Maps

The Cenozoic structures of the western United States are interpreted here as being products mostly of horizontal motion of the crust. The distribution of strike‐slip faulting, tensional fragmentation of the brittle upper crust or rupturing of the entire continental crust, and compression define a pattern of northwestward motion increasing irregularly southwestward toward coastal California. Hans Becker, in 1934, and S. W. Carey, in 1958, are among those who have suggested such a tectonic system. The aggregate Cenozoic right‐lateral displacement of Cretaceous and older rocks and structures by the northwest‐trending strike‐slip faults of coastal California is about 500 km. The greater part of this movement has occurred along the San Andreas fault, but many other faults share in it. At least six earthquakes within the past century have been accompanied by lateral displacements at the surface along faults of the San Andreas system. Successively greater offsets of successively older geologic terranes demonstrate continuing motion throughout Cenozoic time. Late Miocene materials have been displaced at least 160 km; Oligocene, at least 260 km. The present velocity of regional shear strain, about 6 cm/yr, demonstrated by geodetic resurveying in southern and central California, is about 8 times faster than the average needed to account for the total movement within the Cenozoic. The faults are in general associated with structures formed by oblique tension south of Los Angeles and with structures due to oblique compression north of that city. The opening of the Gulf of California and the Salton Trough by the oblique rifting of Baja California and the Peninsular Ranges away from mainland Mexico is the greatest of the tensional effects. The strike‐slip faults may be confined to the crust. Earthquake foci extend no deeper than 16 km. The faults end to the south in the Gulf of California, whose crustal structure is oceanic. To the north, the San Andreas turns seaward as the north‐facing Gorda scarp, west in line of which in deeper water is the south‐facing Mendocino escarpment, produced apparently by an inactive left‐lateral oceanic fault. The continental sliver of coastal and Baja California, west of the faults of the San Andreas system, may be drifting northwestward independently over the ocean floor and the mantle, and the leading point of the sliver may have been deflected westward when it hit the Mendocino scarp on the sea floor. East of this coastal movement system is the Basin and Range province, whose obvious Cenozoic structures are dominated by block faulting. The present ranges have formed mostly since early Miocene time, similar older ranges having been destroyed by erosion and deformation. The normal faulting, which is not associated within the region with any complementary tectonic compression, requires crustal extension as its basic cause. If the faults maintain their average 60° dips at depth, extension is half the dip‐slip amount; but probably the major faults flatten downward, and the amount of extension about equals that of shallow dip‐slip. Total Cenozoic extension in northern Nevada and Utah may have been 300 km. Concurrent volcanism much augmented the thinned and fragmented crust, and the volcanic terranes in turn have been fragmented by block faulting. Right‐lateral strike‐slip faults trend northwestward in lanes between normal‐fault maintain blocks in the southwestern part of the Basin‐Range province. Cenozoic displacements reach 50 km on the Las Vegas fault and 80 km on the Death Valley‐Furnace Creek faults. Northeast of the strike‐slip faults, ranges and basins trend north‐northeastward in tension‐gash orientation. Within the belt of lateral faulting, ranges undergoing active normal faulting mostly trend north‐northwestward in oblique pull‐apart orientation. The Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains have moved northwestward and rotated counterclockwise, thus moving away from the continental interior more in the north than in the south, and the extension distributed behind them has formed the Basin‐Range province. The narrow block‐fault Rio Grande valley system of New Mexico and southern Colorado is structurally and topographically similar to the rift valleys of East Africa and reflects localized crustal extension. The Idaho batholith, like the Sierra Nevada batholith, is drifting northwestward as an unbroken plate. Extension east of the Idaho batholith is taken up by normal‐fault fragmentation in south‐central Idaho and southwestern Montana, whereas extension south of the batholith has produced a rift through the continental crust, the Snake River Plain, filled deeply by lava. Seismic velocities indicate granitic crust to be lacking in at least the western part of the plain. Right‐lateral faults of the Osburn system bound the batholithic plate on the north, and the motion they represent is taken up north of them by extension forming fault troughs. Integration of geologic and geophysical information shows that large regions of the Northwest are lava accumulations of continental crustal thickness, not old continental crust covered by lava. The volcanic terrane of northwestern Oregon and southwestern Washington forms new volcanic crust in a region which was oceanic before Cenozoic time. The volcanic terrane of southeastern Oregon, northeastern California, and northwestern Nevada fills an irregular tension rift through the Mesozoic continental crust. This rift resulted from the westward motion of the Klamath Mountains region, which was sundered from a position south of the Mesozoic terrane of northeastern Oregon and which was bent oroclinally as it moved westward in post‐middle Eocene time. The Mesozoic terrane of northeastern Oregon pivoted away from the Idaho batholith to form a smaller orocline and left a triangular rift since filled by lava. Independent motion of continental crust over mantle and oceanic crust seems to be indicated. Inertial forces due to redistribution of rotational momentum among crustal fragments, mantle, and core may provide the motive power.

@article{doi101029rg004i004p00509,
    author = "Hamilton, Warren and Myers, W. Bradley",
    title = "Cenozoic tectonics of the western United States",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Reviews of Geophysics",
    abstract = "The Cenozoic structures of the western United States are interpreted here as being products mostly of horizontal motion of the crust. The distribution of strike‐slip faulting, tensional fragmentation of the brittle upper crust or rupturing of the entire continental crust, and compression define a pattern of northwestward motion increasing irregularly southwestward toward coastal California. Hans Becker, in 1934, and S. W. Carey, in 1958, are among those who have suggested such a tectonic system. The aggregate Cenozoic right‐lateral displacement of Cretaceous and older rocks and structures by the northwest‐trending strike‐slip faults of coastal California is about 500 km. The greater part of this movement has occurred along the San Andreas fault, but many other faults share in it. At least six earthquakes within the past century have been accompanied by lateral displacements at the surface along faults of the San Andreas system. Successively greater offsets of successively older geologic terranes demonstrate continuing motion throughout Cenozoic time. Late Miocene materials have been displaced at least 160 km; Oligocene, at least 260 km. The present velocity of regional shear strain, about 6 cm/yr, demonstrated by geodetic resurveying in southern and central California, is about 8 times faster than the average needed to account for the total movement within the Cenozoic. The faults are in general associated with structures formed by oblique tension south of Los Angeles and with structures due to oblique compression north of that city. The opening of the Gulf of California and the Salton Trough by the oblique rifting of Baja California and the Peninsular Ranges away from mainland Mexico is the greatest of the tensional effects. The strike‐slip faults may be confined to the crust. Earthquake foci extend no deeper than 16 km. The faults end to the south in the Gulf of California, whose crustal structure is oceanic. To the north, the San Andreas turns seaward as the north‐facing Gorda scarp, west in line of which in deeper water is the south‐facing Mendocino escarpment, produced apparently by an inactive left‐lateral oceanic fault. The continental sliver of coastal and Baja California, west of the faults of the San Andreas system, may be drifting northwestward independently over the ocean floor and the mantle, and the leading point of the sliver may have been deflected westward when it hit the Mendocino scarp on the sea floor. East of this coastal movement system is the Basin and Range province, whose obvious Cenozoic structures are dominated by block faulting. The present ranges have formed mostly since early Miocene time, similar older ranges having been destroyed by erosion and deformation. The normal faulting, which is not associated within the region with any complementary tectonic compression, requires crustal extension as its basic cause. If the faults maintain their average 60° dips at depth, extension is half the dip‐slip amount; but probably the major faults flatten downward, and the amount of extension about equals that of shallow dip‐slip. Total Cenozoic extension in northern Nevada and Utah may have been 300 km. Concurrent volcanism much augmented the thinned and fragmented crust, and the volcanic terranes in turn have been fragmented by block faulting. Right‐lateral strike‐slip faults trend northwestward in lanes between normal‐fault maintain blocks in the southwestern part of the Basin‐Range province. Cenozoic displacements reach 50 km on the Las Vegas fault and 80 km on the Death Valley‐Furnace Creek faults. Northeast of the strike‐slip faults, ranges and basins trend north‐northeastward in tension‐gash orientation. Within the belt of lateral faulting, ranges undergoing active normal faulting mostly trend north‐northwestward in oblique pull‐apart orientation. The Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains have moved northwestward and rotated counterclockwise, thus moving away from the continental interior more in the north than in the south, and the extension distributed behind them has formed the Basin‐Range province. The narrow block‐fault Rio Grande valley system of New Mexico and southern Colorado is structurally and topographically similar to the rift valleys of East Africa and reflects localized crustal extension. The Idaho batholith, like the Sierra Nevada batholith, is drifting northwestward as an unbroken plate. Extension east of the Idaho batholith is taken up by normal‐fault fragmentation in south‐central Idaho and southwestern Montana, whereas extension south of the batholith has produced a rift through the continental crust, the Snake River Plain, filled deeply by lava. Seismic velocities indicate granitic crust to be lacking in at least the western part of the plain. Right‐lateral faults of the Osburn system bound the batholithic plate on the north, and the motion they represent is taken up north of them by extension forming fault troughs. Integration of geologic and geophysical information shows that large regions of the Northwest are lava accumulations of continental crustal thickness, not old continental crust covered by lava. The volcanic terrane of northwestern Oregon and southwestern Washington forms new volcanic crust in a region which was oceanic before Cenozoic time. The volcanic terrane of southeastern Oregon, northeastern California, and northwestern Nevada fills an irregular tension rift through the Mesozoic continental crust. This rift resulted from the westward motion of the Klamath Mountains region, which was sundered from a position south of the Mesozoic terrane of northeastern Oregon and which was bent oroclinally as it moved westward in post‐middle Eocene time. The Mesozoic terrane of northeastern Oregon pivoted away from the Idaho batholith to form a smaller orocline and left a triangular rift since filled by lava. Independent motion of continental crust over mantle and oceanic crust seems to be indicated. Inertial forces due to redistribution of rotational momentum among crustal fragments, mantle, and core may provide the motive power.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/rg004i004p00509",
    doi = "10.1029/rg004i004p00509",
    openalex = "W1968113056",
    references = "doi1010160025322764900489, doi101029jz070i016p03965, doi1010970001069419660400000015, doi101126science1523721502, doi101130001676061965761145oordot20co2, doi10113000167606196677439pootcs20co2, doi101130spe71p1, doi101180minmag196503426832, doi101785bssa0470040353, doi105408002213687121, nicholls1965basalts, openalexw106656250"
}

Paleomagnetic evidence indicates that most of the extensive dike swarms cutting Triassic and older formations probably intruded in a time of regional tectonic and magmatic activity distinct from the late Triassic tectogenesis. The fossil magnetic directions of the dikes coincide neither with Late Triassic nor with Early Cretaceous paleomagnetic directions, which suggests a Jurassic age for the intrusions. The dikes were emplaced along tensional fractures that were the surficial expressions of deep-seated movements. The fan-shaped arrangement of these fractures indicates a southwestward decrease of the rotational component of the shear couple and a sinistral polarity of the shear movements. Periodic increases in tectonic and mafic magmatic activity, such as this one in the Jurassic, appear to be characteristic of Mesozoic deformations in the Appalachians.

@article{doi101029jz072i008p02237,
    author = "de Boer, Jelle",
    title = "Paleomagnetic-tectonic study of Mesozoic dike swarms in the Appalachians",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Paleomagnetic evidence indicates that most of the extensive dike swarms cutting Triassic and older formations probably intruded in a time of regional tectonic and magmatic activity distinct from the late Triassic tectogenesis. The fossil magnetic directions of the dikes coincide neither with Late Triassic nor with Early Cretaceous paleomagnetic directions, which suggests a Jurassic age for the intrusions. The dikes were emplaced along tensional fractures that were the surficial expressions of deep-seated movements. The fan-shaped arrangement of these fractures indicates a southwestward decrease of the rotational component of the shear couple and a sinistral polarity of the shear movements. Periodic increases in tectonic and mafic magmatic activity, such as this one in the Jurassic, appear to be characteristic of Mesozoic deformations in the Appalachians.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jz072i008p02237",
    doi = "10.1029/jz072i008p02237",
    openalex = "W2083454424"
}

@article{crossref1977mesozoic,
    title = "Mesozoic and cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(77)90136-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(77)90136-2",
    number = "4",
    pages = "386-387",
    volume = "13"
}

@article{doi1010160012825277901362,
    author = "Smith, Alan Gilbert and Briden, J. C.",
    title = "Mesozoic and cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Earth-Science Reviews",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(77)90136-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0012-8252(77)90136-2",
    openalex = "W637941379"
}

Deep‐sea drilling in the Antarctic region (Deep‐Sea Drilling Project legs 28, 29, 35, and 36) has provided many new data about the development of circum‐Antarctic circulation and the closely related glacial evolution of Antarctica. The Antarctic continent has been in a high‐latitude position since the middle to late Mesozoic. Glaciation commenced much later, in the middle Tertiary, demonstrating that near‐polar position is not sufficient for glacial development. Instead, continental glaciation developed as the present‐day Southern Ocean circulation system became established when obstructing land masses moved aside. During the Paleocene (t = ∼65 to 55 m.y. ago), Australia and Antarctica were joined. In the early Eocene (t = ∼55 m.y. ago), Australia began to drift northward from Antarctica, forming an ocean, although circum‐Antarctic flow was blocked by the continental South Tasman Rise and Tasmania. During the Eocene (t = 55 to 38 m.y. ago) the Southern Ocean was relatively warm and the continent largely nonglaciated. Cool temperate vegetation existed in some regions. By the late Eocene (t = ∼39 m.y. ago) a shallow water connection had developed between the southern Indian and Pacific oceans over the South Tasman Rise. The first major climatic‐glacial threshold was crossed 38 m.y. ago near the Eocene‐Oligocene boundary, when substantial Antarctic sea ice began to form. This resulted in a rapid temperature drop in bottom waters of about 5°C and a major crisis in deep‐sea faunas. Thermohaline oceanic circulation was initiated at this time much like that of the present day. The resulting change in climatic regime increased bottom water activity over wide areas of the deep ocean basins, creating much sediment erosion, especially in western parts of oceans. A major (∼2000 m) and apparently rapid deepening also occurred in the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD). This climatic threshold was crossed as a result of the gradual isolation of Antarctica from Australia and perhaps the opening of the Drake Passage. During the Oligocene (t = 38 to 22 m.y. ago), widespread glaciation probably occurred throughout Antarctica, although no ice cap existed. By the middle to late Oligocene (t = ∼30 to 25 m.y. ago), deep‐seated circum‐Antarctic flow had developed south of the South Tasman Rise, as this had separated sufficiently from Victoria Land, Antarctica. Major reorganization resulted in southern hemisphere deep‐sea sediment distribution patterns. The next principal climatic threshold was crossed during the middle Miocene (t = 14 to 11 m.y. ago) when the Antarctic ice cap formed. This occurred at about the time of closure of the Australian‐Indonesian deep‐sea passage. During the early Miocene, calcareous biogenic sediments began to be displaced northward by siliceous biogenic sediments with higher rates of sedimentation reflecting the beginning of circulation related to the development of the Antarctic Convergence. Since the middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has remained a semipermanent feature exhibiting some changes in volume. The most important of these occurred during the latest Miocene (t = ∼5 m.y. ago) when ice volumes increased beyond those of the present day. This event was related to global climatic cooling, a rapid northward movement of about 300 km of the Antarctic Convergence, and a eustatic sea level drop that may have been partly responsible for the isolation of the Mediterranean basin. Northern hemisphere ice sheet development began about 2.5–3 m.y. ago, representing the next major global climatic threshold, and was followed by the well‐known major oscillations in northern ice sheets. In the Southern Ocean the Quaternary marks a peak in activity of oceanic circulation as reflected by widespread deep‐sea erosion, very high biogenic productivity at the Antarctic Convergence and resulting high rates of biogenic sedimentation, and maximum northward distribution of ice‐rafted debris.

@article{doi101029jc082i027p03843,
    author = "Kennett, James P.",
    title = "Cenozoic evolution of Antarctic glaciation, the circum-Antarctic Ocean, and their impact on global paleoceanography",
    year = "1977",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Deep‐sea drilling in the Antarctic region (Deep‐Sea Drilling Project legs 28, 29, 35, and 36) has provided many new data about the development of circum‐Antarctic circulation and the closely related glacial evolution of Antarctica. The Antarctic continent has been in a high‐latitude position since the middle to late Mesozoic. Glaciation commenced much later, in the middle Tertiary, demonstrating that near‐polar position is not sufficient for glacial development. Instead, continental glaciation developed as the present‐day Southern Ocean circulation system became established when obstructing land masses moved aside. During the Paleocene (t = ∼65 to 55 m.y. ago), Australia and Antarctica were joined. In the early Eocene (t = ∼55 m.y. ago), Australia began to drift northward from Antarctica, forming an ocean, although circum‐Antarctic flow was blocked by the continental South Tasman Rise and Tasmania. During the Eocene (t = 55 to 38 m.y. ago) the Southern Ocean was relatively warm and the continent largely nonglaciated. Cool temperate vegetation existed in some regions. By the late Eocene (t = ∼39 m.y. ago) a shallow water connection had developed between the southern Indian and Pacific oceans over the South Tasman Rise. The first major climatic‐glacial threshold was crossed 38 m.y. ago near the Eocene‐Oligocene boundary, when substantial Antarctic sea ice began to form. This resulted in a rapid temperature drop in bottom waters of about 5°C and a major crisis in deep‐sea faunas. Thermohaline oceanic circulation was initiated at this time much like that of the present day. The resulting change in climatic regime increased bottom water activity over wide areas of the deep ocean basins, creating much sediment erosion, especially in western parts of oceans. A major (∼2000 m) and apparently rapid deepening also occurred in the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD). This climatic threshold was crossed as a result of the gradual isolation of Antarctica from Australia and perhaps the opening of the Drake Passage. During the Oligocene (t = 38 to 22 m.y. ago), widespread glaciation probably occurred throughout Antarctica, although no ice cap existed. By the middle to late Oligocene (t = ∼30 to 25 m.y. ago), deep‐seated circum‐Antarctic flow had developed south of the South Tasman Rise, as this had separated sufficiently from Victoria Land, Antarctica. Major reorganization resulted in southern hemisphere deep‐sea sediment distribution patterns. The next principal climatic threshold was crossed during the middle Miocene (t = 14 to 11 m.y. ago) when the Antarctic ice cap formed. This occurred at about the time of closure of the Australian‐Indonesian deep‐sea passage. During the early Miocene, calcareous biogenic sediments began to be displaced northward by siliceous biogenic sediments with higher rates of sedimentation reflecting the beginning of circulation related to the development of the Antarctic Convergence. Since the middle Miocene the East Antarctic ice cap has remained a semipermanent feature exhibiting some changes in volume. The most important of these occurred during the latest Miocene (t = ∼5 m.y. ago) when ice volumes increased beyond those of the present day. This event was related to global climatic cooling, a rapid northward movement of about 300 km of the Antarctic Convergence, and a eustatic sea level drop that may have been partly responsible for the isolation of the Mediterranean basin. Northern hemisphere ice sheet development began about 2.5–3 m.y. ago, representing the next major global climatic threshold, and was followed by the well‐known major oscillations in northern ice sheets. In the Southern Ocean the Quaternary marks a peak in activity of oceanic circulation as reflected by widespread deep‐sea erosion, very high biogenic productivity at the Antarctic Convergence and resulting high rates of biogenic sedimentation, and maximum northward distribution of ice‐rafted debris.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jc082i027p03843",
    doi = "10.1029/jc082i027p03843",
    openalex = "W2016564007",
    references = "doi1010160025322771900533, doi1010160025322777900457, doi1010160033589473900525, doi1010160033589476900478, doi101017s0032247400063804, doi101038260513a0, doi101086626295, doi102475ajs2683193, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi102973dsdpproc291975"
}

@book{smith1977mesozoic1,
    author = "Smith, A. G. and Briden, J. C",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental Maps",
    year = "1977",
    publisher = "Cambridge, Cambridge University Press",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Smith, A. G., and Briden, J. C., 1977, Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental Maps: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.}"
}

@article{doi1010160016714278900558,
    author = "McElhinny, M. W.",
    title = "Mesozoic and cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Geoexploration",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7142(78)90055-8",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7142(78)90055-8",
    openalex = "W1491046374"
}

@article{doi101086649718,
    author = "Wyllie, Peter J.",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental Maps. A. G. Smith, J. C. Briden",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/649718",
    doi = "10.1086/649718",
    openalex = "W2515905110"
}

@article{mcelhinny1978mesozoic,
    author = "McElhinny, M.W.",
    title = "Mesozoic and cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "Geoexploration",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7142(78)90055-8",
    doi = "10.1016/0016-7142(78)90055-8",
    number = "4",
    pages = "330-331",
    volume = "16"
}

@article{wyllie1978mesozoic,
    author = "Wyllie, Peter J.",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental Maps. A. G. Smith, J. C. Briden",
    year = "1978",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/649718",
    doi = "10.1086/649718",
    number = "4",
    pages = "533-533",
    volume = "86"
}

Gravity and magnetic anomalies bordering the continental margins of the southern South Atlantic Ocean are compared, in detail, on conjugate sides of the ridge crest, and a model for the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is given. The area of study includes the predominantly sheared margins of the Agulhas‐Falkland fracture zone and the rifted margins of Argentina and southern Africa south of the Rio Grande Rise and Walvis Ridge, respectively. These margins have associated with them, for the most part, linear magnetic anomalies that can be modeled as edge effect anomalies separating oceanic from continental basement. Coincident with the magnetic anomalies are gradients in the isostatic gravity anomaly. We have taken the location of these geophysical lineaments on the African margin and rotated them clockwise to fit the anomalies on the Argentine margin. This fit, which gives us a new pole of total closing for the South Atlantic Ocean, obviates, for the most part, the gaps and overlaps observed in other reconstructions. The improved fit thereby suggests rigid plate behavior and minimum stretching of continental crust during the early opening of the southern South Atlantic Ocean. A zone of crustal stretching may be present in the southernmost Argentine and Cape basin margins. New poles of early opening for the South Atlantic Ocean have been determined (from 130 to 107 m.y. B.P. and from 107 to 80 m.y. B.P.) utilizing the above reconstruction as well as the strike of the Agulhas‐Falkland fracture zone where it is well determined. The earliest pole, which is located much farther south than previously determined early poles, satisfies not only the geophysical data in the southern regions but allows us to explain a number of outstanding problems north of the Rio Grande Rise‐Walvis Ridge area. These problems include the timing of the onset of sedimentation on the northern Brazil margin, the origin of the compressional features along the Venezuela margin, and the onset of open marine circulation between the North and South Atlantic oceans. Paleoreconstructions using the new early poles also align very well the seaward edge of the salt boundaries off Brazil and West Africa. The age of the salt, as inferred from the paleoreconstruction to its seaward boundaries, is younger than the age of magnetic anomaly M0. Furthermore, our paleoreconstructions show barriers for salt deposition not only across its southern termination (Walvis Ridge area) but also farther north in the equatorial regions. The salt, for the most part, has been deposited on oceanic crust. The new predrift reconstruction and early opening poles, taken together with the new identifications of the Mesozoic and Late Cenozoic sequences of magnetic anomalies, allow us to determine the magnitude and time interval of spreading center migration. In particular, we can demonstrate that ridge crest migrations of ∼1000 km have occurred along the strike of the Falkland escarpment. We demonstrate that the isostatic gravity gradient associated with the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is independent of the location of major sediment accumulations. We have modeled this anomaly as resulting from elevated oceanic basement adjacent to continental crust. This crustal model satisfies the limited upper crustal seismic data available near margins. The oceanic basement elevations are relics of a transient phenomenon associated with young rifted margins such as the East African and Red Sea rifts.

@article{doi101029jb084ib11p05973,
    author = "Rabinowitz, Philip D. and LaBrecque, John L.",
    title = "The Mesozoic South Atlantic Ocean and evolution of its continental margins",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Gravity and magnetic anomalies bordering the continental margins of the southern South Atlantic Ocean are compared, in detail, on conjugate sides of the ridge crest, and a model for the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is given. The area of study includes the predominantly sheared margins of the Agulhas‐Falkland fracture zone and the rifted margins of Argentina and southern Africa south of the Rio Grande Rise and Walvis Ridge, respectively. These margins have associated with them, for the most part, linear magnetic anomalies that can be modeled as edge effect anomalies separating oceanic from continental basement. Coincident with the magnetic anomalies are gradients in the isostatic gravity anomaly. We have taken the location of these geophysical lineaments on the African margin and rotated them clockwise to fit the anomalies on the Argentine margin. This fit, which gives us a new pole of total closing for the South Atlantic Ocean, obviates, for the most part, the gaps and overlaps observed in other reconstructions. The improved fit thereby suggests rigid plate behavior and minimum stretching of continental crust during the early opening of the southern South Atlantic Ocean. A zone of crustal stretching may be present in the southernmost Argentine and Cape basin margins. New poles of early opening for the South Atlantic Ocean have been determined (from 130 to 107 m.y. B.P. and from 107 to 80 m.y. B.P.) utilizing the above reconstruction as well as the strike of the Agulhas‐Falkland fracture zone where it is well determined. The earliest pole, which is located much farther south than previously determined early poles, satisfies not only the geophysical data in the southern regions but allows us to explain a number of outstanding problems north of the Rio Grande Rise‐Walvis Ridge area. These problems include the timing of the onset of sedimentation on the northern Brazil margin, the origin of the compressional features along the Venezuela margin, and the onset of open marine circulation between the North and South Atlantic oceans. Paleoreconstructions using the new early poles also align very well the seaward edge of the salt boundaries off Brazil and West Africa. The age of the salt, as inferred from the paleoreconstruction to its seaward boundaries, is younger than the age of magnetic anomaly M0. Furthermore, our paleoreconstructions show barriers for salt deposition not only across its southern termination (Walvis Ridge area) but also farther north in the equatorial regions. The salt, for the most part, has been deposited on oceanic crust. The new predrift reconstruction and early opening poles, taken together with the new identifications of the Mesozoic and Late Cenozoic sequences of magnetic anomalies, allow us to determine the magnitude and time interval of spreading center migration. In particular, we can demonstrate that ridge crest migrations of ∼1000 km have occurred along the strike of the Falkland escarpment. We demonstrate that the isostatic gravity gradient associated with the boundary between oceanic and continental basement is independent of the location of major sediment accumulations. We have modeled this anomaly as resulting from elevated oceanic basement adjacent to continental crust. This crustal model satisfies the limited upper crustal seismic data available near margins. The oceanic basement elevations are relics of a transient phenomenon associated with young rifted margins such as the East African and Red Sea rifts.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb084ib11p05973",
    doi = "10.1029/jb084ib11p05973",
    openalex = "W2140538827",
    references = "doi1010070387307524111, doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb076i026p06294, doi101029jb076i032p07888, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101130001676061972833645wcomma20co2, doi10113000167606197283619ssitna20co2, doi1011300091761319775330rmptsf20co2, doi10130683d923ed16c711d78645000102c1865d, doi101785bssa0590010369"
}

This paper contains 50 maps which have been designed for use by the geologic community in preparing paleogeographic, biogeographic, climatologic, and tectonic reconstructions of the Paleozoic periods. Seven maps for each of seven Paleozoic intervals are included, plus a suture map showing the outlines of the Paleozoic continents in their present positions. The intervals chosen are the Late Cambrian (Franconian), Middle Ordovician (Llandeilian-earliest Caradocian), Middle Silurian (Wenlockian), Early Devonian (Emsian), Early Carboniferous (Visean), Late Carboniferous (Westphalian CD), and Late Permian (Kazanian). The paleomagnetic information used to orient the continents is given. For each interval, three types of maps are included, one locality map with place names labelled, four paleogeographic maps with our interpretation of the distribution of mountains, lowlands, shallow seas, and deep oceans, and two outline maps for those who prefer to make their own paleogeographic interpretations. Several projections are used-Mercator, Mollweide, and stereographic polar-to suit the various requirements of paleogeographic work.

@article{doi101086628416,
    author = "Scotese, Christopher R. and Bambach, Richard K. and Barton, Colleen and der Voo, Rob Van and Ziegler, A. M.",
    title = "Paleozoic Base Maps",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "The Journal of Geology",
    abstract = "This paper contains 50 maps which have been designed for use by the geologic community in preparing paleogeographic, biogeographic, climatologic, and tectonic reconstructions of the Paleozoic periods. Seven maps for each of seven Paleozoic intervals are included, plus a suture map showing the outlines of the Paleozoic continents in their present positions. The intervals chosen are the Late Cambrian (Franconian), Middle Ordovician (Llandeilian-earliest Caradocian), Middle Silurian (Wenlockian), Early Devonian (Emsian), Early Carboniferous (Visean), Late Carboniferous (Westphalian CD), and Late Permian (Kazanian). The paleomagnetic information used to orient the continents is given. For each interval, three types of maps are included, one locality map with place names labelled, four paleogeographic maps with our interpretation of the distribution of mountains, lowlands, shallow seas, and deep oceans, and two outline maps for those who prefer to make their own paleogeographic interpretations. Several projections are used-Mercator, Mollweide, and stereographic polar-to suit the various requirements of paleogeographic work.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1086/628416",
    doi = "10.1086/628416",
    openalex = "W2002180431"
}

A method of making paleocontinental reconstructions based on ocean floor magnetic anomaly data and land‐based paleomagnetic data is briefly described, and its limitations are assessed. Synthetic polar wander paths for the period 20–200 Ma are presented for Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa, Eurasia, North America, and South America. Comparison is made with observed paths, except for Antarctica, for which the data are too sparse. There are no significant differences between observed and synthetic paths. A plot of inclination anomaly against paleolatitude shows a large scatter that limits the precision of the paleogeographic grid on continental reassemblies. The absence of any systematic trend to this scatter with time suggests that the field has had the same average behavior over the past 180 Ma and that large‐scale expansion of the earth cannot have occurred in this period. South America has undergone the least change in position relative to the poles in the past 160 Ma.

@article{briden1981paleomagnetism,
    author = "Briden, J. C. and Hurley, A. M. and Smith, A. G.",
    title = "Paleomagnetism and Mesozoic‐Cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth",
    abstract = "A method of making paleocontinental reconstructions based on ocean floor magnetic anomaly data and land‐based paleomagnetic data is briefly described, and its limitations are assessed. Synthetic polar wander paths for the period 20–200 Ma are presented for Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa, Eurasia, North America, and South America. Comparison is made with observed paths, except for Antarctica, for which the data are too sparse. There are no significant differences between observed and synthetic paths. A plot of inclination anomaly against paleolatitude shows a large scatter that limits the precision of the paleogeographic grid on continental reassemblies. The absence of any systematic trend to this scatter with time suggests that the field has had the same average behavior over the past 180 Ma and that large‐scale expansion of the earth cannot have occurred in this period. South America has undergone the least change in position relative to the poles in the past 160 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb086ib12p11631",
    doi = "10.1029/jb086ib12p11631",
    number = "B12",
    pages = "11631-11656",
    volume = "86"
}

@article{crscotese1981mesozoic,
    author = "C. R. Scotese, R. Van Der Voo, W. C",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Base Maps: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/2f91a291-16ce-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/2f91a291-16ce-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    volume = "65"
}

A method of making paleocontinental reconstructions based on ocean floor magnetic anomaly data and land‐based paleomagnetic data is briefly described, and its limitations are assessed. Synthetic polar wander paths for the period 20–200 Ma are presented for Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa, Eurasia, North America, and South America. Comparison is made with observed paths, except for Antarctica, for which the data are too sparse. There are no significant differences between observed and synthetic paths. A plot of inclination anomaly against paleolatitude shows a large scatter that limits the precision of the paleogeographic grid on continental reassemblies. The absence of any systematic trend to this scatter with time suggests that the field has had the same average behavior over the past 180 Ma and that large‐scale expansion of the earth cannot have occurred in this period. South America has undergone the least change in position relative to the poles in the past 160 Ma.

@article{doi101029jb086ib12p11631,
    author = "Briden, J. C. and Hurley, A. M. and Smith, Alan G.",
    title = "Paleomagnetism and Mesozoic‐Cenozoic paleocontinental maps",
    year = "1981",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "A method of making paleocontinental reconstructions based on ocean floor magnetic anomaly data and land‐based paleomagnetic data is briefly described, and its limitations are assessed. Synthetic polar wander paths for the period 20–200 Ma are presented for Australia, Antarctica, India, Africa, Eurasia, North America, and South America. Comparison is made with observed paths, except for Antarctica, for which the data are too sparse. There are no significant differences between observed and synthetic paths. A plot of inclination anomaly against paleolatitude shows a large scatter that limits the precision of the paleogeographic grid on continental reassemblies. The absence of any systematic trend to this scatter with time suggests that the field has had the same average behavior over the past 180 Ma and that large‐scale expansion of the earth cannot have occurred in this period. South America has undergone the least change in position relative to the poles in the past 160 Ma.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb086ib12p11631",
    doi = "10.1029/jb086ib12p11631",
    openalex = "W2087499074",
    references = "doi101029jb073i006p01959, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb084ib12p06803, doi1010382161276a0, doi101038225139a0, doi101038226239a0, doi101098rsta19650020, doi101111j1365246x1971tb02190x, doi10113000167606197283619ssitna20co2, doi10113000167606197788969eotns20co2"
}

Introduction The projections Section 1. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental maps: Introduction 1. Method of making the maps 2. Reliability of the maps 3. Maps 1-52 Section 2. Paleozoic Composite Maps: Introduction 1. Method of making the composites 2. The permo-triassic problem 3. Reliability of the maps 4. Acknowledgements 5. Maps 53-88 Bibliography.

@book{openalexw2135985426,
    author = "Smith, A. G. and Hurley, A. M. and Briden, J. C.",
    title = "Phanerozoic Paleocontinental World Maps",
    year = "1981",
    abstract = "Introduction The projections Section 1. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleocontinental maps: Introduction 1. Method of making the maps 2. Reliability of the maps 3. Maps 1-52 Section 2. Paleozoic Composite Maps: Introduction 1. Method of making the composites 2. The permo-triassic problem 3. Reliability of the maps 4. Acknowledgements 5. Maps 53-88 Bibliography.",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W2135985426",
    openalex = "W2135985426",
    references = "crossref1974the, doi101038288329a0"
}

@incollection{doi101007978364268836217,
    author = "Ziegler, A. M. and Scotese, Christopher R. and Barrett, S. F.",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Paleogeographic Maps",
    year = "1982",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-68836-2\_17",
    doi = "10.1007/978-3-642-68836-2\_17",
    openalex = "W1526852429",
    references = "doi1010160012825279900837, doi1010160040195181902754, doi101029jb084ib12p06803, doi101029jb086ib12p11535, doi101038225139a0, doi101038279590a0, doi101086628416, doi101126science1894201419, doi101130001676061973843137ptateo20co2, doi101306m26490c6"
}

@article{doi1010160031018282900840,
    author = "Parrish, Judith Totman and Curtis, Rebecca L.",
    title = "Atmospheric circulation, upwelling, and organic-rich rocks in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(82)90084-0",
    doi = "10.1016/0031-0182(82)90084-0",
    openalex = "W2047709627",
    references = "doi1010160031018280900474, doi1010160031018282900852, doi10113000167606197788367ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788374ucmsag20co2"
}

@article{doi1010160031018282900852,
    author = "Parrish, Judith Totman and Ziegler, A.M. and Scotese, Christopher R.",
    title = "Rainfall patterns and the distribution of coals and evaporites in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(82)90085-2",
    doi = "10.1016/0031-0182(82)90085-2",
    openalex = "W1972618827",
    references = "crscotese1981mesozoic, doi1010160031018280900474, doi1010160031018280900632, doi1010160031018280900656, doi1010160031018282900840, doi10108003115517508619477, doi101126science2124494501, doi101130001676061975861499tmp20co2, doi101146annurevea07050179002353, doi1011751520046919800370099otdocc20co2, doi103406geo196316517"
}

If paleomagnetic poles from individual studies are compared with mean paleomagnetic poles, it is found that there are significant numbers of deviations which are greater than would be expected when the formal statistical error associated with the position of the individual pole is considered. This suggests that in many cases, individual poles have not completely sampled the earth's magnetic field and its variation to give a good estimate of the mean field. This further suggests that uniform weighting of individual studies to obtain a mean pole is incorrect. We develop a method of determining mean poles in which the information content of individual studies is used as a weighting factor. No assumption need be made that the individual studies represent a mean pole for the time period under consideration. Studies in which it is known that the mean pole has not been adequately determined may then be used in the analysis by giving such studies a low weighting factor in the analysis. We also introduce a method of weighting dependent on the age overlap between the individual study and the age window for which a mean pole is to be calculated. The most important determinant of the polar wandering path is, however, the data set used.

@article{doi101029jb087ib03p01903,
    author = "Harrison, C. G. A. and Lindh, Thomas",
    title = "A polar wandering curve for North America during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic",
    year = "1982",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "If paleomagnetic poles from individual studies are compared with mean paleomagnetic poles, it is found that there are significant numbers of deviations which are greater than would be expected when the formal statistical error associated with the position of the individual pole is considered. This suggests that in many cases, individual poles have not completely sampled the earth's magnetic field and its variation to give a good estimate of the mean field. This further suggests that uniform weighting of individual studies to obtain a mean pole is incorrect. We develop a method of determining mean poles in which the information content of individual studies is used as a weighting factor. No assumption need be made that the individual studies represent a mean pole for the time period under consideration. Studies in which it is known that the mean pole has not been adequately determined may then be used in the analysis by giving such studies a low weighting factor in the analysis. We also introduce a method of weighting dependent on the age overlap between the individual study and the age window for which a mean pole is to be calculated. The most important determinant of the polar wandering path is, however, the data set used.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jb087ib03p01903",
    doi = "10.1029/jb087ib03p01903",
    openalex = "W2033482304",
    references = "briden1981paleomagnetism, doi1010160012821x7090138x, doi101029jb085ib12p07115, doi101029jb086ib12p11631, doi101029jz072i008p02237, doi101029rg013i005p00687, doi101098rspa19530064, doi101111j150239311972tb00852x, doi101126science213450347, doi10130683d923ed16c711d78645000102c1865d, doi1023071795057, openalexw1660858470"
}

@article{doi1010160198025483901334,
    title = "Rainfall patterns and the distribution of coals and evaporites in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic",
    year = "1983",
    journal = "Deep Sea Research Part B Oceanographic Literature Review",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0254(83)90133-4",
    doi = "10.1016/0198-0254(83)90133-4",
    openalex = "W4230939369",
    references = "crscotese1981mesozoic, doi101007978364268836217, doi1023071786846, doi1023071796560, doi103406geo196316517, openalexw1517697690, openalexw1539997818, openalexw2978227140, openalexw2989964553, openalexw586285984, openalexw601698932"
}

There is overwhelming evidence, based on the distribution of distinctive sediments and fossils and oxygen isotope data, that the climate of the Mesozoic world was appreciably more equable than that of today, with no polar ice caps, but precise quantitative data are not available. Except for an episode of late Cretaceous cooling there is no good documentation of any significant change in global temperature distributions through the era. The distribution of coals and evaporites, together with other criteria, indicates a pattern of humid arid and zones appreciably different in important respects from that of today. During the Triassic and Jurassic, western Pangaea in low to middle latitudes was largely arid, but in the early Cretaceous the lands on the margin of the newly opening Central Atlantic and western Tethys experienced a humid climate. By late Cretaceous times arid zones had become very restricted in extent. Because of insufficient suitable data, attempts at climatic modelling have had only modest success, and only to a limited extent can the major long-term changes in climate between the Permian and the present be explained in terms of changing geography. The most probable explanation of Mesozoic equability is an increased atmospheric CO 2 content. A number of enigmas remain, such as the existence of flourishing forests in polar palaeolatitudes. Whereas for the late Cenozoic short-term climatic changes can be related successfully to variations in the geometry and mechanics of the earth-sun system, there is a long way to go before comparable success can be claimed for the Mesozoic.

@article{doi101144gsjgs14230433,
    author = "Hallam, A.",
    title = "A review of Mesozoic climates",
    year = "1985",
    journal = "Journal of the Geological Society",
    abstract = "There is overwhelming evidence, based on the distribution of distinctive sediments and fossils and oxygen isotope data, that the climate of the Mesozoic world was appreciably more equable than that of today, with no polar ice caps, but precise quantitative data are not available. Except for an episode of late Cretaceous cooling there is no good documentation of any significant change in global temperature distributions through the era. The distribution of coals and evaporites, together with other criteria, indicates a pattern of humid arid and zones appreciably different in important respects from that of today. During the Triassic and Jurassic, western Pangaea in low to middle latitudes was largely arid, but in the early Cretaceous the lands on the margin of the newly opening Central Atlantic and western Tethys experienced a humid climate. By late Cretaceous times arid zones had become very restricted in extent. Because of insufficient suitable data, attempts at climatic modelling have had only modest success, and only to a limited extent can the major long-term changes in climate between the Permian and the present be explained in terms of changing geography. The most probable explanation of Mesozoic equability is an increased atmospheric CO 2 content. A number of enigmas remain, such as the existence of flourishing forests in polar palaeolatitudes. Whereas for the late Cenozoic short-term climatic changes can be related successfully to variations in the geometry and mechanics of the earth-sun system, there is a long way to go before comparable success can be claimed for the Mesozoic.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.142.3.0433",
    doi = "10.1144/gsjgs.142.3.0433",
    openalex = "W2048888468",
    references = "crossref1977mesozoic, doi1010160012825277901362, doi1010160012825283900016, doi1010160031018265900131, doi1010160031018280900474, doi1010160031018282900347, doi1010160031018282900852, doi1010160031018284900373, doi1010160031018284900944, doi101029eo063i034p0061804, doi101111j155856461973tb00719x, doi101126science19442701121, doi10113000167606197788390mocebo20co2, doi101146annurevea12050184001225, doi102475ajs2683193, doi102475ajs2837641, openalexw1517697690, openalexw1539997818"
}

Sediments of the early Mesozoic Newark Supergroup of eastern North America consist largely of sedimentary cycles produced by the rise and fall of very large lakes that responded to periodic climate changes controlled by variations in the earth's orbit. Fourier analysis of long sections of the Late Triassic Lockatong and Passaic formations of the Newark Basin show periods in thickness of 5.9, 10.5, 25.2, 32.0, and 96.0 meters corresponding to periodicities in time of roughly 25,000, 44,000, 100,0003,, 13000 and 400,000 years, as judged by radiometric time scales and varve-calibrated sedimentation rates. The ratios of the shortest cycle with longer cycles correspond closely to the ratios of the present periods of the main orbital terms that appear to influence climate. Similar long sequences of sedimentary cycles occur through most of the rest of the Newark Supergroup spanning a period of more than 40 million years. This is strong evidence of orbital forcing of climate in the ice-free early Mesozoic and indicates that the main periods of the orbital cycles were not very different 200 million years ago from those today.

@article{doi101126science2344778842,
    author = "Olsen, Paul E.",
    title = "A 40-Million-Year Lake Record of Early Mesozoic Orbital Climatic Forcing",
    year = "1986",
    journal = "Science",
    abstract = "Sediments of the early Mesozoic Newark Supergroup of eastern North America consist largely of sedimentary cycles produced by the rise and fall of very large lakes that responded to periodic climate changes controlled by variations in the earth's orbit. Fourier analysis of long sections of the Late Triassic Lockatong and Passaic formations of the Newark Basin show periods in thickness of 5.9, 10.5, 25.2, 32.0, and 96.0 meters corresponding to periodicities in time of roughly 25,000, 44,000, 100,0003,, 13000 and 400,000 years, as judged by radiometric time scales and varve-calibrated sedimentation rates. The ratios of the shortest cycle with longer cycles correspond closely to the ratios of the present periods of the main orbital terms that appear to influence climate. Similar long sequences of sedimentary cycles occur through most of the rest of the Newark Supergroup spanning a period of more than 40 million years. This is strong evidence of orbital forcing of climate in the ice-free early Mesozoic and indicates that the main periods of the orbital cycles were not very different 200 million years ago from those today.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/science.234.4778.842",
    doi = "10.1126/science.234.4778.842",
    openalex = "W2035492077",
    references = "doi1010160031018285900562, doi101038269044a0, doi101038304046a0, doi101038317130a0, doi101126science13334591105, doi101126science19442701121, doi10113000917613198311503tdonag20co2, doi101144gsjgs14230433, doi1011751520046919820391177tsotaa20co2, doi102475ajs276101183, doi102475ajs28211, openalexw2088079069"
}

Experiments with general circulation models with no mountains, half mountains and full (modern) mountains show the sensitivity of atmospheric circulation patterns to progressive amounts of uplift. The experiments were motivated by geologic evidence for large, kilometer‐scale uplift in the late Cenozoic in southern Asia and the American west, particularly within the last 10 m.y. In January the amplitude of the mid‐latitude, upper tropospheric planetary waves increased with uplift, and the low‐level winds were progressively blocked or diverted around the topographic features. In July the progressive uplift caused monsoonlike circulations to develop in the vicinity of the Colorado and Tibetan plateaus. Atmospheric heating rates, midtroposphere vertical motion, and upper‐tropospheric planetary wave amplitudes varied approximately linearly with progressive uplift. These results suggest that geologically recent kilometer‐scale uplift may have had climatic consequences comparable in magnitude and pattern to those of earlier stages of uplift. Comparison of the simulated climatic effects of uplift with the geologic evidence for late Cenozoic climatic change, especially for the last 10 m.y., is given in accompanying papers.

@article{doi101029jd094id15p18393,
    author = "Kutzbach, John E. and Guetter, P. J. and Ruddiman, William F and Prell, Warren L",
    title = "Sensitivity of climate to late Cenozoic uplift in southern Asia and the American west: Numerical experiments",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Experiments with general circulation models with no mountains, half mountains and full (modern) mountains show the sensitivity of atmospheric circulation patterns to progressive amounts of uplift. The experiments were motivated by geologic evidence for large, kilometer‐scale uplift in the late Cenozoic in southern Asia and the American west, particularly within the last 10 m.y. In January the amplitude of the mid‐latitude, upper tropospheric planetary waves increased with uplift, and the low‐level winds were progressively blocked or diverted around the topographic features. In July the progressive uplift caused monsoonlike circulations to develop in the vicinity of the Colorado and Tibetan plateaus. Atmospheric heating rates, midtroposphere vertical motion, and upper‐tropospheric planetary wave amplitudes varied approximately linearly with progressive uplift. These results suggest that geologically recent kilometer‐scale uplift may have had climatic consequences comparable in magnitude and pattern to those of earlier stages of uplift. Comparison of the simulated climatic effects of uplift with the geologic evidence for late Cenozoic climatic change, especially for the last 10 m.y., is given in accompanying papers.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jd094id15p18393",
    doi = "10.1029/jd094id15p18393",
    openalex = "W1997735416",
    references = "doi101029jd089id01p01267"
}

Geologic evidence indicates that net vertical uplift occurred on a large (kilometer) scale and at accelerating rates during the middle and late Cenozoic in plateaus of southern Asia and the American west. Based on this evidence, General Circulation Model sensitivity tests were run to isolate the unique effects of plateau uplift on climate. The experiments simulated significant climatic changes in many places, some far from the uplifted regions. The basic direction of most of these simulated responses to progressive uplift is borne out by changes found in the geologic record: winter cooling of North America, northern Europe, northern Asia, and the Arctic Ocean; summer drying of the North American west coast, the Eurasian interior, and the Mediterranean; winter drying of the North American northern plains and the interior of Asia; and changes over the North Atlantic Ocean conducive to increased formation of deep water. The modeled changes result from increased orographic diversion of westerly winds, from cyclonic and anticyclonic surface flow induced by summer heating and winter cooling of the uplifted plateaus, and from the intensification of vertical circulation cells in the atmosphere caused by exchanges of mass between the summer‐heated (and winter‐cooled) plateaus and the mid‐latitude oceans. Disagreements between the geologic record and the model simulations in Alaska and the Southern Rockies and plains may be related mainly to the lack of narrow mountain barriers in the model orography. Taken together, the observed regional trends comprise much of the pattern of “late Cenozoic climatic deterioration” in the northern hemisphere that culminated in the Plio‐Pleistocene ice ages. The success of the uplift sensitivity experiment in simulating the correct pattern and sign of most of the observed regional climatic trends points to uplift as an important forcing function of late Cenozoic climatic change in the northern hemisphere at time scales longer than orbital variations; however, the modest amplitude of the uplift‐induced cooling simulated at high latitudes indicates a probable need for additional climatic forcing.

@article{doi101029jd094id15p18409,
    author = "Ruddiman, William F and Kutzbach, John E.",
    title = "Forcing of late Cenozoic northern hemisphere climate by plateau uplift in southern Asia and the American west",
    year = "1989",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "Geologic evidence indicates that net vertical uplift occurred on a large (kilometer) scale and at accelerating rates during the middle and late Cenozoic in plateaus of southern Asia and the American west. Based on this evidence, General Circulation Model sensitivity tests were run to isolate the unique effects of plateau uplift on climate. The experiments simulated significant climatic changes in many places, some far from the uplifted regions. The basic direction of most of these simulated responses to progressive uplift is borne out by changes found in the geologic record: winter cooling of North America, northern Europe, northern Asia, and the Arctic Ocean; summer drying of the North American west coast, the Eurasian interior, and the Mediterranean; winter drying of the North American northern plains and the interior of Asia; and changes over the North Atlantic Ocean conducive to increased formation of deep water. The modeled changes result from increased orographic diversion of westerly winds, from cyclonic and anticyclonic surface flow induced by summer heating and winter cooling of the uplifted plateaus, and from the intensification of vertical circulation cells in the atmosphere caused by exchanges of mass between the summer‐heated (and winter‐cooled) plateaus and the mid‐latitude oceans. Disagreements between the geologic record and the model simulations in Alaska and the Southern Rockies and plains may be related mainly to the lack of narrow mountain barriers in the model orography. Taken together, the observed regional trends comprise much of the pattern of “late Cenozoic climatic deterioration” in the northern hemisphere that culminated in the Plio‐Pleistocene ice ages. The success of the uplift sensitivity experiment in simulating the correct pattern and sign of most of the observed regional climatic trends points to uplift as an important forcing function of late Cenozoic climatic change in the northern hemisphere at time scales longer than orbital variations; however, the modest amplitude of the uplift‐induced cooling simulated at high latitudes indicates a probable need for additional climatic forcing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/jd094id15p18409",
    doi = "10.1029/jd094id15p18409",
    openalex = "W2052368906",
    references = "crossref194241, doi101007bf02861083, doi1010160012825272900384, doi101029jd089id01p01267, doi101029pa002i001p00001, doi101038300321a0, doi101038307429a0, doi101038334333a0, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science2094456557, doi101130001676061951621111ghosw20co2, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi1011751520046919750321515tromit20co2, doi101357002224083788520207, doi102475ajs2837641, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi103402tellusav1i28500"
}

Abstract The northern Gulf of Mexico Basin, although one of the most intensely studied and explored regions in North America, is also one of the most structurally complex (Figs. 1 and 2). Cenozoic depocenters contain abundant growth faults of a variety of shapes, orientations, sizes, and complexities. In addition, salt domes, flows, and massifs combine to form a complex near-surface pattern that tends to mask the origins of many structures. Not surprisingly, a number of contrasting hypotheses have been proposed to explain the growth faults of this region, among them theories invoking shale diapirism, shale compaction, gravity gliding, salt diapirism, and salt flow. Clearly, the best way to understand the various origins of these features is to observe their structural underpinnings at depth; unfortunately, most of the large growth fault systems of the Texas and Louisiana shelf project below the bottoms of seismic lines of 6- or 7-sec record length. However, as will be discussed in this chapter, deep seismic data now available from the Louisiana slope greatly illuminate the spectacular structural development of this province. In addition, palinspastic reconstructions are useful for analyzing the structural development of these features, and for constraining hypotheses on their origins. Prior to discussing the Cenozoic tectonic development of the northern Gulf of Mexico—the main focus of this chapter—we will briefly review the pre-Cenozoic framework and basic Cenozoic depositional patterns of the Gulf of Mexico Basin, both of which influenced Cenozoic structural styles. The Gulf of Mexico Basin (Fig. 1) was initiated in the late Middle to early Late Jurassic as a result of crustal attenuation and sea-floor spreading associated with the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea.

@incollection{doi101130dnaggnaa97,
    author = "Worrall, Dan M. and Snelson, S.",
    title = "Evolution of the northern Gulf of Mexico, with emphasis on Cenozoic growth faulting and the role of salt",
    year = "1989",
    booktitle = "Geological Society of America eBooks",
    abstract = "Abstract The northern Gulf of Mexico Basin, although one of the most intensely studied and explored regions in North America, is also one of the most structurally complex (Figs. 1 and 2). Cenozoic depocenters contain abundant growth faults of a variety of shapes, orientations, sizes, and complexities. In addition, salt domes, flows, and massifs combine to form a complex near-surface pattern that tends to mask the origins of many structures. Not surprisingly, a number of contrasting hypotheses have been proposed to explain the growth faults of this region, among them theories invoking shale diapirism, shale compaction, gravity gliding, salt diapirism, and salt flow. Clearly, the best way to understand the various origins of these features is to observe their structural underpinnings at depth; unfortunately, most of the large growth fault systems of the Texas and Louisiana shelf project below the bottoms of seismic lines of 6- or 7-sec record length. However, as will be discussed in this chapter, deep seismic data now available from the Louisiana slope greatly illuminate the spectacular structural development of this province. In addition, palinspastic reconstructions are useful for analyzing the structural development of these features, and for constraining hypotheses on their origins. Prior to discussing the Cenozoic tectonic development of the northern Gulf of Mexico—the main focus of this chapter—we will briefly review the pre-Cenozoic framework and basic Cenozoic depositional patterns of the Gulf of Mexico Basin, both of which influenced Cenozoic structural styles. The Gulf of Mexico Basin (Fig. 1) was initiated in the late Middle to early Late Jurassic as a result of crustal attenuation and sea-floor spreading associated with the breakup of the supercontinent Pangea.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1130/dnag-gna-a.97",
    doi = "10.1130/dnag-gna-a.97",
    openalex = "W2488817644",
    references = "doi1010800072139519759989753, doi10113000167606198394941teomaa20co2, doi10130603b5a2f516d111d78645000102c1865d, doi1013060bda5a8316bd11d78645000102c1865d"
}

Abstract We review the highlights of the 1988 symposium on Palaeozoic Biogeography and Palaeogeography, and present a revised set of 20 Palaeozoic base maps that incorporate much of the new data presented at the symposium. The maps include 5 major innovations: (1) A preliminary attempt has been made to describe the motion of the Cathaysian terranes during the Palaeozoic; (2) a more detailed description of the events surrounding the Iapetus Ocean is presented; (3) an alternative apparent polar wandering path for Gondwana has been constructed using the changing distributions of palaeoclimatically restricted lithofacies; (4) new palaeomagnetic data have been incorporated that places Laurentia and Baltica at more southerly latitudes, and adjacent to Gondwana, during the Early Devonian; Siberia is also placed further south in the light of biogeographic data presented at the symposium; (5) Kazakhstan is treated as a westward extension of Siberia, rather than as a separate palaeocontinent. The relationships between climatic changes, sea level changes, evolutionary radiations and intercontinental migrations are discussed

@article{doi101144gslmem19900120101,
    author = "Scotese, Christopher R. and McKerrow, W. S.",
    title = "Revised World maps and introduction",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geological Society London Memoirs",
    abstract = "Abstract We review the highlights of the 1988 symposium on Palaeozoic Biogeography and Palaeogeography, and present a revised set of 20 Palaeozoic base maps that incorporate much of the new data presented at the symposium. The maps include 5 major innovations: (1) A preliminary attempt has been made to describe the motion of the Cathaysian terranes during the Palaeozoic; (2) a more detailed description of the events surrounding the Iapetus Ocean is presented; (3) an alternative apparent polar wandering path for Gondwana has been constructed using the changing distributions of palaeoclimatically restricted lithofacies; (4) new palaeomagnetic data have been incorporated that places Laurentia and Baltica at more southerly latitudes, and adjacent to Gondwana, during the Early Devonian; Siberia is also placed further south in the light of biogeographic data presented at the symposium; (5) Kazakhstan is treated as a westward extension of Siberia, rather than as a separate palaeocontinent. The relationships between climatic changes, sea level changes, evolutionary radiations and intercontinental migrations are discussed",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.mem.1990.012.01.01",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.mem.1990.012.01.01",
    openalex = "W2128500185",
    references = "doi1010160012821x84900177, doi1010160040195188902594, doi101029jd094id03p03341, doi101038226243a0, doi101086628336, doi101086628416, doi101111j155856461973tb00719x, doi101130001676061985961020mogcag20co2, doi101130spe195p1, doi101146annurevea15050187001241, openalexw353142951, openalexw630270902"
}

Abstract It has been suggested that in a number of places such as Greece, Turkey, the Central Pamirs, and Thailand Neo-Tethys may have opened as a back-arc basin above a Palaeo-Tethyan subduction zone. The purpose of this paper is to test a similar suggestion for Oman. I review the late Palaeozoic to end-Mesozoic tectonic evolution of the Middle Eastern Tethysides in terms of a new tectonic model, whose main tenet is to regard the late Palaeozoic to Late Triassic basements of the Pontide/Dzirula/Adzharia-Trialeti/Arvin-Karabagh/Sanandaj — Sirjan zones collectively as a NNE-facing Palaeo-Tethyan magmatic arc, here named the ‘Podataksasi arc’ (or ‘zone’) whose Jurassic—Cretaceous movement with respect to Eurasia was responsible for much of the coeval deformation in Iran and Transcaucasia. The late Palaeozoic deformation of the Omani basement is regarded as a part of the retroarc fold and thrust belt of this arc and therefore independent of the Hercynides in Europe and NW Africa. The arc may have been compressional in late Carboniferous to possibly early Permian time and turned extensional in the earlier middle Permian. As a result, it rifted from NE Gondwana-Land, opening, successively, the Hawasina basin in the middle Permian and the main Neo-Tethyan ocean in the Triassic, together forming the ‘Omani Neo-Tethyan back-arc basin complex’. Nearly all of the tectonic and magmatic characteristics of this basin complex are compatible with a back-arc basin interpretation, except perhaps the anomalously far inland location of the initial rift axis. A rather complete Mesozoic tectonic history of the entire Middle Eastern Tethysides is given to justify the model presented.

@article{doi101144gslsp19920490149,
    author = "Şengör, A. M. Celâl",
    title = "A new model for the late Palaeozoic—Mesozoic tectonic evolution of Iran and implications for Oman",
    year = "1990",
    journal = "Geological Society London Special Publications",
    abstract = "Abstract It has been suggested that in a number of places such as Greece, Turkey, the Central Pamirs, and Thailand Neo-Tethys may have opened as a back-arc basin above a Palaeo-Tethyan subduction zone. The purpose of this paper is to test a similar suggestion for Oman. I review the late Palaeozoic to end-Mesozoic tectonic evolution of the Middle Eastern Tethysides in terms of a new tectonic model, whose main tenet is to regard the late Palaeozoic to Late Triassic basements of the Pontide/Dzirula/Adzharia-Trialeti/Arvin-Karabagh/Sanandaj — Sirjan zones collectively as a NNE-facing Palaeo-Tethyan magmatic arc, here named the ‘Podataksasi arc’ (or ‘zone’) whose Jurassic—Cretaceous movement with respect to Eurasia was responsible for much of the coeval deformation in Iran and Transcaucasia. The late Palaeozoic deformation of the Omani basement is regarded as a part of the retroarc fold and thrust belt of this arc and therefore independent of the Hercynides in Europe and NW Africa. The arc may have been compressional in late Carboniferous to possibly early Permian time and turned extensional in the earlier middle Permian. As a result, it rifted from NE Gondwana-Land, opening, successively, the Hawasina basin in the middle Permian and the main Neo-Tethyan ocean in the Triassic, together forming the ‘Omani Neo-Tethyan back-arc basin complex’. Nearly all of the tectonic and magmatic characteristics of this basin complex are compatible with a back-arc basin interpretation, except perhaps the anomalously far inland location of the initial rift axis. A rather complete Mesozoic tectonic history of the entire Middle Eastern Tethysides is given to justify the model presented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1992.049.01.49",
    doi = "10.1144/gsl.sp.1992.049.01.49",
    openalex = "W2019114317"
}

We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.

@article{doi10102992jb01202,
    author = "Cande, S. C. and Kent, Dennis V.",
    title = "A new geomagnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres",
    abstract = "We have constructed a magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic based on an analysis of marine magnetic profiles from the world's ocean basins. This is the first time, since Heirtzler et al. (1968) published their time scale, that the relative widths of the magnetic polarity intervals for the entire Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic have been systematically determined from magnetic profiles. A composite geomagnetic polarity sequence was derived based primarily on data from the South Atlantic. Anomaly spacings in the South Atlantic were constrained by a combination of finite rotation poles and averages of stacked profiles. Fine‐scale information was derived from magnetic profiles on faster spreading ridges in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and inserted into the South Atlantic sequence. Based on the assumption that spreading rates in the South Atlantic were smoothly varying but not necessarily constant, a time scale was generated by using a spline function to fit a set of nine age calibration points plus the zero‐age ridge axis to the composite polarity sequence. The derived spreading history of the South Atlantic shows a regular variation in spreading rate, decreasing in the Late Cretaceous from a high of almost 70 mm/yr (full rate) at around anomaly 33–34 time to a low of about 30 mm/yr by anomaly 27 time in the early Paleocene, increasing to about 55 mm/yr by about anomaly 15 time in the late Eocene, and then gradually decreasing over the Oligocene and the Neogene to the recent rate of about 32 mm/yr. The new time scale has several significant differences from previous time scales. For example, chron C5n is ∼0.5 m.y. older and chrons C9 through C24 are 2–3 m.y. younger than in the chronologies of Berggren et al. (1985b) and Harland et al. (1990). Additional small‐scale anomalies (tiny wiggles) that represent either very short polarity intervals or intensity fluctuations of the dipole field have been identified from several intervals in the Cenozoic including a large number of tiny wiggles between anomalies 24 and 27. Spreading rates on several other ridges, including the Southeast Indian Ridge, the East Pacific Rise, the Pacific‐Antarctic Ridge, the Chile Ridge, the North Pacific, and the Central Atlantic, were analyzed in order to evaluate the accuracy of the new time scale. Globally synchronous variations in spreading rate that were previously observed around anomalies 20, 6C, and in the late Neogene have been eliminated. The new time scale helps to resolve events at the times of major plate reorganizations. For example, anomaly 3A (5.6 Ma) is now seen to be a time of sudden spreading rate changes in the Southeast Indian, Pacific‐Antarctic, and Chile ridges and may correspond to the time of the change in Pacific absolute plate motion proposed by others. Spreading rates in the North Pacific became increasingly irregular in the Oligocene, culminating in a precipitous drop at anomaly 6C time.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/92jb01202",
    doi = "10.1029/92jb01202",
    openalex = "W2096557357",
    references = "doi1010160012821x9190206w, doi101017s0263593300020782, doi101029jb073i006p02119, doi101029jb083ib11p05331, doi101029jb084ib02p00615, doi101038199947a0, doi101126science15437531164, doi10113000167606197788367ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788374ucmsag20co2, doi10113000167606197788383ucmsag20co2, doi101130001676061985961407cg20co2, doi101130dnaggnam351, doi101144gslmem19850100115, doi1015159781400862924, doi102110pec88010071, openalexw2989049194, openalexw638747108"
}

@article{doi101016026481729390104z,
    author = "Faleide, Jan Inge and Vågnes, Erling and Guðlaugsson, Steinar Þór",
    title = "Late Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of the south-western Barents Sea in a regional rift-shear tectonic setting",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8172(93)90104-z",
    doi = "10.1016/0264-8172(93)90104-z",
    openalex = "W2029868086",
    references = "doi10113000167606197788969eotns20co2, doi101306c1ea4f8616c911d78645000102c1865d"
}

Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratrigraphy of European Basins - This project was designed to build a documented chronostratigraphic and outcrop record of depositional sequences calibrated across European Basins. Data on standard stages, magnetostratigraphy, and geochronology integrated with high resolution biostratigraphy calibrate the stratigraphic position of depositional sequence boundaries. Higher order eustatic sequences show a significant increase in the number identified. A good portion of the European Mesozoic and Cenozoic succession is set in a sequence stratigraphic context with a better stratigraphic record of its bonding surfaces.

@incollection{doi102110pec98020003,
    author = "Hardenbol, Jan and Thierry, Jacques and Farley, Martin and Jacquin, Thierry and Graciansky, Pierre-Charles De and Vail, Peter R.",
    title = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Chronostratigraphic Framework of European Basins",
    year = "1999",
    booktitle = "SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) eBooks",
    abstract = "Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratrigraphy of European Basins - This project was designed to build a documented chronostratigraphic and outcrop record of depositional sequences calibrated across European Basins. Data on standard stages, magnetostratigraphy, and geochronology integrated with high resolution biostratigraphy calibrate the stratigraphic position of depositional sequence boundaries. Higher order eustatic sequences show a significant increase in the number identified. A good portion of the European Mesozoic and Cenozoic succession is set in a sequence stratigraphic context with a better stratigraphic record of its bonding surfaces.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.98.02.0003",
    doi = "10.2110/pec.98.02.0003",
    openalex = "W2200214261"
}

The concept of ‘Gondwana’, an ancient Southern Hemisphere supercontinent, is firmly established in geological and biogeographical models of Earth history. The term Gondwana (Gondwanaland of some authors) derives from the recognition by workers at the Indian Geological Survey in the mid- to late 19th century of a distinctive sedimentary sequence preserved in east central India. This succession, now known to range in age from Permian to Cretaceous, is lithologically and palaeontologically similar to coeval non-marine sedimentary successions developed in most of the Southern Hemisphere continents suggesting former continuity of these landmasses. Palaeomagnetic data and tectonic reconstructions suggest that the main assembly of Gondwana took place around the beginning of the Palaeozoic in near-equatorial latitudes and that the supercontinent as a whole shifted into high southern latitudes, allowing widespread glaciation by the end of the Carboniferous. From Carboniferous to Cretaceous times the southern continents had broadly similar floras but some species-level provincialism is apparent at all times. The break-up of Gondwana initiated during the Jurassic (at about 180 million years ago) and this process is continuing. The earliest rifting (crustal attenuation) within the supercontinent initiated in the west (between South America and Africa) and in general terms the rifting pattern propagated eastward with major phases of continental fragmentation in the Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. Gondwanan floras show radical turnovers near the end of the Carboniferous, end of the Permian and the end of the Triassic that appear to be unrelated to isolation or fragmentation of the supercontinent. Throughout the late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic the high-latitude southern floras maintained a distinctly different composition to the palaeoequatorial and boreal regions even though they remained in physical connection with Laurasia for much of this time. Gondwanan floras of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (times immediately preceding and during break-up) were dominated by araucarian and podocarp conifers and a range of enigmatic seed-fern groups. Angiosperms became established in the region as early as the Aptian (before the final break-up events) and steadily diversified during the Cretaceous, apparently at the expense of many seed-fern groups. Hypotheses invoking vicariance or long distance dispersal to account for the biogeographic patterns evident in the floras of Southern Hemisphere continents all rely on a firm understanding of the timing and sequence of Gondwanan continental breakup. This paper aims to summarise the current understanding of the geochronological framework of Gondwanan breakup against which these biogeographic models may be tested. Most phytogeographic studies deal with the extant, angiosperm-dominated floras of these landmasses. This paper also presents an overview of pre-Cenozoic, gymnosperm-dominated, floristic provincialism in Gondwana. It documents the broad succession of pre-angiosperm floras, highlights the distinctive elements of the Early Cretaceous Gondwanan floras immediately preceding the appearance of angiosperms and suggests that latitudinal controls strongly influenced the composition of Gondwanan floras through time even in the absence of marine barriers between Gondwana and the northern continents.

@article{doi101071bt00023,
    author = "McLoughlin, Stephen",
    title = "The breakup history of Gondwana and its impact on pre-Cenozoic floristic provincialism",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Australian Journal of Botany",
    abstract = "The concept of ‘Gondwana’, an ancient Southern Hemisphere supercontinent, is firmly established in geological and biogeographical models of Earth history. The term Gondwana (Gondwanaland of some authors) derives from the recognition by workers at the Indian Geological Survey in the mid- to late 19th century of a distinctive sedimentary sequence preserved in east central India. This succession, now known to range in age from Permian to Cretaceous, is lithologically and palaeontologically similar to coeval non-marine sedimentary successions developed in most of the Southern Hemisphere continents suggesting former continuity of these landmasses. Palaeomagnetic data and tectonic reconstructions suggest that the main assembly of Gondwana took place around the beginning of the Palaeozoic in near-equatorial latitudes and that the supercontinent as a whole shifted into high southern latitudes, allowing widespread glaciation by the end of the Carboniferous. From Carboniferous to Cretaceous times the southern continents had broadly similar floras but some species-level provincialism is apparent at all times. The break-up of Gondwana initiated during the Jurassic (at about 180 million years ago) and this process is continuing. The earliest rifting (crustal attenuation) within the supercontinent initiated in the west (between South America and Africa) and in general terms the rifting pattern propagated eastward with major phases of continental fragmentation in the Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous to Paleogene. Gondwanan floras show radical turnovers near the end of the Carboniferous, end of the Permian and the end of the Triassic that appear to be unrelated to isolation or fragmentation of the supercontinent. Throughout the late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic the high-latitude southern floras maintained a distinctly different composition to the palaeoequatorial and boreal regions even though they remained in physical connection with Laurasia for much of this time. Gondwanan floras of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (times immediately preceding and during break-up) were dominated by araucarian and podocarp conifers and a range of enigmatic seed-fern groups. Angiosperms became established in the region as early as the Aptian (before the final break-up events) and steadily diversified during the Cretaceous, apparently at the expense of many seed-fern groups. Hypotheses invoking vicariance or long distance dispersal to account for the biogeographic patterns evident in the floras of Southern Hemisphere continents all rely on a firm understanding of the timing and sequence of Gondwanan continental breakup. This paper aims to summarise the current understanding of the geochronological framework of Gondwanan breakup against which these biogeographic models may be tested. Most phytogeographic studies deal with the extant, angiosperm-dominated floras of these landmasses. This paper also presents an overview of pre-Cenozoic, gymnosperm-dominated, floristic provincialism in Gondwana. It documents the broad succession of pre-angiosperm floras, highlights the distinctive elements of the Early Cretaceous Gondwanan floras immediately preceding the appearance of angiosperms and suggests that latitudinal controls strongly influenced the composition of Gondwanan floras through time even in the absence of marine barriers between Gondwana and the northern continents.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1071/bt00023",
    doi = "10.1071/bt00023",
    openalex = "W1860957168",
    references = "crossref1974the, doi101007bf02860537, doi1010160012821x89900186, doi1010160031018284900373, doi1010160034666776900531, doi1010160034666782900410, doi101017s0016756800008268, doi10102993pa03266, doi101029gm032, doi101038230042a0, doi101038333547a0, doi10108003115517708527763, doi101080037362451938105591187, doi101111j150239311987tb02026x, doi10113000167606198798475lpgeig20co2, doi1011300091761319950230407scirpo23co2, doi101130spe195p1, doi101144gslmem19900120101, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi105962bhltitle118957, openalexw1549706842, openalexw2135985426"
}

This paper reviews the opportunities and pitfalls associated with using clay mineralogical analysis in palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Following this, conjunctive methods of improving the reliability of clay mineralogical analysis are reviewed. The Mesozoic succession of NW Europe is employed as a case study. This demonstrates the relationship between clay mineralogy and palaeoclimate. Proxy analyses may be integrated with clay mineralogical analysis to provide an assessment of aridity-humidity contrasts in the hinterland climate. As an example, the abundance of kaolinite through the Mesozoic shows that, while interpretations may be difficult, the Mesozoic climate of NW Europe was subject to great changes in rates of continental precipitation. We may compare sedimentological (facies, mineralogy, geochemistry) indicators of palaeoprecipitation with palaeotemperature estimates. The integration of clay mineralogical analyses with other sedimentological proxy indicators of palaeoclimate allows differentiation of palaeoclimatic effects from those of sea-level and tectonic change. We may also observe how widespread palaeoclimate changes were; whether they were diachronous or synchronous; how climate, sea level and tectonics interact to control sedimentary facies and what palaeoclimate indicators are reliable.

@article{doi101098rsta20010961,
    author = "Ruffell, Alastair and McKinley, Jennifer and Worden, Richard H.",
    title = "Comparison of clay mineral stratigraphy to other proxy palaeoclimate indicators in the Mesozoic of NW Europe",
    year = "2002",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences",
    abstract = "This paper reviews the opportunities and pitfalls associated with using clay mineralogical analysis in palaeoclimatic reconstructions. Following this, conjunctive methods of improving the reliability of clay mineralogical analysis are reviewed. The Mesozoic succession of NW Europe is employed as a case study. This demonstrates the relationship between clay mineralogy and palaeoclimate. Proxy analyses may be integrated with clay mineralogical analysis to provide an assessment of aridity-humidity contrasts in the hinterland climate. As an example, the abundance of kaolinite through the Mesozoic shows that, while interpretations may be difficult, the Mesozoic climate of NW Europe was subject to great changes in rates of continental precipitation. We may compare sedimentological (facies, mineralogy, geochemistry) indicators of palaeoprecipitation with palaeotemperature estimates. The integration of clay mineralogical analyses with other sedimentological proxy indicators of palaeoclimate allows differentiation of palaeoclimatic effects from those of sea-level and tectonic change. We may also observe how widespread palaeoclimate changes were; whether they were diachronous or synchronous; how climate, sea level and tectonics interact to control sedimentary facies and what palaeoclimate indicators are reliable.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2001.0961",
    doi = "10.1098/rsta.2001.0961",
    openalex = "W2143595942",
    references = "doi101016b9780444429032500087, doi101016s0016787898800667, doi101017s0016756800008268, doi101126science23848311237"
}

The best-documented example of rapid climate change that characterized the so-called 'greenhouse world' took place at the time of the Palaeocene-Eocene boundary: introduction of isotopically light carbon into the ocean-atmosphere system, accompanied by global warming of 5-8 degrees C across a range of latitudes, took place over a few thousand years. Dissociation, release and oxidation of gas hydrates from continental-margin sites and the consequent rapid global warming from the input of greenhouses gases are generally credited with causing the abrupt negative excursions in carbon- and oxygen-isotope ratios. The isotopic anomalies, as recorded in foraminifera, propagated downwards from the shallowest levels of the ocean, implying that considerable quantities of methane survived upward transit through the water column to oxidize in the atmosphere. In the Mesozoic Era, a number of similar events have been recognized, of which those at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, in the early Toarcian (Jurassic) and in the early Aptian (Cretaceous) currently carry the best documentation for dramatic rises in temperature. In these three examples, and in other less well-documented cases, the lack of a definitive time-scale for the intervals in question hinders calculation of the rate of environmental change. However, comparison with the Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) suggests that these older examples could have been similarly rapid. In both the early Toarcian and early Aptian cases, the negative carbon-isotope excursion precedes global excess carbon burial across a range of marine environments, a phenomenon that defines these intervals as oceanic anoxic events (OAEs). Osmium-isotope ratios ((187)Os/(188)Os) for both the early Toarcian OAE and the PETM show an excursion to more radiogenic values, demonstrating an increase in weathering and erosion of continental crust consonant with elevated temperatures. The more highly buffered strontium-isotope system ((87)Sr/(86)Sr) also shows relatively more radiogenic signatures during the early Toarcian OAE, but the early Aptian and Cenomanian-Turonian OAEs show the reverse effect, implying that increased rates of sea-floor spreading and hydrothermal activity dominated over continental weathering in governing sea-water chemistry. The Cretaceous climatic optimum (late Cenomanian to mid Turonian) also shows evidence for abrupt cooling episodes characterized by episodic invasion of boreal faunas into temperate and subtropical regions and changes in terrestrial vegetation; drawdown of CO(2) related to massive marine carbon burial (OAE) may be implicated here. The absence of a pronounced negative carbon-isotope excursion preceding the Cenomanian-Turonian OAE indicates that methane release is not necessarily connected to global deposition of marine organic carbon, but relative thermal maxima are common to all OAEs. 'Cold snaps' have also been identified from the Mesozoic record but their duration, causes and effects are poorly documented.

@article{doi101098rsta20031240,
    author = "Jenkyns, Hugh C.",
    title = "Evidence for rapid climate change in the Mesozoic–Palaeogene greenhouse world",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences",
    abstract = "The best-documented example of rapid climate change that characterized the so-called 'greenhouse world' took place at the time of the Palaeocene-Eocene boundary: introduction of isotopically light carbon into the ocean-atmosphere system, accompanied by global warming of 5-8 degrees C across a range of latitudes, took place over a few thousand years. Dissociation, release and oxidation of gas hydrates from continental-margin sites and the consequent rapid global warming from the input of greenhouses gases are generally credited with causing the abrupt negative excursions in carbon- and oxygen-isotope ratios. The isotopic anomalies, as recorded in foraminifera, propagated downwards from the shallowest levels of the ocean, implying that considerable quantities of methane survived upward transit through the water column to oxidize in the atmosphere. In the Mesozoic Era, a number of similar events have been recognized, of which those at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, in the early Toarcian (Jurassic) and in the early Aptian (Cretaceous) currently carry the best documentation for dramatic rises in temperature. In these three examples, and in other less well-documented cases, the lack of a definitive time-scale for the intervals in question hinders calculation of the rate of environmental change. However, comparison with the Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) suggests that these older examples could have been similarly rapid. In both the early Toarcian and early Aptian cases, the negative carbon-isotope excursion precedes global excess carbon burial across a range of marine environments, a phenomenon that defines these intervals as oceanic anoxic events (OAEs). Osmium-isotope ratios ((187)Os/(188)Os) for both the early Toarcian OAE and the PETM show an excursion to more radiogenic values, demonstrating an increase in weathering and erosion of continental crust consonant with elevated temperatures. The more highly buffered strontium-isotope system ((87)Sr/(86)Sr) also shows relatively more radiogenic signatures during the early Toarcian OAE, but the early Aptian and Cenomanian-Turonian OAEs show the reverse effect, implying that increased rates of sea-floor spreading and hydrothermal activity dominated over continental weathering in governing sea-water chemistry. The Cretaceous climatic optimum (late Cenomanian to mid Turonian) also shows evidence for abrupt cooling episodes characterized by episodic invasion of boreal faunas into temperate and subtropical regions and changes in terrestrial vegetation; drawdown of CO(2) related to massive marine carbon burial (OAE) may be implicated here. The absence of a pronounced negative carbon-isotope excursion preceding the Cenomanian-Turonian OAE indicates that methane release is not necessarily connected to global deposition of marine organic carbon, but relative thermal maxima are common to all OAEs. 'Cold snaps' have also been identified from the Mesozoic record but their duration, causes and effects are poorly documented.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2003.1240",
    doi = "10.1098/rsta.2003.1240",
    openalex = "W1985260036",
    references = "doi1010079789401149020, doi101007bf01821208, doi1010160195667188900031, doi101016s0012825299000483, doi101016s0016703702010359, doi1010292001pa000623, doi101038333547a0, doi101046j13653121200000295x, doi1011300016760619951071164mlccot23co2, doi1011300091761320020300123dsproe20co2, doi1011300091761320020300251tameat20co2, doi101144gsjgs14230433, doi101144gsjgs15450773, doi102475ajs2995341"
}

@article{doi101016jtecto200206004,
    author = "Golonka, Jan",
    title = "Plate tectonic evolution of the southern margin of Eurasia in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Tectonophysics",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2002.06.004",
    doi = "10.1016/j.tecto.2002.06.004",
    openalex = "W1967831326"
}

In today's angiosperm-dominated terrestrial ecosystems, leptosporangiate ferns are truly exceptional--accounting for 80% of the approximately 11,000 nonflowering vascular plant species. Recent studies have shown that this remarkable diversity is mostly the result of a major leptosporangiate radiation beginning in the Cretaceous, following the rise of angiosperms. This pattern is suggestive of an ecological opportunistic response, with the proliferation of flowering plants across the landscape resulting in the formation of many new niches--both on forest floors and within forest canopies--into which leptosporangiate ferns could diversify. At present, one-third of leptosporangiate species grow as epiphytes in the canopies of angiosperm-dominated tropical rain forests. However, we know too little about the evolutionary history of epiphytic ferns to assess whether or not their diversification was in fact linked to the establishment of these forests, as would be predicted by the ecological opportunistic response hypothesis. Here we provide new insight into leptosporangiate diversification and the evolution of epiphytism by integrating a 400-taxon molecular dataset with an expanded set of fossil age constraints. We find evidence for a burst of fern diversification in the Cenozoic, apparently driven by the evolution of epiphytism. Whether this explosive radiation was triggered simply by the establishment of modern angiosperm-dominated tropical rain forest canopies, or spurred on by some other large-scale extrinsic factor (e.g., climate change) remains to be determined. In either case, it is clear that in both the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, leptosporangiate ferns were adept at exploiting newly created niches in angiosperm-dominated ecosystems.

@article{doi101073pnas0811136106,
    author = "Schuettpelz, Eric and Pryer, Kathleen M.",
    title = "Evidence for a Cenozoic radiation of ferns in an angiosperm-dominated canopy",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences",
    abstract = "In today's angiosperm-dominated terrestrial ecosystems, leptosporangiate ferns are truly exceptional--accounting for 80\% of the approximately 11,000 nonflowering vascular plant species. Recent studies have shown that this remarkable diversity is mostly the result of a major leptosporangiate radiation beginning in the Cretaceous, following the rise of angiosperms. This pattern is suggestive of an ecological opportunistic response, with the proliferation of flowering plants across the landscape resulting in the formation of many new niches--both on forest floors and within forest canopies--into which leptosporangiate ferns could diversify. At present, one-third of leptosporangiate species grow as epiphytes in the canopies of angiosperm-dominated tropical rain forests. However, we know too little about the evolutionary history of epiphytic ferns to assess whether or not their diversification was in fact linked to the establishment of these forests, as would be predicted by the ecological opportunistic response hypothesis. Here we provide new insight into leptosporangiate diversification and the evolution of epiphytism by integrating a 400-taxon molecular dataset with an expanded set of fossil age constraints. We find evidence for a burst of fern diversification in the Cenozoic, apparently driven by the evolution of epiphytism. Whether this explosive radiation was triggered simply by the establishment of modern angiosperm-dominated tropical rain forest canopies, or spurred on by some other large-scale extrinsic factor (e.g., climate change) remains to be determined. In either case, it is clear that in both the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, leptosporangiate ferns were adept at exploiting newly created niches in angiosperm-dominated ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811136106",
    doi = "10.1073/pnas.0811136106",
    openalex = "W2116365923",
    references = "doi101016003101828790040x, doi101038303614a0, doi101146annurevearth261379, doi1023072399395"
}

Abstract Aim I re‐evaluate the specific biogeographical significance of each of the land bridges (Beringia, Thulean and De Geer) in the Northern Hemisphere during the latest Cretaceous–early Cenozoic, showing that the Thulean and De Geer routes did not operate contemporaneously. Location Northern Hemisphere landmasses. Methods I review the recent climatic, sea‐level, geotectonic, palaeofloristic, and marine and terrestrial faunal data that have emerged since the establishment in the 1980s of the biogeographical concepts of the early Cenozoic Northern Hemisphere land bridges and present a synthesis supporting a revised scenario for early Cenozoic biogeographical development. Results Palaeogeographical and geotectonic data, supported by strong floral and faunal evidence, suggest that the palaeogeographical and chronological frames for the formation of all three land bridges are different from those originally proposed. Dispersal events via the causeways seem to have taken place during specific time intervals resulting from fluctuations in sea level and climate. Main conclusions The De Geer and Thulean routes were not contemporaneous. The former existed during the latest Cretaceous to the early Palaeocene, joining North America with Eurasia. The Thulean route became established well after the interruption of the De Geer route, offering a southerly connection between western Europe and North America in at least two episodes: c. 57 Ma and c. 56 Ma. The Bering route functioned in two warm periods: 65.5 Ma (coinciding with the De Geer route) and c. 58 Ma, during the Palaeocene (possible Eocene exposures are not considered here). The formation of the De Geer route explains faunal similarities between the Puercan and Torrejonian North American land mammal ages (NALMA s) and the Shanghuan Asian land mammal age (ALMA). The Thulean route explains faunal similarities between the Clarkforkian (Cf1) and Wasatchian (Wa0, 1) NALMA s, and the Cernaysian and Neustrian (PE I, II) European land mammal ages. The Bering route explains faunal similarities between the Gashatan ALMA and the Tiffanian (Ti5) NALMA.

@article{doi101111jbi12310,
    author = "Brikiatis, Leonidas",
    title = "The De Geer, Thulean and Beringia routes: key concepts for understanding early Cenozoic biogeography",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Journal of Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Aim I re‐evaluate the specific biogeographical significance of each of the land bridges (Beringia, Thulean and De Geer) in the Northern Hemisphere during the latest Cretaceous–early Cenozoic, showing that the Thulean and De Geer routes did not operate contemporaneously. Location Northern Hemisphere landmasses. Methods I review the recent climatic, sea‐level, geotectonic, palaeofloristic, and marine and terrestrial faunal data that have emerged since the establishment in the 1980s of the biogeographical concepts of the early Cenozoic Northern Hemisphere land bridges and present a synthesis supporting a revised scenario for early Cenozoic biogeographical development. Results Palaeogeographical and geotectonic data, supported by strong floral and faunal evidence, suggest that the palaeogeographical and chronological frames for the formation of all three land bridges are different from those originally proposed. Dispersal events via the causeways seem to have taken place during specific time intervals resulting from fluctuations in sea level and climate. Main conclusions The De Geer and Thulean routes were not contemporaneous. The former existed during the latest Cretaceous to the early Palaeocene, joining North America with Eurasia. The Thulean route became established well after the interruption of the De Geer route, offering a southerly connection between western Europe and North America in at least two episodes: c. 57 Ma and c. 56 Ma. The Bering route functioned in two warm periods: 65.5 Ma (coinciding with the De Geer route) and c. 58 Ma, during the Palaeocene (possible Eocene exposures are not considered here). The formation of the De Geer route explains faunal similarities between the Puercan and Torrejonian North American land mammal ages (NALMA s) and the Shanghuan Asian land mammal age (ALMA). The Thulean route explains faunal similarities between the Clarkforkian (Cf1) and Wasatchian (Wa0, 1) NALMA s, and the Cernaysian and Neustrian (PE I, II) European land mammal ages. The Bering route explains faunal similarities between the Gashatan ALMA and the Tiffanian (Ti5) NALMA.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12310",
    doi = "10.1111/jbi.12310",
    openalex = "W2043843664",
    references = "doi101007s0011400804990, doi101016jpalaeo201002025, doi1011300813723604333, doi101130spe243p71, doi101371journalpone0020011, doi1016660022336020060800162oapsoe20co2, doi1023072992083"
}

Using Pacific benthic foraminiferal δ 18 O and Mg/Ca records, we derive a Cenozoic (66 Ma) global mean sea level (GMSL) estimate that records evolution from an ice-free Early Eocene to Quaternary bipolar ice sheets. These GMSL estimates are statistically similar to "backstripped" estimates from continental margins accounting for compaction, loading, and thermal subsidence. Peak warmth, elevated GMSL, high CO 2, and ice-free "Hothouse" conditions (56 to 48 Ma) were followed by "Cool Greenhouse" (48 to 34 Ma) ice sheets (10 to 30 m changes). Continental-scale ice sheets ("Icehouse") began ~34 Ma (>50 m changes), permanent East Antarctic ice sheets at 12.8 Ma, and bipolar glaciation at 2.5 Ma. The largest GMSL fall (27 to 20 ka; ~130 m) was followed by a >40 mm/yr rise (19 to 10 ka), a slowing (10 to 2 ka), and a stillstand until ~1900 CE, when rates began to rise. High long-term CO 2 caused warm climates and high sea levels, with sea-level variability dominated by periodic Milankovitch cycles.

@article{doi101126sciadvaaz1346,
    author = "Miller, Kenneth G. and Browning, James V. and Schmelz, William J. and Kopp, Robert E. and Mountain, Gregory S. and Wright, James D.",
    title = "Cenozoic sea-level and cryospheric evolution from deep-sea geochemical and continental margin records",
    year = "2020",
    journal = "Science Advances",
    abstract = {Using Pacific benthic foraminiferal δ 18 O and Mg/Ca records, we derive a Cenozoic (66 Ma) global mean sea level (GMSL) estimate that records evolution from an ice-free Early Eocene to Quaternary bipolar ice sheets. These GMSL estimates are statistically similar to "backstripped" estimates from continental margins accounting for compaction, loading, and thermal subsidence. Peak warmth, elevated GMSL, high CO 2, and ice-free "Hothouse" conditions (56 to 48 Ma) were followed by "Cool Greenhouse" (48 to 34 Ma) ice sheets (10 to 30 m changes). Continental-scale ice sheets ("Icehouse") began \textasciitilde 34 Ma (>50 m changes), permanent East Antarctic ice sheets at 12.8 Ma, and bipolar glaciation at 2.5 Ma. The largest GMSL fall (27 to 20 ka; \textasciitilde 130 m) was followed by a >40 mm/yr rise (19 to 10 ka), a slowing (10 to 2 ka), and a stillstand until \textasciitilde 1900 CE, when rates began to rise. High long-term CO 2 caused warm climates and high sea levels, with sea-level variability dominated by periodic Milankovitch cycles.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz1346",
    doi = "10.1126/sciadv.aaz1346",
    openalex = "W3025424653",
    references = "doi101016jgloplacha201312007, doi101016jgloplacha201804004, doi101016jmargeo200502007, doi101016s0277379101001019, doi1010292004pa001071, doi1010292011jc007255, doi10102990jb02015, doi10102996pa00571, doi101029jc082i027p03843, doi101038342637a0, doi101038nature03135, doi101038ncomms14845, doi1010510004636120041335, doi10105100046361201116836, doi10106311671982, doi101126science1059412, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science1133822, doi101126science19442701121, doi101126science23547931156, doi101126science2875451269, doi101126scienceaaa4019, doi1011270078042120120020, doi1011300091761319880160649iolcmb23co2, doi10113008137233291, doi102973dsdpproc291171975, doi105194tc73752013, openalexw3160761443"
}

Paleogeography is the study of the changing surface of Earth through time. Driven by plate tectonics, the configuration of the continents and ocean basins has been in constant flux. Plate tectonics pushes the land surface upward or pulls it apart, causing its collapse. All the while, the unrelenting forces of climate and weather slowly reduce mountains to sand and mud and redistribute these sediments to the sea. This article reviews the changing paleogeography of the past 750 million years. It describes the broad patterns of Phanerozoic paleogeography as well as many of the specific paleogeographic events that have shaped the modern continents and ocean basins. The focus is on the changing latitudinal distribution of the continents, fluctuations in sea level, the opening and closing of oceanic seaways, mountain building, and how these paleogeographic changes have affected global climate, ocean circulation, and the evolution of life. This review presents an atlas of 114 paleogeographic maps that illustrate how Earth's surface has evolved during the past 750 million years. During that time interval, Earth has witnessed the formation and breakup of two supercontinents: Pannotia and Pangea. The continents have been transformed from low-lying flooded platforms to high-standing land areas crisscrossed by the scars of past continental collisions. Oceans have opened and closed, and then opened again in a seemingly never-ending cycle. ▪ The changing configuration of the continents and ocean basins during the past 750 million years is illustrated in 114 paleogeographic maps. ▪ These maps describe how the surface of Earth has been continually modified by mountain building and erosion. ▪ The changing paleogeography has affected global climate, ocean circulation, and the evolution of life. ▪ The data and methods used to produce the maps are described in detail.

@article{doi101146annurevearth081320064052,
    author = "Scotese, Christopher R.",
    title = "An Atlas of Phanerozoic Paleogeographic Maps: The Seas Come In and the Seas Go Out",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences",
    abstract = "Paleogeography is the study of the changing surface of Earth through time. Driven by plate tectonics, the configuration of the continents and ocean basins has been in constant flux. Plate tectonics pushes the land surface upward or pulls it apart, causing its collapse. All the while, the unrelenting forces of climate and weather slowly reduce mountains to sand and mud and redistribute these sediments to the sea. This article reviews the changing paleogeography of the past 750 million years. It describes the broad patterns of Phanerozoic paleogeography as well as many of the specific paleogeographic events that have shaped the modern continents and ocean basins. The focus is on the changing latitudinal distribution of the continents, fluctuations in sea level, the opening and closing of oceanic seaways, mountain building, and how these paleogeographic changes have affected global climate, ocean circulation, and the evolution of life. This review presents an atlas of 114 paleogeographic maps that illustrate how Earth's surface has evolved during the past 750 million years. During that time interval, Earth has witnessed the formation and breakup of two supercontinents: Pannotia and Pangea. The continents have been transformed from low-lying flooded platforms to high-standing land areas crisscrossed by the scars of past continental collisions. Oceans have opened and closed, and then opened again in a seemingly never-ending cycle. ▪ The changing configuration of the continents and ocean basins during the past 750 million years is illustrated in 114 paleogeographic maps. ▪ These maps describe how the surface of Earth has been continually modified by mountain building and erosion. ▪ The changing paleogeography has affected global climate, ocean circulation, and the evolution of life. ▪ The data and methods used to produce the maps are described in detail.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-081320-064052",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-earth-081320-064052",
    openalex = "W3139147700",
    references = "doi101016jearscirev201203002, doi101016jearscirev2020103463, doi101016s0012821x0100588x, doi101029jb082i005p00803, doi101038267399a0, doi101038359117a0, doi101086628416, doi101126science1116412, doi101126science1156963, doi101126science1894201419, doi101126science23547931156, doi101126science27753341956, doi101126science28153811342, doi101146annurevearth32082503144359, doi101306m26490"
}

Interpretation of seismic data over the southeastern flank of the Eratosthenes High shows nine principal seismic stratigraphic units overlying probable faulted basement. Among these are three superposed carbonate platforms that build a stratigraphy exceeding 3000 m. Regional comparisons suggest these range in age from Jurassic to Miocene. The Jurassic carbonate platform exhibits a layered stratigraphy and aggradational deposition style over the whole study area. A Lower Cretaceous platform subsequently developed as a linear, aggrading bank and prograded as multiple high-frequency sequences for more than 40 km into the Eratosthenes High interior, isolating an intrashelf basin that remained connected to the Levant Basin by a narrow seaway. The Jurassic platform margin was a fault-controlled, scalloped escarpment, while the mid-Cretaceous platform was strongly influenced by linear, NW–SE-orientated, fault-controlled sags. The Miocene platform, a shoaling, ‘catch-up’ neritic shelf, was established after a hiatus during which the flat top of the Cretaceous platform lay below the photic zone. The Miocene platform surface was subsequently incised by Messinian erosional channels that fed offlapping and downstepping regressive carbonate or evaporitic shorelines which tracked Messinian sea-level fall. Updoming and segmentation of the Eratosthenes High occurred during the early Messinian prior to the emplacement of Messinian salt onto its flanks.

@article{doi101144petgeo2023017,
    author = "Burchette, Trevor P. and Groves‐Gidney, Gavrielle and Karcz, Kul",
    title = "Seismic stratigraphy of the southern Eratosthenes High, eastern Mediterranean Sea: growth, demise and deformation of three superposed carbonate platforms (Mesozoic–Cenozoic)",
    year = "2023",
    journal = "Petroleum Geoscience",
    abstract = "Interpretation of seismic data over the southeastern flank of the Eratosthenes High shows nine principal seismic stratigraphic units overlying probable faulted basement. Among these are three superposed carbonate platforms that build a stratigraphy exceeding 3000 m. Regional comparisons suggest these range in age from Jurassic to Miocene. The Jurassic carbonate platform exhibits a layered stratigraphy and aggradational deposition style over the whole study area. A Lower Cretaceous platform subsequently developed as a linear, aggrading bank and prograded as multiple high-frequency sequences for more than 40 km into the Eratosthenes High interior, isolating an intrashelf basin that remained connected to the Levant Basin by a narrow seaway. The Jurassic platform margin was a fault-controlled, scalloped escarpment, while the mid-Cretaceous platform was strongly influenced by linear, NW–SE-orientated, fault-controlled sags. The Miocene platform, a shoaling, ‘catch-up’ neritic shelf, was established after a hiatus during which the flat top of the Cretaceous platform lay below the photic zone. The Miocene platform surface was subsequently incised by Messinian erosional channels that fed offlapping and downstepping regressive carbonate or evaporitic shorelines which tracked Messinian sea-level fall. Updoming and segmentation of the Eratosthenes High occurred during the early Messinian prior to the emplacement of Messinian salt onto its flanks.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo2023-017",
    doi = "10.1144/petgeo2023-017",
    openalex = "W4384524079",
    references = "doi101130ges009991"
}