate along the western margin of the Scotia plate. Earthquakes are consistent with active subduction and back arc spreading along the South Shetland Trench and Bransfield Strait. The depths of two earthquakes (35 km and 55 km) and one shallow thrust faulting event suggest continued subduction along the South Shetland Trench, but the underthrusting is largely aseismic due to the young plate age and slow subduction rate. The magnitude and depth of normal faulting earthquakes along Bransfield Strait and the South Scotia Ridge are suggestive of diffuse extension rather than typical organized mid‐ocean spreading, which is generally associated with smaller and shallower earthquakes. Eight strike‐slip and thrust faulting events provide well‐constrained slip vectors showing Scotia plate motion relative to the surrounding larger plates. Using a four‐plate model (Scotia (SC), South Sandwich (SS), Antarctica (AN) and South America (SA)) and a fixed SA‐AN Euler vector, we inverted these data together with published centroid moment tensor slip vectors along the South Sandwich Trench and published marine magnetic data from the SS back arc spreading center to derive the first quantitative plate motion model for the Scotia region. The SC‐SA Euler pole is located in the South Atlantic and shows large latitudinal uncertainties. The SC‐AN pole is better constrained and located in the Weddell Sea. These results predict left‐lateral strike‐slip motion with a component of compression along the North Scotia Ridge, left‐lateral strike‐slip with a component of extension along the South Scotia Ridge, and east‐west compression in Drake Passage. Although no rate data have been published connecting the Scotia plate with the global plate system, Euler vector magnitudes are obtained through closure. The results, though poorly constrained, suggest relative motion rates of 0.5 cm/yr along the North Scotia Ridge and 1.0 cm/yr along the South Scotia Ridge and in Drake Passage.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb094ib06p07293",
    doi = "10.1029/jb094ib06p07293",
    openalex = "W2123643150",
    references = "doi101007bf02163027, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib03p01049, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101029jb088ib05p04183, doi101029jb091ib14p13993, doi101029jb093ib08p09027, doi101029rg024i002p00217, doi1015259780520947931, doi101785bssa0720010151, openalexw1579868249"
}

NUVEL‐1 is a new global model of current relative plate velocities [DeMets et al., 1990], which differ significantly from those of prior models. Here we incorporate NUVEL‐1 into HS2‐NUVEL1, a new global model of plate velocities relative to the hotspots. HS2‐NUVEL1 was determined from the hotspot data and errors used by Minster and Jordan [1978] to determine AM1‐2, which is their model of plate velocities relative to the hotspots. AM1‐2 is consistent with Minster and Jordan's relative plate velocity model RM2. Here we compare HS2‐NUVEL1 with AM1‐2 and examine how their differences relate to differences between NUVEL‐1 and RM2. HS2‐NUVEL1 plate velocities relative to the hotspots are mainly similar to those of AM1‐2. Minor differences between the two models include the following: (1) in HS2‐NUVEL1 the speed of the partly continental, apparently non‐subducting Indian plate is greater than that of the purely oceanic, subducting Nazca plate; (2) in places the direction of motion of the African, Antarctic, Arabian, Australian, Caribbean, Cocos, Eurasian, North American, and South American plates differs between models by more than 10°; (3) in places the speed of the Australian, Caribbean, Cocos, Indian, and Nazca plates differs between models by more than 8 mm/yr. Although 27 of the 30 RM2 Euler vectors differ with 95% confidence from those of NUVEL‐1, only the AM1‐2 Arabia‐hotspot and India‐hotspot Euler vectors differ with 95% confidence from those of HS2‐NUVEL1. Thus, substituting NUVEL‐1 for RM2 in the inversion for plate velocities relative to the hotspots changes few Euler vectors significantly, presumably because the uncertainty in the velocity of a plate relative to the hotspots is much greater than the uncertainty in its velocity relative to other plates.

@article{doi101029gl017i008p01109,
    author = "Gripp, Alice E. and Gordon, Richard G.",
    title = "Current plate velocities relative to the hotspots incorporating the NUVEL‐1 global plate motion model",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "NUVEL‐1 is a new global model of current relative plate velocities [DeMets et al., 1990], which differ significantly from those of prior models. Here we incorporate NUVEL‐1 into HS2‐NUVEL1, a new global model of plate velocities relative to the hotspots. HS2‐NUVEL1 was determined from the hotspot data and errors used by Minster and Jordan [1978] to determine AM1‐2, which is their model of plate velocities relative to the hotspots. AM1‐2 is consistent with Minster and Jordan's relative plate velocity model RM2. Here we compare HS2‐NUVEL1 with AM1‐2 and examine how their differences relate to differences between NUVEL‐1 and RM2. HS2‐NUVEL1 plate velocities relative to the hotspots are mainly similar to those of AM1‐2. Minor differences between the two models include the following: (1) in HS2‐NUVEL1 the speed of the partly continental, apparently non‐subducting Indian plate is greater than that of the purely oceanic, subducting Nazca plate; (2) in places the direction of motion of the African, Antarctic, Arabian, Australian, Caribbean, Cocos, Eurasian, North American, and South American plates differs between models by more than 10°; (3) in places the speed of the Australian, Caribbean, Cocos, Indian, and Nazca plates differs between models by more than 8 mm/yr. Although 27 of the 30 RM2 Euler vectors differ with 95\% confidence from those of NUVEL‐1, only the AM1‐2 Arabia‐hotspot and India‐hotspot Euler vectors differ with 95\% confidence from those of HS2‐NUVEL1. Thus, substituting NUVEL‐1 for RM2 in the inversion for plate velocities relative to the hotspots changes few Euler vectors significantly, presumably because the uncertainty in the velocity of a plate relative to the hotspots is much greater than the uncertainty in its velocity relative to other plates.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/gl017i008p01109",
    doi = "10.1029/gl017i008p01109",
    openalex = "W2030086520"
}

The newly recognized Eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) of the Mojave Desert‐Death Valley region has played a major, but previously underappreciated role in accommodating the dextral shear between the Pacific and North American plates in late Cenozoic time. Comparison of integrated net slip along the shear zone with motion values across the entire transform boundary indicates that between 9% and 23% of the total relative plate motion has occurred along the ECSZ since its probable inception ∼10–6 Ma. Long‐term integrated shear along the ECSZ (6–12 mm yr −1) is similar to historic measurements (6.7±1.3 mm yr −1). Time‐space patterns of faulting suggest that shear was concentrated in the eastern part of the Mojave Desert block and Death Valley during late Miocene and early Pleistocene time, but that the locus of faulting in the south‐central Mojave jumped westward between 1.5 and 0.7 Ma.

@article{doi101029gl017i009p01323,
    author = "Dokka, Roy K. and Travis, Christopher J.",
    title = "Role of the Eastern California Shear Zone in accommodating Pacific‐North American Plate motion",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "The newly recognized Eastern California shear zone (ECSZ) of the Mojave Desert‐Death Valley region has played a major, but previously underappreciated role in accommodating the dextral shear between the Pacific and North American plates in late Cenozoic time. Comparison of integrated net slip along the shear zone with motion values across the entire transform boundary indicates that between 9\% and 23\% of the total relative plate motion has occurred along the ECSZ since its probable inception ∼10–6 Ma. Long‐term integrated shear along the ECSZ (6–12 mm yr −1) is similar to historic measurements (6.7±1.3 mm yr −1). Time‐space patterns of faulting suggest that shear was concentrated in the eastern part of the Mojave Desert block and Death Valley during late Miocene and early Pleistocene time, but that the locus of faulting in the south‐central Mojave jumped westward between 1.5 and 0.7 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/gl017i009p01323",
    doi = "10.1029/gl017i009p01323",
    openalex = "W2154484095",
    references = "doi101029jb091ib09p09473, doi101029jb092ib06p04798"
}

Crystallization ages of volcanic rocks, dredged or drilled from the Walvis Ridge (ten sites) and the Rio Grande Rise (one site), have been determined by the 40 Ar/ 39 Ar incremental heating technique. The fundamentally age‐progressive distribution of these basement ages suggests a common hot spot source for volcanism on the island of Tristan da Cunha, along the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise, and for the formation of the continental flood basalts located in Namibia (Africa) and Brazil (South America). The Walvis Ridge‐Rio Grande Rise volcanic system evolved along a section of the South Atlantic spreading‐axis, as the African and South American plates migrated apart, astride, or in close proximity to, an upwelling plume. Reconstructions of the spatial relationship between the spreading‐axis, the Tristan hot spot, and the evolving Walvis Ridge‐Rio Grande Rise volcanic feature show that, at about 70 Ma, the spreading‐axis began to migrate westward, away from the hot spot. The resulting transition to intraplate hot spot volcanism along the Walvis Ridge (and associated termination of Rio Grande Rise formation) also involved a northward migration of previously formed African seafloor over the hot spot. Rotation parameters for African motion over fixed hot spots (i.e., absolute motion) have been recalculated such that the predicted trail of the Tristan hot spot agrees with the distribution of radiometric and fossil basement ages along the Walvis Ridge. African absolute motion has been extended to the South and North American plates, by the addition of relative motion reconstruction poles.

@article{doi101029jb095ib11p17475,
    author = "O’Connor, John and Duncan, Robert A.",
    title = "Evolution of the Walvis Ridge‐Rio Grande Rise Hot Spot System: Implications for African and South American Plate motions over plumes",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Crystallization ages of volcanic rocks, dredged or drilled from the Walvis Ridge (ten sites) and the Rio Grande Rise (one site), have been determined by the 40 Ar/ 39 Ar incremental heating technique. The fundamentally age‐progressive distribution of these basement ages suggests a common hot spot source for volcanism on the island of Tristan da Cunha, along the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise, and for the formation of the continental flood basalts located in Namibia (Africa) and Brazil (South America). The Walvis Ridge‐Rio Grande Rise volcanic system evolved along a section of the South Atlantic spreading‐axis, as the African and South American plates migrated apart, astride, or in close proximity to, an upwelling plume. Reconstructions of the spatial relationship between the spreading‐axis, the Tristan hot spot, and the evolving Walvis Ridge‐Rio Grande Rise volcanic feature show that, at about 70 Ma, the spreading‐axis began to migrate westward, away from the hot spot. The resulting transition to intraplate hot spot volcanism along the Walvis Ridge (and associated termination of Rio Grande Rise formation) also involved a northward migration of previously formed African seafloor over the hot spot. Rotation parameters for African motion over fixed hot spots (i.e., absolute motion) have been recalculated such that the predicted trail of the Tristan hot spot agrees with the distribution of radiometric and fossil basement ages along the Walvis Ridge. African absolute motion has been extended to the South and North American plates, by the addition of relative motion reconstruction poles.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb095ib11p17475",
    doi = "10.1029/jb095ib11p17475",
    openalex = "W2160431324",
    references = "doi101007bf00375192, doi1010160012821x7990013x, doi101016016896228790025x, doi101016s0012821x68800597, doi101029jb094ib06p07685, doi101038230042a0, doi101126science2464926103, doi101130dnaggnam351, doi101139p63094, doi101306819a3e5016c511d78645000102c1865d, openalexw2025327988"
}

Satellite laser ranging (SLR) to LAGEOS acquired during the period 1978–1988 has been analyzed to yield estimates of tectonic motion for 22 laser tracking stations situated on seven major plates. The analysis is based on the precise modeling of the orbit dynamics of LAGEOS and includes the determination of other geodynamic and nonconservative force model parameters involved in the orbit determination problem at the centimeter level. Site velocities were recovered from station positions determined each calendar quarter using a network adjustment procedure which maintains the reference frame. Within the stable interior of tectonic plates, the recovered motions indicate good agreement with existing estimates of stress fields, particularly across northern Europe, the eastern Pacific, and in the Basin and Range province of North America. A comparison of the intersite motions for stations centrally located on separate plates between SLR and those implied by the NUVEL 1 geologic motion model yield a strong positive correlation of 0.989 and a 3–7% scale difference which may be attributable to recent changes in relative velocities or geologic time scale uncertainties. Sites located at or within 250 km of convergent plate boundaries have additional components of motion, indicating a need for further tectonic modeling beyond that provided by simple rigid plate motions. For lines crossing the north Atlantic, the San Andreas fault, and within the Basin and Range province, the geodesic rates determined by SLR are in good agreement with those determined by very long baseline interferometry, an alternative space geodetic technique.

@article{doi101029jb095ib13p22013,
    author = "Smith, David E. and Kolenkiewicz, R. and Dunn, Peter J. and Robbins, J. Wesley and Torrence, M. H. and Klosko, S. M. and Williamson, R. G. and Pavlis, E. C. and Douglas, Nancy B. and Fricke, S. K.",
    title = "Tectonic motion and deformation from satellite laser ranging to LAGEOS",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Satellite laser ranging (SLR) to LAGEOS acquired during the period 1978–1988 has been analyzed to yield estimates of tectonic motion for 22 laser tracking stations situated on seven major plates. The analysis is based on the precise modeling of the orbit dynamics of LAGEOS and includes the determination of other geodynamic and nonconservative force model parameters involved in the orbit determination problem at the centimeter level. Site velocities were recovered from station positions determined each calendar quarter using a network adjustment procedure which maintains the reference frame. Within the stable interior of tectonic plates, the recovered motions indicate good agreement with existing estimates of stress fields, particularly across northern Europe, the eastern Pacific, and in the Basin and Range province of North America. A comparison of the intersite motions for stations centrally located on separate plates between SLR and those implied by the NUVEL 1 geologic motion model yield a strong positive correlation of 0.989 and a 3–7\% scale difference which may be attributable to recent changes in relative velocities or geologic time scale uncertainties. Sites located at or within 250 km of convergent plate boundaries have additional components of motion, indicating a need for further tectonic modeling beyond that provided by simple rigid plate motions. For lines crossing the north Atlantic, the San Andreas fault, and within the Basin and Range province, the geodesic rates determined by SLR are in good agreement with those determined by very long baseline interferometry, an alternative space geodetic technique.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb095ib13p22013",
    doi = "10.1029/jb095ib13p22013",
    openalex = "W1981775962",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010160040195186900673, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101029jb085ib11p06113, doi101029jb090ib11p09221, doi101038341291a0, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101179sre19752317688, openalexw2989049194"
}

We determine best-fitting Euler vectors, closure-fitting Euler vectors, and a new global model (NUVEL-1) describing the geologically current motion between 12 assumed-rigid plates by inverting plate motion data we have compiled, critically analysed, and tested for self-consistency. We treat Arabia, India and Australia, and North America and South America as distinct plates, but combine Nubia and Somalia into a single African plate because motion between them could not be reliably resolved. The 1122 data from 22 plate boundaries inverted to obtain NUVEL-1 consist of 277 spreading rates, 121 transform fault azimuths, and 724 earthquake slip vectors. We determined all rates over a uniform time interval of 3.0m.y., corresponding to the centre of the anomaly 2A sequence, by comparing synthetic magnetic anomalies with observed profiles. The model fits the data well. Unlike prior global plate motion models, which systematically misfit some spreading rates in the Indian Ocean by 8–12mm yr−1, the systematic misfits by NUVEL-1 nowhere exceed ∼3 mm yr−1. The model differs significantly from prior global plate motion models. For the 30 pairs of plates sharing a common boundary, 29 of 30 P071, and 25 of 30 RM2 Euler vectors lie outside the 99 per cent confidence limits of NUVEL-1. Differences are large in the Indian Ocean where NUVEL-1 plate motion data and plate geometry differ from those used in prior studies and in the Pacific Ocean where NUVEL-1 rates are systematically 5–20 mm yr−1 slower than those of prior models. The strikes of transform faults mapped with GLORIA and Seabeam along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge greatly improve the accuracy of estimates of the direction of plate motion. These data give Euler vectors differing significantly from those of prior studies, show that motion about the Azores triple junction is consistent with plate circuit closure, and better resolve motion between North America and South America. Motion of the Caribbean plate relative to North or South America is about 7 mm yr−1 slower than in prior global models. Trench slip vectors tend to be systematically misfit wherever convergence is oblique, and best-fitting poles determined only from trench slip vectors differ significantly from their corresponding closure-fitting Euler vectors. The direction of slip in trench earthquakes tends to be between the direction of plate motion and the normal to the trench strike. Part of this bias may be due to the neglect of lateral heterogeneities of seismic velocities caused by cold subducting slabs, but the larger part is likely caused by independent motion of fore-arc crust and lithosphere relative to the overriding plate.

@article{doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x,
    author = "DeMets, Charles and Gordon, Richard G. and Argus, Donald F. and Stein, Seth",
    title = "Current plate motions",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "We determine best-fitting Euler vectors, closure-fitting Euler vectors, and a new global model (NUVEL-1) describing the geologically current motion between 12 assumed-rigid plates by inverting plate motion data we have compiled, critically analysed, and tested for self-consistency. We treat Arabia, India and Australia, and North America and South America as distinct plates, but combine Nubia and Somalia into a single African plate because motion between them could not be reliably resolved. The 1122 data from 22 plate boundaries inverted to obtain NUVEL-1 consist of 277 spreading rates, 121 transform fault azimuths, and 724 earthquake slip vectors. We determined all rates over a uniform time interval of 3.0m.y., corresponding to the centre of the anomaly 2A sequence, by comparing synthetic magnetic anomalies with observed profiles. The model fits the data well. Unlike prior global plate motion models, which systematically misfit some spreading rates in the Indian Ocean by 8–12mm yr−1, the systematic misfits by NUVEL-1 nowhere exceed ∼3 mm yr−1. The model differs significantly from prior global plate motion models. For the 30 pairs of plates sharing a common boundary, 29 of 30 P071, and 25 of 30 RM2 Euler vectors lie outside the 99 per cent confidence limits of NUVEL-1. Differences are large in the Indian Ocean where NUVEL-1 plate motion data and plate geometry differ from those used in prior studies and in the Pacific Ocean where NUVEL-1 rates are systematically 5–20 mm yr−1 slower than those of prior models. The strikes of transform faults mapped with GLORIA and Seabeam along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge greatly improve the accuracy of estimates of the direction of plate motion. These data give Euler vectors differing significantly from those of prior studies, show that motion about the Azores triple junction is consistent with plate circuit closure, and better resolve motion between North America and South America. Motion of the Caribbean plate relative to North or South America is about 7 mm yr−1 slower than in prior global models. Trench slip vectors tend to be systematically misfit wherever convergence is oblique, and best-fitting poles determined only from trench slip vectors differ significantly from their corresponding closure-fitting Euler vectors. The direction of slip in trench earthquakes tends to be between the direction of plate motion and the normal to the trench strike. Part of this bias may be due to the neglect of lateral heterogeneities of seismic velocities caused by cold subducting slabs, but the larger part is likely caused by independent motion of fore-arc crust and lithosphere relative to the overriding plate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1990.tb06579.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.1990.tb06579.x",
    openalex = "W2135494568",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010160040195181901311, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib03p01071, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101029jb087ib13p10656, doi101029jb092ib06p04798, doi101029jb093ib08p09027, doi101029jz072i008p02131, doi101029rg004i004p00509, doi101029rg024i002p00217, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1984tb01931x, doi101130001676061970813513ioptft20co2, doi1011300016760619881001666ssf23co2, openalexw1549706842, openalexw2989049194, sykes1967mechanism"
}

We have analyzed Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) observed baseline rates of change and compared them with rates determined from sea floor spreading rates and directions, and earthquake solutions. With the number of years of observation now over six for many of the baselines, the inaccuracy of determining baseline rates of change has diminished so that in some cases it is less than a few mm per year. Thus a direct comparison between baseline rates of change and rates of change established using geophysical information (which we call geological rates) is now feasible. In most cases, there is good agreement between the rates determined from SLR and geological rates, but in some cases there appear to be discrepancies. These discrepancies involve many of the data for which one end of the baseline is either Quincy (California), Huahine (French Polynesia) or Simosato (Japan). We have devised a method for looking at the discrepancies for these SLR observatories which allows us to calculate the motion not modelled by the geologic information. The results are discussed in terms of what is known about plate margins, and other information.

@article{harrison1990satellite,
    author = "Harrison, C. G. A. and Douglas, Nancy B.",
    title = "Satellite laser ranging and geological constraints on plate motion",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "We have analyzed Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) observed baseline rates of change and compared them with rates determined from sea floor spreading rates and directions, and earthquake solutions. With the number of years of observation now over six for many of the baselines, the inaccuracy of determining baseline rates of change has diminished so that in some cases it is less than a few mm per year. Thus a direct comparison between baseline rates of change and rates of change established using geophysical information (which we call geological rates) is now feasible. In most cases, there is good agreement between the rates determined from SLR and geological rates, but in some cases there appear to be discrepancies. These discrepancies involve many of the data for which one end of the baseline is either Quincy (California), Huahine (French Polynesia) or Simosato (Japan). We have devised a method for looking at the discrepancies for these SLR observatories which allows us to calculate the motion not modelled by the geologic information. The results are discussed in terms of what is known about plate margins, and other information.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/tc009i005p00935",
    doi = "10.1029/tc009i005p00935",
    number = "5",
    openalex = "W2059243396",
    pages = "935-952",
    volume = "9",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010160040195186900272, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101029jb081i005p00921, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb090ib11p09235, doi101029jb092ib06p04798, doi101029jb094ib08p10231, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x"
}

We present NNR‐NUVEL1, a model of plate velocities relative to the unique reference frame defined by requiring no‐net‐rotation of the lithosphere while constraining relative plate velocities to equal those in global plate motion model NUVEL‐1 [DeMets et al., 1990]. Differences between NNR‐NUVEL1 and no‐net‐rotation plate motion model AM0‐2 [Minster and Jordan, 1978] are as large as 15 mm/yr. In NNR‐NUVEL1, the Pacific plate rotates in a right‐handed sense relative to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame at 0.67°/m.y. about 63°S, 107°E. This rotation nearly parallels, but is 32% slower than, the Pacific‐hotspot Euler vector of HS2‐NUVEL1, which is a global model of plate‐hotspot velocities constrained to consistency with NUVEL‐1 [Gripp and Gordon, 1990]. At Hawaii the Pacific plate moves relative to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame at 70 mm/yr, which is 25 mm/yr slower than the Pacific plate moves relative to the hotspots. Differences between NNR‐NUVEL1 and HS2‐NUVEL1 are described completely by a right‐handed rotation of 0.33°/m.y. about 49°S, 65°E. The 99% confidence ellipsoids for plate‐hotspot motion in model HS2‐NUVEL1 exclude the corresponding Euler vectors from model NNR‐NUVELl. Thus the no‐net‐rotation reference frame differs significantly from the hotspot reference frame. If the difference between reference frames is caused by motion of the hotspots relative to a mean mantle reference frame, then hotspots beneath the Pacific plate move with coherent motion towards the east‐southeast. Alternatively, the difference between reference frames may show that the uniform drag, no‐net‐torque reference frame, which is kinematically equivalent to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame, is based on a dynamically incorrect premise. Possible exceptions to the assumption of uniform drag include a net torque on the lithosphere due to attached subducting slabs and greater resistance to plate motion beneath continents than beneath oceans.

@article{doi10102991gl01532,
    author = "Argus, Donald F. and Gordon, Richard G.",
    title = "No‐net‐rotation model of current plate velocities incorporating plate motion model NUVEL‐1",
    year = "1991",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "We present NNR‐NUVEL1, a model of plate velocities relative to the unique reference frame defined by requiring no‐net‐rotation of the lithosphere while constraining relative plate velocities to equal those in global plate motion model NUVEL‐1 [DeMets et al., 1990]. Differences between NNR‐NUVEL1 and no‐net‐rotation plate motion model AM0‐2 [Minster and Jordan, 1978] are as large as 15 mm/yr. In NNR‐NUVEL1, the Pacific plate rotates in a right‐handed sense relative to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame at 0.67°/m.y. about 63°S, 107°E. This rotation nearly parallels, but is 32\% slower than, the Pacific‐hotspot Euler vector of HS2‐NUVEL1, which is a global model of plate‐hotspot velocities constrained to consistency with NUVEL‐1 [Gripp and Gordon, 1990]. At Hawaii the Pacific plate moves relative to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame at 70 mm/yr, which is 25 mm/yr slower than the Pacific plate moves relative to the hotspots. Differences between NNR‐NUVEL1 and HS2‐NUVEL1 are described completely by a right‐handed rotation of 0.33°/m.y. about 49°S, 65°E. The 99\% confidence ellipsoids for plate‐hotspot motion in model HS2‐NUVEL1 exclude the corresponding Euler vectors from model NNR‐NUVELl. Thus the no‐net‐rotation reference frame differs significantly from the hotspot reference frame. If the difference between reference frames is caused by motion of the hotspots relative to a mean mantle reference frame, then hotspots beneath the Pacific plate move with coherent motion towards the east‐southeast. Alternatively, the difference between reference frames may show that the uniform drag, no‐net‐torque reference frame, which is kinematically equivalent to the no‐net‐rotation reference frame, is based on a dynamically incorrect premise. Possible exceptions to the assumption of uniform drag include a net torque on the lithosphere due to attached subducting slabs and greater resistance to plate motion beneath continents than beneath oceans.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/91gl01532",
    doi = "10.1029/91gl01532",
    openalex = "W2059982963",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi10102991jb00204, doi101029gl017i008p01109, doi101029jb079i017p02557, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb091ib12p12389, doi101029jb095ib13p22013, doi101038327587a0, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02202x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101130spe206, openalexw2989834496"
}

We investigate angular velocity vectors of the Philippine Sea (PH) plate relative to the adjacent major plates, Eurasia (EU) and Pacific (PA), and the smaller Caroline (CR) plate. Earthquake slip vector data along the Philippine Sea plate boundary are inverted, subject to the constraint that EU‐PA motion equals that predicted by the global relative plate model NUVEL‐1. The resulting solution fails to satisfy geological constraints along the Caroline‐Pacific boundary: convergence along the Mussau Trench and divergence along the Sorol Trough. We then seek solutions satisfying both the CR‐PA boundary conditions and the Philippine Sea slip vector data, by adjusting the PA‐PH and EU‐PH best fitting poles within their error ellipses. We also consider northern Honshu to be part of the North American plate and impose the constraint that the Philippine Sea plate subducts beneath northern Honshu along the Sagami Trough in a NNW‐NW direction. Of the solutions satisfying these conditions, we select the best EU‐PH as 48.2°N, 157.0°E, 1.09°/m.y., corresponding to a pole far from Japan and south of Kamchatka, and PA‐PH, 1.2°N, 134.2°E, 1.00°/m.y. Predicted NA‐PH and EU‐PH convergence rates in central Honshu are consistent with estimated seismic slip rates. Previous estimates of the EU‐PH pole close to central Honshu are inconsistent with extension within the Bonin backarc implied by earthquake slip vectors and NNW‐NW convergence of the Bonin forearc at the Sagami Trough.

@article{doi10102993jb00782,
    author = "Seno, Tetsuzo and Stein, Seth and Gripp, Alice E.",
    title = "A model for the motion of the Philippine Sea Plate consistent with NUVEL‐1 and geological data",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We investigate angular velocity vectors of the Philippine Sea (PH) plate relative to the adjacent major plates, Eurasia (EU) and Pacific (PA), and the smaller Caroline (CR) plate. Earthquake slip vector data along the Philippine Sea plate boundary are inverted, subject to the constraint that EU‐PA motion equals that predicted by the global relative plate model NUVEL‐1. The resulting solution fails to satisfy geological constraints along the Caroline‐Pacific boundary: convergence along the Mussau Trench and divergence along the Sorol Trough. We then seek solutions satisfying both the CR‐PA boundary conditions and the Philippine Sea slip vector data, by adjusting the PA‐PH and EU‐PH best fitting poles within their error ellipses. We also consider northern Honshu to be part of the North American plate and impose the constraint that the Philippine Sea plate subducts beneath northern Honshu along the Sagami Trough in a NNW‐NW direction. Of the solutions satisfying these conditions, we select the best EU‐PH as 48.2°N, 157.0°E, 1.09°/m.y., corresponding to a pole far from Japan and south of Kamchatka, and PA‐PH, 1.2°N, 134.2°E, 1.00°/m.y. Predicted NA‐PH and EU‐PH convergence rates in central Honshu are consistent with estimated seismic slip rates. Previous estimates of the EU‐PH pole close to central Honshu are inconsistent with extension within the Bonin backarc implied by earthquake slip vectors and NNW‐NW convergence of the Bonin forearc at the Sagami Trough.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/93jb00782",
    doi = "10.1029/93jb00782",
    openalex = "W2151289207",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x"
}

Finite‐rotation parameters for 17 isochrons from anomalies 1‐4A for the Juan de Fuca‐Pacific plate pair are reported. Comparison of confidence intervals for plate rotations derived by different techniques indicates that a single‐plate misfit criterion significantly underestimates the confidence region. Defining the confidence interval by a threshold level of misfit determined by an F statistic gives similar results to the technique of bootstrap resampling for internally consistent data. Bootstrap resampling offers far greater robustness in the case of inconsistent data. Precision of about 1 km in the direction normal to isochrons is available for the younger anomalies. This precision allows confident recognition of 2–5 km of eastward deformation of the Pacific plate, 50–100 km south of the active Sovanco transform. Slight deformation of the northern Juan de Fuca plate adjacent to the Nootka fault zone is also apparent East of the northern Gorda ridge, younger (< 3 Ma) anomalies do not show measurable deformation near the Blanco fracture zone, but older anomalies are up to 30 km east of their position predicted by rigid behavior of the Juan de Fuca plate. Reconstruction of the overlap geometry of past propagators shows no evidence that the extent of overlap has ever exceeded 70 km, even with offset of 75 km in one case and 140 km in another. New techniques for testing for intervals of constant plate motion require at least two changes in instantaneous motion at 99% confidence: a clockwise change in motion direction at about 5 Ma and an increase in the gradient of spreading rate since 2 Ma. Two other changes in gradient since 5 Ma are required at 95% confidence.

@article{doi10102993jb01227,
    author = "Wilson, Douglas S.",
    title = "Confidence intervals for motion and deformation of the Juan de Fuca Plate",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Finite‐rotation parameters for 17 isochrons from anomalies 1‐4A for the Juan de Fuca‐Pacific plate pair are reported. Comparison of confidence intervals for plate rotations derived by different techniques indicates that a single‐plate misfit criterion significantly underestimates the confidence region. Defining the confidence interval by a threshold level of misfit determined by an F statistic gives similar results to the technique of bootstrap resampling for internally consistent data. Bootstrap resampling offers far greater robustness in the case of inconsistent data. Precision of about 1 km in the direction normal to isochrons is available for the younger anomalies. This precision allows confident recognition of 2–5 km of eastward deformation of the Pacific plate, 50–100 km south of the active Sovanco transform. Slight deformation of the northern Juan de Fuca plate adjacent to the Nootka fault zone is also apparent East of the northern Gorda ridge, younger (< 3 Ma) anomalies do not show measurable deformation near the Blanco fracture zone, but older anomalies are up to 30 km east of their position predicted by rigid behavior of the Juan de Fuca plate. Reconstruction of the overlap geometry of past propagators shows no evidence that the extent of overlap has ever exceeded 70 km, even with offset of 75 km in one case and 140 km in another. New techniques for testing for intervals of constant plate motion require at least two changes in instantaneous motion at 99\% confidence: a clockwise change in motion direction at about 5 Ma and an increase in the gradient of spreading rate since 2 Ma. Two other changes in gradient since 5 Ma are required at 95\% confidence.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/93jb01227",
    doi = "10.1029/93jb01227",
    openalex = "W1976274570"
}

Recent revisions to the geomagnetic time scale indicate that global plate motion model NUVEL‐1 should be modified for comparison with other rates of motion including those estimated from space geodetic measurements. The optimal recalibration, which is a compromise among slightly different calibrations appropriate for slow, medium, and fast rates of seafloor spreading, is to multiply NUVEL‐1 angular velocities by a constant, α, of 0.9562. We refer to this simply recalibrated plate motion model as NUVEL‐1A, and give correspondingly revised tables of angular velocities and uncertainties. Published work indicates that space geodetic rates are slower on average than those calculated from NUVEL‐1 by 6±1%. This average discrepancy is reduced to less than 2% when space geodetic rates are instead compared with NUVEL‐1A.

@article{doi10102994gl02118,
    author = "DeMets, Charles and Gordon, Richard G. and Argus, Donald F. and Stein, Seth",
    title = "Effect of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal time scale on estimates of current plate motions",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "Recent revisions to the geomagnetic time scale indicate that global plate motion model NUVEL‐1 should be modified for comparison with other rates of motion including those estimated from space geodetic measurements. The optimal recalibration, which is a compromise among slightly different calibrations appropriate for slow, medium, and fast rates of seafloor spreading, is to multiply NUVEL‐1 angular velocities by a constant, α, of 0.9562. We refer to this simply recalibrated plate motion model as NUVEL‐1A, and give correspondingly revised tables of angular velocities and uncertainties. Published work indicates that space geodetic rates are slower on average than those calculated from NUVEL‐1 by 6±1\%. This average discrepancy is reduced to less than 2\% when space geodetic rates are instead compared with NUVEL‐1A.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/94gl02118",
    doi = "10.1029/94gl02118",
    openalex = "W2130833734",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190082s, doi1010160012821x9190206w, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102993jb00782, doi10102993jb01227, doi101029gd023p0021, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101029jb095ib13p22013, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x"
}

The shift in viewpoint from a static to a mobilistic solid Earth, as brought about by paleomagnetism, opened many new directions of research that continue to be exciting today and hold prospects for an exciting future. Here five topics of current research on Earth's mobilistic surface are reviewed and their future directions discussed. First, dividing Earth's solid surface into two domains, (1) nearly rigid plate interiors and (2) plate boundaries, some of them very wide, leads to a review and discussion of the kinematics of wide plate boundaries. Many more adjustable parameters will be needed to describe the complex kinematics of plate boundaries, which cover ∼15% of Earth surface, than the few dozen parameters needed to describe the kinematics of plate interiors, which cover ∼85% of Earth's surface. Second, the question of the degree of rigidity of plate interiors is discussed. The integral of the velocity gradient across plates interiors is at least a few hundredths or tenths of millimeters per year and in several well‐determined cases less than 2 or 3 mm/yr. Future investigations will no doubt be aimed at narrowing these limits and to expanding the area of Earth's surface over which limits are known. Third, space geodetic data, mainly from very long baseline inter‐ferometry, satellite laser ranging, and the Global Positioning System, have demonstrated a remarkable similarity of velocities of stable plate interiors averaged over a few to a dozen years with plate velocities averaged over a few million years. Already, however, significant differences of a few millimeters per year are emerging, and the tectonic and dynamic significance of these differences need to be evaluated. Fourth, despite more than two decades of investigation, the question of how fast hotspots move relative to one another is still a contentious issue. One group of researchers maintains that maximum speeds are 3 mm/yr, whereas another maintains that speeds are 10–20 mm/yr or more. The differences cannot be reconciled until the uncertainties in plate reconstructions relative to hotspots are systematically and properly incorporated into analyses of hotspot motion. Fifth, paleomagnetists have estimated true polar wander over the past 200 Myr by equating it with the apparent polar wander of hotspots. However, the possible motion among hotspots and the neglect of the uncertainties in reconstructions relative to the hotspots have left these analyses unconvincing. Further progress requires the incorporation of these uncertainties. A possible exception is the apparent polar wander of the hotspots over the past ∼10–20 Myr or less, which requires only small adjustments for plate motion and has presumably smaller uncertainties due to plate reconstructions. The cause of this apparently significant, geologically recent shift of the pole is poorly understood. Compared with the rate and direction of the secular shift of the pole observed this century from the International Latitude Service and for 1976 to 1994 from space geodetic data, the paleomagnetically observed shift is unlikely to be due to the removal of northern hemisphere midlatitude ice sheets, which is the commonly accepted explanation for the shift observed over the past century. I speculate instead that the apparently rapid uplift of the Tibetan Plateau sometime during the past ∼10–20 Myr is at least partly responsible for the geologically recent shift of the pole. Finally, I conclude that the theory of plate tectonics has provided a framework that leads naturally to further quantification of the kinematics and deformation of Earth's solid surface chiefly because of the key assumption of the rigidity of plate interiors, which permits specific predictions to be made. This revolution in quantification still has far to go and holds exciting prospects for future tectonic studies.

@article{doi10102995jb01912,
    author = "Gordon, Richard G.",
    title = "Plate motions, crustal and lithospheric mobility, and paleomagnetism: Prospective viewpoint",
    year = "1995",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The shift in viewpoint from a static to a mobilistic solid Earth, as brought about by paleomagnetism, opened many new directions of research that continue to be exciting today and hold prospects for an exciting future. Here five topics of current research on Earth's mobilistic surface are reviewed and their future directions discussed. First, dividing Earth's solid surface into two domains, (1) nearly rigid plate interiors and (2) plate boundaries, some of them very wide, leads to a review and discussion of the kinematics of wide plate boundaries. Many more adjustable parameters will be needed to describe the complex kinematics of plate boundaries, which cover ∼15\% of Earth surface, than the few dozen parameters needed to describe the kinematics of plate interiors, which cover ∼85\% of Earth's surface. Second, the question of the degree of rigidity of plate interiors is discussed. The integral of the velocity gradient across plates interiors is at least a few hundredths or tenths of millimeters per year and in several well‐determined cases less than 2 or 3 mm/yr. Future investigations will no doubt be aimed at narrowing these limits and to expanding the area of Earth's surface over which limits are known. Third, space geodetic data, mainly from very long baseline inter‐ferometry, satellite laser ranging, and the Global Positioning System, have demonstrated a remarkable similarity of velocities of stable plate interiors averaged over a few to a dozen years with plate velocities averaged over a few million years. Already, however, significant differences of a few millimeters per year are emerging, and the tectonic and dynamic significance of these differences need to be evaluated. Fourth, despite more than two decades of investigation, the question of how fast hotspots move relative to one another is still a contentious issue. One group of researchers maintains that maximum speeds are 3 mm/yr, whereas another maintains that speeds are 10–20 mm/yr or more. The differences cannot be reconciled until the uncertainties in plate reconstructions relative to hotspots are systematically and properly incorporated into analyses of hotspot motion. Fifth, paleomagnetists have estimated true polar wander over the past 200 Myr by equating it with the apparent polar wander of hotspots. However, the possible motion among hotspots and the neglect of the uncertainties in reconstructions relative to the hotspots have left these analyses unconvincing. Further progress requires the incorporation of these uncertainties. A possible exception is the apparent polar wander of the hotspots over the past ∼10–20 Myr or less, which requires only small adjustments for plate motion and has presumably smaller uncertainties due to plate reconstructions. The cause of this apparently significant, geologically recent shift of the pole is poorly understood. Compared with the rate and direction of the secular shift of the pole observed this century from the International Latitude Service and for 1976 to 1994 from space geodetic data, the paleomagnetically observed shift is unlikely to be due to the removal of northern hemisphere midlatitude ice sheets, which is the commonly accepted explanation for the shift observed over the past century. I speculate instead that the apparently rapid uplift of the Tibetan Plateau sometime during the past ∼10–20 Myr is at least partly responsible for the geologically recent shift of the pole. Finally, I conclude that the theory of plate tectonics has provided a framework that leads naturally to further quantification of the kinematics and deformation of Earth's solid surface chiefly because of the key assumption of the rigidity of plate interiors, which permits specific predictions to be made. This revolution in quantification still has far to go and holds exciting prospects for future tectonic studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/95jb01912",
    doi = "10.1029/95jb01912",
    openalex = "W2115757305",
    references = "harrison1990satellite"
}

@article{doi1010160040195195000690,
    author = "Spitzak, S. and Demets, C.",
    title = "Constraints on present-day plate motions south of 30°S from satellite altimetry",
    year = "1996",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/61ba5f019eecad69a99d0e018178d480302dd59d",
    doi = "10.1016/0040-1951(95)00069-0",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3-4",
    pages = "167-208",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "14",
    semanticscholar_id = "61ba5f019eecad69a99d0e018178d480302dd59d",
    volume = "253"
}

We present and interpret Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of crustal motions for the period 1988–1994 at 54 sites extending east‐west from the Caucasus mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, and Armenia to the Aegean coast of Turkey and north‐south from the southern edge of the Eurasian plate (Pontus block) to the northern edge of the Arabian platform. Viewed from a Eurasia‐fixed reference frame, sites on the northern Arabian platform move N38±13°W at 20±3 mm/yr, roughly consistent with the velocity implied by NUVEL 1A circuit closure (N23±7°W at 24±2 mm/yr). The motion of Arabia appears to be transferred directly to the region of Turkey north of the suture. However, eastern Turkey is characterized by distributed deformation while central/western Turkey is characterized by coherent plate motion involving westward displacement and counterclockwise rotation of the Anatolian plate. Internal deformation within the central part of the Anatolian plate is less than 2 mm/yr. The Anatolian plate is decoupled from Eurasia along the right‐lateral, strike‐slip North Anatolian fault (NAF). This different response in eastern and western Turkey to the collision of Arabia may result from the different boundary conditions, the Hellenic arc forming a “free” boundary to the west and the Asian continent and oceanic lithosphere of the Black and Caspian Seas forming a resistant boundary to the north and east. We derive a best fitting Euler vector for Anatolia‐Eurasia motion of 29.2±0.8°N, 32.9±0.4°, 1.3±0.1°/m.y. The mapped surface trace of the NAF corresponds well to a small circle about this pole. The new Euler vector implies an upper bound for NAF slip rate of 30±2 mm/yr (i.e., assuming all relative motion is accommodated along the NAF). Using the NUVEL 1A Euler vector for Arabia‐Eurasia and the GPS Euler vector for Anatolia‐Eurasia, we determine an Arabia‐Anatolia Euler vector of 31±2°N, 45±2°E, 0.9±0.1 °/m.y. and an upper bound on the East Anatolian fault slip rate of 15±3 mm/yr. The Aegean Trough region of western Turkey deviates significantly from coherent plate rotation. In addition to rotating with Anatolia, this region shows roughly N‐S extension at a rate of 14±5 mm/yr. Taken together with satellite laser ranging results along the Hellenic arc, the contemporary pattern of deformation indicates increasing motions toward the arc, suggesting that the westward displacement and counterclockwise rotation of Anatolia is driven both by “pushing” from the Arabian plate and by “pulling” or basal drag associated with the foundering African plate along the Hellenic subduction zone.

@article{doi10102996jb03736,
    author = "Reilinger, Robert and McClusky, S. and Oral, Mustafa and King, R. W. and Toksöz, M. Nafi and Barka, Aykut and Kinik, Ibrahim and Lenk, Onur and Sanli, I.",
    title = "Global Positioning System measurements of present‐day crustal movements in the Arabia‐Africa‐Eurasia plate collision zone",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We present and interpret Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of crustal motions for the period 1988–1994 at 54 sites extending east‐west from the Caucasus mountains of southern Russia, Georgia, and Armenia to the Aegean coast of Turkey and north‐south from the southern edge of the Eurasian plate (Pontus block) to the northern edge of the Arabian platform. Viewed from a Eurasia‐fixed reference frame, sites on the northern Arabian platform move N38±13°W at 20±3 mm/yr, roughly consistent with the velocity implied by NUVEL 1A circuit closure (N23±7°W at 24±2 mm/yr). The motion of Arabia appears to be transferred directly to the region of Turkey north of the suture. However, eastern Turkey is characterized by distributed deformation while central/western Turkey is characterized by coherent plate motion involving westward displacement and counterclockwise rotation of the Anatolian plate. Internal deformation within the central part of the Anatolian plate is less than 2 mm/yr. The Anatolian plate is decoupled from Eurasia along the right‐lateral, strike‐slip North Anatolian fault (NAF). This different response in eastern and western Turkey to the collision of Arabia may result from the different boundary conditions, the Hellenic arc forming a “free” boundary to the west and the Asian continent and oceanic lithosphere of the Black and Caspian Seas forming a resistant boundary to the north and east. We derive a best fitting Euler vector for Anatolia‐Eurasia motion of 29.2±0.8°N, 32.9±0.4°, 1.3±0.1°/m.y. The mapped surface trace of the NAF corresponds well to a small circle about this pole. The new Euler vector implies an upper bound for NAF slip rate of 30±2 mm/yr (i.e., assuming all relative motion is accommodated along the NAF). Using the NUVEL 1A Euler vector for Arabia‐Eurasia and the GPS Euler vector for Anatolia‐Eurasia, we determine an Arabia‐Anatolia Euler vector of 31±2°N, 45±2°E, 0.9±0.1 °/m.y. and an upper bound on the East Anatolian fault slip rate of 15±3 mm/yr. The Aegean Trough region of western Turkey deviates significantly from coherent plate rotation. In addition to rotating with Anatolia, this region shows roughly N‐S extension at a rate of 14±5 mm/yr. Taken together with satellite laser ranging results along the Hellenic arc, the contemporary pattern of deformation indicates increasing motions toward the arc, suggesting that the westward displacement and counterclockwise rotation of Anatolia is driven both by “pushing” from the Arabian plate and by “pulling” or basal drag associated with the foundering African plate along the Hellenic subduction zone.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/96jb03736",
    doi = "10.1029/96jb03736",
    openalex = "W2122341820",
    references = "doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995eo00198, doi10102995jb00317, doi101029gd021, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101111j1365246x1984tb01931x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101126science1894201419, doi102110pec85370227, openalexw3041301201"
}

@article{doi10111712295655,
    author = "Degnan, J.",
    title = "Satellite laser ranging: scientific and technological challenges for the new millennium",
    year = "1997",
    journal = "Remote Sensing",
    booktitle = "SPIE Proceedings",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/53d00fbc2ed156a9b36d33597fba8f85473d4cfa",
    doi = "10.1117/12.295655",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "80-91",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "5",
    semanticscholar_id = "53d00fbc2ed156a9b36d33597fba8f85473d4cfa",
    volume = "3218"
}

Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) data acquired between January 1993 and December 1996 from the SPOT‐2, SPOT‐3, and TOPEX/Poseidon satellites have been analyzed to determine velocities for 45 sites on eight major tectonic plates. For 28 sites far from deformation zones, the velocity estimates agree with plate model predictions. Least squares computation of poles of rotation, which model the plate motions, shows that for Eurasia, Africa, Pacific, and South America plates, the agreement is better with NUVEL‐1, while for Australia, Antarctica, Nazca, and North America plates the DORIS Euler vectors are closer to NTJVEL‐1A. In general, DORIS results do not differ significantly from other space geodetic techniques determinations but provide better estimates for plates poorly or inhomogeneously covered by Global Positioning System (GPS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) networks, such as Africa. The DORIS coverage of this plate allows discussion of intraplate deformations due to the motion of the eastern Africa part which constitues the Somalia plate. Sites located in deformation zones, such as western Eurasia boundaries, central Asia, southwestern America coast, South East Asia, show motion with respect to their own plates. Comparisons with other geodetic measurements for colocated stations, or with regional geodynamical models, show the interest of DORIS in active zones where global plate models are not valid.

@article{crétaux1998presentday,
    author = "Crétaux, Jean‐François and Soudarin, Laurent and Cazenave, Anny and Bouillé, Florence",
    title = "Present‐day tectonic plate motions and crustal deformations from the DORIS space system",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) data acquired between January 1993 and December 1996 from the SPOT‐2, SPOT‐3, and TOPEX/Poseidon satellites have been analyzed to determine velocities for 45 sites on eight major tectonic plates. For 28 sites far from deformation zones, the velocity estimates agree with plate model predictions. Least squares computation of poles of rotation, which model the plate motions, shows that for Eurasia, Africa, Pacific, and South America plates, the agreement is better with NUVEL‐1, while for Australia, Antarctica, Nazca, and North America plates the DORIS Euler vectors are closer to NTJVEL‐1A. In general, DORIS results do not differ significantly from other space geodetic techniques determinations but provide better estimates for plates poorly or inhomogeneously covered by Global Positioning System (GPS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) networks, such as Africa. The DORIS coverage of this plate allows discussion of intraplate deformations due to the motion of the eastern Africa part which constitues the Somalia plate. Sites located in deformation zones, such as western Eurasia boundaries, central Asia, southwestern America coast, South East Asia, show motion with respect to their own plates. Comparisons with other geodetic measurements for colocated stations, or with regional geodynamical models, show the interest of DORIS in active zones where global plate models are not valid.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/98jb02239",
    doi = "10.1029/98jb02239",
    number = "B12",
    openalex = "W2101658891",
    pages = "30167-30181",
    volume = "103",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995jb00317, doi10102996jb03736, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb095ib11p17475, doi101038386061a0, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x"
}

Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) data acquired between January 1993 and December 1996 from the SPOT‐2, SPOT‐3, and TOPEX/Poseidon satellites have been analyzed to determine velocities for 45 sites on eight major tectonic plates. For 28 sites far from deformation zones, the velocity estimates agree with plate model predictions. Least squares computation of poles of rotation, which model the plate motions, shows that for Eurasia, Africa, Pacific, and South America plates, the agreement is better with NUVEL‐1, while for Australia, Antarctica, Nazca, and North America plates the DORIS Euler vectors are closer to NTJVEL‐1A. In general, DORIS results do not differ significantly from other space geodetic techniques determinations but provide better estimates for plates poorly or inhomogeneously covered by Global Positioning System (GPS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) networks, such as Africa. The DORIS coverage of this plate allows discussion of intraplate deformations due to the motion of the eastern Africa part which constitues the Somalia plate. Sites located in deformation zones, such as western Eurasia boundaries, central Asia, southwestern America coast, South East Asia, show motion with respect to their own plates. Comparisons with other geodetic measurements for colocated stations, or with regional geodynamical models, show the interest of DORIS in active zones where global plate models are not valid.

@article{doi10102998jb02239,
    author = "Crétaux, J. and Soudarin, L. and Cazenave, A. and Bouille, F.",
    title = "Present‐day tectonic plate motions and crustal deformations from the DORIS space system",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research",
    abstract = "Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) data acquired between January 1993 and December 1996 from the SPOT‐2, SPOT‐3, and TOPEX/Poseidon satellites have been analyzed to determine velocities for 45 sites on eight major tectonic plates. For 28 sites far from deformation zones, the velocity estimates agree with plate model predictions. Least squares computation of poles of rotation, which model the plate motions, shows that for Eurasia, Africa, Pacific, and South America plates, the agreement is better with NUVEL‐1, while for Australia, Antarctica, Nazca, and North America plates the DORIS Euler vectors are closer to NTJVEL‐1A. In general, DORIS results do not differ significantly from other space geodetic techniques determinations but provide better estimates for plates poorly or inhomogeneously covered by Global Positioning System (GPS), Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) networks, such as Africa. The DORIS coverage of this plate allows discussion of intraplate deformations due to the motion of the eastern Africa part which constitues the Somalia plate. Sites located in deformation zones, such as western Eurasia boundaries, central Asia, southwestern America coast, South East Asia, show motion with respect to their own plates. Comparisons with other geodetic measurements for colocated stations, or with regional geodynamical models, show the interest of DORIS in active zones where global plate models are not valid.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ea49b871f307ba0c2f5d5123ace774a2138f78ca",
    doi = "10.1029/98JB02239",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "B12",
    pages = "30167-30181",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "80",
    semanticscholar_id = "ea49b871f307ba0c2f5d5123ace774a2138f78ca",
    volume = "103"
}

We use Global Positioning System (GPS) velocity data to model eastern Asian plate kinematics. Out of 15 stations in Korea, Russia, China, and Japan studied here, three sites considered to be on the stable interior of the hypothetical Amurian Plate showed eastward velocities as fast as ∼9–10 mm/yr with respect to the Eurasian Plate. They were stationary relative to each other to within 1 mm/yr, and these velocity vectors together with those of a few additional sites were used to accurately determine the instantaneous angular velocity (Euler) vector of the Amurian Plate. The predicted movement between the Amurian and the North American Plates is consistent with slip vectors along the eastern margin of the Japan Sea and Sakhalin, which reduces the necessity to postulate the existence of the Okhotsk Plate. The Euler vector of the Amurian Plate predicts left‐lateral movement along its boundary with the south China block, consistent with neotectonic estimates of the displacement at the Qinling fault, possibly the southern boundary of the Amurian Plate. The Amurian Plate offers a platform for models of interseismic strain buildup in southwest Japan by the Philippine Sea Plate subduction at the Nankai Trough. Slip vectors along the Baikal rift, the boundary between the Amurian and the Eurasian Plates, are largely inconsistent with the GPS‐based Euler vector, suggesting an intrinsic difficulty in using earthquake slip vectors in continental rift zones for such studies.

@article{doi1010291999jb900295,
    author = "Heki, Kosuke and Miyazaki, S. and Takahashi, Hiroaki and Kasahara, Minoru and Kimata, Fumiaki and Miura, Satoshi and Василенко, Н. Ф. and Ivashchenko, Alexei and An, Ki Dok",
    title = "The Amurian Plate motion and current plate kinematics in eastern Asia",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We use Global Positioning System (GPS) velocity data to model eastern Asian plate kinematics. Out of 15 stations in Korea, Russia, China, and Japan studied here, three sites considered to be on the stable interior of the hypothetical Amurian Plate showed eastward velocities as fast as ∼9–10 mm/yr with respect to the Eurasian Plate. They were stationary relative to each other to within 1 mm/yr, and these velocity vectors together with those of a few additional sites were used to accurately determine the instantaneous angular velocity (Euler) vector of the Amurian Plate. The predicted movement between the Amurian and the North American Plates is consistent with slip vectors along the eastern margin of the Japan Sea and Sakhalin, which reduces the necessity to postulate the existence of the Okhotsk Plate. The Euler vector of the Amurian Plate predicts left‐lateral movement along its boundary with the south China block, consistent with neotectonic estimates of the displacement at the Qinling fault, possibly the southern boundary of the Amurian Plate. The Amurian Plate offers a platform for models of interseismic strain buildup in southwest Japan by the Philippine Sea Plate subduction at the Nankai Trough. Slip vectors along the Baikal rift, the boundary between the Amurian and the Eurasian Plates, are largely inconsistent with the GPS‐based Euler vector, suggesting an intrinsic difficulty in using earthquake slip vectors in continental rift zones for such studies.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/1999jb900295",
    doi = "10.1029/1999jb900295",
    openalex = "W2031010640",
    references = "crétaux1998presentday"
}

This paper presents the final geodetic results of the GEODYSSEA project. The GPS data from a 42 station network observed during two field campaigns (1994/1996) were analyzed by four groups using different software packages and analysis strategies. The precision of both campaign coordinate solutions was found to be 4–7 mm for the horizontal, and 1 cm for the vertical component. The campaign solutions were merged into one unique solution, which was accurately mapped into the ITRF‐96 reference frame. The global accuracy of this solution with respect to ITRF‐96 is ±1 cm, while the resolution of the relative horizontal velocities is estimated to be at the level of 2–3 mm/yr. This solution was used as the basis for all scientific interpretations, which are published in separate papers. The velocity estimates of a part of the network provided the first direct measurement of a relative motion of the Sundaland block with respect to Eurasian plate.

@article{simons1999observing,
    author = "Simons, W. J. F. and Ambrosius, B. A. C. and Noomen, R. and Angermann, D. and Wilson, P. and Becker, M. and Reinhart, E. and Walpersdorf, A. and Vigny, C.",
    title = "Observing plate motions in S.E. Asia: Geodetic results of the GEODYSSEA Project",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "This paper presents the final geodetic results of the GEODYSSEA project. The GPS data from a 42 station network observed during two field campaigns (1994/1996) were analyzed by four groups using different software packages and analysis strategies. The precision of both campaign coordinate solutions was found to be 4–7 mm for the horizontal, and 1 cm for the vertical component. The campaign solutions were merged into one unique solution, which was accurately mapped into the ITRF‐96 reference frame. The global accuracy of this solution with respect to ITRF‐96 is ±1 cm, while the resolution of the relative horizontal velocities is estimated to be at the level of 2–3 mm/yr. This solution was used as the basis for all scientific interpretations, which are published in separate papers. The velocity estimates of a part of the network provided the first direct measurement of a relative motion of the Sundaland block with respect to Eurasian plate.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/1999gl900395",
    doi = "10.1029/1999gl900395",
    number = "14",
    openalex = "W1968142488",
    pages = "2081-2084",
    volume = "26",
    references = "doi101007bfb0011321, doi101016003192018990263x, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102998eo00398, doi101029gd023p0331, doi102113gssgfbullvi6889, openalexw2343640899, openalexw2728445380, openalexw2993595417"
}

In this paper we present a global model (GSRM-1) of both horizontal velocities on the Earth's surface and horizontal strain rates for almost all deforming plate boundary zones. A model strain rate field is obtained jointly with a global velocity field in the process of solving for a global velocity gradient tensor field. In our model we perform a least-squares fit between model velocities and observed geodetic velocities, as well as between model strain rates and observed geological strain rates. Model velocities and strain rates are interpolated over a spherical Earth using bi-cubic Bessel splines. We include 3000 geodetic velocities from 50 different, mostly published, studies. Geological strain rates are obtained for central Asia only and they are inferred from Quaternary fault slip rates. For all areas where no geological information is included a priori constraints are placed on the style and direction (but not magnitude) of the model strain rate field. These constraints are taken from a seismic strain rate field inferred from (normalized) focal mechanisms of shallow earthquakes. We present a global solution of the second invariant of the model strain rate field as well as strain rate solutions for a few selected plate boundary zones. Generally, the strain rate tensor field is consistent with geological and seismological data. With the assumption of plate rigidity for all areas other than the plate boundary zones we also present relative angular velocities for most plate pairs. We find that in general there is a good agreement between the present-day plate motions we obtain and long-term plate motions, but a few significant differences exist. The rotation rates for the Indian, Arabian and Nubian plates relative to Eurasia are 30, 13 and 50 per cent slower than the NUVEL-1A estimate, respectively, and the rotation rate for the Nazca Plate relative to South America is 17 per cent slower. On the other hand, Caribbean–North America motion is 76 per cent faster than the NUVEL-1A estimate. While crustal blocks in the India–Eurasia collision zone move significantly and self-consistently with respect to bounding plates, only a very small motion is predicted between the Nubian and Somalian plates. By integrating plate boundary zone deformation with the traditional modelling of angular velocities of rigid plates we have obtained a model that has already been proven valuable in, for instance, redefining a no-net-rotation model of surface motions and by confirming a global correlation between seismicity rates and tectonic moment rates along subduction zones and within zones of continental deformation.

@article{doi101046j1365246x200301917x,
    author = "Kreemer, Corné and Holt, W. E. and Haines, A. J.",
    title = "An integrated global model of present-day plate motions and plate boundary deformation",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "In this paper we present a global model (GSRM-1) of both horizontal velocities on the Earth's surface and horizontal strain rates for almost all deforming plate boundary zones. A model strain rate field is obtained jointly with a global velocity field in the process of solving for a global velocity gradient tensor field. In our model we perform a least-squares fit between model velocities and observed geodetic velocities, as well as between model strain rates and observed geological strain rates. Model velocities and strain rates are interpolated over a spherical Earth using bi-cubic Bessel splines. We include 3000 geodetic velocities from 50 different, mostly published, studies. Geological strain rates are obtained for central Asia only and they are inferred from Quaternary fault slip rates. For all areas where no geological information is included a priori constraints are placed on the style and direction (but not magnitude) of the model strain rate field. These constraints are taken from a seismic strain rate field inferred from (normalized) focal mechanisms of shallow earthquakes. We present a global solution of the second invariant of the model strain rate field as well as strain rate solutions for a few selected plate boundary zones. Generally, the strain rate tensor field is consistent with geological and seismological data. With the assumption of plate rigidity for all areas other than the plate boundary zones we also present relative angular velocities for most plate pairs. We find that in general there is a good agreement between the present-day plate motions we obtain and long-term plate motions, but a few significant differences exist. The rotation rates for the Indian, Arabian and Nubian plates relative to Eurasia are 30, 13 and 50 per cent slower than the NUVEL-1A estimate, respectively, and the rotation rate for the Nazca Plate relative to South America is 17 per cent slower. On the other hand, Caribbean–North America motion is 76 per cent faster than the NUVEL-1A estimate. While crustal blocks in the India–Eurasia collision zone move significantly and self-consistently with respect to bounding plates, only a very small motion is predicted between the Nubian and Somalian plates. By integrating plate boundary zone deformation with the traditional modelling of angular velocities of rigid plates we have obtained a model that has already been proven valuable in, for instance, redefining a no-net-rotation model of surface motions and by confirming a global correlation between seismicity rates and tectonic moment rates along subduction zones and within zones of continental deformation.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.2003.01917.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-246x.2003.01917.x",
    openalex = "W2137209222",
    references = "crétaux1998presentday, doi1010291999jb900351, doi10102990eo00319, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102994gl02118, doi101029jb075i014p02625, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi101029jb092ib06p04798, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101126science1894201419, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101785bssa0880030722, simons1999observing"
}

We use continuously recording GPS (CGPS) and survey-mode GPS (SGPS) observations to determine Euler vectors for relative motion of the African (Nubian), Arabian and Eurasian plates. We present a well-constrained Eurasia–Nubia Euler vector derived from 23 IGS sites in Europe and four CGPS and three SGPS sites on the Nubian Plate (−0.95 ± 4.8°N, −21.8 ± 4.3°E, 0.06 ± 0.005° Myr−1). We see no significant (>1 mm yr−1) internal deformation of the Nubian Plate. The GPS Nubian–Eurasian Euler vector differs significantly from NUVEL-1A (21.0 ± 4.2°N, −20.6 ± 0.6°E, 0.12 ± 0.015° Myr−1), implying more westward motion of Africa relative to Eurasia and slower convergence in the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabia–Eurasia and Arabia–Nubia GPS Euler vectors are less well determined, based on only one CGPS and three SGPS sites on the Arabian Plate. The preliminary Arabia–Eurasia and Arabia–Nubia Euler vectors are 27.4 ± 1.0°N, 18.4 ± 2.5°E, 0.40 ± 0.04° Myr−1, and 30.5 ± 1.0°N, 25.7 ± 2.3°E, 0.37 ± 0.04° Myr−1, respectively. The GPS Arabia–Nubia Euler vector differs significantly from NUVEL-1A (24.1 ± 1.7°N, 24.0 ± 3.5°E, 0.40 ± 0.05° Myr−1), but is statistically consistent at the 95 per cent confidence level with the revised Euler vector reported by Chu & Gordon based on a re-evaluation of magnetic anomalies in the Red Sea (31.5 ± 1.2°N, 23.0 ± 2.7°E, 0.40 ± 0.05° Myr−1). The motion implied in the Gulf of Aqaba and on the Dead Sea fault (DSF) by the new GPS Nubia–Arabia Euler vector (i.e. ignoring possible Sinai block motion and possible internal plate deformation) grades from pure left lateral strike-slip in the Gulf and on the southern DSF with increasing compression on the central and northern DSF with relative motion increasing from 5.6 to 7.5 mm yr−1 (±1 mm yr−1) from south to north. Along the northern DSF (i.e. north of the Lebanon restraining bend) motion is partitioned between 6 ± 1 mm yr−1 left-lateral motion parallel to the fault trace and 4 ± 1 mm yr−1 fault-normal compression. Relative motions on other plate boundaries (including the Anatolian and Aegean microplates) derived from the GPS Euler vectors agree qualitatively with the sense of motion indicated by focal mechanisms for large crustal earthquakes (M > 6). Where data are available on fault-slip rates on plate bounding faults (North Anatolian fault, East Anatolian fault, Dead Sea fault, Red Sea rift), they are generally lower than, but not significantly different from, the full plate motion estimates suggesting that the majority of relative plate motion is accommodated on these structures.

@article{doi101046j1365246x200302023x,
    author = "McClusky, S. and Reilinger, Robert and Mahmoud, Salah and Sari, D. Ben and Tealeb, A.",
    title = "GPS constraints on Africa (Nubia) and Arabia plate motions",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "We use continuously recording GPS (CGPS) and survey-mode GPS (SGPS) observations to determine Euler vectors for relative motion of the African (Nubian), Arabian and Eurasian plates. We present a well-constrained Eurasia–Nubia Euler vector derived from 23 IGS sites in Europe and four CGPS and three SGPS sites on the Nubian Plate (−0.95 ± 4.8°N, −21.8 ± 4.3°E, 0.06 ± 0.005° Myr−1). We see no significant (>1 mm yr−1) internal deformation of the Nubian Plate. The GPS Nubian–Eurasian Euler vector differs significantly from NUVEL-1A (21.0 ± 4.2°N, −20.6 ± 0.6°E, 0.12 ± 0.015° Myr−1), implying more westward motion of Africa relative to Eurasia and slower convergence in the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabia–Eurasia and Arabia–Nubia GPS Euler vectors are less well determined, based on only one CGPS and three SGPS sites on the Arabian Plate. The preliminary Arabia–Eurasia and Arabia–Nubia Euler vectors are 27.4 ± 1.0°N, 18.4 ± 2.5°E, 0.40 ± 0.04° Myr−1, and 30.5 ± 1.0°N, 25.7 ± 2.3°E, 0.37 ± 0.04° Myr−1, respectively. The GPS Arabia–Nubia Euler vector differs significantly from NUVEL-1A (24.1 ± 1.7°N, 24.0 ± 3.5°E, 0.40 ± 0.05° Myr−1), but is statistically consistent at the 95 per cent confidence level with the revised Euler vector reported by Chu \& Gordon based on a re-evaluation of magnetic anomalies in the Red Sea (31.5 ± 1.2°N, 23.0 ± 2.7°E, 0.40 ± 0.05° Myr−1). The motion implied in the Gulf of Aqaba and on the Dead Sea fault (DSF) by the new GPS Nubia–Arabia Euler vector (i.e. ignoring possible Sinai block motion and possible internal plate deformation) grades from pure left lateral strike-slip in the Gulf and on the southern DSF with increasing compression on the central and northern DSF with relative motion increasing from 5.6 to 7.5 mm yr−1 (±1 mm yr−1) from south to north. Along the northern DSF (i.e. north of the Lebanon restraining bend) motion is partitioned between 6 ± 1 mm yr−1 left-lateral motion parallel to the fault trace and 4 ± 1 mm yr−1 fault-normal compression. Relative motions on other plate boundaries (including the Anatolian and Aegean microplates) derived from the GPS Euler vectors agree qualitatively with the sense of motion indicated by focal mechanisms for large crustal earthquakes (M > 6). Where data are available on fault-slip rates on plate bounding faults (North Anatolian fault, East Anatolian fault, Dead Sea fault, Red Sea rift), they are generally lower than, but not significantly different from, the full plate motion estimates suggesting that the majority of relative plate motion is accommodated on these structures.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-246x.2003.02023.x",
    doi = "10.1046/j.1365-246x.2003.02023.x",
    openalex = "W2146102009",
    references = "doi1010292000jb000033, doi10102995jb00317, doi101111j1365246x1996tb05264x"
}

This book covers the entire field of satellite geodesy and is intended to serve as a textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a reference for professionals and scientists in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as geodesy, surveying engineering, geomatics, geography, navigation, geophysics and oceanography. The text provides a systematic overview of fundamentals including reference systems, time, signal propagation and satellite orbits, together with observation methods such as satellite laser ranging, satellite altimetry, gravity field missions, very long baseline interferometry, Doppler techniques, and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Particular emphasis is given to positioning techniques, such as the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), and to applications. Numerous examples are included which refer to recent results in the fields of global and regional control networks; gravity field modeling; Earth rotation and global reference frames; crustal motion monitoring; cadastral and engineering surveying; geoinformation systems; land, air, and marine navigation; marine and glacial geodesy; and photogrammetry and remote sensing. This book will be an indispensable source of information for all concerned with satellite geodesy and its applications, in particular for spatial referencing, geoinformation, navigation, geodynamics, and operational positioning.

@incollection{doi1015159783110200089,
    author = "Seeber, Günter",
    title = "Satellite Geodesy",
    year = "2003",
    abstract = "This book covers the entire field of satellite geodesy and is intended to serve as a textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a reference for professionals and scientists in the fields of engineering and geosciences such as geodesy, surveying engineering, geomatics, geography, navigation, geophysics and oceanography. The text provides a systematic overview of fundamentals including reference systems, time, signal propagation and satellite orbits, together with observation methods such as satellite laser ranging, satellite altimetry, gravity field missions, very long baseline interferometry, Doppler techniques, and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). Particular emphasis is given to positioning techniques, such as the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), and to applications. Numerous examples are included which refer to recent results in the fields of global and regional control networks; gravity field modeling; Earth rotation and global reference frames; crustal motion monitoring; cadastral and engineering surveying; geoinformation systems; land, air, and marine navigation; marine and glacial geodesy; and photogrammetry and remote sensing. This book will be an indispensable source of information for all concerned with satellite geodesy and its applications, in particular for spatial referencing, geoinformation, navigation, geodynamics, and operational positioning.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110200089",
    doi = "10.1515/9783110200089",
    openalex = "W4249989757"
}

We estimate a global plate motion model for 17 major and minor tectonic plates solely on the basis of analysis of data from 106 globally distributed continuous GPS stations, spanning the period from January 1991 to July 2003. Site positions estimated from 24‐hour segments of data are aligned day‐by‐day to the International GPS Service (IGS) realization of the ITRF2000 reference frame using a similarity transformation, thereby ensuring that the ITRF2000 no‐net‐rotation condition is preserved. Linear velocities of a carefully selected set of stations are estimated from the position time series, along with annual and semiannual fluctuations and position offsets due to GPS instrument changes. A white noise plus flicker noise model is applied to estimate realistic uncertainties for the site velocities, which are then propagated into the derived plate motion model parameters. We also examine the vertical velocities in the site selection process. At the Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center we have implemented a procedure whereby the plate motion model is updated on a regular (monthly) basis to improve its precision and reliability as new data become available and as a baseline against which anomalous motions can be detected.

@article{doi1010292003jb002944,
    author = "Prawirodirdjo, L. and Bock, Yehuda",
    title = "Instantaneous global plate motion model from 12 years of continuous GPS observations",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We estimate a global plate motion model for 17 major and minor tectonic plates solely on the basis of analysis of data from 106 globally distributed continuous GPS stations, spanning the period from January 1991 to July 2003. Site positions estimated from 24‐hour segments of data are aligned day‐by‐day to the International GPS Service (IGS) realization of the ITRF2000 reference frame using a similarity transformation, thereby ensuring that the ITRF2000 no‐net‐rotation condition is preserved. Linear velocities of a carefully selected set of stations are estimated from the position time series, along with annual and semiannual fluctuations and position offsets due to GPS instrument changes. A white noise plus flicker noise model is applied to estimate realistic uncertainties for the site velocities, which are then propagated into the derived plate motion model parameters. We also examine the vertical velocities in the site selection process. At the Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center we have implemented a procedure whereby the plate motion model is updated on a regular (monthly) basis to improve its precision and reliability as new data become available and as a baseline against which anomalous motions can be detected.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2003jb002944",
    doi = "10.1029/2003jb002944",
    openalex = "W1989093648",
    references = "christodoulidis1985observing, doi1010291999jb900236, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292001jb000561, doi10102994gl02118, doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038230042a0, doi101126science1060152, doi101139p63094, doi101306819a3e5016c511d78645000102c1865d"
}

The GPS‐derived velocity field (1988–2005) for the zone of interaction of the Arabian, African (Nubian, Somalian), and Eurasian plates indicates counterclockwise rotation of a broad area of the Earth's surface including the Arabian plate, adjacent parts of the Zagros and central Iran, Turkey, and the Aegean/Peloponnesus relative to Eurasia at rates in the range of 20–30 mm/yr. This relatively rapid motion occurs within the framework of the slow‐moving (∼5 mm/yr relative motions) Eurasian, Nubian, and Somalian plates. The circulatory pattern of motion increases in rate toward the Hellenic trench system. We develop an elastic block model to constrain present‐day plate motions (relative Euler vectors), regional deformation within the interplate zone, and slip rates for major faults. Substantial areas of continental lithosphere within the region of plate interaction show coherent motion with internal deformations below ∼1–2 mm/yr, including central and eastern Anatolia (Turkey), the southwestern Aegean/Peloponnesus, the Lesser Caucasus, and Central Iran. Geodetic slip rates for major block‐bounding structures are mostly comparable to geologic rates estimated for the most recent geological period (∼3–5 Myr). We find that the convergence of Arabia with Eurasia is accommodated in large part by lateral transport within the interior part of the collision zone and lithospheric shortening along the Caucasus and Zagros mountain belts around the periphery of the collision zone. In addition, we find that the principal boundary between the westerly moving Anatolian plate and Arabia (East Anatolian fault) is presently characterized by pure left‐lateral strike slip with no fault‐normal convergence. This implies that “extrusion” is not presently inducing westward motion of Anatolia. On the basis of the observed kinematics, we hypothesize that deformation in the Africa‐Arabia‐Eurasia collision zone is driven in large part by rollback of the subducting African lithosphere beneath the Hellenic and Cyprus trenches aided by slab pull on the southeastern side of the subducting Arabian plate along the Makran subduction zone. We further suggest that the separation of Arabia from Africa is a response to plate motions induced by active subduction.

@article{doi1010292005jb004051,
    author = "Reilinger, Robert and McClusky, S. and Vernant, Philippe and Lawrence, Shawn and Ergintav, Semih and Çakmak, R. and Özener, Haluk and Kadirov, Fakhraddin and Guliev, I. S. and Stepanyan, Ruben and Nadariya, M. and Hahubia, Galaktion and Mahmoud, Salah and Sakr, Kamal and ArRajehi, Abdullah and Paradissis, Demitris and Al‐Aydrus, A. and Prilepin, Mikhail Tikhonovich and Гусева, Т.В. and Evren, Emre and Dmitrotsa, A. I. and Filikov, S. V. and Gomez, Francisco and Al-Ghazzi, R. and Karam, Gebran N.",
    title = "GPS constraints on continental deformation in the Africa‐Arabia‐Eurasia continental collision zone and implications for the dynamics of plate interactions",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "The GPS‐derived velocity field (1988–2005) for the zone of interaction of the Arabian, African (Nubian, Somalian), and Eurasian plates indicates counterclockwise rotation of a broad area of the Earth's surface including the Arabian plate, adjacent parts of the Zagros and central Iran, Turkey, and the Aegean/Peloponnesus relative to Eurasia at rates in the range of 20–30 mm/yr. This relatively rapid motion occurs within the framework of the slow‐moving (∼5 mm/yr relative motions) Eurasian, Nubian, and Somalian plates. The circulatory pattern of motion increases in rate toward the Hellenic trench system. We develop an elastic block model to constrain present‐day plate motions (relative Euler vectors), regional deformation within the interplate zone, and slip rates for major faults. Substantial areas of continental lithosphere within the region of plate interaction show coherent motion with internal deformations below ∼1–2 mm/yr, including central and eastern Anatolia (Turkey), the southwestern Aegean/Peloponnesus, the Lesser Caucasus, and Central Iran. Geodetic slip rates for major block‐bounding structures are mostly comparable to geologic rates estimated for the most recent geological period (∼3–5 Myr). We find that the convergence of Arabia with Eurasia is accommodated in large part by lateral transport within the interior part of the collision zone and lithospheric shortening along the Caucasus and Zagros mountain belts around the periphery of the collision zone. In addition, we find that the principal boundary between the westerly moving Anatolian plate and Arabia (East Anatolian fault) is presently characterized by pure left‐lateral strike slip with no fault‐normal convergence. This implies that “extrusion” is not presently inducing westward motion of Anatolia. On the basis of the observed kinematics, we hypothesize that deformation in the Africa‐Arabia‐Eurasia collision zone is driven in large part by rollback of the subducting African lithosphere beneath the Hellenic and Cyprus trenches aided by slab pull on the southeastern side of the subducting Arabian plate along the Makran subduction zone. We further suggest that the separation of Arabia from Africa is a response to plate motions induced by active subduction.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jb004051",
    doi = "10.1029/2005jb004051",
    openalex = "W1981165981",
    references = "doi1010160040195181902754, doi1010291999jb900351, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292002jb001862, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102995eo00198, doi10102995jb00317, doi10102996jb03736, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038226239a0, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101111j1365246x1996tb05264x, doi101126science105978, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science29054981910, doi10113000917613198210611petian20co2, doi101146annurevearth32101802120415, doi101146annurevearth33092203122711, doi101785bssa0750041135, doi102110pec85370211, doi102110pec85370227, openalexw304861154"
}

@misc{s226a5417d4ff82ed790e6a24d5373821ec995a567,
    author = "Jordan, T.",
    title = {SEMI ANNUAL REPORT TO THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION NASA CONTRACT NAG5-459 "Plate Motions and Deformations from Geologic and Geodetic Data" for the period},
    year = "2008",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/26a5417d4ff82ed790e6a24d5373821ec995a567",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_id = "26a5417d4ff82ed790e6a24d5373821ec995a567"
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@incollection{combrinck2010satellite,
    author = "Combrinck, Ludwig",
    title = "Satellite Laser Ranging",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "Sciences of Geodesy - I",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11741-1\_9",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-11741-1\_9",
    openalex = "W2219714276",
    pages = "301-338",
    references = "doi1010079783642583513, doi101007s001900050480z, doi101016s0273117702002776, doi1010292001gl014394, doi1010292004gl020308, doi101029gd025p0133, doi101029rs007i002p00223, doi10111511451162, doi1015159780691190198, openalexw1666375428"
}

We describe best-fitting angular velocities and MORVEL, a new closure-enforced set of angular velocities for the geologically current motions of 25 tectonic plates that collectively occupy 97 per cent of Earth's surface. Seafloor spreading rates and fault azimuths are used to determine the motions of 19 plates bordered by mid-ocean ridges, including all the major plates. Six smaller plates with little or no connection to the mid-ocean ridges are linked to MORVEL with GPS station velocities and azimuthal data. By design, almost no kinematic information is exchanged between the geologically determined and geodetically constrained subsets of the global circuit-MORVEL thus averages motion over geological intervals for all the major plates. Plate geometry changes relative to NUVEL-1A include the incorporation of Nubia, Lwandle and Somalia plates for the former Africa plate, Capricorn, Australia and Macquarie plates for the former Australia plate, and Sur and South America plates for the former South America plate. MORVEL also includes Amur, Philippine Sea, Sundaland and Yangtze plates, making it more useful than NUVEL-1A for studies of deformation in Asia and the western Pacific. Seafloor spreading rates are estimated over the past 0.78 Myr for intermediate and fast spreading centres and since 3.16 Ma for slow and ultraslow spreading centres. Rates are adjusted downward by 0.6-2.6 mm yr -1 to compensate for the several kilometre width of magnetic reversal zones. Nearly all the NUVEL-1A angular velocities differ significantly from the MORVEL angular velocities. The many new data, revised plate geometries, and correction for outward displacement thus significantly modify our knowledge of geologically current plate motions. MORVEL indicates significantly slower 0.78-Myr-average motion across the Nazca-Antarctic and Nazca-Pacific boundaries than does NUVEL-1A, consistent with a progressive slowdown in the eastward component of Nazca plate motion since 3.16 Ma. It also indicates that motions across the Caribbean-North America and Caribbean-South America plate boundaries are twice as fast as given by NUVEL-1A. Summed, least-squares differences between angular velocities estimated from GPS and those for MORVEL, NUVEL-1 and NUVEL-1A are, respectively, 260 per cent larger for NUVEL-1 and 50 per cent larger for NUVEL-1A than for MORVEL, suggesting that MORVEL more accurately describes historically current plate motions. Significant differences between geological and GPS estimates of Nazca plate motion and Arabia-Eurasia and India-Eurasia motion are reduced but not eliminated when using MORVEL instead of NUVEL-1A, possibly indicating that changes have occurred in those plate motions since 3.16 Ma. The MORVEL and GPS estimates of Pacific-North America plate motion in western North America differ by only 2.6 1.7 mm yr -1, 25 per cent smaller than for NUVEL-1A. The remaining difference for this plate pair, assuming there are no unrecognized systematic errors and no measurable change in Pacific-North America motion over the past 1-3 Myr, indicates deformation of one or more plates in the global circuit. Tests for closure of six three-plate circuits indicate that two, Pacific-Cocos-Nazca and Sur-Nubia-Antarctic, fail closure, with respective linear velocities of non-closure of 14 5 and 3 1 mm yr -1 (95 per cent confidence limits) at their triple junctions. We conclude that the rigid plate approximation continues to be tremendously useful, but-absent any unrecognized systematic errors-the plates deform measurably, possibly by thermal contraction and wide plate boundaries with deformation rates near or beneath the level of noise in plate kinematic data.

@article{doi101111j1365246x200904491x,
    author = "DeMets, Charles and Gordon, Richard G. and Argus, Donald F.",
    title = "Geologically current plate motions",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Geophysical Journal International",
    abstract = "We describe best-fitting angular velocities and MORVEL, a new closure-enforced set of angular velocities for the geologically current motions of 25 tectonic plates that collectively occupy 97 per cent of Earth's surface. Seafloor spreading rates and fault azimuths are used to determine the motions of 19 plates bordered by mid-ocean ridges, including all the major plates. Six smaller plates with little or no connection to the mid-ocean ridges are linked to MORVEL with GPS station velocities and azimuthal data. By design, almost no kinematic information is exchanged between the geologically determined and geodetically constrained subsets of the global circuit-MORVEL thus averages motion over geological intervals for all the major plates. Plate geometry changes relative to NUVEL-1A include the incorporation of Nubia, Lwandle and Somalia plates for the former Africa plate, Capricorn, Australia and Macquarie plates for the former Australia plate, and Sur and South America plates for the former South America plate. MORVEL also includes Amur, Philippine Sea, Sundaland and Yangtze plates, making it more useful than NUVEL-1A for studies of deformation in Asia and the western Pacific. Seafloor spreading rates are estimated over the past 0.78 Myr for intermediate and fast spreading centres and since 3.16 Ma for slow and ultraslow spreading centres. Rates are adjusted downward by 0.6-2.6 mm yr -1 to compensate for the several kilometre width of magnetic reversal zones. Nearly all the NUVEL-1A angular velocities differ significantly from the MORVEL angular velocities. The many new data, revised plate geometries, and correction for outward displacement thus significantly modify our knowledge of geologically current plate motions. MORVEL indicates significantly slower 0.78-Myr-average motion across the Nazca-Antarctic and Nazca-Pacific boundaries than does NUVEL-1A, consistent with a progressive slowdown in the eastward component of Nazca plate motion since 3.16 Ma. It also indicates that motions across the Caribbean-North America and Caribbean-South America plate boundaries are twice as fast as given by NUVEL-1A. Summed, least-squares differences between angular velocities estimated from GPS and those for MORVEL, NUVEL-1 and NUVEL-1A are, respectively, 260 per cent larger for NUVEL-1 and 50 per cent larger for NUVEL-1A than for MORVEL, suggesting that MORVEL more accurately describes historically current plate motions. Significant differences between geological and GPS estimates of Nazca plate motion and Arabia-Eurasia and India-Eurasia motion are reduced but not eliminated when using MORVEL instead of NUVEL-1A, possibly indicating that changes have occurred in those plate motions since 3.16 Ma. The MORVEL and GPS estimates of Pacific-North America plate motion in western North America differ by only 2.6 1.7 mm yr -1, 25 per cent smaller than for NUVEL-1A. The remaining difference for this plate pair, assuming there are no unrecognized systematic errors and no measurable change in Pacific-North America motion over the past 1-3 Myr, indicates deformation of one or more plates in the global circuit. Tests for closure of six three-plate circuits indicate that two, Pacific-Cocos-Nazca and Sur-Nubia-Antarctic, fail closure, with respective linear velocities of non-closure of 14 5 and 3 1 mm yr -1 (95 per cent confidence limits) at their triple junctions. We conclude that the rigid plate approximation continues to be tremendously useful, but-absent any unrecognized systematic errors-the plates deform measurably, possibly by thermal contraction and wide plate boundaries with deformation rates near or beneath the level of noise in plate kinematic data.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2009.04491.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-246x.2009.04491.x",
    openalex = "W2098839042",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900511, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292005jb004051, doi10102990eo00319, doi10102993jb00782, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102996jb03860, doi101029jb077i023p04432, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib03p01071, doi101029jb094ib06p07293, doi101046j1365246x200301917x, doi101111j1365246x1974tb00613x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101126science27753341956, doi101126science28053671245"
}

[1] Satellite laser ranging (SLR) data were used to determine the variations in the Earth's principal figure axis represented by the degree 2 and order 1 geopotential coefficients: C21 and S21. Significant variations at the annual and Chandler wobble frequencies appear in the SLR time series when the rotational deformation or “pole tides” (i.e., the solid Earth and ocean pole tides) were not modeled. The contribution of the ocean pole tide is estimated to be only ∼8% of the total annual variations in the normalized coefficients: / based on the analysis of SLR data. The amplitude of the nontidal annual variation of is only ∼ 30% of from the SLR time series. The estimates of the annual variation in from SLR, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and polar motion excitation function, are in a good agreement. The nature of the linear trend for the Earth's figure axis determined by these techniques during the last several years is in general agreement but does not agree as well with results predicted from current glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) models. The “fluid Love number” for the Earth is estimated to be ∼0.9 based on the position of the mean figure axis from the GRACE gravity model GGM03S and the mean pole defined by the IERS 2003 conventions. The estimate of / from GRACE and SLR provides an improved constraint on the relative rotation of the core. The results presented here indicate a possible tilt of the inner core figure axis of ∼2° and ∼3 arc sec displacement for the figure axis of the entire core.

@article{doi1010292010jb000850,
    author = "Cheng, Minkang and Ries, John and Tapley, B. D.",
    title = "Variations of the Earth's figure axis from satellite laser ranging and GRACE",
    year = "2011",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "[1] Satellite laser ranging (SLR) data were used to determine the variations in the Earth's principal figure axis represented by the degree 2 and order 1 geopotential coefficients: C21 and S21. Significant variations at the annual and Chandler wobble frequencies appear in the SLR time series when the rotational deformation or “pole tides” (i.e., the solid Earth and ocean pole tides) were not modeled. The contribution of the ocean pole tide is estimated to be only ∼8\% of the total annual variations in the normalized coefficients: / based on the analysis of SLR data. The amplitude of the nontidal annual variation of is only ∼ 30\% of from the SLR time series. The estimates of the annual variation in from SLR, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and polar motion excitation function, are in a good agreement. The nature of the linear trend for the Earth's figure axis determined by these techniques during the last several years is in general agreement but does not agree as well with results predicted from current glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) models. The “fluid Love number” for the Earth is estimated to be ∼0.9 based on the position of the mean figure axis from the GRACE gravity model GGM03S and the mean pole defined by the IERS 2003 conventions. The estimate of / from GRACE and SLR provides an improved constraint on the relative rotation of the core. The results presented here indicate a possible tilt of the inner core figure axis of ∼2° and ∼3 arc sec displacement for the figure axis of the entire core.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2010jb000850",
    doi = "10.1029/2010jb000850",
    openalex = "W2124662745",
    references = "doi101016jjog200407001"
}

@incollection{crossref2014satellite,
    title = "satellite laser ranging",
    year = "2014",
    booktitle = "Dictionary Geotechnical Engineering/Wörterbuch GeoTechnik",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6\_190651",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6\_190651",
    openalex = "W3207423184",
    pages = "1169-1169"
}

Abstract We present a new global model of plate motions and strain rates in plate boundary zones constrained by horizontal geodetic velocities. This Global Strain Rate Model (GSRM v.2.1) is a vast improvement over its predecessor both in terms of amount of data input as in an increase in spatial model resolution by factor of ∼2.5 in areas with dense data coverage. We determined 6739 velocities from time series of (mostly) continuous GPS measurements; i.e., by far the largest global velocity solution to date. We transformed 15,772 velocities from 233 (mostly) published studies onto our core solution to obtain 22,511 velocities in the same reference frame. Care is taken to not use velocities from stations (or time periods) that are affected by transient phenomena; i.e., this data set consists of velocities best representing the interseismic plate velocity. About 14% of the Earth is allowed to deform in 145,086 deforming grid cells (0.25° longitude by 0.2° latitude in dimension). The remainder of the Earth's surface is modeled as rigid spherical caps representing 50 tectonic plates. For 36 plates we present new GPS‐derived angular velocities. For all the plates that can be compared with the most recent geologic plate motion model, we find that the difference in angular velocity is significant. The rigid‐body rotations are used as boundary conditions in the strain rate calculations. The strain rate field is modeled using the Haines and Holt method, which uses splines to obtain an self‐consistent interpolated velocity gradient tensor field, from which strain rates, vorticity rates, and expected velocities are derived. We also present expected faulting orientations in areas with significant vorticity, and update the no‐net rotation reference frame associated with our global velocity gradient field. Finally, we present a global map of recurrence times for M w =7.5 characteristic earthquakes.

@article{doi1010022014gc005407,
    author = "Kreemer, Corné and Blewitt, Geoffrey and Klein, Elliot C.",
    title = "A geodetic plate motion and Global Strain Rate Model",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Abstract We present a new global model of plate motions and strain rates in plate boundary zones constrained by horizontal geodetic velocities. This Global Strain Rate Model (GSRM v.2.1) is a vast improvement over its predecessor both in terms of amount of data input as in an increase in spatial model resolution by factor of ∼2.5 in areas with dense data coverage. We determined 6739 velocities from time series of (mostly) continuous GPS measurements; i.e., by far the largest global velocity solution to date. We transformed 15,772 velocities from 233 (mostly) published studies onto our core solution to obtain 22,511 velocities in the same reference frame. Care is taken to not use velocities from stations (or time periods) that are affected by transient phenomena; i.e., this data set consists of velocities best representing the interseismic plate velocity. About 14\% of the Earth is allowed to deform in 145,086 deforming grid cells (0.25° longitude by 0.2° latitude in dimension). The remainder of the Earth's surface is modeled as rigid spherical caps representing 50 tectonic plates. For 36 plates we present new GPS‐derived angular velocities. For all the plates that can be compared with the most recent geologic plate motion model, we find that the difference in angular velocity is significant. The rigid‐body rotations are used as boundary conditions in the strain rate calculations. The strain rate field is modeled using the Haines and Holt method, which uses splines to obtain an self‐consistent interpolated velocity gradient tensor field, from which strain rates, vorticity rates, and expected velocities are derived. We also present expected faulting orientations in areas with significant vorticity, and update the no‐net rotation reference frame associated with our global velocity gradient field. Finally, we present a global map of recurrence times for M w =7.5 characteristic earthquakes.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2014gc005407",
    doi = "10.1002/2014gc005407",
    openalex = "W2097951601",
    references = "doi101007s0019000600303, doi1010291999jb900351, doi1010292000jb000033, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292003jb002944, doi1010292005gl025546, doi1010292005jb004051, doi1010292011jb008930, doi10102991gl01532, doi10102992jb01963, doi101038226239a0, doi101046j1365246x200301917x, doi101111j1365246x200904491x, nugroho2009plate"
}

Eight years of Ajisai SLR data were processed to determine the terrestrial reference frame and its time evolution. The typical precision and accuracy of the estimated geocenter position averaged over a year determined from a one-year Ajisai SLR data set are 1 cm and 1.5 cm, respectively. The baselines between SLR stations away from plate bou-ndaries show rates of change that are in good agreement with NUVEL-1A, ITRF93 and LAGEOS results but significant deviations from geologically determined plate motion models are found for stations in plate boundary regions. Velocities of the observation stations were estimated by a weighted least squares method. The Simosato SLR station, located 100 km away from the plate boundary between the Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate, move-s in the direction of the subduction of the Philippine Sea plate with respect to the Eurasian plate, which infers strong coupling of the two plates at the boundary. The motion of other stations at plate boundary regions is also discussed. This study is the first attempt to use Ajisai SLR data to determine the global terrestrial reference frame and its variation, thus independent of the previous SLR studies most of which were based on LAGEOS SLR analyses.

@article{doi101186bf03352156,
    author = "Sengoku, A.",
    title = "A plate motion study using Ajisai SLR data",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Earth Planets and Space",
    abstract = "Eight years of Ajisai SLR data were processed to determine the terrestrial reference frame and its time evolution. The typical precision and accuracy of the estimated geocenter position averaged over a year determined from a one-year Ajisai SLR data set are 1 cm and 1.5 cm, respectively. The baselines between SLR stations away from plate bou-ndaries show rates of change that are in good agreement with NUVEL-1A, ITRF93 and LAGEOS results but significant deviations from geologically determined plate motion models are found for stations in plate boundary regions. Velocities of the observation stations were estimated by a weighted least squares method. The Simosato SLR station, located 100 km away from the plate boundary between the Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate, move-s in the direction of the subduction of the Philippine Sea plate with respect to the Eurasian plate, which infers strong coupling of the two plates at the boundary. The motion of other stations at plate boundary regions is also discussed. This study is the first attempt to use Ajisai SLR data to determine the global terrestrial reference frame and its variation, thus independent of the previous SLR studies most of which were based on LAGEOS SLR analyses.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1186/bf03352156",
    doi = "10.1186/bf03352156",
    openalex = "W2034850407",
    references = "harrison1990satellite"
}

@article{s25f5b3d66fbc55466bbcee96246b23a8345d6fb3c,
    author = "زكي, Oday Yaseen Mohamed Zeki عدي ياسين محمد",
    title = "Global NAVIGATION Satellite System Contribution for Observing the Tectonic Plate Movements: Status and Perspectives",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "The Journal of Engineering",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5f5b3d66fbc55466bbcee96246b23a8345d6fb3c",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "1",
    semanticscholar_id = "5f5b3d66fbc55466bbcee96246b23a8345d6fb3c"
}

In this work, the Laser Ranged Satellites Experiment (LARASE) is presented. This is a research program that aims to perform new refined tests and measurements of gravitation in the field of the Earth in the weak field and slow motion (WFSM) limit of general relativity (GR). For this objective we use the free available data relative to geodetic passive satellite lasers tracked from a network of ground stations by means of the satellite laser ranging (SLR) technique. After a brief introduction to GR and its WFSM limit, which aims to contextualize the physical background of the tests and measurements that LARASE will carry out, we focus on the current limits of validation of GR and on current constraints on the alternative theories of gravity that have been obtained with the precise SLR measurements of the two LAGEOS satellites performed so far. Afterward, we present the scientific goals of LARASE in terms of upcoming measurements and tests of relativistic physics. Finally, we introduce our activities and we give a number of new results regarding the improvements to the modelling of both gravitational and non-gravitational perturbations to the orbit of the satellites. These activities are a needed prerequisite to improve the forthcoming new measurements of gravitation. An innovation with respect to the past is the specialization of the models to the LARES satellite, especially for what concerns the modelling of its spin evolution, the neutral drag perturbation and the impact of Earth's solid tides on the satellite orbit.

@article{doi101088026493813215155012,
    author = "Lucchesi, David and Anselmo, Luciano and Bassan, M. and Pardini, Carmen and Peron, Roberto and Pucacco, Giuseppe and Visco, M.",
    title = "Testing the gravitational interaction in the field of the Earth via satellite laser ranging and the Laser Ranged Satellites Experiment (LARASE)",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Classical and Quantum Gravity",
    abstract = "In this work, the Laser Ranged Satellites Experiment (LARASE) is presented. This is a research program that aims to perform new refined tests and measurements of gravitation in the field of the Earth in the weak field and slow motion (WFSM) limit of general relativity (GR). For this objective we use the free available data relative to geodetic passive satellite lasers tracked from a network of ground stations by means of the satellite laser ranging (SLR) technique. After a brief introduction to GR and its WFSM limit, which aims to contextualize the physical background of the tests and measurements that LARASE will carry out, we focus on the current limits of validation of GR and on current constraints on the alternative theories of gravity that have been obtained with the precise SLR measurements of the two LAGEOS satellites performed so far. Afterward, we present the scientific goals of LARASE in terms of upcoming measurements and tests of relativistic physics. Finally, we introduce our activities and we give a number of new results regarding the improvements to the modelling of both gravitational and non-gravitational perturbations to the orbit of the satellites. These activities are a needed prerequisite to improve the forthcoming new measurements of gravitation. An innovation with respect to the past is the specialization of the models to the LARES satellite, especially for what concerns the modelling of its spin evolution, the neutral drag perturbation and the impact of Earth's solid tides on the satellite orbit.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/32/15/155012",
    doi = "10.1088/0264-9381/32/15/155012",
    openalex = "W1629328301",
    references = "doi1010079789401713337, doi101029jb090ib11p09301, doi101029jb090ib11p09312"
}

@incollection{schettino2015plate,
    author = "Schettino, Antonio",
    title = "Plate Motions",
    year = "2015",
    booktitle = "Quantitative Plate Tectonics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09135-8\_2",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-319-09135-8\_2",
    openalex = "W4253093844",
    pages = "29-80",
    references = "doi1010160012821x78900717, doi1010292001gc000252, doi10102992jb02280, doi10102994gl02118, doi10102996jb03223, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101111j1365246x1975tb00631x, doi101111j1365246x1990tb06579x, doi101111j1365246x200904491x, doi101144gslsp19890450115"
}

Abstract For the first time in the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) history, the ITRF2014 is generated with an enhanced modeling of nonlinear station motions, including seasonal (annual and semiannual) signals of station positions and postseismic deformation for sites that were subject to major earthquakes. Using the full observation history of the four space geodetic techniques (very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), satellite laser ranging (SLR), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), and Doppler orbitography and radiopositioning integrated by satellite (DORIS)), the corresponding international services provided reprocessed time series (weekly from SLR and DORIS, daily from GNSS, and 24 h session‐wise from VLBI) of station positions and daily Earth Orientation Parameters. ITRF2014 is demonstrated to be superior to past ITRF releases, as it precisely models the actual station trajectories leading to a more robust secular frame and site velocities. The ITRF2014 long‐term origin coincides with the Earth system center of mass as sensed by SLR observations collected on the two LAGEOS satellites over the time span between 1993.0 and 2015.0. The estimated accuracy of the ITRF2014 origin, as reflected by the level of agreement with the ITRF2008 (both origins are defined by SLR), is at the level of less than 3 mm at epoch 2010.0 and less than 0.2 mm/yr in time evolution. The ITRF2014 scale is defined by the arithmetic average of the implicit scales of SLR and VLBI solutions as obtained by the stacking of their respective time series. The resulting scale and scale rate differences between the two solutions are 1.37 (±0.10) ppb at epoch 2010.0 and 0.02 (±0.02) ppb/yr. While the postseismic deformation models were estimated using GNSS/GPS data, the resulting parametric models at earthquake colocation sites were applied to the station position time series of the three other techniques, showing a very high level of consistency which enforces more the link between techniques within the ITRF2014 frame. The users should be aware that the postseismic deformation models are part of the ITRF2014 products, unlike the annual and semiannual signals, which were estimated internally with the only purpose of enhancing the velocity field estimation of the secular frame.

@article{doi1010022016jb013098,
    author = "Altamimi, Z. and Rebischung, Paul and Métivier, Laurent and Collilieux, Xavier",
    title = "ITRF2014: A new release of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame modeling nonlinear station motions",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth",
    abstract = "Abstract For the first time in the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) history, the ITRF2014 is generated with an enhanced modeling of nonlinear station motions, including seasonal (annual and semiannual) signals of station positions and postseismic deformation for sites that were subject to major earthquakes. Using the full observation history of the four space geodetic techniques (very long baseline interferometry (VLBI), satellite laser ranging (SLR), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), and Doppler orbitography and radiopositioning integrated by satellite (DORIS)), the corresponding international services provided reprocessed time series (weekly from SLR and DORIS, daily from GNSS, and 24 h session‐wise from VLBI) of station positions and daily Earth Orientation Parameters. ITRF2014 is demonstrated to be superior to past ITRF releases, as it precisely models the actual station trajectories leading to a more robust secular frame and site velocities. The ITRF2014 long‐term origin coincides with the Earth system center of mass as sensed by SLR observations collected on the two LAGEOS satellites over the time span between 1993.0 and 2015.0. The estimated accuracy of the ITRF2014 origin, as reflected by the level of agreement with the ITRF2008 (both origins are defined by SLR), is at the level of less than 3 mm at epoch 2010.0 and less than 0.2 mm/yr in time evolution. The ITRF2014 scale is defined by the arithmetic average of the implicit scales of SLR and VLBI solutions as obtained by the stacking of their respective time series. The resulting scale and scale rate differences between the two solutions are 1.37 (±0.10) ppb at epoch 2010.0 and 0.02 (±0.02) ppb/yr. While the postseismic deformation models were estimated using GNSS/GPS data, the resulting parametric models at earthquake colocation sites were applied to the station position time series of the three other techniques, showing a very high level of consistency which enforces more the link between techniques within the ITRF2014 frame. The users should be aware that the postseismic deformation models are part of the ITRF2014 products, unlike the annual and semiannual signals, which were estimated internally with the only purpose of enhancing the velocity field estimation of the secular frame.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jb013098",
    doi = "10.1002/2016jb013098",
    openalex = "W2492450223",
    references = "doi101007s0019000803003, doi101016jpepi201204002, doi1010292001gc000252, doi1010292011jb008930, doi101029jb086ib04p02825, doi105860choice281579"
}

Abstract A new approach to recover time-variable gravity fields from satellite laser ranging (SLR) is presented. It takes up the concept of lumped coefficients by representing the temporal changes of the Earth’s gravity field by spatial patterns via combinations of spherical harmonics. These patterns are derived from the GRACE mission by decomposing the series of monthly gravity field solutions into empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs). The basic idea of the approach is then to use the leading EOFs as base functions in the gravity field modelling and to adjust the respective scaling factors straightforward within the dynamic orbit computation; only for the lowest degrees, the spherical harmonic coefficients are estimated separately. As a result, the estimated gravity fields have formally the same spatial resolution as GRACE. It is shown that, within the GRACE time frame, both the secular and the seasonal signals in the GRACE time series are reproduced with high accuracy. In the period prior to GRACE, the SLR solutions are in good agreement with other techniques and models and confirm, for instance, that the Greenland ice sheet was stable until the late 1990s. Further validation is done with the first monthly fields from GRACE Follow-On, showing a similar agreement as with GRACE itself. Significant differences to the reference data only emerge occasionally when zooming into smaller river basins with strong interannual mass variations. In such cases, the approach reaches its limits which are set by the low spectral sensitivity of the SLR satellites and the strong constraints exerted by the EOFs. The benefit achieved by the enhanced spatial resolution has to be seen, therefore, primarily in the proper capturing of the mass signal in medium or large areas rather than in the opportunity to focus on isolated spatial details.

@article{doi101007s0019002001460x,
    author = "Löcher, Anno and Kusche, Jürgen",
    title = "A hybrid approach for recovering high-resolution temporal gravity fields from satellite laser ranging",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Journal of Geodesy",
    abstract = "Abstract A new approach to recover time-variable gravity fields from satellite laser ranging (SLR) is presented. It takes up the concept of lumped coefficients by representing the temporal changes of the Earth’s gravity field by spatial patterns via combinations of spherical harmonics. These patterns are derived from the GRACE mission by decomposing the series of monthly gravity field solutions into empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs). The basic idea of the approach is then to use the leading EOFs as base functions in the gravity field modelling and to adjust the respective scaling factors straightforward within the dynamic orbit computation; only for the lowest degrees, the spherical harmonic coefficients are estimated separately. As a result, the estimated gravity fields have formally the same spatial resolution as GRACE. It is shown that, within the GRACE time frame, both the secular and the seasonal signals in the GRACE time series are reproduced with high accuracy. In the period prior to GRACE, the SLR solutions are in good agreement with other techniques and models and confirm, for instance, that the Greenland ice sheet was stable until the late 1990s. Further validation is done with the first monthly fields from GRACE Follow-On, showing a similar agreement as with GRACE itself. Significant differences to the reference data only emerge occasionally when zooming into smaller river basins with strong interannual mass variations. In such cases, the approach reaches its limits which are set by the low spectral sensitivity of the SLR satellites and the strong constraints exerted by the EOFs. The benefit achieved by the enhanced spatial resolution has to be seen, therefore, primarily in the proper capturing of the mass signal in medium or large areas rather than in the opportunity to focus on isolated spatial details.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/s00190-020-01460-x",
    doi = "10.1007/s00190-020-01460-x",
    openalex = "W3116615381",
    references = "doi101007s0019001901228y"
}

Abstract Satellite laser ranging (SLR) observations have long been relied upon for measuring changes in Earth's dynamic oblateness,. This major component of Earth's time‐variable gravity field is not well observed by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and GRACE Follow‐On (GRACE‐FO) missions, leading to the common practice of replacing their values with those obtained by SLR. The coefficient, which has a large impact on the recovered Antarctic Ice Sheet mass changes, is shown here to be poorly observed by GRACE/GRACE‐FO when either mission is operating without two fully functional accelerometers. The GRACE spacecraft pair operated nominally until October 2016 when one accelerometer was powered off due to battery limitations, while GRACE‐FO is currently excluding one accelerometer from the data processing due to elevated noise levels. Beginning with the launch of Laser Relativity Satellite in 2012, SLR‐derived values are suitable for replacing any problematic GRACE/GRACE‐FO estimates, enabling the accurate recovery of Antarctic Ice Sheet mass changes, among others.

@article{doi1010292019gl085488,
    author = "Loomis, Bryant and Rachlin, K. E. and Wiese, D. N. and Landerer, Felix W. and Luthcke, S. B.",
    title = "Replacing GRACE/GRACE‐FO C30 With Satellite Laser Ranging: Impacts on Antarctic Ice Sheet Mass Change",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Geophysical Research Letters",
    abstract = "Abstract Satellite laser ranging (SLR) observations have long been relied upon for measuring changes in Earth's dynamic oblateness,. This major component of Earth's time‐variable gravity field is not well observed by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and GRACE Follow‐On (GRACE‐FO) missions, leading to the common practice of replacing their values with those obtained by SLR. The coefficient, which has a large impact on the recovered Antarctic Ice Sheet mass changes, is shown here to be poorly observed by GRACE/GRACE‐FO when either mission is operating without two fully functional accelerometers. The GRACE spacecraft pair operated nominally until October 2016 when one accelerometer was powered off due to battery limitations, while GRACE‐FO is currently excluding one accelerometer from the data processing due to elevated noise levels. Beginning with the launch of Laser Relativity Satellite in 2012, SLR‐derived values are suitable for replacing any problematic GRACE/GRACE‐FO estimates, enabling the accurate recovery of Antarctic Ice Sheet mass changes, among others.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2019gl085488",
    doi = "10.1029/2019gl085488",
    openalex = "W3002443867",
    references = "doi101007s0019001901228y"
}

The modern global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technique is one of the most effective geoscience and remote sensing tool to observe crustal motions and quantify plate tectonics dynamics. Given multiple installed continuously operating GNSS observing stations, the multiframe transformation is implemented to connect the time-varying GNSS coordinates by the traditional stepwise method. Compared with the stepwise treatment of each pair of frames, the proposed structured total least-squares method considers the combined estimation for all frames, guaranteeing unique and consistent results for the multiframe symmetric transformation. Furthermore, we introduce the variance component (VC) as the nutshell and flexible indicator for land movement. The VCs can quantify the movement coordinatewise, regionalwise, or framewise if the VCs are estimable as we analyze. The simulated experiment shows that the multiframe symmetric transformation is statistically superior to the traditional stepwise treatment. For the application, the deformation caused by the Tohoku earthquake that happened in 2011 in northeast Japan is analyzed.

@article{doi101109tgrs20233302322,
    author = "Hu, Yu and Fang, Xing and Zeng, W. and Kutterer, H.",
    title = "Multiframe Transformation With Variance Component Estimation",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing",
    abstract = "The modern global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technique is one of the most effective geoscience and remote sensing tool to observe crustal motions and quantify plate tectonics dynamics. Given multiple installed continuously operating GNSS observing stations, the multiframe transformation is implemented to connect the time-varying GNSS coordinates by the traditional stepwise method. Compared with the stepwise treatment of each pair of frames, the proposed structured total least-squares method considers the combined estimation for all frames, guaranteeing unique and consistent results for the multiframe symmetric transformation. Furthermore, we introduce the variance component (VC) as the nutshell and flexible indicator for land movement. The VCs can quantify the movement coordinatewise, regionalwise, or framewise if the VCs are estimable as we analyze. The simulated experiment shows that the multiframe symmetric transformation is statistically superior to the traditional stepwise treatment. For the application, the deformation caused by the Tohoku earthquake that happened in 2011 in northeast Japan is analyzed.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f7384e29ac39c27998bd69826f742cd814f8805d",
    doi = "10.1109/TGRS.2023.3302322",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "1-10",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "13",
    semanticscholar_id = "f7384e29ac39c27998bd69826f742cd814f8805d",
    volume = "61"
}

The long-term monitoring of land movements represents the most successful application of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), particularly the Global Positioning System. However, the application of long term monitoring of land movements depends on the availability of homogenous and consistent daily position time series of stations over a period of time. Such time series can be produced very efficiently by using Precise Point Positioning and Double Difference techniques based on particular sophisticated GNSS processing softwares. Nonetheless, these rely on the availability of GNSS products which are precise satellite orbit and clock, and Earth orientation parameters. Unfortunately, several changes and modifications have been made periodically on the policy of producing these products which led to degradation in the consistency of these products over time. For the long term monitoring of land movements, it is essential that any such developments and changes can also be used to produce improved products that go back in time, to enable the homogeneous reprocessing of archived observation data. This paper deals with two main themes. Firstly, it demonstrates the significant and imperative role of the GNSS in geological applications by addressing major global and regional studies of the Earth’s deformation which represent one of the main and essential applications in satellite geodesy. The role of the continues GPS measurements in this application is highlighted and discussed for modeling global and regional plate motions and modeling Glacial Isostatic Adjustment. Secondly, this paper locates the most important obstacles which stand behind the inability to use the GNSS in applications of long-term monitoring of land movements.

@article{doi1031026jeng20141209,
    author = "Zeki, Oday Yaseen Mohamed",
    title = "Global NAVIGATION Satellite System Contribution for Observing the Tectonic Plate Movements: Status and Perspectives",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Journal of Engineering",
    abstract = "The long-term monitoring of land movements represents the most successful application of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), particularly the Global Positioning System. However, the application of long term monitoring of land movements depends on the availability of homogenous and consistent daily position time series of stations over a period of time. Such time series can be produced very efficiently by using Precise Point Positioning and Double Difference techniques based on particular sophisticated GNSS processing softwares. Nonetheless, these rely on the availability of GNSS products which are precise satellite orbit and clock, and Earth orientation parameters. Unfortunately, several changes and modifications have been made periodically on the policy of producing these products which led to degradation in the consistency of these products over time. For the long term monitoring of land movements, it is essential that any such developments and changes can also be used to produce improved products that go back in time, to enable the homogeneous reprocessing of archived observation data. This paper deals with two main themes. Firstly, it demonstrates the significant and imperative role of the GNSS in geological applications by addressing major global and regional studies of the Earth’s deformation which represent one of the main and essential applications in satellite geodesy. The role of the continues GPS measurements in this application is highlighted and discussed for modeling global and regional plate motions and modeling Glacial Isostatic Adjustment. Secondly, this paper locates the most important obstacles which stand behind the inability to use the GNSS in applications of long-term monitoring of land movements.",
    url = "https://joe.uobaghdad.edu.iq/index.php/main/article/download/2594/1661",
    doi = "10.31026/j.eng.2014.12.09",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "12",
    pages = "132-149",
    semanticscholar_id = "fedc330b207ed9ccf8300e599efee99598f73702",
    volume = "20"
}

@article{doi101007s11001025095827,
    author = "Xue, Shuqiang and Xiao, Zhen and Zhao, Shuang and Dong, Jie and Li, Jingsen",
    title = "Resilient-array solution combining multi-campaign GNSS-A observations at original observation level and regarding array deformation",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Marine Geophysical Research",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f10f1279f33a2c53a07b75082f55e5d66547eab8",
    doi = "10.1007/s11001-025-09582-7",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "1",
    semanticscholar_id = "f10f1279f33a2c53a07b75082f55e5d66547eab8",
    volume = "46"
}

Satellite laser ranging (SLR), a cornerstone technology in space geodesy, plays a critical role in satellite orbit determination and Earth gravity field inversion. Here, we developed a compact single-photon LiDAR system for SLR operating at 1550 nm. The system features a bistatic configuration for backscattering noise suppression, an enhanced scan-tracking technique to improve dynamic target detection probability, and an absolute ranging method utilizing chaotic pulse position modulation (CPPM) and the Hough transform. Experimental results demonstrate a static target absolute ranging of 8.56 km, and dynamic ranging capabilities of up to 953.89 km with a ranging RMSE of 0.41 m. The theoretical normal point precision at high pulse repetition frequencies is estimated to be within a few millimeters. Trajectory and full-waveform analysis further validate the system's ability to detect radial velocity (-6.53 ∼ -2.05 km/s) and attitude changes of targets. This work proves the feasibility of single-photon LiDAR for SLR applications and enables what we believe to be new solutions for satellite orbit determination, space target identification, attitude sensing and debris monitoring.

@article{doi101364oe577499,
    author = "Li, Yuxiao and Ye, Wen-Long and Li, Zheng-Ping and Long, Mingliang and Wu, Z. and Cao, Yuan and Peng, Cheng-Zhi and Xu, Feihu",
    title = "Compact single-photon LiDAR for satellite laser ranging",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Optics Express",
    abstract = "Satellite laser ranging (SLR), a cornerstone technology in space geodesy, plays a critical role in satellite orbit determination and Earth gravity field inversion. Here, we developed a compact single-photon LiDAR system for SLR operating at 1550 nm. The system features a bistatic configuration for backscattering noise suppression, an enhanced scan-tracking technique to improve dynamic target detection probability, and an absolute ranging method utilizing chaotic pulse position modulation (CPPM) and the Hough transform. Experimental results demonstrate a static target absolute ranging of 8.56 km, and dynamic ranging capabilities of up to 953.89 km with a ranging RMSE of 0.41 m. The theoretical normal point precision at high pulse repetition frequencies is estimated to be within a few millimeters. Trajectory and full-waveform analysis further validate the system's ability to detect radial velocity (-6.53 ∼ -2.05 km/s) and attitude changes of targets. This work proves the feasibility of single-photon LiDAR for SLR applications and enables what we believe to be new solutions for satellite orbit determination, space target identification, attitude sensing and debris monitoring.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.577499",
    doi = "10.1364/oe.577499",
    openalex = "W4414108400",
    references = "doi101007s0019001901228y"
}