Lateral line system

B. F. Kingsbury, The Lateral Line System of Sense Organs in Some American Amphibia, and Comparison with the Dipnoans, Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, Vol. 17, Eighteenth Annual Meeting (Jan., 1896), pp. 115-154

@article{doi1023073221399,
    author = "Kingsbury, B. F.",
    title = "The Lateral Line System of Sense Organs in Some American Amphibia, and Comparison with the Dipnoans",
    year = "1896",
    journal = "Transactions of the American Microscopical Society",
    abstract = "B. F. Kingsbury, The Lateral Line System of Sense Organs in Some American Amphibia, and Comparison with the Dipnoans, Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, Vol. 17, Eighteenth Annual Meeting (Jan., 1896), pp. 115-154",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/3221399",
    doi = "10.2307/3221399",
    openalex = "W2801135204"
}

@incollection{lowenstein1957the,
    author = "LOWENSTEIN, O.",
    title = "THE SENSE ORGANS: THE ACOUSTICO-LATERALIS SYSTEM",
    year = "1957",
    booktitle = "The Physiology of Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-4832-2763-4.50007-9",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-1-4832-2763-4.50007-9",
    openalex = "W2897688615",
    pages = "155-186",
    references = "doi101007bf00298202, doi101007bf00304447, doi101007bf00339067, doi101038126341a0, doi101098rspb19380041, doi101098rstb19350015, doi101111j1469185x1936tb00502x, doi101113jphysiol1940sp003881, doi101113jphysiol1949sp004448, doi101113jphysiol1951sp004638"
}

@article{branson1962the,
    author = "Branson, Branley A. and Moore, George A.",
    title = "The Lateralis Components of the Acoustico-Lateralis System in the Sunfish Family Centrarchidae",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "Copeia",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1439483",
    doi = "10.2307/1439483",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2316556212",
    pages = "1",
    volume = "1962"
}

The lateral-line organ of killifish is shown to be sensitive to a linear function of water displacements associated with the near-field of sound sources, with the displacement probably being the most important factor rather than velocity or acceleration. The near-field effect is discussed and is shown to be important not only for the lateral-line organs but also for the acoustical and vestibular organs. It is emphasized that the near-field effect introduces considerable complications into the study of the acoustico-lateralis system, and is of conceptual importance for the theory of hearing and the study of schooling fish.

@article{doi10112111909138,
    author = "Harris, Gerard G. and van Bergeijk, Willem A.",
    title = "Evidence that the Lateral-Line Organ Responds to Near-Field Displacements of Sound Sources in Water",
    year = "1962",
    journal = "The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America",
    abstract = "The lateral-line organ of killifish is shown to be sensitive to a linear function of water displacements associated with the near-field of sound sources, with the displacement probably being the most important factor rather than velocity or acceleration. The near-field effect is discussed and is shown to be important not only for the lateral-line organs but also for the acoustical and vestibular organs. It is emphasized that the near-field effect introduces considerable complications into the study of the acoustico-lateralis system, and is of conceptual importance for the theory of hearing and the study of schooling fish.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1909138",
    doi = "10.1121/1.1909138",
    openalex = "W2068731943"
}

Efferent spikes were recorded from the nerves supplying the papilla amphibiorum, ampullae, and lateral‐line neuromasts of the mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus). Increased efferent activity was associated with rotatory, vibratory, and tactile stimulation and gill movements. In a single experiment it was possible to record efferents from the nerve to the papilla basilaris of a leopard frog (Rana pipiens). The function of acoustico‐lateralis efferents is not restricted to or closely associated with a single habit, habitat, phylogenetic group, or acoustico lateralis receptor. It seems likely that all acoustico‐lateralis receptors in all vertebrates receive efferent input.

@article{schmidt1965amphibian,
    author = "Schmidt, Robert S.",
    title = "Amphibian acoustico‐lateralis efferents",
    year = "1965",
    journal = "Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology",
    abstract = "Efferent spikes were recorded from the nerves supplying the papilla amphibiorum, ampullae, and lateral‐line neuromasts of the mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus). Increased efferent activity was associated with rotatory, vibratory, and tactile stimulation and gill movements. In a single experiment it was possible to record efferents from the nerve to the papilla basilaris of a leopard frog (Rana pipiens). The function of acoustico‐lateralis efferents is not restricted to or closely associated with a single habit, habitat, phylogenetic group, or acoustico lateralis receptor. It seems likely that all acoustico‐lateralis receptors in all vertebrates receive efferent input.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1030650204",
    doi = "10.1002/jcp.1030650204",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2038217274",
    pages = "155-162",
    volume = "65",
    references = "doi101001archotol195900730030561005, doi101002jmor1050100103, doi101002jmor1051140103, doi101007bf00298039, doi101111j174817161962tb02414x, doi10112111918374, doi101152jn1956195424, doi101212wnl11111023, doi1023073221399, openalexw2972950712"
}

ABSTRACT Efferent impulses have been recorded from branches of lateral-line nerves. The functional significance of the efferent innervation and its action on afferent impulse activity has been examined. Neither mechanical stimulation of the lateral-line receptors nor electrical stimulation of afferent nerves excites lateral-line efferent activity. Trains of efferent impulses accompany all active movements for their duration. In immobilized animals a close correlation exists between impulses in lateral-line efferent nerve fibres and motor impulses in ‘large’ nerves innervating ‘twitch’ muscles, but not with impulses in nerves innervating ‘slow’ muscles. A close similarity also exists between impulse activity in different lateral-line efferent fibres. Whereas electrical stimulation of ascending tracts in the spinal cord fails to excite lateral-line efferent fibres, stimulation of the spinal cord in the region of descending reticular motor axons causes efferent impulses to follow each pulse after brief, constant, latencies. It is suggested that the efferent neurones may be innervated by axon collaterals from reticular cells. Electrical stimulation of efferent fibres innervating a lateral-line receptor produces transitory inhibition of impulse activity in the afferent nerve fibres. The inhibition has a long variable latency (11-30 ms) and persists for 40-60 ms. Upon cessation of inhibition, caused by a train of efferent impulses, afferent impulses reappear at an accelerated frequency (after-discharge), and quickly return to resting frequency. A role of the lateral-line efferent neurones during active movement is discussed.

@article{doi101242jeb543621,
    author = "Russell, Ian J.",
    title = "The Role of the Lateral-Line Efferent System in Xenopus Laevis",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT Efferent impulses have been recorded from branches of lateral-line nerves. The functional significance of the efferent innervation and its action on afferent impulse activity has been examined. Neither mechanical stimulation of the lateral-line receptors nor electrical stimulation of afferent nerves excites lateral-line efferent activity. Trains of efferent impulses accompany all active movements for their duration. In immobilized animals a close correlation exists between impulses in lateral-line efferent nerve fibres and motor impulses in ‘large’ nerves innervating ‘twitch’ muscles, but not with impulses in nerves innervating ‘slow’ muscles. A close similarity also exists between impulse activity in different lateral-line efferent fibres. Whereas electrical stimulation of ascending tracts in the spinal cord fails to excite lateral-line efferent fibres, stimulation of the spinal cord in the region of descending reticular motor axons causes efferent impulses to follow each pulse after brief, constant, latencies. It is suggested that the efferent neurones may be innervated by axon collaterals from reticular cells. Electrical stimulation of efferent fibres innervating a lateral-line receptor produces transitory inhibition of impulse activity in the afferent nerve fibres. The inhibition has a long variable latency (11-30 ms) and persists for 40-60 ms. Upon cessation of inhibition, caused by a train of efferent impulses, afferent impulses reappear at an accelerated frequency (after-discharge), and quickly return to resting frequency. A role of the lateral-line efferent neurones during active movement is discussed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.54.3.621",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.54.3.621",
    openalex = "W2114985760",
    references = "schmidt1965amphibian"
}

1) Chemoreception was investigated of the receptor end organ on the flank skin in several fresh water and sea water bony fish by recording the electrical responses in single fibers of the lateral-line nerve (X) and of the accessory lateral-line nerve (VII). Three species of fish, catfish (Ictalurus), mullet (Mugil) and carp (Cyprinus) were studied extensively.2) Responses of the receptor organ to monovalent cations, K+, Na+, Rb+, NH4+, Li+, and Cs+ in the solution were observed on all fishes studied. Among them K+ had the strongest effect. Inorganic anions were ineffective. In fresh water fish the sensitivity of the end organ was much superior to that of marine fish. The responses to various concentrations of Na+ were almost parallel to responses to K+, although somewhat smaller in fresh water fish, while in marine fish the sensitivity to Na+ was much inferior to that to K+. Such a fact may come from an abundance of Na+ in the environment. In those end organs divalent cations like Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++ suppressed excitatory effects of monovalent cations when the former were applied simultaneously or in sequence to the end organ. Tetrodotoxin also produced a similar effect. Such suppressive effects were reversible. After rinsing the end organ with fresh water or sea water thoroughly, those effects subsided completely.3) In euryhaline fish when they move from sea water to fresh water or vice versa, the sensitivity to K+ and Na+ changes within a certain period of time from the type of marine fish to that of fresh water fish or in the opposite direction. In a mullet the complete change of sensitivity of the end organ occurred in 7 days.4) In the case of catfish there were observed a variety of responses to chemical stimuli, not only to monovalent cations but also to divalent ones and several others as well. Some fibers were very sensitive to NH4+, or specifically to quinine or glutamate. None of them responded to sugar.5) Histological studies have disclosed that(a) the catfish has various types of end organs innervated by the lateral line nerve and the accessory lateral-line nerve on the flank skin; canal neuromasts, large and small pit organs and many terminal buds.(b) The mullet has 12 or 13 rows of the lateral-line organs on the flank skin. The scale along each lateral-line has a groove at its central part and a single neuromast is located in it. Through a small hole a few lateral-line nerve fibers reach to the end organ. Each groove is discrete and independent so that there is no lateral-line canal. From such structure of the lateral-line system the end organs in grooves are thought to be free neuromasts.(c) On the flank skin of the carp there are free neuromasts and terminal buds as well as canal neuromasts. The terminal buds, however, are not as numerous as in the catfish.

@article{doi102170jjphysiol2199,
    author = "Katsuki, Yasuji and Hashimoto, Toru and Kendall, James I.",
    title = "THE CHEMORECEPTION IN THE LATERAL-LINE ORGANS OF TELEOSTS",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "The Japanese Journal of Physiology",
    abstract = "1) Chemoreception was investigated of the receptor end organ on the flank skin in several fresh water and sea water bony fish by recording the electrical responses in single fibers of the lateral-line nerve (X) and of the accessory lateral-line nerve (VII). Three species of fish, catfish (Ictalurus), mullet (Mugil) and carp (Cyprinus) were studied extensively.2) Responses of the receptor organ to monovalent cations, K+, Na+, Rb+, NH4+, Li+, and Cs+ in the solution were observed on all fishes studied. Among them K+ had the strongest effect. Inorganic anions were ineffective. In fresh water fish the sensitivity of the end organ was much superior to that of marine fish. The responses to various concentrations of Na+ were almost parallel to responses to K+, although somewhat smaller in fresh water fish, while in marine fish the sensitivity to Na+ was much inferior to that to K+. Such a fact may come from an abundance of Na+ in the environment. In those end organs divalent cations like Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++ suppressed excitatory effects of monovalent cations when the former were applied simultaneously or in sequence to the end organ. Tetrodotoxin also produced a similar effect. Such suppressive effects were reversible. After rinsing the end organ with fresh water or sea water thoroughly, those effects subsided completely.3) In euryhaline fish when they move from sea water to fresh water or vice versa, the sensitivity to K+ and Na+ changes within a certain period of time from the type of marine fish to that of fresh water fish or in the opposite direction. In a mullet the complete change of sensitivity of the end organ occurred in 7 days.4) In the case of catfish there were observed a variety of responses to chemical stimuli, not only to monovalent cations but also to divalent ones and several others as well. Some fibers were very sensitive to NH4+, or specifically to quinine or glutamate. None of them responded to sugar.5) Histological studies have disclosed that(a) the catfish has various types of end organs innervated by the lateral line nerve and the accessory lateral-line nerve on the flank skin; canal neuromasts, large and small pit organs and many terminal buds.(b) The mullet has 12 or 13 rows of the lateral-line organs on the flank skin. The scale along each lateral-line has a groove at its central part and a single neuromast is located in it. Through a small hole a few lateral-line nerve fibers reach to the end organ. Each groove is discrete and independent so that there is no lateral-line canal. From such structure of the lateral-line system the end organs in grooves are thought to be free neuromasts.(c) On the flank skin of the carp there are free neuromasts and terminal buds as well as canal neuromasts. The terminal buds, however, are not as numerous as in the catfish.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2170/jjphysiol.21.99",
    doi = "10.2170/jjphysiol.21.99",
    openalex = "W2063579497"
}

ABSTRACT The activity of efferent neurones innervating lateral-line organs on the body of dogfish was followed by recording from filaments of cranial nerve X in 41 decerebrate preparations. The efferent nerves were not spontaneously active. Tactile stimulation to the head and body, vestibular stimulation and noxious chemical stimulation were followed by activity of the efferent nerves. In contrast, natural stimulation of lateral-line organs (water jets) did not reflexly evoke discharges from the efferent fibres. Reflex efferent responses were still obtained to mechanical stimulation even after the lateral-line organs had been denervated. Electrical stimulation of cranial nerves innervating lateral-lines organs was followed by reflex activity of the efferent fibres. But similar stimuli applied to other cranial nerves were equally effective in exciting the efferent system. Vigorous movements of the fish, involving the white musculature, were preceded and accompanied by activity of the efferent fibres which persisted as long as the white muscle fibres were contracting. Rhythmical swimming movements were accompanied by a few impulses in the efferent fibres grouped in bursts at the same frequency as the swimming movements. It is concluded that the efferent neurones cannot contribute to a feedback regulatory system because they are not excited by natural stimulation of the lateral-line sense organs. The close correlation found between efferent activity and body movement suggests that the efferent system might operate in a protective manner to prevent the sense organs from being over-stimulated when the fish makes vigorous movements.

@article{doi101242jeb572435,
    author = "Roberts, B. L. and Russell, Ian J.",
    title = "The Activity of Lateral-Line Efferent Neurones in Stationary and Swimming Dogfish",
    year = "1972",
    journal = "Journal of Experimental Biology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The activity of efferent neurones innervating lateral-line organs on the body of dogfish was followed by recording from filaments of cranial nerve X in 41 decerebrate preparations. The efferent nerves were not spontaneously active. Tactile stimulation to the head and body, vestibular stimulation and noxious chemical stimulation were followed by activity of the efferent nerves. In contrast, natural stimulation of lateral-line organs (water jets) did not reflexly evoke discharges from the efferent fibres. Reflex efferent responses were still obtained to mechanical stimulation even after the lateral-line organs had been denervated. Electrical stimulation of cranial nerves innervating lateral-lines organs was followed by reflex activity of the efferent fibres. But similar stimuli applied to other cranial nerves were equally effective in exciting the efferent system. Vigorous movements of the fish, involving the white musculature, were preceded and accompanied by activity of the efferent fibres which persisted as long as the white muscle fibres were contracting. Rhythmical swimming movements were accompanied by a few impulses in the efferent fibres grouped in bursts at the same frequency as the swimming movements. It is concluded that the efferent neurones cannot contribute to a feedback regulatory system because they are not excited by natural stimulation of the lateral-line sense organs. The close correlation found between efferent activity and body movement suggests that the efferent system might operate in a protective manner to prevent the sense organs from being over-stimulated when the fish makes vigorous movements.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.57.2.435",
    doi = "10.1242/jeb.57.2.435",
    openalex = "W2097211153",
    references = "schmidt1965amphibian"
}

@incollection{katsuki1973the,
    author = "Katsuki, Yasuji",
    title = "THE IONIC RECEPTIVE MECHANISM IN THE ACOUSTICO-LATERALIS SYSTEM",
    year = "1973",
    booktitle = "Basic Mechanisms in Hearing",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-504250-5.50016-3",
    doi = "10.1016/b978-0-12-504250-5.50016-3",
    openalex = "W2494848528",
    pages = "307-334",
    references = "doi101007978364265245514, doi101016b9781483198491500396, doi101038194292b0, doi101111j174817161949tb00610x, doi101152jn1958216569, doi101242jeb372417, doi101242jeb391119, doi102170jjphysiol2199, doi1023071440883, openalexw638788139"
}

INTRODUCTION The herring Clupea harengus L. and sprat Sprattus sprattus (L.) are physostomatous teleosts with narrow ducts connecting the swimbladder to both the gut and cloaca. With other clupeoids these two species were of great interest to the anatomists of previous generations because of the further tubular connexions between the swimbladder and air-filled otic bullae close to the labyrinth of the inner ear. Together with the Ostariophysi, which have a chain of Weberian ossicles between the swimbladder and the inner ear, the clupeoids were thought to have enhanced hearing compared with many other teleosts as a result of coupling the ear to the swimbladder. Despite such interest in the system the earlier literature is very fragmented, with the descriptions ranging over at least a dozen clupeoid species, and much of the work was done on fairly advanced juvenile or on adult fish. Ridewood (1891) examined the swimbladder-inner ear relationship in adult herring, pilchard Clupea pilchardus, sprat, shad C. alosa, twaite C. finta and anchovy Engraulis encrasicholus; Tracy (1920) made a similar study of the American Atlantic clupeoids – the shad Alosa sapidissima, alewife Pomolobus pseudoharengus, summer herring P. aestivalis, fall herring P. mediocris and menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus and O'Connell (1955) of the Pacific sardine Sardinops caerulea and anchovy Engraulis mordax. Wohlfahrt (1936) considered the total swimbladder-inner ear-lateral line relationship in 100–120 mm pilchards, recognizing the much less obvious connexion between the perilymph and the lateral line through a membrane in the skull. The presence of such a connexion had been suggested earlier by Tracy (1920).

@article{doi101017s0025315400018993,
    author = "Allen, Jennifer M. and Blaxter, J. H. S. and Denton, E. J.",
    title = "The Functional Anatomy and Development of the Swimbladder-Inner Ear-Lateral Line System in Herring and Sprat",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "INTRODUCTION The herring Clupea harengus L. and sprat Sprattus sprattus (L.) are physostomatous teleosts with narrow ducts connecting the swimbladder to both the gut and cloaca. With other clupeoids these two species were of great interest to the anatomists of previous generations because of the further tubular connexions between the swimbladder and air-filled otic bullae close to the labyrinth of the inner ear. Together with the Ostariophysi, which have a chain of Weberian ossicles between the swimbladder and the inner ear, the clupeoids were thought to have enhanced hearing compared with many other teleosts as a result of coupling the ear to the swimbladder. Despite such interest in the system the earlier literature is very fragmented, with the descriptions ranging over at least a dozen clupeoid species, and much of the work was done on fairly advanced juvenile or on adult fish. Ridewood (1891) examined the swimbladder-inner ear relationship in adult herring, pilchard Clupea pilchardus, sprat, shad C. alosa, twaite C. finta and anchovy Engraulis encrasicholus; Tracy (1920) made a similar study of the American Atlantic clupeoids – the shad Alosa sapidissima, alewife Pomolobus pseudoharengus, summer herring P. aestivalis, fall herring P. mediocris and menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus and O'Connell (1955) of the Pacific sardine Sardinops caerulea and anchovy Engraulis mordax. Wohlfahrt (1936) considered the total swimbladder-inner ear-lateral line relationship in 100–120 mm pilchards, recognizing the much less obvious connexion between the perilymph and the lateral line through a membrane in the skull. The presence of such a connexion had been suggested earlier by Tracy (1920).",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400018993",
    doi = "10.1017/s0025315400018993",
    openalex = "W2109209764",
    references = "doi1010160010406x67906159, doi1010160077757973900306, doi101017s0025315400021676, doi101017s0025315400032392, doi101093aibsbulletin4313g, doi101111j1469185x1963tb00654x, doi101136bmj25461583a, doi101139f62043, doi105962bhltitle5868, openalexw1532322054"
}

INTRODUCTION The preceding paper (Allen, Blaxter & Denton, 1976) describes the development of the swimbladder-inner ear-lateral line system of the herring. In the larval stage of herring the pro-otic bullae start to develop at a body length of about 18 mm. Between 18 and 30 mm the bullae become filled with gas. At 26 mm the lateral recess membrane starts to develop, becoming silvered at about 42 mm. The lateral line develops between 19 and 45 mm. The swimbladder silvers and contains gas from about 38 mm. The adult system is complete at 50–60 mm body length, some four months after hatching. This paper concerns the system in its intermediate stages of development. It examines the problems of how the bullae are filled with gas and how the gas spaces are maintained. It gives evidence on the possible roles of the gas-filled spaces as hydrostatic pressure receptors and as aids to buoyancy and discusses the limitations of the system before it can gain or lose gas to a gas-filled swimbladder.

@article{doi101017s0025315400019007,
    author = "Blaxter, J. H. S. and Denton, E. J.",
    title = "Function of Theswimbladder-Inner Ear-Lateral Line System of Herring in the Young Stages",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "INTRODUCTION The preceding paper (Allen, Blaxter \& Denton, 1976) describes the development of the swimbladder-inner ear-lateral line system of the herring. In the larval stage of herring the pro-otic bullae start to develop at a body length of about 18 mm. Between 18 and 30 mm the bullae become filled with gas. At 26 mm the lateral recess membrane starts to develop, becoming silvered at about 42 mm. The lateral line develops between 19 and 45 mm. The swimbladder silvers and contains gas from about 38 mm. The adult system is complete at 50–60 mm body length, some four months after hatching. This paper concerns the system in its intermediate stages of development. It examines the problems of how the bullae are filled with gas and how the gas spaces are maintained. It gives evidence on the possible roles of the gas-filled spaces as hydrostatic pressure receptors and as aids to buoyancy and discusses the limitations of the system before it can gain or lose gas to a gas-filled swimbladder.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400019007",
    doi = "10.1017/s0025315400019007",
    openalex = "W2034860536"
}

INTRODUCTION In earlier papers (Allen, Blaxter & Denton, 1976; Blaxter & Denton, 1976) an account was given of the development and structure of the swimbladder-bulla-lateral line system of the herring Clupea harengus L. and sprat Clupea sprattus (L.) and its function in the larval stage. In this paper we describe experiments on juveniles of these species in which the system is fully developed.

@article{doi101017s0025315400020804,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Blaxter, J. H. S.",
    title = "The mechanical relationships between the clupeid swimbladder, inner ear and lateral line",
    year = "1976",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "INTRODUCTION In earlier papers (Allen, Blaxter \& Denton, 1976; Blaxter \& Denton, 1976) an account was given of the development and structure of the swimbladder-bulla-lateral line system of the herring Clupea harengus L. and sprat Clupea sprattus (L.) and its function in the larval stage. In this paper we describe experiments on juveniles of these species in which the system is fully developed.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400020804",
    doi = "10.1017/s0025315400020804",
    openalex = "W2156034740",
    references = "doi101007bf00341099, doi101016s0065288108602618, doi101017s0025315400018993, doi10106313051072, doi101093icesjms30140, doi101109proc19632249, doi101136bmj25461583a, doi101152jappl1962173547, openalexw1532322054, openalexw2192894559"
}

@misc{boord1977structural1,
    author = "Boord, R. L. and Campbell, C. B. G",
    title = "Structural and functional organization of the lateral line system of sharks",
    year = "1977",
    howpublished = "American Zoologist, v. 17, p. 431-441",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Boord, R. L., and Campbell, C. B. G., 1977, Structural and functional organization of the lateral line system of sharks: American Zoologist, v. 17, p. 431-441.}"
}

The mechanical responses of several structures in the auditory and lateral-line systems of the sprat Sprattus sprattus (L.) and the herring Clupea harengus L. to oscillatory pressure changes have been observed over a range of frequencies from 0·014 t0 2600 Hz. The pressures required to give constant responses of the bulla membrane, and the lateral recess membrane varied relatively little between 0·014 and 1000 Hz; above 1000 Hz the sensitivity fell quickly as frequency increased.

@article{denton1979the,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Gray, J. A. B. and Blaxter, J. H. S.",
    title = "The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico-lateralis system: frequency responses",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "The mechanical responses of several structures in the auditory and lateral-line systems of the sprat Sprattus sprattus (L.) and the herring Clupea harengus L. to oscillatory pressure changes have been observed over a range of frequencies from 0·014 t0 2600 Hz. The pressures required to give constant responses of the bulla membrane, and the lateral recess membrane varied relatively little between 0·014 and 1000 Hz; above 1000 Hz the sensitivity fell quickly as frequency increased.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400046154",
    doi = "10.1017/s0025315400046154",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2161422401",
    pages = "27-47",
    volume = "59",
    references = "doi1010160010406x67906159, doi101017s0025315400018993, doi101017s0025315400020804, doi101017s0025315400046130, doi10106313051072, doi10111911969118, doi10112111909138, doi1023071538923, doi1023072530028, openalexw607014010"
}

@article{denton1979the2,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Nicol, J. A. C. and Gilpin-Brown, J. B. and Wright, P. G. and Gray, J. A. B. and Blaxter, J. H. S",
    title = "The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico- lateralis system",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "frequency responses: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 27-47",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Denton, E. J., Nicol, J. A. C., Gilpin-Brown, J. B., Wright, P. G., Gray, J. A. B., and Blaxter, J. H. S., 1979, The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico- lateralis system : frequency responses: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, v. 59, p. 27-47.}"
}

The posterior lateral line lobe of the wave species of gymnotoid fish was investigated with the Golgi technique. The posterior lobe has a laminar structure and contains II cell types differentially distributed in the varous laminae (fig. 13). The major laminae, from ventral to dorsal are the deep fiber layer, containing multipolar neurons; the deep neuropil layer, containing ovoid neurons and a sub-lamina of spherical cells; the granule cell lamina, containing two types of granule cell; the plexiform laminae; the polymorphic cell lamina, containing basilar pyramids, non-basilar pyramids, giant fusiform cells, and polymorphic cells; the stratum fibrosum; the molecular lamina, containing neurons of the ventral molecule layer and stellate cells. The spherical cells are regularly distributed in their sub-lamina and appear to receive one type of primary afferent input. Another type of primary afferent input ends in the deep neuropil and granule layers, in proximity to the basilar dendrites of the granule cells and the basilar pyramids. The basilar pyramidal cell spatially alternates with the non-basilar pyramidal cell, so that the basilar dendritic trees of nearest-neighbour basilar pyramids show almost no overlap. Descending input to the posterior lobe ends in the molecular layer, in proximity to apical dendrites of both pyramidal cells, giant fusiform cells, polymorphic cells, and one type of granule cell. There are three afferent fiber systems in the molecular layer, one running transversely, one longitudinally, and one vertically. Local circuity in the posterior lobe is precisely organized and involves projections of granule cells onto overlying pyramidal cells. The polymorphic cell may also be involved in the intrinsic circuits of the posterior lobe.

@article{doi101002cne901830208,
    author = "Maler, Leonard",
    title = "The posterior lateral line lobe of certain gymnotoid fish: Quantitative light microscopy",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "The Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    abstract = "The posterior lateral line lobe of the wave species of gymnotoid fish was investigated with the Golgi technique. The posterior lobe has a laminar structure and contains II cell types differentially distributed in the varous laminae (fig. 13). The major laminae, from ventral to dorsal are the deep fiber layer, containing multipolar neurons; the deep neuropil layer, containing ovoid neurons and a sub-lamina of spherical cells; the granule cell lamina, containing two types of granule cell; the plexiform laminae; the polymorphic cell lamina, containing basilar pyramids, non-basilar pyramids, giant fusiform cells, and polymorphic cells; the stratum fibrosum; the molecular lamina, containing neurons of the ventral molecule layer and stellate cells. The spherical cells are regularly distributed in their sub-lamina and appear to receive one type of primary afferent input. Another type of primary afferent input ends in the deep neuropil and granule layers, in proximity to the basilar dendrites of the granule cells and the basilar pyramids. The basilar pyramidal cell spatially alternates with the non-basilar pyramidal cell, so that the basilar dendritic trees of nearest-neighbour basilar pyramids show almost no overlap. Descending input to the posterior lobe ends in the molecular layer, in proximity to apical dendrites of both pyramidal cells, giant fusiform cells, polymorphic cells, and one type of granule cell. There are three afferent fiber systems in the molecular layer, one running transversely, one longitudinally, and one vertically. Local circuity in the posterior lobe is precisely organized and involves projections of granule cells onto overlying pyramidal cells. The polymorphic cell may also be involved in the intrinsic circuits of the posterior lobe.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.901830208",
    doi = "10.1002/cne.901830208",
    openalex = "W2066507418"
}

The information received by a fish about a vibrating source will depend on the patterns of excitation of various groups of receptors. Sprats, herrings and other clupeoids have bullae containing gas which are closely related to the sense organs of the utriculi, sacculi and the lateral lines. Structures of particular relevance to the functioning of this system are described and an account of their mechanical responses to low frequency pressure stimuli is given.

@article{gray1979the,
    author = "Gray, J. A. B. and Denton, E. J.",
    title = "The mechanics of the clupeid acoustico-lateralis system: low frequency measurements",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "The information received by a fish about a vibrating source will depend on the patterns of excitation of various groups of receptors. Sprats, herrings and other clupeoids have bullae containing gas which are closely related to the sense organs of the utriculi, sacculi and the lateral lines. Structures of particular relevance to the functioning of this system are described and an account of their mechanical responses to low frequency pressure stimuli is given.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315400046142",
    doi = "10.1017/s0025315400046142",
    number = "1",
    openalex = "W2801685219",
    pages = "11-26",
    volume = "59",
    references = "denton1979the, doi1010160003347278900817, doi1010160010406x67906159, doi101017s0025315400018993, doi101017s0025315400019007, doi101017s0025315400020804, doi101017s0025315400046130, doi101098rspb19320055, doi10112111909138, doi107326000348197012491"
}

The octavolateralis area of actinopterygian fishes can be subdivided into a dorsal lateralis area composed of first-order lateral line nuclei, and a ventral octavus area composed of nuclei receiving first-order input from the eighth nerve. Three patterns of organization of the lateralis area are recognized in the present study. The organization of this area in polypteriforms and chondrosteans is similar to that in chondrichthyans. On the basis of recent studies in chondrichthyans (McCready and Boord, '76; Boord and Campbell, '77; Bodznick and Northcutt, '80), it is hypothesized that this pattern reflects the subdivision of the lateral line system into mechanoreceptive and electroreceptive portions. As petromyzontid agnathans also share this pattern of organization, it is hypothesized that they are elecroreceptive. The lateralis area of holosteans and nonelectroreceptive teleosts exhibits a second organizational pattern that is hypothesized to reflect the loss of the electroreceptive portion of the lateral line system; it is suggested that electroreception was lost sometime between the chondrostean and teleostean radiations. Each group of electroreceptive teleosts is believed to have evolved electroreception independently (Bullock, '74), a situation that is reflected centrally by a third organizational pattern within the lateralis area, which is distinctly different from that of early radiations of electroreceptive fishes. The octavus area of actinopterygians exhibits two patterns of organization-that of polypteriforms, chondrosteans, and holosteans, and that of teleosts. The functional significance of these patterns has yet to be elucidated.

@article{doi101002jmor1051710205,
    author = "McCormick, Catherine A.",
    title = "The organization of the octavolateralis area in actinopterygian fishes: A new interpretation",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = "The octavolateralis area of actinopterygian fishes can be subdivided into a dorsal lateralis area composed of first-order lateral line nuclei, and a ventral octavus area composed of nuclei receiving first-order input from the eighth nerve. Three patterns of organization of the lateralis area are recognized in the present study. The organization of this area in polypteriforms and chondrosteans is similar to that in chondrichthyans. On the basis of recent studies in chondrichthyans (McCready and Boord, '76; Boord and Campbell, '77; Bodznick and Northcutt, '80), it is hypothesized that this pattern reflects the subdivision of the lateral line system into mechanoreceptive and electroreceptive portions. As petromyzontid agnathans also share this pattern of organization, it is hypothesized that they are elecroreceptive. The lateralis area of holosteans and nonelectroreceptive teleosts exhibits a second organizational pattern that is hypothesized to reflect the loss of the electroreceptive portion of the lateral line system; it is suggested that electroreception was lost sometime between the chondrostean and teleostean radiations. Each group of electroreceptive teleosts is believed to have evolved electroreception independently (Bullock, '74), a situation that is reflected centrally by a third organizational pattern within the lateralis area, which is distinctly different from that of early radiations of electroreceptive fishes. The octavus area of actinopterygians exhibits two patterns of organization-that of polypteriforms, chondrosteans, and holosteans, and that of teleosts. The functional significance of these patterns has yet to be elucidated.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1051710205",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.1051710205",
    openalex = "W2077704583",
    references = "denton1979the, doi101002cne901830208, doi101007bf00657647, doi101016b9781483167497500076, doi101017s0025315400020804, doi101080713818733, doi101111j1469185x1963tb00654x, doi101126science982056, doi101242jeb352451, doi1023071441916, doi1023072412482, doi1023072412893"
}

Abstract The excitation of lateral line sense organs (neuromasts) might be expected to depend on differences of movement between the liquid inside the main lateral line canals (the ones that contain the neuromasts) and the walls of these canals. We have investigated this net movement in relation to events in the water around fish. Liquid displacements inside a given part of a main lateral line canal of the sprat (Sprattus sprattus (L.)) are, at any one frequency, linearly related to those in the medium (sea water) adjacent to this part. For the parts of the canal system studied, and below about 80 Hz, the ratio of displacement inside the canal to that in the medium falls with frequency, i. e. the displacement inside the canal follows the velocity in the medium. Sea water displacements in a given length of a main lateral line canal system are proportional to the component of the external velocity that is parallel to the canal. For this component the ratio of displacements inside and outside the lateral line approaches unity at around 80 Hz. The behaviour of a lateral line canal is close to that of a straight capillary tube of roughly the same cross sectional area. Displacements in the canal are advanced in phase relative to those in the external medium and these phase advances are a little larger than those found in capillaries. There is very little mechanical coupling between neighbouring parts of the main canals. Since the cupulae of the neuromasts of the sprat lateral line are driven by frictional forces, the stimulus to a neuromast will (below 80 Hz) be proportional to the acceleration of the medium adjacent to the lateral line. Sprats and fish of three other species (Clupea harengus L., Hyperoplus lanceolatus (Lesauvage), and Trachurus trachurus (L.) have been shown, when suspended in sound fields emitted by pulsating and vibrating sources, to behave longitudinally as rigid bodies. Under many conditions it proved possible to calculate the longitudinal movements of fish from the differences of pressure between snout and tail. From these two kinds of result we have calculated for a variety of positions in fields around vibrating bodies the motion of a fish and the motion of the liquid in the canals and so estimated the effective stimulus to different parts of the lateral line system. When such calculations were made for a vibrating source of the dimensions of a sprat tail, and for distances comparable to the inter-fish distance within a school, we found that the patterns of net velocities at different neuromasts change dramatically with the position or angle of the fish relative to the source. We estimate that the sprat lateral line system excited in this way could detect a neighbouring fish in a school at distances of up to a few fish lengths. The sprat lateral line sensory system is well suited to giving sensory information in such activities as schooling.

@article{doi101098rspb19830023,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Gray, John Edward",
    title = "Mechanical factors in the excitation of clupeid lateral lines",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences",
    abstract = "Abstract The excitation of lateral line sense organs (neuromasts) might be expected to depend on differences of movement between the liquid inside the main lateral line canals (the ones that contain the neuromasts) and the walls of these canals. We have investigated this net movement in relation to events in the water around fish. Liquid displacements inside a given part of a main lateral line canal of the sprat (Sprattus sprattus (L.)) are, at any one frequency, linearly related to those in the medium (sea water) adjacent to this part. For the parts of the canal system studied, and below about 80 Hz, the ratio of displacement inside the canal to that in the medium falls with frequency, i. e. the displacement inside the canal follows the velocity in the medium. Sea water displacements in a given length of a main lateral line canal system are proportional to the component of the external velocity that is parallel to the canal. For this component the ratio of displacements inside and outside the lateral line approaches unity at around 80 Hz. The behaviour of a lateral line canal is close to that of a straight capillary tube of roughly the same cross sectional area. Displacements in the canal are advanced in phase relative to those in the external medium and these phase advances are a little larger than those found in capillaries. There is very little mechanical coupling between neighbouring parts of the main canals. Since the cupulae of the neuromasts of the sprat lateral line are driven by frictional forces, the stimulus to a neuromast will (below 80 Hz) be proportional to the acceleration of the medium adjacent to the lateral line. Sprats and fish of three other species (Clupea harengus L., Hyperoplus lanceolatus (Lesauvage), and Trachurus trachurus (L.) have been shown, when suspended in sound fields emitted by pulsating and vibrating sources, to behave longitudinally as rigid bodies. Under many conditions it proved possible to calculate the longitudinal movements of fish from the differences of pressure between snout and tail. From these two kinds of result we have calculated for a variety of positions in fields around vibrating bodies the motion of a fish and the motion of the liquid in the canals and so estimated the effective stimulus to different parts of the lateral line system. When such calculations were made for a vibrating source of the dimensions of a sprat tail, and for distances comparable to the inter-fish distance within a school, we found that the patterns of net velocities at different neuromasts change dramatically with the position or angle of the fish relative to the source. We estimate that the sprat lateral line system excited in this way could detect a neighbouring fish in a school at distances of up to a few fish lengths. The sprat lateral line sensory system is well suited to giving sensory information in such activities as schooling.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1983.0023",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1983.0023",
    openalex = "W2058161733",
    references = "denton1979the, doi10100797814615718651, doi1010079783642858291, doi1010160010406x67906159, doi101017s0025315400023006, doi1010381841807a0, doi101111j1469185x1963tb00654x, doi10112111909138, doi101136bjo592111c, doi101242jeb592425, gray1979the, openalexw2152759373"
}

@incollection{doi101007978146123714322,
    author = "Coombs, Sheryl and Janssen, John and Webb, Jacqueline F.",
    title = "Diversity of Lateral Line Systems: Evolutionary and Functional Considerations",
    year = "1988",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3714-3\_22",
    doi = "10.1007/978-1-4612-3714-3\_22",
    openalex = "W59855997",
    references = "branson1962the, denton1979the, doi101002cne910110302, doi1010079783642710605, doi101017s0025315400020804, doi101093bioscience1610752a, doi101093icb241107, doi101111j1469185x1963tb00654x, doi1023072412482, doi1023072413058, doi1023072423056, doi105962bhlpart28698, openalexw1491336618, openalexw2623942328"
}

@incollection{chardon1991acousticolateralis,
    author = "Chardon, M. and Vandewalle, P.",
    title = "Acoustico-lateralis system",
    year = "1991",
    booktitle = "Cyprinid Fishes",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3092-9\_11",
    doi = "10.1007/978-94-011-3092-9\_11",
    openalex = "W1930615245",
    pages = "332-352",
    references = "doi1010079781461571865, doi10100797814615718651, doi1010079789401115780, doi101111j109636421981tb01575x, doi101111j1469185x1963tb00654x, doi101111j1469185x1966tb01542x, doi101136bjo592111c, doi101152jn19673061377, openalexw2954279587, openalexw3147525738"
}

1. The receptor organs of the acoustico-lateralis system in fish respond in various ways to pressures and pressure gradients and provide the fish with information about external sources of vibration. 2. A fish’s movements will set up pressures and pressure gradients and this poses three questions, (i) Can a fish obtain useful information from self-generated pressures and pressure gradients? (ii) To what extent do self-generated pressures mask signals from external sources? (iii) Can interactions between external and self-generated pressures and gradients in the acoustico-lateralis system give patterns of activity from the receptor organs which have special significance? 3. In herring (Clupea harengus L.) and sprat (Spratus sprattus(L.)) measurements have been made of dimensions of various parts of the acoustico-lateralis system particularly of the subcerebral perilymph canal which crosses the head between the lateral lines. 4. Self-generated pressures produced by lateral movements of the head are antisymmetric, i.e. equal and opposite in sign on the left and right sides of the head. They oppose the accelerations of the head that produce them. In contrast, external sources give pressures that are largely symmetric. Any pressure gradients they give will accelerate the fish and the surrounding water together and any net pressure gradients will be small and so will any flows through the subcerebral perilymph canal. 5. Flows of liquid between the lateral lines across the lateral-recess membranes have been measured at various frequencies for pressure gradients applied across the head. Between 5 and 200 Hz the velocity of flow per unit pressure does not vary by more than than a factor of 2. At low frequencies the absolute values of flow are very much larger (more than 50 times) than those found for equally large symmetrically applied pressures (as from an external source) due to flow into the elastic gas containing bullae. 6. It is calculated that a net pressure difference (at optimum frequency) across the head of only 0.008 Pa will reach threshold for the lateral line neuromast nearest the lateral recess and one of 0.02 Pa for that under the eye. The responses of these neuromasts are expected to saturate and provide little information when the pressure differences across the head exceed 6 to 18 Pa. The pressures given by the swimming fish are discussed in the light of a theory advanced by Lighthill in the paper that follows this paper. With such antisymmetric pressures the direction of flow in the lateral-line canals will be towards the lateral recess on one side of the fish and away on the other and so differ from the situation found with an external source when flow at any instant will be either towards or away from the lateral recess on both sides of the head. 7. Antisymmetric pressures can produce large flows past the utricular maculae. However, at low frequencies flows across the maculae, on which their stimulation depends, will be small. We do not know the direction of these latter flows though they will be in opposite sense on the two sides of the head, again unlike the situation with an external source. 8. Calculations of impedances below 30 Hz show that the observed flows across the head are consistent with the dimensions and properties of the known structures. 9. There are major and systematic differences in the patterns of receptor organ stimulation between those expected from external sources and from a fish’s own movements. 10. Experiments on the red mullet (Mullus surmuletus L.) showed that it too has a transverse channel connecting the right and left lateral-line systems. At low frequencies its properties resemble those of the subcerebral perilymph canal of the clupeid.

@article{denton1993stimulation,
    author = "Denton, E. J. and Gray, J. A. B.",
    title = "Stimulation of the acoustico-lateralis system of clupeid fish by external sources and their own movements",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "1. The receptor organs of the acoustico-lateralis system in fish respond in various ways to pressures and pressure gradients and provide the fish with information about external sources of vibration. 2. A fish’s movements will set up pressures and pressure gradients and this poses three questions, (i) Can a fish obtain useful information from self-generated pressures and pressure gradients? (ii) To what extent do self-generated pressures mask signals from external sources? (iii) Can interactions between external and self-generated pressures and gradients in the acoustico-lateralis system give patterns of activity from the receptor organs which have special significance? 3. In herring (Clupea harengus L.) and sprat (Spratus sprattus(L.)) measurements have been made of dimensions of various parts of the acoustico-lateralis system particularly of the subcerebral perilymph canal which crosses the head between the lateral lines. 4. Self-generated pressures produced by lateral movements of the head are antisymmetric, i.e. equal and opposite in sign on the left and right sides of the head. They oppose the accelerations of the head that produce them. In contrast, external sources give pressures that are largely symmetric. Any pressure gradients they give will accelerate the fish and the surrounding water together and any net pressure gradients will be small and so will any flows through the subcerebral perilymph canal. 5. Flows of liquid between the lateral lines across the lateral-recess membranes have been measured at various frequencies for pressure gradients applied across the head. Between 5 and 200 Hz the velocity of flow per unit pressure does not vary by more than than a factor of 2. At low frequencies the absolute values of flow are very much larger (more than 50 times) than those found for equally large symmetrically applied pressures (as from an external source) due to flow into the elastic gas containing bullae. 6. It is calculated that a net pressure difference (at optimum frequency) across the head of only 0.008 Pa will reach threshold for the lateral line neuromast nearest the lateral recess and one of 0.02 Pa for that under the eye. The responses of these neuromasts are expected to saturate and provide little information when the pressure differences across the head exceed 6 to 18 Pa. The pressures given by the swimming fish are discussed in the light of a theory advanced by Lighthill in the paper that follows this paper. With such antisymmetric pressures the direction of flow in the lateral-line canals will be towards the lateral recess on one side of the fish and away on the other and so differ from the situation found with an external source when flow at any instant will be either towards or away from the lateral recess on both sides of the head. 7. Antisymmetric pressures can produce large flows past the utricular maculae. However, at low frequencies flows across the maculae, on which their stimulation depends, will be small. We do not know the direction of these latter flows though they will be in opposite sense on the two sides of the head, again unlike the situation with an external source. 8. Calculations of impedances below 30 Hz show that the observed flows across the head are consistent with the dimensions and properties of the known structures. 9. There are major and systematic differences in the patterns of receptor organ stimulation between those expected from external sources and from a fish’s own movements. 10. Experiments on the red mullet (Mullus surmuletus L.) showed that it too has a transverse channel connecting the right and left lateral-line systems. At low frequencies its properties resemble those of the subcerebral perilymph canal of the clupeid.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1993.0096",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1993.0096",
    number = "1296",
    openalex = "W2118807753",
    pages = "113-127",
    volume = "341",
    references = "doi1010079781475757026, doi1010079783642858291, doi101007bf00611175, doi1010160300962974900826, doi10106313051072, doi101098rspb19830023, doi101126science982056, doi101242jeb40123, doi101242jeb603581, doi1023071538923"
}

The lateral line system of the channel catfish is formed by mechanoreceptive neuromasts located within five pairs of cephalic and one pair of trunk canals, as well as superficial lines of neuromasts, termed accessory and/or pit lines. Five pairs of pit lines occur on the head, and three pairs of superficial lines occur on the trunk. In addition to these mechanoreceptors, which are found in most teleost fishes, catfish also possess a total of over 4000 electroreceptive ampullary organs scattered over the entire body. The lateral line receptors are innervated by five pairs of lateral line nerves whose rami are secondarily associated with facial and trigeminal fibers that innervate taste buds and the dermis of the skin, respectively. The neuromasts of the trunk canal and the ramules of the posterior lateral line nerve that innervate them seem to be organized in a segmental pattern. The same is true for the intervertebral ramules of the recurrent facial ramus, which innervate the external taste buds on the trunk. The fibers of the gustatory and lateral line systems may use the neural crest, the developing spinal nerves, or both, to establish this segmental pattern. In this context, it may not be surprising that there is an intimate relationship among each of the sensory systems in the trunk.

@article{doi101002sici10969861200006124214570aidcne730co26,
    author = "Northcutt, R. Glenn and Holmes, Preston H. and Albert, James S.",
    title = "Distribution and innervation of lateral line organs in the channel catfish",
    year = "2000",
    journal = "The Journal of Comparative Neurology",
    abstract = "The lateral line system of the channel catfish is formed by mechanoreceptive neuromasts located within five pairs of cephalic and one pair of trunk canals, as well as superficial lines of neuromasts, termed accessory and/or pit lines. Five pairs of pit lines occur on the head, and three pairs of superficial lines occur on the trunk. In addition to these mechanoreceptors, which are found in most teleost fishes, catfish also possess a total of over 4000 electroreceptive ampullary organs scattered over the entire body. The lateral line receptors are innervated by five pairs of lateral line nerves whose rami are secondarily associated with facial and trigeminal fibers that innervate taste buds and the dermis of the skin, respectively. The neuromasts of the trunk canal and the ramules of the posterior lateral line nerve that innervate them seem to be organized in a segmental pattern. The same is true for the intervertebral ramules of the recurrent facial ramus, which innervate the external taste buds on the trunk. The fibers of the gustatory and lateral line systems may use the neural crest, the developing spinal nerves, or both, to establish this segmental pattern. In this context, it may not be surprising that there is an intimate relationship among each of the sensory systems in the trunk.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(20000612)421:4<570::aid-cne7>3.0.co;2-6",
    doi = "10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(20000612)421:4<570::aid-cne7>3.0.co;2-6",
    openalex = "W2012767422",
    references = "doi101002jmor1051710205"
}

The development of two of the cranial lateral line canals is described in the cichlid, Archocentrus nigrofasciatus. Four stages of canal morphogenesis are defined based on histological analysis of the supraorbital and mandibular canals. "Canal enclosure" and "canal ossification" are defined as two discrete stages in lateral line canal development, which differ in duration, an observation that has interesting implications for the ontogeny of lateral line function. Canal diameter in the vicinity of individual neuromasts begins to increase before ossification of the canal roof in each canal segment; this increase in canal diameter is accompanied by an increase in canal neuromast size. The mandibular canal generally develops later than the supraorbital canal in this species, but in both of these canals development of the different canal segments contained within a single dermal bone is asynchronous. These observations suggest that a dynamic process requiring integration and interaction among different tissues, in both space and time, underlies the development of the cranial lateral line canal system. The supraorbital and mandibular canals appear to demonstrate a "one-component" pattern of development in Archocentrus nigrofasciatus, where the walls of each canal segment grow up from the underlying dermal bone and then fuse to form the bony canal roof. This is contrary to numerous published reports that describe a "two-component" pattern of development in teleosts where the bony canal ossifies separately and then fuses with an underlying dermal bone. A survey of the literature in which lateral line canal development is described using histological analysis suggests that the occurrence of two different patterns of canal morphogenesis ("one-component" and "two-component") may be due to phylogenetic variation in the pattern of the development of the lateral line canals.

@article{doi101002jmor10045,
    author = "Tarby, Melissa L. and Webb, Jacqueline F.",
    title = "Development of the supraorbital and mandibular lateral line canals in the cichlid, archocentrus nigrofasciatus",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Journal of Morphology",
    abstract = {The development of two of the cranial lateral line canals is described in the cichlid, Archocentrus nigrofasciatus. Four stages of canal morphogenesis are defined based on histological analysis of the supraorbital and mandibular canals. "Canal enclosure" and "canal ossification" are defined as two discrete stages in lateral line canal development, which differ in duration, an observation that has interesting implications for the ontogeny of lateral line function. Canal diameter in the vicinity of individual neuromasts begins to increase before ossification of the canal roof in each canal segment; this increase in canal diameter is accompanied by an increase in canal neuromast size. The mandibular canal generally develops later than the supraorbital canal in this species, but in both of these canals development of the different canal segments contained within a single dermal bone is asynchronous. These observations suggest that a dynamic process requiring integration and interaction among different tissues, in both space and time, underlies the development of the cranial lateral line canal system. The supraorbital and mandibular canals appear to demonstrate a "one-component" pattern of development in Archocentrus nigrofasciatus, where the walls of each canal segment grow up from the underlying dermal bone and then fuse to form the bony canal roof. This is contrary to numerous published reports that describe a "two-component" pattern of development in teleosts where the bony canal ossifies separately and then fuses with an underlying dermal bone. A survey of the literature in which lateral line canal development is described using histological analysis suggests that the occurrence of two different patterns of canal morphogenesis ("one-component" and "two-component") may be due to phylogenetic variation in the pattern of the development of the lateral line canals.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10045",
    doi = "10.1002/jmor.10045",
    openalex = "W2009484967",
    references = "branson1962the"
}

The development of the cranial lateral line canals and neuromast organs are described in postembryonic zebrafish (0-80 days postfertilization). Cranial canal development commences several weeks after hatch, is initiated in the vicinity of individual neuromasts, and occurs in four discrete stages that are described histologically. Neuromasts remain in open canal grooves for several weeks during which they dramatically change shape and increase in size by adding hair cells at a rate one-tenth that in the zebrafish inner ear. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrates that neuromasts elongate perpendicular to the canal axis and the axis of hair cell polarization and that they lack a prominent nonsensory cell population surrounding the hair cells-features that make zebrafish neuromasts unusual among fishes. These results demand a reassessment of neuromast and lateral line canal diversity among fishes and highlight the utility of the lateral line system of postembryonic zebrafish for experimental and genetic studies of the development and growth of hair cell epithelia.

@article{doi101002dvdy10385,
    author = "Webb, Jacqueline F. and Shirey, Jonathan E.",
    title = "Postembryonic development of the cranial lateral line canals and neuromasts in zebrafish",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Developmental Dynamics",
    abstract = "The development of the cranial lateral line canals and neuromast organs are described in postembryonic zebrafish (0-80 days postfertilization). Cranial canal development commences several weeks after hatch, is initiated in the vicinity of individual neuromasts, and occurs in four discrete stages that are described histologically. Neuromasts remain in open canal grooves for several weeks during which they dramatically change shape and increase in size by adding hair cells at a rate one-tenth that in the zebrafish inner ear. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrates that neuromasts elongate perpendicular to the canal axis and the axis of hair cell polarization and that they lack a prominent nonsensory cell population surrounding the hair cells-features that make zebrafish neuromasts unusual among fishes. These results demand a reassessment of neuromast and lateral line canal diversity among fishes and highlight the utility of the lateral line system of postembryonic zebrafish for experimental and genetic studies of the development and growth of hair cell epithelia.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.10385",
    doi = "10.1002/dvdy.10385",
    openalex = "W2061905890",
    references = "doi10100797814612053338, doi10100797814612356063"
}

Nearly all underwater vehicles and surface ships today use sonar and vision for imaging and navigation. However, sonar and vision systems face various limitations, e.g., sonar blind zones, dark or murky environments, etc. Evolved over millions of years, fish use the lateral line, a distributed linear array of flow sensing organs, for underwater hydrodynamic imaging and information extraction. We demonstrate here a proof-of-concept artificial lateral line system. It enables a distant touch hydrodynamic imaging capability to critically augment sonar and vision systems. We show that the artificial lateral line can successfully perform dipole source localization and hydrodynamic wake detection. The development of the artificial lateral line is aimed at fundamentally enhancing human ability to detect, navigate, and survive in the underwater environment.

@article{doi101073pnas0609274103,
    author = "Yang, Yingchen and Chen, Jack and Engel, Jonathan and Pandya, Saunvit and Chen, Nannan and Tucker, Craig and Coombs, Sheryl and Jones, Douglas L. and Liu, Chang",
    title = "Distant touch hydrodynamic imaging with an artificial lateral line",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "Nearly all underwater vehicles and surface ships today use sonar and vision for imaging and navigation. However, sonar and vision systems face various limitations, e.g., sonar blind zones, dark or murky environments, etc. Evolved over millions of years, fish use the lateral line, a distributed linear array of flow sensing organs, for underwater hydrodynamic imaging and information extraction. We demonstrate here a proof-of-concept artificial lateral line system. It enables a distant touch hydrodynamic imaging capability to critically augment sonar and vision systems. We show that the artificial lateral line can successfully perform dipole source localization and hydrodynamic wake detection. The development of the artificial lateral line is aimed at fundamentally enhancing human ability to detect, navigate, and survive in the underwater environment.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609274103",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0609274103",
    openalex = "W2009803319",
    references = "doi101007978146123714322"
}

Butterflyfishes are conspicuous members of coral reefs and well known for their pairing behavior and visual displays during social interactions. Members of the genus Chaetodon have a unique arrangement of the anterior swim bladder horns that connect with the lateral line (the laterophysic connection) and also project towards the inner ear, but functions for this putative acoustico-lateralis adaptation were not known. Field experiments demonstrate that the monogamous multiband butterflyfish, C. multicinctus, produces hydrodynamic pulses and sounds during territorial defense, and pulse trains that may be an alert call to the mate. In field choice tests, individuals could distinguish mates from nonmates and produced different calls to each, thus demonstrating the existence of mate recognition and context-specific sound production. Laboratory experiments show that sound production differs among sexes, hydrodynamic pulses are of low frequency (<100 Hz), and sounds have peak energy from 100–500 Hz. Auditory evoked potential experiments demonstrate that the auditory system has best sensitivity from 200–600 Hz and that the swim bladder horns provide a 10–20-dB gain within this band. These social sounds produced by Chaetodon can provide relevant stimuli to the auditory, vestibular, lateral line and possibly the laterophysic systems.

@article{tricas2006acousticolateralis,
    author = "Tricas, Timothy C. and Boyle, Kelly S.",
    title = "Acoustico-lateralis communication in coral reef butterflyfishes",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America",
    abstract = "Butterflyfishes are conspicuous members of coral reefs and well known for their pairing behavior and visual displays during social interactions. Members of the genus Chaetodon have a unique arrangement of the anterior swim bladder horns that connect with the lateral line (the laterophysic connection) and also project towards the inner ear, but functions for this putative acoustico-lateralis adaptation were not known. Field experiments demonstrate that the monogamous multiband butterflyfish, C. multicinctus, produces hydrodynamic pulses and sounds during territorial defense, and pulse trains that may be an alert call to the mate. In field choice tests, individuals could distinguish mates from nonmates and produced different calls to each, thus demonstrating the existence of mate recognition and context-specific sound production. Laboratory experiments show that sound production differs among sexes, hydrodynamic pulses are of low frequency (\<100 Hz), and sounds have peak energy from 100–500 Hz. Auditory evoked potential experiments demonstrate that the auditory system has best sensitivity from 200–600 Hz and that the swim bladder horns provide a 10–20-dB gain within this band. These social sounds produced by Chaetodon can provide relevant stimuli to the auditory, vestibular, lateral line and possibly the laterophysic systems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4787561",
    doi = "10.1121/1.4787561",
    number = "5\_Supplement",
    openalex = "W2084855248",
    pages = "3104-3104",
    volume = "120"
}

The lateral line is a sensory system that allows fishes to detect weak water motions and pressure gradients. The smallest functional unit of the lateral line is the neuromast, a sensory structure that consists of a hair cell epithelium and a cupula that connects the ciliary bundles of the hair cells with the water surrounding the fish. The lateral line of most fishes consists of hundreds of superficial neuromasts spread over the head, trunk and tail fin. In addition, many fish have neuromasts embedded in lateral line canals that open to the environment through a series of pores. The present paper reviews some more recent aspects of the morphology, behavioral relevance and physiology of the fish lateral line. In addition, it reports some new findings with regard to the coding of bulk water flow.

@article{doi101111j17494877200800131x,
    author = "Bleckmann, Horst and Zelick, Randy",
    title = "Lateral line system of fish",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Integrative Zoology",
    abstract = "The lateral line is a sensory system that allows fishes to detect weak water motions and pressure gradients. The smallest functional unit of the lateral line is the neuromast, a sensory structure that consists of a hair cell epithelium and a cupula that connects the ciliary bundles of the hair cells with the water surrounding the fish. The lateral line of most fishes consists of hundreds of superficial neuromasts spread over the head, trunk and tail fin. In addition, many fish have neuromasts embedded in lateral line canals that open to the environment through a series of pores. The present paper reviews some more recent aspects of the morphology, behavioral relevance and physiology of the fish lateral line. In addition, it reports some new findings with regard to the coding of bulk water flow.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00131.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00131.x",
    openalex = "W2057311667",
    references = "doi101007978146123714322, doi101007bf00611175, doi10112111909138"
}

Hydrodynamic imaging using the lateral line plays a critical role in fish behavior. To engineer such a biologically inspired sensing system, we developed an artificial lateral line using MEMS (microelectromechanical system) technology and explored its localization capability. Arrays of biomimetic neuromasts constituted an artificial lateral line wrapped around a cylinder. A beamforming algorithm further enabled the artificial lateral line to image real-world hydrodynamic events in a 3D domain. We demonstrate that the artificial lateral line system can accurately localize an artificial dipole source and a natural tail-flicking crayfish under various conditions. The artificial lateral line provides a new sense to man-made underwater vehicles and marine robots so that they can sense like fish.

@article{doi1010881748318251016001,
    author = "Yang, Yingchen and Nguyen, Nam and Chen, Nannan and Lockwood, Michael E. and Tucker, Craig and Hu, Huan and Bleckmann, Horst and Liu, Chang and Jones, Douglas L.",
    title = "Artificial lateral line with biomimetic neuromasts to emulate fish sensing",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Bioinspiration \& Biomimetics",
    abstract = "Hydrodynamic imaging using the lateral line plays a critical role in fish behavior. To engineer such a biologically inspired sensing system, we developed an artificial lateral line using MEMS (microelectromechanical system) technology and explored its localization capability. Arrays of biomimetic neuromasts constituted an artificial lateral line wrapped around a cylinder. A beamforming algorithm further enabled the artificial lateral line to image real-world hydrodynamic events in a 3D domain. We demonstrate that the artificial lateral line system can accurately localize an artificial dipole source and a natural tail-flicking crayfish under various conditions. The artificial lateral line provides a new sense to man-made underwater vehicles and marine robots so that they can sense like fish.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3182/5/1/016001",
    doi = "10.1088/1748-3182/5/1/016001",
    openalex = "W1999559686",
    references = "doi101007978146123714322"
}

For underwater vehicles to successfully detect and navigate turbulent flows, sensing the fluid interactions that occur is required. Fish possess a unique sensory organ called the lateral line. Sensory units called neuromasts are distributed over their body, and provide fish with flow-related information. In this study, a three-dimensional fish-shaped head, instrumented with pressure sensors, was used to investigate the pressure signals for relevant hydrodynamic stimuli to an artificial lateral line system. Unsteady wakes were sensed with the objective to detect the edges of the hydrodynamic trail and then explore and characterize the periodicity of the vorticity. The investigated wakes (Kármán vortex streets) were formed behind a range of cylinder diameter sizes (2.5, 4.5 and 10 cm) and flow velocities (9.9, 19.6 and 26.1 cm s(-1)). Results highlight that moving in the flow is advantageous to characterize the flow environment when compared with static analysis. The pressure difference from foremost to side sensors in the frontal plane provides us a useful measure of transition from steady to unsteady flow. The vortex shedding frequency (VSF) and its magnitude can be used to differentiate the source size and flow speed. Moreover, the distribution of the sensing array vertically as well as the laterally allows the Kármán vortex paired vortices to be detected in the pressure signal as twice the VSF.

@article{doi101098rsif20140467,
    author = "Chambers, Lily D. and Akanyeti, Otar and Venturelli, R. and Ježov, Jaas and Brown, Jennifer and Kruusmaa, Maarja and Fiorini, Paolo and Megill, William",
    title = "A fish perspective: detecting flow features while moving using an artificial lateral line in steady and unsteady flow",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Journal of The Royal Society Interface",
    abstract = "For underwater vehicles to successfully detect and navigate turbulent flows, sensing the fluid interactions that occur is required. Fish possess a unique sensory organ called the lateral line. Sensory units called neuromasts are distributed over their body, and provide fish with flow-related information. In this study, a three-dimensional fish-shaped head, instrumented with pressure sensors, was used to investigate the pressure signals for relevant hydrodynamic stimuli to an artificial lateral line system. Unsteady wakes were sensed with the objective to detect the edges of the hydrodynamic trail and then explore and characterize the periodicity of the vorticity. The investigated wakes (Kármán vortex streets) were formed behind a range of cylinder diameter sizes (2.5, 4.5 and 10 cm) and flow velocities (9.9, 19.6 and 26.1 cm s(-1)). Results highlight that moving in the flow is advantageous to characterize the flow environment when compared with static analysis. The pressure difference from foremost to side sensors in the frontal plane provides us a useful measure of transition from steady to unsteady flow. The vortex shedding frequency (VSF) and its magnitude can be used to differentiate the source size and flow speed. Moreover, the distribution of the sensing array vertically as well as the laterally allows the Kármán vortex paired vortices to be detected in the pressure signal as twice the VSF.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0467",
    doi = "10.1098/rsif.2014.0467",
    openalex = "W2121805556",
    references = "doi101242jeb603581"
}

The lateral line of fish includes the canal subsystem that detects hydrodynamic pressure gradients and is thought to be important in swimming behaviors such as rheotaxis and prey tracking. Here, we explore the hypothesis that this sensory system is concentrated at locations where changes in pressure are greatest during motion through water. Using high-fidelity models of rainbow trout, we mimic the flows encountered during swimming while measuring pressure with fine spatial and temporal resolution. The variations in pressure for perturbations in body orientation and for disturbances to the incoming stream are seen to correlate with the sensory network. These findings support a view of the lateral line as a "hydrodynamic antenna" that is configured to retrieve flow signals and also suggest a physical explanation for the nearly universal sensory layout across diverse species.

@article{doi101103physrevlett114018102,
    author = "Ristroph, Leif and Liao, James C. and Zhang, Jun",
    title = "Lateral Line Layout Correlates with the Differential Hydrodynamic Pressure on Swimming Fish",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Physical Review Letters",
    abstract = {The lateral line of fish includes the canal subsystem that detects hydrodynamic pressure gradients and is thought to be important in swimming behaviors such as rheotaxis and prey tracking. Here, we explore the hypothesis that this sensory system is concentrated at locations where changes in pressure are greatest during motion through water. Using high-fidelity models of rainbow trout, we mimic the flows encountered during swimming while measuring pressure with fine spatial and temporal resolution. The variations in pressure for perturbations in body orientation and for disturbances to the incoming stream are seen to correlate with the sensory network. These findings support a view of the lateral line as a "hydrodynamic antenna" that is configured to retrieve flow signals and also suggest a physical explanation for the nearly universal sensory layout across diverse species.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.114.018102",
    doi = "10.1103/physrevlett.114.018102",
    openalex = "W2033301048",
    references = "denton1993stimulation, doi101242jeb603581"
}