Marine animals

@article{crossref1911some,
    title = "Some New South African Marine Animals 1",
    year = "1911",
    journal = "Nature",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/086158b0",
    doi = "10.1038/086158b0",
    number = "2161",
    openalex = "W4238782596",
    pages = "158-159",
    volume = "86"
}

Since Bottazzi's (1897) first determinations of the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of various marine animals many researches have been performed by other authors, particularly in reference to the permeability of the membranes separating the body from its surroundings. Bottazzi (1897, 1906, 1908, b) investigated individuals belonging to very different groups of animals, and found that the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of marine invertebrates, and of elasmobranchs, is very similar to that of the surroundings, while the osmotic pressure of the blood of teleosts is quite different. Changing the osmotic pressure of the medium, the osmotic pressure of most marine invertebrates, and of elasmobranchs, was shown to change in the same direction (L. Fredericq, 1882, 1904; Quinton, 1897; Dakin, 1908) and to reach, finally, the value of the former. The blood of teleosts is much more independent of the medium, for it shown to change only about 30 percent, in concentration, on transferring the animals from sea water to fresh water or vice versa (Dakin, 1908; Dekhuyzen, 1904: Sumner, 1905); other authors, however (fredericq, 1904: Garrey, 1905) could not field even these variations.

@article{margaria1931the,
    author = "Margaria, R.",
    title = "The osmotic changes in some marine animals",
    year = "1931",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character",
    abstract = "Since Bottazzi's (1897) first determinations of the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of various marine animals many researches have been performed by other authors, particularly in reference to the permeability of the membranes separating the body from its surroundings. Bottazzi (1897, 1906, 1908, b) investigated individuals belonging to very different groups of animals, and found that the osmotic pressure of the body fluids of marine invertebrates, and of elasmobranchs, is very similar to that of the surroundings, while the osmotic pressure of the blood of teleosts is quite different. Changing the osmotic pressure of the medium, the osmotic pressure of most marine invertebrates, and of elasmobranchs, was shown to change in the same direction (L. Fredericq, 1882, 1904; Quinton, 1897; Dakin, 1908) and to reach, finally, the value of the former. The blood of teleosts is much more independent of the medium, for it shown to change only about 30 percent, in concentration, on transferring the animals from sea water to fresh water or vice versa (Dakin, 1908; Dekhuyzen, 1904: Sumner, 1905); other authors, however (fredericq, 1904: Garrey, 1905) could not field even these variations.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1931.0018",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1931.0018",
    number = "754",
    openalex = "W2091786297",
    pages = "606-624",
    volume = "107",
    references = "doi101007bf01951603, doi101039tf9302600667, doi101039tf9302600673, doi101042bj0030258, doi101042bj0030473, doi105962bhltitle107521"
}

@misc{dunbar1960the2,
    author = "Dunbar, M. J",
    title = "The evolution of stability in marine environments",
    year = "1960",
    howpublished = "natural selection at the level of the ecosystem: American Naturalist, v. 94, p. 129-136",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Dunbar, M. J., 1960, The evolution of stability in marine environments: natural selection at the level of the ecosystem: American Naturalist, v. 94, p. 129-136.}"
}

There have been few analyses of the fat, protein and carbohydrate fractions in zooplankton, and owing to the difficulty of sorting large numbers of single species, the majority of the earlier determinations were necessarily carried out on mixed zooplankton hauls (Brandt, 1898; Brandt & Raben, 1919; Moberg, 1926; Wimpenny, 1929; Drummond & Gunther, 1934; Vinogradov, 1953). Most of these analyses suggested a relatively high protein and fat content, and this was confirmed by Orr (1934 a), who investigated the chemical composition of a single species, Calanus finmarchicus. Orr's result gave fat, protein and chitin as 20–40,35–50 and 3%, respectively of dry weight. Similar high values were also reported by Orr (1934 b) for Euchaeta norvegica. The carbohydrate content was not, however, estimated in either of Orr's investigations since large numbers of animals would have been required. Brandt (1898), after analysing mixed plankton hauls which were predominantly copepods, suggested a carbohydrate content of ca. 20%.

@article{raymont1960carbohydrates,
    author = "Raymont, J. E. G. and Krishnaswamy, S.",
    title = "Carbohydrates in some marine planktonic animals",
    year = "1960",
    journal = "Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom",
    abstract = "There have been few analyses of the fat, protein and carbohydrate fractions in zooplankton, and owing to the difficulty of sorting large numbers of single species, the majority of the earlier determinations were necessarily carried out on mixed zooplankton hauls (Brandt, 1898; Brandt \& Raben, 1919; Moberg, 1926; Wimpenny, 1929; Drummond \& Gunther, 1934; Vinogradov, 1953). Most of these analyses suggested a relatively high protein and fat content, and this was confirmed by Orr (1934 a), who investigated the chemical composition of a single species, Calanus finmarchicus. Orr's result gave fat, protein and chitin as 20–40,35–50 and 3\%, respectively of dry weight. Similar high values were also reported by Orr (1934 b) for Euchaeta norvegica. The carbohydrate content was not, however, estimated in either of Orr's investigations since large numbers of animals would have been required. Brandt (1898), after analysing mixed plankton hauls which were predominantly copepods, suggested a carbohydrate content of ca. 20\%.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s002531540001328x",
    doi = "10.1017/s002531540001328x",
    number = "2",
    openalex = "W2064022558",
    pages = "239-248",
    volume = "39",
    references = "doi1010079783662131381, doi101017s002531540004666x, doi101021ja01611a112, doi101042bj0271824, doi101042bj0560639, doi101042bj0560646, doi101146annurevph17030155002331, doi1023071440498, doi1023071538355, openalexw2272284341"
}

Reflecting surfaces of fish are formed of stacks of thin, flat crystals composed of guanine, as the m ajor component, and hypoxanthine, as the m inor component. The broad surfaces of these crystals are not, in general, parallel to the surfaces in which they lie in the fish but they are orientated at angles which depend on the function which they serve. T he stacks of crystals in different situations also differ in the num ber and thickness of crystals and in spectral reflectivity. T he organization of these crystals is described, in relation to function, for the silvery surfaces of bony fish, the herring and mackerel, for the reflecting tapeta found in the shark and dogfish, for the photophores of the deep-sea hatchet fish and, finally, for the eye of the scallop.

@article{denton1970review,
    author = "Denton, Eric James",
    title = "Review lecture: On the organization of reflecting surfaces in some marine animals",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Reflecting surfaces of fish are formed of stacks of thin, flat crystals composed of guanine, as the m ajor component, and hypoxanthine, as the m inor component. The broad surfaces of these crystals are not, in general, parallel to the surfaces in which they lie in the fish but they are orientated at angles which depend on the function which they serve. T he stacks of crystals in different situations also differ in the num ber and thickness of crystals and in spectral reflectivity. T he organization of these crystals is described, in relation to function, for the silvery surfaces of bony fish, the herring and mackerel, for the reflecting tapeta found in the shark and dogfish, for the photophores of the deep-sea hatchet fish and, finally, for the eye of the scallop.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1970.0037",
    doi = "10.1098/rstb.1970.0037",
    number = "824",
    openalex = "W2124101620",
    pages = "285-313",
    volume = "258",
    references = "doi101017s0025315400024760, doi101017s0025315400033439, doi1010381981244a0, doi10106313059910, doi10108800344885231301, doi101113jphysiol1965sp007653, doi101242jeb453433, doi101242jeb482227, doi1015159781400875689, openalexw1582131183"
}

@article{denton1970review1,
    author = "Denton, E. J",
    title = "Review lecture on the organization of reflecting surfaces in some marine animals",
    year = "1970",
    journal = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B, v. 258, p. 285-313",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Denton, E. J., 1970, Review lecture on the organization of reflecting surfaces in some marine animals: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B, v. 258, p. 285-313.}"
}

@incollection{mawdesleythomas1975some,
    author = "Mawdesley-Thomas, Lionel E.",
    title = "Some Aspects of Neoplasia in Marine Animals",
    year = "1975",
    booktitle = "Advances in Marine Biology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2881(08)60458-7",
    doi = "10.1016/s0065-2881(08)60458-7",
    openalex = "W941817584",
    pages = "151-231",
    references = "doi101016b9780121534011500089, doi101016b9780125925501x50016, doi101093jnci341117, doi101098rstl17930004, doi101126science1483669503, doi105555uripiis0022214322903841, openalexw1921044987, openalexw2144296387, openalexw2402726505, openalexw2417772597"
}

It is argued that the problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying basic and applied ecology. Applied challenges, such as the prediction of the ecological causes and consequences of global climate change, require the interfacing of phenomena that occur on very different scales of space, time, and ecological organization. Furthermore, there is no single natural scale at which ecological phenomena should be studied; systems generally show characteristic variability on a range of spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. The observer imposes a perceptual bias, a filter through which the system is viewed. This has fundamental evolutionary significance, since every organism is an "observer" of the environment, and life history adaptations such as dispersal and dormancy alter the perceptual scales of the species, and the observed variability. It likewise has fundamental significance for our own study of ecological systems, since the patterns that are unique to any range of scales will have unique causes and biological consequences. The key to prediction and understanding lies in the elucidation of mechanisms underlying observed patterns. Typically, these mechanisms operate at different scales than those on which the patterns are observed; in some cases, the patterns must be understood as emerging form the collective behaviors of large ensembles of smaller scale units. In other cases, the pattern is imposed by larger scale constraints. Examination of such phenomena requires the study of how pattern and variability change with the scale of description, and the development of laws for simplification, aggregation, and scaling. Examples are given from the marine and terrestrial literatures.

@article{doi1023071941447,
    author = "Levin, Simon A.",
    title = "The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur Award Lecture",
    year = "1992",
    journal = "Ecology",
    abstract = {It is argued that the problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying basic and applied ecology. Applied challenges, such as the prediction of the ecological causes and consequences of global climate change, require the interfacing of phenomena that occur on very different scales of space, time, and ecological organization. Furthermore, there is no single natural scale at which ecological phenomena should be studied; systems generally show characteristic variability on a range of spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. The observer imposes a perceptual bias, a filter through which the system is viewed. This has fundamental evolutionary significance, since every organism is an "observer" of the environment, and life history adaptations such as dispersal and dormancy alter the perceptual scales of the species, and the observed variability. It likewise has fundamental significance for our own study of ecological systems, since the patterns that are unique to any range of scales will have unique causes and biological consequences. The key to prediction and understanding lies in the elucidation of mechanisms underlying observed patterns. Typically, these mechanisms operate at different scales than those on which the patterns are observed; in some cases, the patterns must be understood as emerging form the collective behaviors of large ensembles of smaller scale units. In other cases, the pattern is imposed by larger scale constraints. Examination of such phenomena requires the study of how pattern and variability change with the scale of description, and the development of laws for simplification, aggregation, and scaling. Examples are given from the marine and terrestrial literatures.},
    url = "https://doi.org/10.2307/1941447",
    doi = "10.2307/1941447",
    openalex = "W2322480672",
    references = "doi101007bfb0091924, doi101086282400, doi101098rstb19520012, doi101111j146918091937tb02153x, doi101111j155856461964tb01674x, doi1015159781400881376, doi1023071941447, doi1023072529912, doi105860choice295104, doi107551mitpress30140010001, openalexw1558456135, openalexw1576847343"
}

In marine species, high dispersal is often associated with only mild genetic differentiation over large spatial scales. Despite this generalization, there are numerous reasons for the accumulation of genetic differences between large, semi-isolated marine populations. A suite of well-known evolutionary mechanisms can operate within and between populations to result in genetic divergence, and these mechanisms may well be augmented by newly discovered genetic processes. This variety of mechanisms for genetic divergence is paralleled by great diversity in the types of reproductive isolation shown by recently diverged marine species. Differences in spawning time, mate recognition, environmental tolerance, and gamete compatibility have all been implicated in marine speeiation events. There is substantial evidence for rapid evolution of reproductive isolation in strictly allopatrie populations (e,g. across the Isthmus of Panama). Evidence for the action of selection in increasing reproductive isolation in sympatric populations is fragmentary. Although a great deal of information is available on population genetics, reproductive isolation, and cryptic or sibling species in marine environments, the influence of particular genetic changes on reproductive isolation is poorly understood for marine (or terrestrial) taxa. For a few systems, like the co-evolution of gamete recognition proteins, changes in a small number of genes may give rise to reproductive isolation. Such studies show how a focus on the physiology, ecology, or sensory biology of reproductive isolation can help uncover the

@article{doi101146annureves25110194002555,
    author = "Palumbi, Stephen R.",
    title = "GENETIC DIVERGENCE, REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, AND MARINE SPECIATION",
    year = "1994",
    journal = "Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics",
    abstract = "In marine species, high dispersal is often associated with only mild genetic differentiation over large spatial scales. Despite this generalization, there are numerous reasons for the accumulation of genetic differences between large, semi-isolated marine populations. A suite of well-known evolutionary mechanisms can operate within and between populations to result in genetic divergence, and these mechanisms may well be augmented by newly discovered genetic processes. This variety of mechanisms for genetic divergence is paralleled by great diversity in the types of reproductive isolation shown by recently diverged marine species. Differences in spawning time, mate recognition, environmental tolerance, and gamete compatibility have all been implicated in marine speeiation events. There is substantial evidence for rapid evolution of reproductive isolation in strictly allopatrie populations (e,g. across the Isthmus of Panama). Evidence for the action of selection in increasing reproductive isolation in sympatric populations is fragmentary. Although a great deal of information is available on population genetics, reproductive isolation, and cryptic or sibling species in marine environments, the influence of particular genetic changes on reproductive isolation is poorly understood for marine (or terrestrial) taxa. For a few systems, like the co-evolution of gamete recognition proteins, changes in a small number of genes may give rise to reproductive isolation. Such studies show how a focus on the physiology, ecology, or sensory biology of reproductive isolation can help uncover the",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.002555",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.002555",
    openalex = "W2173143655",
    references = "doi101038365636a0, doi1015159780295743240, doi101722611310, doi1023072412725, openalexw1528487914"
}

Most surveys of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in marine fishes reveal low levels of sequence divergence between haplotypes relative to the differentiation observed between sister taxa. It is unclear whether this pattern is due to rapid lineage sorting accelerated by sweepstakes recruitment, historical bottlenecks in population size, founder events, or natural selection, any of which could retard the accumulation of deep mtDNA lineages. Recent advances in paleoclimate research prompt a reexamination of oceanographic processes as a fundamental influence on genetic diversity; evidence from ice cores and anaerobic marine sediments document strong regime shifts in the world's oceans in concert with periodic climatic changes. These changes in sea surface temperatures, current pathways, upwelling intensities, and retention eddies are likely harbingers of severe fluctuations in population size or regional extinctions. Sardines (Sardina, Sardinops) and anchovies (Engraulis) are used to assess the consequences of such oceanographic processes on marine fish intrageneric gene genealogies. Representatives of these two groups occur in temperate boundary currents on a global scale, and these regional populations are known to fluctuate markedly. Biogeographic and genetic data indicate that Sardinops has persisted for at least 20 million years, yet the mtDNA genealogy for this group coalesces in less than half a million years and points to a recent founding of populations around the rim of the Indian-Pacific Ocean. Phylogeographic analysis of Old World anchovies reveals a Pleistocene dispersal from the Pacific to the Atlantic, almost certainly via southern Africa, followed by a very recent recolonization from Europe to southern Africa. These results demonstrate that regional populations of sardines and anchovies are subject to periodic extinctions and recolonizations. Such climate-associated dynamics may explain the low levels of nucleotide diversity and the shallow coalescence of mtDNA genealogies. If these findings apply generally to marine fishes, management strategies should incorporate the idea that even extremely abundant populations may be relatively fragile on ecological and evolutionary time scales.

@article{doi101093jhered895415,
    author = "Grant, W. Stewart",
    title = "Shallow population histories in deep evolutionary lineages of marine fishes: insights from sardines and anchovies and lessons for conservation",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Journal of Heredity",
    abstract = "Most surveys of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in marine fishes reveal low levels of sequence divergence between haplotypes relative to the differentiation observed between sister taxa. It is unclear whether this pattern is due to rapid lineage sorting accelerated by sweepstakes recruitment, historical bottlenecks in population size, founder events, or natural selection, any of which could retard the accumulation of deep mtDNA lineages. Recent advances in paleoclimate research prompt a reexamination of oceanographic processes as a fundamental influence on genetic diversity; evidence from ice cores and anaerobic marine sediments document strong regime shifts in the world's oceans in concert with periodic climatic changes. These changes in sea surface temperatures, current pathways, upwelling intensities, and retention eddies are likely harbingers of severe fluctuations in population size or regional extinctions. Sardines (Sardina, Sardinops) and anchovies (Engraulis) are used to assess the consequences of such oceanographic processes on marine fish intrageneric gene genealogies. Representatives of these two groups occur in temperate boundary currents on a global scale, and these regional populations are known to fluctuate markedly. Biogeographic and genetic data indicate that Sardinops has persisted for at least 20 million years, yet the mtDNA genealogy for this group coalesces in less than half a million years and points to a recent founding of populations around the rim of the Indian-Pacific Ocean. Phylogeographic analysis of Old World anchovies reveals a Pleistocene dispersal from the Pacific to the Atlantic, almost certainly via southern Africa, followed by a very recent recolonization from Europe to southern Africa. These results demonstrate that regional populations of sardines and anchovies are subject to periodic extinctions and recolonizations. Such climate-associated dynamics may explain the low levels of nucleotide diversity and the shallow coalescence of mtDNA genealogies. If these findings apply generally to marine fishes, management strategies should incorporate the idea that even extremely abundant populations may be relatively fragile on ecological and evolutionary time scales.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/89.5.415",
    doi = "10.1093/jhered/89.5.415",
    openalex = "W2126753786",
    references = "doi101038316591a0, doi101086282771, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040727, doi101111j155856461995tb02325x, doi101126science2134511957"
}

Diffraction gratings are reported from external surfaces of the hard, protective parts of Wiwaxia corrugata, Canadia spinosa and Marrella splendens from the Burgess Shale (Middle Cambrian (515 million years), British Columbia). As a consequence, these animals would have displayed iridescence in their natural environment: Cambrian animals have previously been accurately reconstructed in black and white only. A diversity of extant marine animals inhabiting a similar depth to the Burgess Shale fauna possess functional diffraction gratings. The Cambrian is a unique period in the history of animal life where predatory lifestyles and eyes capable of producing visual images were evolving rapidly. The discovery of colour in Cambrian animals prompts a new hypothesis on the initiation of the ‘Big Bang’ in animal evolution which occurred during the Cambrian: light was introduced into the behavioural systems of metazoan animals for the first time. This introduction, of what was to become generally the most powerful stimulus in metazoan behavioural systems, would have triggered turbulence in metazoan evolution.

@article{doi101098rspb19980385,
    author = "Parker, Andrew R.",
    title = "Colour in Burgess Shale animals and the effect of light on evolution in the Cambrian",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Diffraction gratings are reported from external surfaces of the hard, protective parts of Wiwaxia corrugata, Canadia spinosa and Marrella splendens from the Burgess Shale (Middle Cambrian (515 million years), British Columbia). As a consequence, these animals would have displayed iridescence in their natural environment: Cambrian animals have previously been accurately reconstructed in black and white only. A diversity of extant marine animals inhabiting a similar depth to the Burgess Shale fauna possess functional diffraction gratings. The Cambrian is a unique period in the history of animal life where predatory lifestyles and eyes capable of producing visual images were evolving rapidly. The discovery of colour in Cambrian animals prompts a new hypothesis on the initiation of the ‘Big Bang’ in animal evolution which occurred during the Cambrian: light was introduced into the behavioural systems of metazoan animals for the first time. This introduction, of what was to become generally the most powerful stimulus in metazoan behavioural systems, would have triggered turbulence in metazoan evolution.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0385",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.1998.0385",
    openalex = "W1977013458"
}

Temperament describes the idea that individual behavioural differences are repeatable over time and across situations. This common phenomenon covers numerous traits, such as aggressiveness, avoidance of novelty, willingness to take risks, exploration, and sociality. The study of temperament is central to animal psychology, behavioural genetics, pharmacology, and animal husbandry, but relatively few studies have examined the ecology and evolution of temperament traits. This situation is surprising, given that temperament is likely to exert an important influence on many aspects of animal ecology and evolution, and that individual variation in temperament appears to be pervasive amongst animal species. Possible explanations for this neglect of temperament include a perceived irrelevance, an insufficient understanding of the link between temperament traits and fitness, and a lack of coherence in terminology with similar traits often given different names, or different traits given the same name. We propose that temperament can and should be studied within an evolutionary ecology framework and provide a terminology that could be used as a working tool for ecological studies of temperament. Our terminology includes five major temperament trait categories: shyness‐boldness, exploration‐avoidance, activity, sociability and aggressiveness. This terminology does not make inferences regarding underlying dispositions or psychological processes, which may have restrained ecologists and evolutionary biologists from working on these traits. We present extensive literature reviews that demonstrate that temperament traits are heritable, and linked to fitness and to several other traits of importance to ecology and evolution. Furthermore, we describe ecologically relevant measurement methods and point to several ecological and evolutionary topics that would benefit from considering temperament, such as phenotypic plasticity, conservation biology, population sampling, and invasion biology.

@article{doi101111j1469185x200700010x,
    author = "Réale, D. and Reader, S. and Sol, D. and McDougall, P. T. and Dingemanse, N.",
    title = "Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution",
    year = "2007",
    journal = "Biological Reviews",
    abstract = "Temperament describes the idea that individual behavioural differences are repeatable over time and across situations. This common phenomenon covers numerous traits, such as aggressiveness, avoidance of novelty, willingness to take risks, exploration, and sociality. The study of temperament is central to animal psychology, behavioural genetics, pharmacology, and animal husbandry, but relatively few studies have examined the ecology and evolution of temperament traits. This situation is surprising, given that temperament is likely to exert an important influence on many aspects of animal ecology and evolution, and that individual variation in temperament appears to be pervasive amongst animal species. Possible explanations for this neglect of temperament include a perceived irrelevance, an insufficient understanding of the link between temperament traits and fitness, and a lack of coherence in terminology with similar traits often given different names, or different traits given the same name. We propose that temperament can and should be studied within an evolutionary ecology framework and provide a terminology that could be used as a working tool for ecological studies of temperament. Our terminology includes five major temperament trait categories: shyness‐boldness, exploration‐avoidance, activity, sociability and aggressiveness. This terminology does not make inferences regarding underlying dispositions or psychological processes, which may have restrained ecologists and evolutionary biologists from working on these traits. We present extensive literature reviews that demonstrate that temperament traits are heritable, and linked to fitness and to several other traits of importance to ecology and evolution. Furthermore, we describe ecologically relevant measurement methods and point to several ecological and evolutionary topics that would benefit from considering temperament, such as phenotypic plasticity, conservation biology, population sampling, and invasion biology.",
    url = "https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/25732/reader\_07\_integratinganimaltemperament.pdf?sequence=1\&isAllowed=y",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1469-185X.2007.00010.x",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "2",
    pages = "291-318",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "3268",
    semanticscholar_id = "6c8a3a23a9dda76402597d002ba0ca649befabe0",
    volume = "82"
}

@article{crossref2009mini,
    title = "Mini marine animals challenge evolution",
    year = "2009",
    journal = "New Scientist",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(09)60266-9",
    doi = "10.1016/s0262-4079(09)60266-9",
    number = "2693",
    openalex = "W4245589629",
    pages = "14",
    volume = "201"
}

@incollection{hanzawa2012genetic,
    author = "Hanzawa, Naoto and O., Ryo and Sekimoto, Hidekatsu and V., Tadasuke and N., Satoru and Kuriiwa, Kaoru and B., Hidetoshi",
    title = "Genetic Diversity and Evolution of Marine Animals Isolated in Marine Lakes",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "Analysis of Genetic Variation in Animals",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5772/34427",
    doi = "10.5772/34427",
    openalex = "W1526324472",
    references = "doi101017cbo9780511808999, doi101038347550a0, doi101038nature07285, doi101093icb411134, doi101093jhered895415, doi101093oxfordjournalsmolbeva040517, doi101126science2835404950, doi101146annureves25110194002555, doi105860choice375647, doi105860choice401529"
}

Abstract Islands are pieces of land entirely surrounded by sea on which terrestrial and marine organisms live as little as a few metres apart. Yet, in contrast to terrestrial species, marine species have attracted little attention in studies of island theory. The experimental and conceptual origins of this dichotomy date back to the 1970s, although the apposition has softened in the early 2000s, in part a consequence of phylogeographic analyses and the discovery of new marine environments. Here, I explore the possible range of island and island‐like settings in the marine realm and find good evidence, albeit in short supply, for integrating marine with terrestrial perspectives during the current transition from equilibrium to general dynamic models of island biogeography. This integration of marine systems into island theory will be facilitated by three advances: (1) development of many descriptive marine studies to reduce the current deficit, (2) design of rigorous comparative studies within and across realms, and (3) modification of conceptual models to unite seemingly disparate situations, for example describing islands in terms of ecological–evolutionary processes. Marine island biogeography is in its infancy; it may present situations that are uncommon in the existing literature, but not rare in nature, and thus contribute substantially to the new dynamic outlook on a half‐century‐old theme.

@article{doi101111geb12314,
    author = "Dawson, Michael N",
    title = "Island and island‐like marine environments",
    year = "2015",
    journal = "Global Ecology and Biogeography",
    abstract = "Abstract Islands are pieces of land entirely surrounded by sea on which terrestrial and marine organisms live as little as a few metres apart. Yet, in contrast to terrestrial species, marine species have attracted little attention in studies of island theory. The experimental and conceptual origins of this dichotomy date back to the 1970s, although the apposition has softened in the early 2000s, in part a consequence of phylogeographic analyses and the discovery of new marine environments. Here, I explore the possible range of island and island‐like settings in the marine realm and find good evidence, albeit in short supply, for integrating marine with terrestrial perspectives during the current transition from equilibrium to general dynamic models of island biogeography. This integration of marine systems into island theory will be facilitated by three advances: (1) development of many descriptive marine studies to reduce the current deficit, (2) design of rigorous comparative studies within and across realms, and (3) modification of conceptual models to unite seemingly disparate situations, for example describing islands in terms of ecological–evolutionary processes. Marine island biogeography is in its infancy; it may present situations that are uncommon in the existing literature, but not rare in nature, and thus contribute substantially to the new dynamic outlook on a half‐century‐old theme.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12314",
    doi = "10.1111/geb.12314",
    openalex = "W1933600413",
    references = "hanzawa2012genetic"
}

@book{crossref2025adaptation,
    title = "Adaptation of Marine Animals to Extreme Environments",
    year = "2025",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/books978-3-7258-5710-4",
    doi = "10.3390/books978-3-7258-5710-4",
    openalex = "W4416688265"
}

The Earth’s oceans are vast, mysterious, and replete with environments that test the limits of biological survival [...]

@article{kim2025adaptation,
    author = "Kim, Taewon",
    title = "Adaptation of Marine Animals to Extreme Environments",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Journal of Marine Science and Engineering",
    abstract = "The Earth’s oceans are vast, mysterious, and replete with environments that test the limits of biological survival [...]",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13091803",
    doi = "10.3390/jmse13091803",
    number = "9",
    openalex = "W4414334405",
    pages = "1803",
    volume = "13",
    references = "doi101007bf01920236, doi101016jmarenvres2019104847, doi101016jmarpolbul2024116052, doi101038s41598022159821, doi101073pnas1322003111, doi101111j1365294x201004789x, doi101126scienceaad0126, doi1015159780691239477, doi103390jmse8100822, doi105194bg1139412014"
}