Marine geology

@misc{shepard1963submarine1,
    author = "Shepard, F. P",
    title = "Submarine Geology [2nd ed.]",
    year = "1963",
    howpublished = "New York, Harper \& Row, 557 p",
    note = "talkorigins\_source = {true}; raw\_reference = {Shepard, F. P., 1963, Submarine Geology [2nd ed.]: New York, Harper \& Row, 557 p.}"
}

@article{doi1010160025322764900489,
    author = "A.H.B.",
    title = "Marine geology of the Pacific",
    year = "1964",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(64)90048-9",
    doi = "10.1016/0025-3227(64)90048-9",
    openalex = "W4231061238"
}

@book{openalexw362631153,
    author = "Menard, H. W.",
    title = "Marine geology of the Pacific",
    year = "1964",
    openalex = "W362631153"
}

@article{doi101126science15437551433,
    author = "Dietz, R.",
    title = "Marine Geology. (Book Reviews: Submarine Canyons and Other Sea Valleys)",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7a1ebafb21f532eda566b73bb2cf88bb19093bed",
    doi = "10.1126/science.154.3755.1433",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3755",
    pages = "1433-1433",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "4",
    semanticscholar_id = "7a1ebafb21f532eda566b73bb2cf88bb19093bed",
    volume = "154"
}

@article{doi101126science15437551433b,
    author = "Dietz, R.",
    title = "Marine Geology: Submarine Canyons and Other Sea Valleys . Francis P. Shepard (professor emeritus at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography) and Robert F. Dill (U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, San Diego). (Rand McNally, Chicago, 1966. 397 pp., illus., maps. $9.75).",
    year = "1966",
    journal = "Science",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/230b72daa35a8e5e7553580872617c6f7ed87f3c",
    doi = "10.1126/science.154.3755.1433-b",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "3755",
    pages = "1433-1434",
    semanticscholar_id = "230b72daa35a8e5e7553580872617c6f7ed87f3c",
    volume = "154"
}

@article{doi1013065d25b83d16c111d78645000102c1865d,
    author = "Felsher, M.",
    title = "Marine Geology of Santa Cruz Submarine Canyon, California: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5a01eb6a931069e89811cba4ce5724a43564ac1f",
    doi = "10.1306/5D25B83D-16C1-11D7-8645000102C1865D",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "5a01eb6a931069e89811cba4ce5724a43564ac1f",
    volume = "51"
}

@article{felsher1967marine,
    author = "Felsher, Murray",
    title = "Marine Geology of Santa Cruz Submarine Canyon, California: ABSTRACT",
    year = "1967",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/5d25b83d-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    doi = "10.1306/5d25b83d-16c1-11d7-8645000102c1865d",
    openalex = "W2093413479",
    volume = "51"
}

@article{openalexw831881814,
    author = "Carlson, Paul R.",
    title = "Marine geology of Astoria submarine canyon",
    year = "1967",
    url = "https://openalex.org/W831881814",
    openalex = "W831881814"
}

@article{s2ef2ea332d4a7975f01270424d69581a8b666ec68,
    author = "Carlson, P.",
    title = "Marine geology of Astoria submarine canyon",
    year = "1967",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ef2ea332d4a7975f01270424d69581a8b666ec68",
    is_oa = "true",
    openalex = "W831881814",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "22",
    semanticscholar_id = "ef2ea332d4a7975f01270424d69581a8b666ec68"
}

ABSTRACT The Upper Miocene Solfifera Series of Sicily contains very coarse, massive selenite; parallel laminated gypsum; wavy, stromatolitic laminated gypsum; planar‐ and ripple cross‐laminated gypsum‐skeletal calcite sandstones; flat‐pebble and fining‐upward gypsum conglomerates; and nodular gypsum. The assemblage of sedimentary features indicates deposition—much of it detrital—in a shallow lagoon‐littoral flat complex. Using modern tidal flats as a guide, we interpret the laminations to form when onshore storms flood the shore‐line area with sediment‐charged seawater. Algal mats bind the newly deposited gypsiferous layer. Flat‐pebble conglomerates are formed when storm waves rip up mudcracked, algally‐bound laminated sediment. The gypsum nodules are similar to the anhydrite nodules of the modern Persian Gulf sabkhas. They form within sub‐aerially exposed skeletal sand just above the groundwater table. The gypsum sandstones accumulated periodically in very shallow shoals formed by wind‐driven currents. Large selenite crystals grew in increments during deposition, as indicated by flat‐topped pockets of gypsum sand between selenite crystals, selenite crystals draped by algal laminations, and intraformational conglomerates of selenite fragments. We believe this model of very shallow strand‐line lagoonal accumulation, partly detrital and partly diagenetic, may apply to the early stages of many ancient marine evaporite deposits.

@article{doi101111j136530911971tb00228x,
    author = "Hardie, Lawrence A. and Eugster, Hans P.",
    title = "THE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF MARINE EVAPORITES: A CASE FOR SHALLOW, CLASTIC ACCUMULATION",
    year = "1971",
    journal = "Sedimentology",
    abstract = "ABSTRACT The Upper Miocene Solfifera Series of Sicily contains very coarse, massive selenite; parallel laminated gypsum; wavy, stromatolitic laminated gypsum; planar‐ and ripple cross‐laminated gypsum‐skeletal calcite sandstones; flat‐pebble and fining‐upward gypsum conglomerates; and nodular gypsum. The assemblage of sedimentary features indicates deposition—much of it detrital—in a shallow lagoon‐littoral flat complex. Using modern tidal flats as a guide, we interpret the laminations to form when onshore storms flood the shore‐line area with sediment‐charged seawater. Algal mats bind the newly deposited gypsiferous layer. Flat‐pebble conglomerates are formed when storm waves rip up mudcracked, algally‐bound laminated sediment. The gypsum nodules are similar to the anhydrite nodules of the modern Persian Gulf sabkhas. They form within sub‐aerially exposed skeletal sand just above the groundwater table. The gypsum sandstones accumulated periodically in very shallow shoals formed by wind‐driven currents. Large selenite crystals grew in increments during deposition, as indicated by flat‐topped pockets of gypsum sand between selenite crystals, selenite crystals draped by algal laminations, and intraformational conglomerates of selenite fragments. We believe this model of very shallow strand‐line lagoonal accumulation, partly detrital and partly diagenetic, may apply to the early stages of many ancient marine evaporite deposits.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1971.tb00228.x",
    doi = "10.1111/j.1365-3091.1971.tb00228.x",
    openalex = "W2009941242",
    references = "doi101002gj3350040201, doi101086625710, doi101086627283, doi101111j136530911969tb00161x, doi101126science1693941171, doi1013065d25c80116c111d78645000102c1865d, doi10130674d71be52b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi10130674d71f322b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi102110pec65080084, openalexw2266359591"
}

continental margin off southern Oregon, which includes the shelf and slope from Cape Blanco to the Oregon-California border, exhibits a distinctive marginal-plateau structural pattern which divides the margin into the continental shelf, the upper continental slope and its associated benches, and the lower continental Lutum transport and deposition have dominated the sedimentary processes on the margin since the start of Holocene time. The structure of the southern Oregon margin is characterized by north-south trending compressional folds, and near-vertical faults which have been down-dropped to the west. Large-scale folds on the upper slope have ponded sediments behind them resulting in the formation of the Klamath Plateau, Cape Blanco Bench, and other bench-like features. Development of the structural pattern is most likely a results of the compressive underthrusting of the oceanic lithospheric plate beneath the southernmost Oregon-northern California margin and the crustal extension which exists throughout the nearby continental and ocean basin. Useful stratigraphic horizons within the late Pleistocene and Holocene margin deposits include Mazama Ash (6600 B.P.) and several recognizable shifts in the abundance of radiolaria and planktonic foraminifera, particularly one dating from 5000-4000 years B.P. Holocene sedimentation rates vary from an average of 10 cm/1000 years on the upper slope to an average of 50 cm/1000 years on the lower slope, indicating that the lower slope is out-building and up-building more rapidly than the upper The paleo-depth range of Pliocene fauna in sedimentary rocks from the margin suggests that subsequent to their deposition both uplift and subsidence occurred on the southern Oregon margin. Sediments from the southern Oregon margin consist primarily of olive gray lutite, gray lutite, and sand-silt layers. Olive gray lutite is Holocene in age and is ubiquitous on the margin, with the thickest accumulation (10m average) found on the lower slope, while the distribution of Holocene lutite on the upper slope is thin and patchy (3-4 m or less). The gray lutite appears to be a late Pleistocene deposit, and the sand-silt layers reflect both ages. The surface sediment distribution pattern on the shelf consists of modern inner shelf sand, modern central shelf mud, and mixed deposits of both types Relict deposits are present at the shelf edge. The lower slope consists entirely of modern mud, but the surface sediment on the upper slope and benches consists of both modern and relict deposits, and mixtures of the two. The mineralogy of the unconsolidated and consolidated sediments from the margin indicates that the Klamath Mountains have been the dominant source for these deposits since early Tertiary time. This is reflected in the abundance of blue-green hornblende and other heavy minerals indicative of the Mesozoic rocks of the Klamath Mountains; the same source is suggested for the abundant chlorite found in the clay fraction of margin sediments and rocks. There are indications in the mineralogy of lower slope sediments which suggest that the Tertiary strata of the southern Oregon Coast Ranges may be a secondary source for the deposits in this environment. When compared to the upper slope sediments, those from the lower slope have a higher feldspar content, a higher pyroxene-to-amphibole ratio, and an apparently higher illite content. As a result of the Holocene rise in sea level, the deposition of coarse clastics on the southern Oregon margin has been restricted to the inner shelf. Consequently, only the fine-grained lutum discharged from rivers is deposited on the outer margin environment. Submarine topography, oceanographic conditions, and gravity are important factors which affect transport and deposition of lutum on the margin. A model of modern lutum transport by bottom turbid layers and fine-particle suspensate is proposed for the southern Oregon margin. Long0period swell is believed to be responsible for much of the formation of bottom turbid layers on the shelf. Once formed, these turbid layers move north and west over the shelf under the influence of shelf currents, alternating tidal action, and gravity; upon reaching the slope they are funneled into submarine valleys and deposited on the lower slope and adjacent deep sea. Lutum deposited on the upper slope is eventually re-suspended and transported by southerly bottom currents into down-slope valleys; very little lutum remains behind on the upper Deposition of fine-particle suspensate as well as slumping and other gravitational processes contribute to the lower slope sediments. The end result of modern lutum transport is the continual up-building and out-building of the lower slope.

@book{doi105962bhltitle59722,
    author = "Spigai, Joseph John.",
    title = "Marine geology of the continental margin off southern Oregon",
    year = "1971",
    abstract = "continental margin off southern Oregon, which includes the shelf and slope from Cape Blanco to the Oregon-California border, exhibits a distinctive marginal-plateau structural pattern which divides the margin into the continental shelf, the upper continental slope and its associated benches, and the lower continental Lutum transport and deposition have dominated the sedimentary processes on the margin since the start of Holocene time. The structure of the southern Oregon margin is characterized by north-south trending compressional folds, and near-vertical faults which have been down-dropped to the west. Large-scale folds on the upper slope have ponded sediments behind them resulting in the formation of the Klamath Plateau, Cape Blanco Bench, and other bench-like features. Development of the structural pattern is most likely a results of the compressive underthrusting of the oceanic lithospheric plate beneath the southernmost Oregon-northern California margin and the crustal extension which exists throughout the nearby continental and ocean basin. Useful stratigraphic horizons within the late Pleistocene and Holocene margin deposits include Mazama Ash (6600 B.P.) and several recognizable shifts in the abundance of radiolaria and planktonic foraminifera, particularly one dating from 5000-4000 years B.P. Holocene sedimentation rates vary from an average of 10 cm/1000 years on the upper slope to an average of 50 cm/1000 years on the lower slope, indicating that the lower slope is out-building and up-building more rapidly than the upper The paleo-depth range of Pliocene fauna in sedimentary rocks from the margin suggests that subsequent to their deposition both uplift and subsidence occurred on the southern Oregon margin. Sediments from the southern Oregon margin consist primarily of olive gray lutite, gray lutite, and sand-silt layers. Olive gray lutite is Holocene in age and is ubiquitous on the margin, with the thickest accumulation (10m average) found on the lower slope, while the distribution of Holocene lutite on the upper slope is thin and patchy (3-4 m or less). The gray lutite appears to be a late Pleistocene deposit, and the sand-silt layers reflect both ages. The surface sediment distribution pattern on the shelf consists of modern inner shelf sand, modern central shelf mud, and mixed deposits of both types Relict deposits are present at the shelf edge. The lower slope consists entirely of modern mud, but the surface sediment on the upper slope and benches consists of both modern and relict deposits, and mixtures of the two. The mineralogy of the unconsolidated and consolidated sediments from the margin indicates that the Klamath Mountains have been the dominant source for these deposits since early Tertiary time. This is reflected in the abundance of blue-green hornblende and other heavy minerals indicative of the Mesozoic rocks of the Klamath Mountains; the same source is suggested for the abundant chlorite found in the clay fraction of margin sediments and rocks. There are indications in the mineralogy of lower slope sediments which suggest that the Tertiary strata of the southern Oregon Coast Ranges may be a secondary source for the deposits in this environment. When compared to the upper slope sediments, those from the lower slope have a higher feldspar content, a higher pyroxene-to-amphibole ratio, and an apparently higher illite content. As a result of the Holocene rise in sea level, the deposition of coarse clastics on the southern Oregon margin has been restricted to the inner shelf. Consequently, only the fine-grained lutum discharged from rivers is deposited on the outer margin environment. Submarine topography, oceanographic conditions, and gravity are important factors which affect transport and deposition of lutum on the margin. A model of modern lutum transport by bottom turbid layers and fine-particle suspensate is proposed for the southern Oregon margin. Long0period swell is believed to be responsible for much of the formation of bottom turbid layers on the shelf. Once formed, these turbid layers move north and west over the shelf under the influence of shelf currents, alternating tidal action, and gravity; upon reaching the slope they are funneled into submarine valleys and deposited on the lower slope and adjacent deep sea. Lutum deposited on the upper slope is eventually re-suspended and transported by southerly bottom currents into down-slope valleys; very little lutum remains behind on the upper Deposition of fine-particle suspensate as well as slumping and other gravitational processes contribute to the lower slope sediments. The end result of modern lutum transport is the continual up-building and out-building of the lower slope.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.59722",
    doi = "10.5962/bhl.title.59722",
    openalex = "W1573198275",
    references = "doi101029jb073i012p03661, doi101029jb073i018p05855, doi101038207343a0, doi101038224125a0, doi101126science15437551405, doi101126science892320559, doi10113000167606196576803masord20co2, doi101306d42694db2b2611d78648000102c1865d, doi101306d42697742b2611d78648000102c1865d, doi1023071438154, openalexw831881814"
}

@article{doi1010160025322779900355,
    author = "Maldonado, Andrés and Stanley, Daniel Jean",
    title = "Depositional patterns and Late Quaternary evolution of two Mediterranean submarine fans: A comparison",
    year = "1979",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(79)90035-5",
    doi = "10.1016/0025-3227(79)90035-5",
    openalex = "W2020371687",
    references = "doi1013065d25cc6f16c111d78645000102c1865d"
}

Before ∼3 Ma, during the early Pliocene, polar ice sheets were restricted to Antarctica, and much evidence suggests global warmth greater than at any time during the last seven million years, including today. Did the East Antarctic Ice Sheet withstand this early Pliocene warmth or did it experience major instability and deglaciation? This problem is of central importance in considering the consequences of global warming that might result from anthropogenic increases in atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases.Marine stratigraphic data from the southern high latitudes is incompatible with earlier suggestions that invoke major Pliocene warming of the Antarctic continent, increase in temperature of the surrounding Antarctic water mass to 5–10°C, and associated major deglaciation (>50% ice volume reduction) of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. An oxygen isotopic record of high stratigraphic resolution from the Subantarctic region indicates an increase in average sea surface temperatures of no more than ∼3°C during the warmest interval of the Pliocene (4.8 to 3.2 Ma). These data suggest that the Antarctic ice sheets did not experience major deglaciation during this warmer interval. Instead the oxygen isotopic data indicate relative stability of the Antarctic climate/cryosphere system during the early Pliocene compared with the large-scale fluctuations that mark the latest Miocene prior to ∼4.8 Ma. We suggest that the well known early Pliocene marine transgression was marked by sea levels no higher than 25 m above the present, and probably significantly less than this for most of this interval.Relative stability of the Antarctic cryosphere during the early Pliocene is supported by other evidence. The deep sea carbon isotopic record lacks large changes in δ13C values that would have resulted from major glacioeustatic changes. Significant ice rafting of sedimentary detritus to the Subantarctic far to the north of the Antarctic continent continued throughout the entire Pliocene, indicating a continued presence of major ice sheets on Antarctica even during the warmest Pliocene intervals. An almost complete lack of biocalcareous sediments in Antarctic waters during the Pliocene and continued dominance of biosiliceous sediments suggests oceanographic conditions broadly similar to those of the present day. This would not have been the case if the surface waters in the Antarctic had increased by more than 5°C, reflecting values of present day southern Subantarctic waters. Limited stratigraphic evidence suggests that marine sedimentary basins adjacent to West Antarctica have been relatively starved of terrigenous sediments throughout the Pliocene and Quaternary, probably as a result of the near-permanency of the East and perhaps the West Antarctic Ice Sheets since the Miocene, thereby reducing continental erosion.Early Pliocene planktonic microfossils suggest warmer average surface water temperatures in the Antarctic compared with the present day. However, conditions were not sufficiently warm to affect increasing endemism of Pliocene siliceous planktonic assemblages. Biosiliceous faunas and floras dominate throughout the Pliocene and there is no return of calcareous nannofossil deposition which had ceased during the late Miocene. During the Pliocene, conditions were never sufficiently warm to cause significant displacement of Antarctic by Subantarctic planktonic assemblages.The marine sedimentary record of oceanographic, climatic and cryospheric stability in the Antarctic during the early Pliocene agrees with predictions based on coupled ocean-atmospheric models of relatively stable Antarctic sea surface temperatures in response to global warming.

@article{doi10108004353676199311880394,
    author = "Kennett, James P. and Hodell, David A",
    title = "Evidence for Relative Climatic Stability of Antarctica During the Early Pliocene: A Marine Perspective",
    year = "1993",
    journal = "Geografiska Annaler Series A Physical Geography",
    abstract = "Before ∼3 Ma, during the early Pliocene, polar ice sheets were restricted to Antarctica, and much evidence suggests global warmth greater than at any time during the last seven million years, including today. Did the East Antarctic Ice Sheet withstand this early Pliocene warmth or did it experience major instability and deglaciation? This problem is of central importance in considering the consequences of global warming that might result from anthropogenic increases in atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases.Marine stratigraphic data from the southern high latitudes is incompatible with earlier suggestions that invoke major Pliocene warming of the Antarctic continent, increase in temperature of the surrounding Antarctic water mass to 5–10°C, and associated major deglaciation (>50\% ice volume reduction) of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. An oxygen isotopic record of high stratigraphic resolution from the Subantarctic region indicates an increase in average sea surface temperatures of no more than ∼3°C during the warmest interval of the Pliocene (4.8 to 3.2 Ma). These data suggest that the Antarctic ice sheets did not experience major deglaciation during this warmer interval. Instead the oxygen isotopic data indicate relative stability of the Antarctic climate/cryosphere system during the early Pliocene compared with the large-scale fluctuations that mark the latest Miocene prior to ∼4.8 Ma. We suggest that the well known early Pliocene marine transgression was marked by sea levels no higher than 25 m above the present, and probably significantly less than this for most of this interval.Relative stability of the Antarctic cryosphere during the early Pliocene is supported by other evidence. The deep sea carbon isotopic record lacks large changes in δ13C values that would have resulted from major glacioeustatic changes. Significant ice rafting of sedimentary detritus to the Subantarctic far to the north of the Antarctic continent continued throughout the entire Pliocene, indicating a continued presence of major ice sheets on Antarctica even during the warmest Pliocene intervals. An almost complete lack of biocalcareous sediments in Antarctic waters during the Pliocene and continued dominance of biosiliceous sediments suggests oceanographic conditions broadly similar to those of the present day. This would not have been the case if the surface waters in the Antarctic had increased by more than 5°C, reflecting values of present day southern Subantarctic waters. Limited stratigraphic evidence suggests that marine sedimentary basins adjacent to West Antarctica have been relatively starved of terrigenous sediments throughout the Pliocene and Quaternary, probably as a result of the near-permanency of the East and perhaps the West Antarctic Ice Sheets since the Miocene, thereby reducing continental erosion.Early Pliocene planktonic microfossils suggest warmer average surface water temperatures in the Antarctic compared with the present day. However, conditions were not sufficiently warm to affect increasing endemism of Pliocene siliceous planktonic assemblages. Biosiliceous faunas and floras dominate throughout the Pliocene and there is no return of calcareous nannofossil deposition which had ceased during the late Miocene. During the Pliocene, conditions were never sufficiently warm to cause significant displacement of Antarctic by Subantarctic planktonic assemblages.The marine sedimentary record of oceanographic, climatic and cryospheric stability in the Antarctic during the early Pliocene agrees with predictions based on coupled ocean-atmospheric models of relatively stable Antarctic sea surface temperatures in response to global warming.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.1993.11880394",
    doi = "10.1080/04353676.1993.11880394",
    openalex = "W2334413547",
    references = "doi101111j136530911971tb00218x"
}

Single-year and decadal radiocarbon tree-ring ages are tabulated and discussed in terms of 14 C age calibration. The single-year data form the basis of a detailed 14 C age calibration curve for the cal ad 1510–1954 interval (“cal” denotes calibrated). The Seattle decadal data set (back to 11,617 cal BP, with 0 BP = ad 1950) is a component of the integrated decadal INTCAL98 14 C age curve (Stuiver et al. 1998). Atmospheric 14 C ages can be transformed into 14 C ages of the global ocean using a carbon reservoir model. INTCAL98 14 C ages, used for these calculations, yield global ocean 14 C ages differing slightly from previously published ones (Stuiver and Braziunas 1993b). We include discussions of offsets, error multipliers, regional 14 C age differences and marine 14 C age response to oceanic and atmospheric forcing.

@article{doi101017s0033822200019172,
    author = "Stuiver, Minze and Reimer, Paula and Braziunas, Thomas F.",
    title = "High-Precision Radiocarbon Age Calibration for Terrestrial and Marine Samples",
    year = "1998",
    journal = "Radiocarbon",
    abstract = "Single-year and decadal radiocarbon tree-ring ages are tabulated and discussed in terms of 14 C age calibration. The single-year data form the basis of a detailed 14 C age calibration curve for the cal ad 1510–1954 interval (“cal” denotes calibrated). The Seattle decadal data set (back to 11,617 cal BP, with 0 BP = ad 1950) is a component of the integrated decadal INTCAL98 14 C age curve (Stuiver et al. 1998). Atmospheric 14 C ages can be transformed into 14 C ages of the global ocean using a carbon reservoir model. INTCAL98 14 C ages, used for these calculations, yield global ocean 14 C ages differing slightly from previously published ones (Stuiver and Braziunas 1993b). We include discussions of offsets, error multipliers, regional 14 C age differences and marine 14 C age response to oceanic and atmospheric forcing.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200019172",
    doi = "10.1017/s0033822200019172",
    openalex = "W1508328190",
    references = "doi101017s0033822200003672, doi101017s0033822200013783, doi101017s0033822200013874, doi101017s0033822200013904, doi101017s0033822200019123, doi101017s0033822200060264, doi101029pa003i006p00635, doi101126science2605110962, doi101177095968369300300401, openalexw1928750549"
}

The Tekirdağ depression within the Marmara Sea in the Mediterranean region is an active, rhomb‐shaped strike‐slip basin along the North Anatolian fault with a basin floor at a water depth of −1150 m. New multichannel seismic reflection data and on‐land geological studies indicate that the basin is forming along a releasing bend of the strike‐slip fault and is filled with syntransform sediments of Pliocene‐Quaternary age. The basin is bounded on one side by the North Anatolian fault and on the other side by a subparallel normal fault, which forms the steep submarine slope. In cross section the basin is strongly asymmetric with the thickness of the syntransform strata increasing from a few tens of meters on the submarine slope to over 2.5 km adjacent to the North Anatolian fault. Seismic sections also show that the slope‐forming normal fault connects at depth to the North Anatolian fault, implying that the basin is completely detached from its substratum. The whole structure can be envisaged as a huge, rather flat, negative flower structure. The releasing bend of the North Anatolian fault, responsible for the formation of the basin, is flanked by a constraining bend. Along the constraining bend, the syntransform strata are being underthrust, implying a recent change in the direction of the regional displacement vector. This thrusting is responsible for the uplift of the submarine slope to a height of 924 m, possibly by a mechanism of elastic rebound. Regional geology suggests that most of the syntransform strata are lacustrine with only the topmost few hundred meters consisting of deep marine clays. The anomalous present depth of the Tekirdağ depression is due to reduced Quaternary sedimentation coupled with high rates of displacement along the North Anatolian fault, which amounts to 20 mm/yr in the Marmara Sea region.

@article{doi1010291998tc900017,
    author = "Okay, Aral İ. and Demirbağ, Emin and Kurt, Hülya and Okay, Nilgün and Kuşçu, İsmail",
    title = "An active, deep marine strike‐slip basin along the North Anatolian fault in Turkey",
    year = "1999",
    journal = "Tectonics",
    abstract = "The Tekirdağ depression within the Marmara Sea in the Mediterranean region is an active, rhomb‐shaped strike‐slip basin along the North Anatolian fault with a basin floor at a water depth of −1150 m. New multichannel seismic reflection data and on‐land geological studies indicate that the basin is forming along a releasing bend of the strike‐slip fault and is filled with syntransform sediments of Pliocene‐Quaternary age. The basin is bounded on one side by the North Anatolian fault and on the other side by a subparallel normal fault, which forms the steep submarine slope. In cross section the basin is strongly asymmetric with the thickness of the syntransform strata increasing from a few tens of meters on the submarine slope to over 2.5 km adjacent to the North Anatolian fault. Seismic sections also show that the slope‐forming normal fault connects at depth to the North Anatolian fault, implying that the basin is completely detached from its substratum. The whole structure can be envisaged as a huge, rather flat, negative flower structure. The releasing bend of the North Anatolian fault, responsible for the formation of the basin, is flanked by a constraining bend. Along the constraining bend, the syntransform strata are being underthrust, implying a recent change in the direction of the regional displacement vector. This thrusting is responsible for the uplift of the submarine slope to a height of 924 m, possibly by a mechanism of elastic rebound. Regional geology suggests that most of the syntransform strata are lacustrine with only the topmost few hundred meters consisting of deep marine clays. The anomalous present depth of the Tekirdağ depression is due to reduced Quaternary sedimentation coupled with high rates of displacement along the North Anatolian fault, which amounts to 20 mm/yr in the Marmara Sea region.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/1998tc900017",
    doi = "10.1029/1998tc900017",
    openalex = "W2015859409",
    references = "doi1010160040195181902754, doi1010160191814185900483, doi10102997eo00356, doi101029tc007i003p00663, doi101038242240a0, doi101111j1365246x1972tb02351x, doi101111j1365246x1991tb03906x, doi1011300016760619881001666ssf23co2, doi102110pec85370211, doi102110pec85370227"
}

Steep vertical gradients of oxidants (O(2) and NO(3)(-)) in Puget Sound and Washington continental margin sediments indicate that aerobic respiration and denitrification occur within the top few millimeters to centimeters. To systematically explore the underlying communities of denitrifiers, Bacteria, and Archaea along redox gradients at distant geographic locations, nitrite reductase (nirS) genes and bacterial and archaeal 16S rRNA genes (rDNAs) were PCR amplified and analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis. The suitablility of T-RFLP analysis for investigating communities of nirS-containing denitrifiers was established by the correspondence of dominant terminal restriction fragments (T-RFs) of nirS to computer-simulated T-RFs of nirS clones. These clones belonged to clusters II, III, and IV from the same cores and were analyzed in a previous study (G. Braker, J. Zhou, L. Wu, A. H. Devol, and J. M. Tiedje, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2096-2104, 2000). T-RFLP analysis of nirS and bacterial rDNA revealed a high level of functional and phylogenetic diversity, whereas the level of diversity of Archaea was lower. A comparison of T-RFLPs based on the presence or absence of T-RFs and correspondence analysis based on the frequencies and heights of T-RFs allowed us to group sediment samples according to the sampling location and thus clearly distinguish Puget Sound and the Washington margin populations. However, changes in community structure within sediment core sections during the transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions were minor. Thus, within the top layers of marine sediments, redox gradients seem to result from the differential metabolic activities of populations of similar communities, probably through mixing by marine invertebrates rather than from the development of distinct communities.

@article{doi101128aem674189319012001,
    author = "Braker, Gesche and Ayala-del-Rı́o, Héctor L. and Devol, Allan H. and Fesefeldt, Andreas and Tiedje, James M.",
    title = "Community Structure of Denitrifiers, Bacteria, and Archaea along Redox Gradients in Pacific Northwest Marine Sediments by Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis of Amplified Nitrite Reductase (nirS) and 16S rRNA Genes",
    year = "2001",
    journal = "Applied and Environmental Microbiology",
    abstract = "Steep vertical gradients of oxidants (O(2) and NO(3)(-)) in Puget Sound and Washington continental margin sediments indicate that aerobic respiration and denitrification occur within the top few millimeters to centimeters. To systematically explore the underlying communities of denitrifiers, Bacteria, and Archaea along redox gradients at distant geographic locations, nitrite reductase (nirS) genes and bacterial and archaeal 16S rRNA genes (rDNAs) were PCR amplified and analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis. The suitablility of T-RFLP analysis for investigating communities of nirS-containing denitrifiers was established by the correspondence of dominant terminal restriction fragments (T-RFs) of nirS to computer-simulated T-RFs of nirS clones. These clones belonged to clusters II, III, and IV from the same cores and were analyzed in a previous study (G. Braker, J. Zhou, L. Wu, A. H. Devol, and J. M. Tiedje, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2096-2104, 2000). T-RFLP analysis of nirS and bacterial rDNA revealed a high level of functional and phylogenetic diversity, whereas the level of diversity of Archaea was lower. A comparison of T-RFLPs based on the presence or absence of T-RFs and correspondence analysis based on the frequencies and heights of T-RFs allowed us to group sediment samples according to the sampling location and thus clearly distinguish Puget Sound and the Washington margin populations. However, changes in community structure within sediment core sections during the transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions were minor. Thus, within the top layers of marine sediments, redox gradients seem to result from the differential metabolic activities of populations of similar communities, probably through mixing by marine invertebrates rather than from the development of distinct communities.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.67.4.1893-1901.2001",
    doi = "10.1128/aem.67.4.1893-1901.2001",
    openalex = "W2144795626",
    references = "doi1010160025322782901335"
}

@article{doi101016jmarpetgeo200301003,
    author = "Mulder, Thierry and Syvitski, James P. M. and Migeon, Sébastien and Faugères, Jean‐Claude and Savoye, Bruno",
    title = "Marine hyperpycnal flows: initiation, behavior and related deposits. A review",
    year = "2003",
    journal = "Marine and Petroleum Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.01.003",
    doi = "10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.01.003",
    openalex = "W2128776046",
    references = "doi101046j136530912000047s1062x, doi101046j13653091200100360x, doi101086625710, doi101086628741, doi101086629606, doi101086629747, doi1010970001069419650700000019, doi101130001676061972831755esocp20co2, doi101306212f7f312b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi1013065ceadd7616bb11d78645000102c1865d, doi102110pec79270075, nardin1979a, openalexw101633874, openalexw1570283708, openalexw3120543430, openalexw580680426"
}

@article{doi101016jjmarsys200306006,
    author = "Bosley, Keith L. and Lavelle, J. W. and Brodeur, Richard D. and Wakefield, W. Waldo and Emmett, Robert L. and Baker, Edward T. and Rehmke, Kara M.",
    title = "Biological and physical processes in and around Astoria submarine Canyon, Oregon, USA",
    year = "2004",
    journal = "Journal of Marine Systems",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2003.06.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jmarsys.2003.06.006",
    openalex = "W2081542275",
    references = "doi101007978146123498212, doi101007bf00379558, doi101007bf00952434, doi1010160016703757900248, doi1010160016703778901990, doi1010160016703781902441, doi101016c20100663620, doi101126science327543, doi101146annureves18110187001453, doi105860choice403403, openalexw831881814"
}

Earthquake scarps associated with recent historical events have been found on the floor of the Sea of Marmara, along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). The MARMARASCARPS cruise using an unmanned submersible (ROV) provides direct observations to study the fine‐scale morphology and geology of those scarps, their distribution, and geometry. The observations are consistent with the diversity of fault mechanisms and the fault segmentation within the north Marmara extensional step‐over, between the strike‐slip Ganos and Izmit faults. Smaller strike‐slip segments and pull‐apart basins alternate within the main step‐over, commonly combining strike‐slip and extension. Rapid sedimentation rates of 1–3 mm/yr appear to compete with normal faulting components of up to 6 mm/yr at the pull‐apart margins. In spite of the fast sedimentation rates the submarine scarps are preserved and accumulate relief. Sets of youthful earthquake scarps extend offshore from the Ganos and Izmit faults on land into the Sea of Marmara. Our observations suggest that they correspond to the submarine ruptures of the 1999 Izmit (Mw 7.4) and the 1912 Ganos (Ms 7.4) earthquakes. While the 1999 rupture ends at the immediate eastern entrance of the extensional Cinarcik Basin, the 1912 rupture appears to have crossed the Ganos restraining bend into the Sea of Marmara floor for 60 km with a right‐lateral slip of 5 m, ending in the Central Basin step‐over. From the Gulf of Saros to Marmara the total 1912 rupture length is probably about 140 km, not 50 km as previously thought. The direct observations of submarine scarps in Marmara are critical to defining barriers that have arrested past earthquakes as well as defining a possible segmentation of the contemporary state of loading. Incorporating the submarine scarp evidence modifies substantially our understanding of the current state of loading along the NAF next to Istanbul. Coulomb stress modeling shows a zone of maximum loading with at least 4–5 m of slip deficit encompassing the strike‐slip segment 70 km long between the Cinarcik and Central Basins. That segment alone would be capable of generating a large‐magnitude earthquake (Mw 7.2). Other segments in Marmara appear less loaded.

@article{doi1010292004gc000896,
    author = "Armijo, Rolando and Pondard, Nicolas and Meyer, Bertrand and Uçarkuş, Gülsen and de Lépinay, Bernard Mercier and Malavieille, Jacques and Dominguez, Stéphane and Gustcher, Marc‐André and Schmidt, Sabine and Beck, Christian and Çağatay, N. and Çakır, Ziyadin and İmren, Caner and Eris, Kadir and Natal’in, Boris A. and Özalaybey, Serdar and Tolun, Leyla and Lefèvre, Irène and Seeber, L. and Gasperini, Luca and Rangin, Claude and Emre, Ö. and Sarikavak, K.",
    title = "Submarine fault scarps in the Sea of Marmara pull‐apart (North Anatolian Fault): Implications for seismic hazard in Istanbul",
    year = "2005",
    journal = "Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems",
    abstract = "Earthquake scarps associated with recent historical events have been found on the floor of the Sea of Marmara, along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). The MARMARASCARPS cruise using an unmanned submersible (ROV) provides direct observations to study the fine‐scale morphology and geology of those scarps, their distribution, and geometry. The observations are consistent with the diversity of fault mechanisms and the fault segmentation within the north Marmara extensional step‐over, between the strike‐slip Ganos and Izmit faults. Smaller strike‐slip segments and pull‐apart basins alternate within the main step‐over, commonly combining strike‐slip and extension. Rapid sedimentation rates of 1–3 mm/yr appear to compete with normal faulting components of up to 6 mm/yr at the pull‐apart margins. In spite of the fast sedimentation rates the submarine scarps are preserved and accumulate relief. Sets of youthful earthquake scarps extend offshore from the Ganos and Izmit faults on land into the Sea of Marmara. Our observations suggest that they correspond to the submarine ruptures of the 1999 Izmit (Mw 7.4) and the 1912 Ganos (Ms 7.4) earthquakes. While the 1999 rupture ends at the immediate eastern entrance of the extensional Cinarcik Basin, the 1912 rupture appears to have crossed the Ganos restraining bend into the Sea of Marmara floor for 60 km with a right‐lateral slip of 5 m, ending in the Central Basin step‐over. From the Gulf of Saros to Marmara the total 1912 rupture length is probably about 140 km, not 50 km as previously thought. The direct observations of submarine scarps in Marmara are critical to defining barriers that have arrested past earthquakes as well as defining a possible segmentation of the contemporary state of loading. Incorporating the submarine scarp evidence modifies substantially our understanding of the current state of loading along the NAF next to Istanbul. Coulomb stress modeling shows a zone of maximum loading with at least 4–5 m of slip deficit encompassing the strike‐slip segment 70 km long between the Cinarcik and Central Basins. That segment alone would be capable of generating a large‐magnitude earthquake (Mw 7.2). Other segments in Marmara appear less loaded.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1029/2004gc000896",
    doi = "10.1029/2004gc000896",
    openalex = "W1816902770",
    references = "doi101016s0012821x01004496, doi101016s0040195100000469, doi1010291998tc900017, doi1010291999jb900351, doi1010292002jb001862, doi10102992jb01963, doi101029jb091ib14p13803, doi101029tc007i003p00663, doi101046j1365246x199800567x, doi101046j1365246x200000137x, doi101046j13653121200200397x, doi101111j1365246x1991tb03906x, doi101111j1365246x1997tb05321x, doi1011300091761319990270267wpotna23co2, doi101146annurevearth32101802120415, doi101146annurevearth33092203122711"
}

@article{doi101016jepsl200605038,
    author = "McHugh, Cecilia M. and Seeber, L. and Cormier, Marie‐Hélène and Dutton, Jessica M. and Çağatay, N. and Polonia, Alina and Ryan, William H. and Görür, Nací",
    title = "Submarine earthquake geology along the North Anatolia Fault in the Marmara Sea, Turkey: A model for transform basin sedimentation",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Earth and Planetary Science Letters",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.05.038",
    doi = "10.1016/j.epsl.2006.05.038",
    openalex = "W2048144396",
    references = "doi101016s0025322702003602, doi1010292004gc000896"
}

@article{doi101016jmarmicro200607006,
    author = "Naughton, Filipa and Goñi, Marı́a Fernanda Sánchez and Desprat, Stéphanie and Turon, Jean‐Louis and Duprat, J. and Malaizé, Bruno and Joli, C. and Cortijo, Elsa and Drago, Teresa and Freitas, Maria Conceição",
    title = "Present-day and past (last 25000 years) marine pollen signal off western Iberia",
    year = "2006",
    journal = "Marine Micropaleontology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marmicro.2006.07.006",
    doi = "10.1016/j.marmicro.2006.07.006",
    openalex = "W2064676558",
    references = "doi1010160033589477900138"
}

Lavishly illustrated in color, this textbook takes an applied approach to introduce undergraduate students to the basic principles of structural geology. The book provides unique links to industry applications in the upper crust, including petroleum and groundwater geology, which highlight the importance of structural geology in exploration and exploitation of petroleum and water resources. Topics range from faults and fractures forming near the surface to shear zones and folds of the deep crust. Students are engaged through examples and parallels drawn from practical everyday situations, enabling them to connect theory with practice. Containing numerous end-of-chapter problems, e-learning modules, and with stunning field photos and illustrations, this book provides the ultimate learning experience for all students of structural geology.

@book{doi101017cbo9780511777806,
    author = "Fossen, Haakon",
    title = "Structural Geology",
    year = "2010",
    booktitle = "Cambridge University Press eBooks",
    abstract = "Lavishly illustrated in color, this textbook takes an applied approach to introduce undergraduate students to the basic principles of structural geology. The book provides unique links to industry applications in the upper crust, including petroleum and groundwater geology, which highlight the importance of structural geology in exploration and exploitation of petroleum and water resources. Topics range from faults and fractures forming near the surface to shear zones and folds of the deep crust. Students are engaged through examples and parallels drawn from practical everyday situations, enabling them to connect theory with practice. Containing numerous end-of-chapter problems, e-learning modules, and with stunning field photos and illustrations, this book provides the ultimate learning experience for all students of structural geology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511777806",
    doi = "10.1017/cbo9780511777806",
    openalex = "W2298012029",
    references = "doi1010160040195187903337, doi1010160191814180900413, doi1010160191814184900014, doi1010160191814189900369, doi101016jearscirev200701001, doi101016s0264817298000713, doi101046j1365246x200301917x, doi10108011035894909453298, doi101098rsta19760079, doi101111j13652117200000121x, doi1011300016760619881001666ssf23co2"
}

Submarine canyons are dramatic and widespread topographic features crossing continental and island margins in all oceans. Canyons can be sites of enhanced organic-matter flux and deposition through entrainment of coastal detrital export, dense shelf-water cascade, channelling of resuspended particulate material and focusing of sediment deposition. Despite their unusual ecological characteristics and global distribution along oceanic continental margins, only scattered information is available about the influence of submarine canyons on deep-sea ecosystem structure and productivity. Here, we show that deep-sea canyons such as the Kaikoura Canyon on the eastern New Zealand margin (42 degrees 01' S, 173 degrees 03' E) can sustain enormous biomasses of infaunal megabenthic invertebrates over large areas. Our reported biomass values are 100-fold higher than those previously reported for deep-sea (non-chemosynthetic) habitats below 500 m in the ocean. We also present evidence from deep-sea-towed camera images that areas in the canyon that have the extraordinary benthic biomass also harbour high abundances of macrourid (rattail) fishes likely to be feeding on the macro- and megabenthos. Bottom-trawl catch data also indicate that the Kaikoura Canyon has dramatically higher abundances of benthic-feeding fishes than adjacent slopes. Our results demonstrate that the Kaikoura Canyon is one of the most productive habitats described so far in the deep sea. A new global inventory suggests there are at least 660 submarine canyons worldwide, approximately 100 of which could be biomass hotspots similar to the Kaikoura Canyon. The importance of such deep-sea canyons as potential hotspots of production and commercial fisheries yields merits substantial further study.

@article{doi101098rspb20100462,
    author = "Léo, Fabio C. De and Smith, Craig R. and Rowden, Ashley A. and Bowden, David A. and Clark, Malcolm R.",
    title = "Submarine canyons: hotspots of benthic biomass and productivity in the deep sea",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences",
    abstract = "Submarine canyons are dramatic and widespread topographic features crossing continental and island margins in all oceans. Canyons can be sites of enhanced organic-matter flux and deposition through entrainment of coastal detrital export, dense shelf-water cascade, channelling of resuspended particulate material and focusing of sediment deposition. Despite their unusual ecological characteristics and global distribution along oceanic continental margins, only scattered information is available about the influence of submarine canyons on deep-sea ecosystem structure and productivity. Here, we show that deep-sea canyons such as the Kaikoura Canyon on the eastern New Zealand margin (42 degrees 01' S, 173 degrees 03' E) can sustain enormous biomasses of infaunal megabenthic invertebrates over large areas. Our reported biomass values are 100-fold higher than those previously reported for deep-sea (non-chemosynthetic) habitats below 500 m in the ocean. We also present evidence from deep-sea-towed camera images that areas in the canyon that have the extraordinary benthic biomass also harbour high abundances of macrourid (rattail) fishes likely to be feeding on the macro- and megabenthos. Bottom-trawl catch data also indicate that the Kaikoura Canyon has dramatically higher abundances of benthic-feeding fishes than adjacent slopes. Our results demonstrate that the Kaikoura Canyon is one of the most productive habitats described so far in the deep sea. A new global inventory suggests there are at least 660 submarine canyons worldwide, approximately 100 of which could be biomass hotspots similar to the Kaikoura Canyon. The importance of such deep-sea canyons as potential hotspots of production and commercial fisheries yields merits substantial further study.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0462",
    doi = "10.1098/rspb.2010.0462",
    openalex = "W2137464715",
    references = "doi101016jjmarsys200306006, doi101126science16338741419"
}

Many of the largest earthquakes are generated at subduction zones or other plate boundary fault systems near enough to the coast that marine environments may record evidence of them. During and shortly after large earthquakes in the coastal and marine environments, a spectrum of evidence may be left behind, mirroring onshore paleoseismic evidence. Shaking or displacement of the seafloor can trigger processes such as turbidity currents, submarine landslides, tsunami (which may be recorded both onshore and offshore), and soft-sediment deformation. Marine sites may also share evidence of fault scarps, colluvial wedges, offset features, and liquefaction or fluid expulsion with their onshore counterparts. This article reviews the use of submarine turbidite deposits for paleoseismology, focuses on the dating and correlation techniques used to establish stratigraphic continuity of marine deposits, and outlines criteria for distinguishing earthquake deposits and the strategies used to acquire suitable samples and data for marine paleoseismology.

@article{doi101146annurevmarine120709142852,
    author = "Goldfinger, C.",
    title = "Submarine Paleoseismology Based on Turbidite Records",
    year = "2010",
    journal = "Annual Review of Marine Science",
    abstract = "Many of the largest earthquakes are generated at subduction zones or other plate boundary fault systems near enough to the coast that marine environments may record evidence of them. During and shortly after large earthquakes in the coastal and marine environments, a spectrum of evidence may be left behind, mirroring onshore paleoseismic evidence. Shaking or displacement of the seafloor can trigger processes such as turbidity currents, submarine landslides, tsunami (which may be recorded both onshore and offshore), and soft-sediment deformation. Marine sites may also share evidence of fault scarps, colluvial wedges, offset features, and liquefaction or fluid expulsion with their onshore counterparts. This article reviews the use of submarine turbidite deposits for paleoseismology, focuses on the dating and correlation techniques used to establish stratigraphic continuity of marine deposits, and outlines criteria for distinguishing earthquake deposits and the strategies used to acquire suitable samples and data for marine paleoseismology.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142852",
    doi = "10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142852",
    openalex = "W2168159645",
    references = "doi1010160025322776900839"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo201209002,
    author = "Zitter, T.A.C. and Grall, C. and Henry, Pierre and Özeren, M. Sinan and Çağatay, M. Namık and Şengör, A. M. Celâl and Gasperini, Luca and de Lépinay, Bernard Mercier and Géli, Louis",
    title = "Distribution, morphology and triggers of submarine mass wasting in the Sea of Marmara",
    year = "2012",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2012.09.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2012.09.002",
    openalex = "W2142605183",
    references = "doi101016s0025322702003602"
}

Although there is a common agreement on the importance of conservation of Mediterranean submarine canyons amongst international organizations, their governance is complex: the canyons' extension covers waters and seabeds under various types of jurisdictions (territorial waters, Fisheries Protection Zone, Ecological Protection Zone, including delimitation issues). Conservation of deep-sea features, such as canyons, requires improving our understanding of the biological and ecological role of these ecosystems, threats and conservation issues, limits and chances of national and international jurisdictions. This report has been written with the intention of meeting this need by reviewing interdisciplinary contributions of experts from various Mediterranean countries.

@book{openalexw2756155715,
    author = "Wϋrtz, Maurizio",
    title = "Mediterranean submarine canyons: ecology and governance",
    year = "2012",
    booktitle = "IUCN eBooks",
    abstract = "Although there is a common agreement on the importance of conservation of Mediterranean submarine canyons amongst international organizations, their governance is complex: the canyons' extension covers waters and seabeds under various types of jurisdictions (territorial waters, Fisheries Protection Zone, Ecological Protection Zone, including delimitation issues). Conservation of deep-sea features, such as canyons, requires improving our understanding of the biological and ecological role of these ecosystems, threats and conservation issues, limits and chances of national and international jurisdictions. This report has been written with the intention of meeting this need by reviewing interdisciplinary contributions of experts from various Mediterranean countries.",
    openalex = "W2756155715",
    references = "doi101016jjmarsys200306006"
}

Abstract Thus far, the subject of deep-marine sands emplaced by baroclinic currents associated with internal waves and internal tides as potential reservoirs has remained an alien topic in petroleum exploration. Internal waves are gravity waves that oscillate along oceanic pycnoclines. Internal tides are internal waves with a tidal frequency. Internal solitary waves (i.e., solitons), the most common type, are commonly generated near the shelf edge (100–200 m [328–656 ft] in bathymetry) and in the deep ocean over areas of sea-floor irregularities, such as mid-ocean ridges, seamounts, and guyots. Empirical data from 51 locations in the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic oceans reveal that internal solitary waves travel in packets. Internal waves commonly exhibit (1) higher wave amplitudes (5–50 m [16–164 ft]) than surface waves (<2 m [6.56 ft]), (2) longer wavelengths (0.5–15 km [0.31–9 mi]) than surface waves (100 m [328 ft]), (3) longer wave periods (5–50 min) than surface waves (9–10 s), and (4) higher wave speeds (0.5–2 m s–1 [1.64–6.56 ft s–1]) than surface waves (25 cm s–1 [10 in. s–1]). Maximum speeds of 48 cm s–1 (19 in. s–1) for baroclinic currents were measured on guyots. However, core-based sedimentologic studies of modern sediments emplaced by baroclinic currents on continental slopes, in submarine canyons, and on submarine guyots are lacking. No cogent sedimentologic or seismic criteria exist for distinguishing ancient counterparts. Outcrop-based facies models of these deposits are untenable. Therefore, potential exists for misinterpreting deep-marine baroclinic sands as turbidites, contourites, basin-floor fans, and others. Economic risks associated with such misinterpretations could be real.

@article{doi10130610171212101,
    author = "Shanmugam, G.",
    title = "Modern internal waves and internal tides along oceanic pycnoclines: Challenges and implications for ancient deep-marine baroclinic sands",
    year = "2013",
    journal = "AAPG Bulletin",
    abstract = "Abstract Thus far, the subject of deep-marine sands emplaced by baroclinic currents associated with internal waves and internal tides as potential reservoirs has remained an alien topic in petroleum exploration. Internal waves are gravity waves that oscillate along oceanic pycnoclines. Internal tides are internal waves with a tidal frequency. Internal solitary waves (i.e., solitons), the most common type, are commonly generated near the shelf edge (100–200 m [328–656 ft] in bathymetry) and in the deep ocean over areas of sea-floor irregularities, such as mid-ocean ridges, seamounts, and guyots. Empirical data from 51 locations in the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic oceans reveal that internal solitary waves travel in packets. Internal waves commonly exhibit (1) higher wave amplitudes (5–50 m [16–164 ft]) than surface waves (\<2 m [6.56 ft]), (2) longer wavelengths (0.5–15 km [0.31–9 mi]) than surface waves (100 m [328 ft]), (3) longer wave periods (5–50 min) than surface waves (9–10 s), and (4) higher wave speeds (0.5–2 m s–1 [1.64–6.56 ft s–1]) than surface waves (25 cm s–1 [10 in. s–1]). Maximum speeds of 48 cm s–1 (19 in. s–1) for baroclinic currents were measured on guyots. However, core-based sedimentologic studies of modern sediments emplaced by baroclinic currents on continental slopes, in submarine canyons, and on submarine guyots are lacking. No cogent sedimentologic or seismic criteria exist for distinguishing ancient counterparts. Outcrop-based facies models of these deposits are untenable. Therefore, potential exists for misinterpreting deep-marine baroclinic sands as turbidites, contourites, basin-floor fans, and others. Economic risks associated with such misinterpretations could be real.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1306/10171212101",
    doi = "10.1306/10171212101",
    openalex = "W2111801986",
    references = "doi10108000288306196910420225, doi10130674d721442b2111d78648000102c1865d, doi101306ad462bc316f711d78645000102c1865d"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo201402002,
    author = "Roveri, Marco and Flecker, Rachel and Krijgsman, Wout and Lofi, Johanna and Lugli, Stefano and Manzi, Vinicio and Sierro, Francisco Javier and Bertini, Adèle and Camerlenghi, Angelo and de Lange, Gert J. and Govers, Rob and Hilgen, Frits J. and Hübscher, Christian and Meijer, Paul and Stoica, Marius",
    title = "The Messinian Salinity Crisis: Past and future of a great challenge for marine sciences",
    year = "2014",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2014.02.002",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2014.02.002",
    openalex = "W2040964459",
    references = "doi1010160025322771900533, doi101016jearscirev200911004, doi101016jsedgeo200602005, doi1010179781139027748004, doi1010292002eo000189, doi10103823231, doi101038242240a0, doi10103835038060, doi101038nature01553, doi101038nature05271, doi101038nature06588, doi101038nature08555, doi101126science1059412, doi102973odpprocsr1271281992"
}

When we look back the contributions on submarine fans during the past 65 years (1950–2015), the empirical data on 21 modern submarine fans and 10 ancient deep-water systems, published by the results of the First COMFAN (Committee on FANs) Meeting (Bouma et al., 1985a), have remained the single most significant compilation of data on submarine fans. The 1970s were the “heyday” of submarine fan models. In the 21st century, the general focus has shifted from submarine fans to submarine mass movements, internal waves and tides, and contourites. The purpose of this review is to illustrate the complexity of issues surrounding the origin and classification of submarine fans. The principal elements of submarine fans, composed of canyons, channels, and lobes, are discussed using nine modern case studies from the Mediterranean Sea, the Equatorial Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, the North Pacific, the NE Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal), and the East Sea (Korea). The Annot Sandstone (Eocene–Oligocene), exposed at Peira-Cava area, SE France, which served as the type locality for the “Bouma Sequence”, was reexamined. The field details are documented in questioning the validity of the model, which was the basis for the turbidite-fan link. The 29 fan-related models that are of conceptual significance, developed during the period 1970–2015, are discussed using modern and ancient systems. They are: (1) the classic submarine fan model with attached lobes, (2) the detached-lobe model, (3) the channel-levee complex without lobes, (4) the delta-fed ramp model, (5) the gully-lobe model, (6) the suprafan lobe model, (7) the depositional lobe model, (8) the fan lobe model, (9) the ponded lobe model, (10) the nine models based on grain size and sediment source, (11) the four fan models based on tectonic settings, (12) the Jackfork debrite model, (13) the basin-floor fan model, (14) supercritical and subcritical fans, and (15) the three types of fan reservoirs. Each model is unique, and the long-standing belief that submarine fans are composed of turbidites, in particular, of gravelly and sandy high-density turbidites, is a myth. This is because there are no empirical data to validate the existence of gravelly and sandy high-density turbidity currents in the modern marine environments. Also, there are no experimental documentation of true turbidity currents that can transport gravels and coarse sands in turbulent suspension. Mass-transport processes, which include slides, slumps, and debris flows (but not turbidity currenrs), are the most viable mechanisms for transporting gravels and sands into the deep sea. The prevailing notion that submarine fans develop during periods of sea-level lowstands is also a myth. The geologic reality is that frequent short-term events that last for only a few minutes to several hours or days (e.g., earthquakes, meteorite impacts, tsunamis, tropical cyclones, etc.) are more important in controlling deposition of deep-water sands than sporadic long-term events that last for thousands to millions of years (e.g., lowstand systems tract). Submarine fans are still in a stage of muddled turbidite paradigm because the concept of high-density turbidity currents is incommensurable.

@article{doi101016jjop201508011,
    author = "Shanmugam, G.",
    title = "Submarine fans: A critical retrospective (1950–2015)",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Journal of Palaeogeography",
    abstract = "When we look back the contributions on submarine fans during the past 65 years (1950–2015), the empirical data on 21 modern submarine fans and 10 ancient deep-water systems, published by the results of the First COMFAN (Committee on FANs) Meeting (Bouma et al., 1985a), have remained the single most significant compilation of data on submarine fans. The 1970s were the “heyday” of submarine fan models. In the 21st century, the general focus has shifted from submarine fans to submarine mass movements, internal waves and tides, and contourites. The purpose of this review is to illustrate the complexity of issues surrounding the origin and classification of submarine fans. The principal elements of submarine fans, composed of canyons, channels, and lobes, are discussed using nine modern case studies from the Mediterranean Sea, the Equatorial Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, the North Pacific, the NE Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal), and the East Sea (Korea). The Annot Sandstone (Eocene–Oligocene), exposed at Peira-Cava area, SE France, which served as the type locality for the “Bouma Sequence”, was reexamined. The field details are documented in questioning the validity of the model, which was the basis for the turbidite-fan link. The 29 fan-related models that are of conceptual significance, developed during the period 1970–2015, are discussed using modern and ancient systems. They are: (1) the classic submarine fan model with attached lobes, (2) the detached-lobe model, (3) the channel-levee complex without lobes, (4) the delta-fed ramp model, (5) the gully-lobe model, (6) the suprafan lobe model, (7) the depositional lobe model, (8) the fan lobe model, (9) the ponded lobe model, (10) the nine models based on grain size and sediment source, (11) the four fan models based on tectonic settings, (12) the Jackfork debrite model, (13) the basin-floor fan model, (14) supercritical and subcritical fans, and (15) the three types of fan reservoirs. Each model is unique, and the long-standing belief that submarine fans are composed of turbidites, in particular, of gravelly and sandy high-density turbidites, is a myth. This is because there are no empirical data to validate the existence of gravelly and sandy high-density turbidity currents in the modern marine environments. Also, there are no experimental documentation of true turbidity currents that can transport gravels and coarse sands in turbulent suspension. Mass-transport processes, which include slides, slumps, and debris flows (but not turbidity currenrs), are the most viable mechanisms for transporting gravels and sands into the deep sea. The prevailing notion that submarine fans develop during periods of sea-level lowstands is also a myth. The geologic reality is that frequent short-term events that last for only a few minutes to several hours or days (e.g., earthquakes, meteorite impacts, tsunamis, tropical cyclones, etc.) are more important in controlling deposition of deep-water sands than sporadic long-term events that last for thousands to millions of years (e.g., lowstand systems tract). Submarine fans are still in a stage of muddled turbidite paradigm because the concept of high-density turbidity currents is incommensurable.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jop.2015.08.011",
    doi = "10.1016/j.jop.2015.08.011",
    openalex = "W2309593205",
    references = "behrmann2006rapid, crossref1978gulf, crossref1996the, doi1010160012825286900012, doi10102997rg00426, doi101046j144016142002t01501102ax, doi10108000288306196910420225, doi101111j13653091200700926x, doi101111j13653091200801019x, doi101130081372356655, doi101130g332171, doi101130spe65p1, doi101144gslsp19850180103, doi101306212f7f312b2411d78648000102c1865d, doi1013065ceae13616bb11d78645000102c1865d, doi1043249781912281589, doi105860choice295709, doi105860choice342173, doi105860choice444462, doi107208chicago97802264581060010001, openalexw2267844404"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo201601009,
    author = "Pope, Ed and Talling, Peter J. and Carter, Lionel",
    title = "Which earthquakes trigger damaging submarine mass movements: Insights from a global record of submarine cable breaks?",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2016.01.009",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2016.01.009",
    openalex = "W2289323812",
    references = "doi105194nhess138332013"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo201606008,
    author = "Goldfinger, C. and Galer, Steve and Beeson, Jeffrey W. and Hamilton, T S and Black, Bran and Romsos, Chris and Patton, J. R. and Nelson, Claudia and Hausmann, R. B. and Morey, A. E.",
    title = "The importance of site selection, sediment supply, and hydrodynamics: A case study of submarine paleoseismology on the northern Cascadia margin, Washington USA",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2016.06.008",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2016.06.008",
    openalex = "W2485084206",
    references = "doi1010160025322776900839, doi1010160025322778900750, doi1010160025322782901335, doi105194nhess138332013"
}

@article{doi101016jsedgeo201603010,
    author = "Bain, H. and Hubbard, Stephen M.",
    title = "Stratigraphic evolution of a long-lived submarine channel system in the Late Cretaceous Nanaimo Group, British Columbia, Canada",
    year = "2016",
    journal = "Sedimentary Geology",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.03.010",
    doi = "10.1016/j.sedgeo.2016.03.010",
    openalex = "W2304278701",
    references = "doi1010160025322778900750, doi101016jmarpetgeo201506007, doi101130b309961"
}

Submarine canyons are major geomorphic features of continental margins around the world. Several recent multidisciplinary projects focused on the study of canyons have considerably increased our understanding of their ecological role, the goods and services they provide to human populations, and the impacts that human activities have on their overall ecological condition. Pressures from human activities include fishing, dumping of land-based mine tailings, and oil and gas extraction. Moreover, hydrodynamic processes of canyons enhance the down-canyon transport of litter. The effects of climate change may modify the intensity of currents. This potential hydrographic change is predicted to impact the structure and functioning of canyon communities as well as affect nutrient supply to the deep-ocean ecosystem. This review not only identifies the ecological status of canyons, and current and future issues for canyon conservation, but also highlights the need for a better understanding of anthropogenic impacts on canyon ecosystems and proposes other research required to inform management measures to protect canyon ecosystems.

@article{doi103389fmars201700005,
    author = "Fernández-Arcaya, U. and Ramírez-Llodra, Eva and Aguzzi, Jacopo and Allcock, A. Louise and Davies, Jaime S. and Dissanayake, Awantha and Harris, Peter T. and Howell, Kerry L. and Huvenne, Veerle A.I. and Macmillan-Lawler, Miles and Martín, Jacobo and Menot, Lénàïck and Nizinski, Martha S. and Puig, Pere and Rowden, Ashley A. and Sánchez, F. and van den Beld, Inge M.J.",
    title = "Ecological Role of Submarine Canyons and Need for Canyon Conservation: A Review",
    year = "2017",
    journal = "Frontiers in Marine Science",
    abstract = "Submarine canyons are major geomorphic features of continental margins around the world. Several recent multidisciplinary projects focused on the study of canyons have considerably increased our understanding of their ecological role, the goods and services they provide to human populations, and the impacts that human activities have on their overall ecological condition. Pressures from human activities include fishing, dumping of land-based mine tailings, and oil and gas extraction. Moreover, hydrodynamic processes of canyons enhance the down-canyon transport of litter. The effects of climate change may modify the intensity of currents. This potential hydrographic change is predicted to impact the structure and functioning of canyon communities as well as affect nutrient supply to the deep-ocean ecosystem. This review not only identifies the ecological status of canyons, and current and future issues for canyon conservation, but also highlights the need for a better understanding of anthropogenic impacts on canyon ecosystems and proposes other research required to inform management measures to protect canyon ecosystems.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00005",
    doi = "10.3389/fmars.2017.00005",
    openalex = "W2581032812",
    references = "doi101016jjmarsys200306006, doi101016jmargeo201401011, doi101371journalpone0030580"
}

Submarine canyon systems are ubiquitous features of marine ecosystems, known to support high levels of biodiversity. Canyons may be important to benthic-pelagic ecosystem coupling, but their role in concentrating plankton and structuring pelagic communities is not well known. We hypothesize that at the scale of a large marine ecosystem, canyons provide a critical habitat network, which maintain energy flow and trophic interactions. We evaluate canyon characteristics relative to the distribution and abundance of krill, critically important prey in the California Current Ecosystem. Using a geological database, we conducted a census of canyon locations, evaluated their dimensions, and quantified functional relationships with krill hotspots (i.e., sites of persistently elevated abundance) derived from hydro-acoustic surveys. We found that 76% of krill hotspots occurred within and adjacent to canyons. Most krill hotspots were associated with large shelf-incising canyons. Krill hotspots and canyon dimensions displayed similar coherence as a function of latitude and indicate a potential regional habitat network. The latitudinal migration of many fish, seabirds and mammals may be enhanced by using this canyon-krill network to maintain foraging opportunities. Biogeographic assessments and predictions of krill and krill-predator distributions under climate change may be improved by accounting for canyons in habitat models.

@article{doi101038s41598018257429,
    author = "Santora, Jarrod A. and Zeno, Ramona and Dorman, Jeffrey G. and Sydeman, William J.",
    title = "Submarine canyons represent an essential habitat network for krill hotspots in a Large Marine Ecosystem",
    year = "2018",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "Submarine canyon systems are ubiquitous features of marine ecosystems, known to support high levels of biodiversity. Canyons may be important to benthic-pelagic ecosystem coupling, but their role in concentrating plankton and structuring pelagic communities is not well known. We hypothesize that at the scale of a large marine ecosystem, canyons provide a critical habitat network, which maintain energy flow and trophic interactions. We evaluate canyon characteristics relative to the distribution and abundance of krill, critically important prey in the California Current Ecosystem. Using a geological database, we conducted a census of canyon locations, evaluated their dimensions, and quantified functional relationships with krill hotspots (i.e., sites of persistently elevated abundance) derived from hydro-acoustic surveys. We found that 76\% of krill hotspots occurred within and adjacent to canyons. Most krill hotspots were associated with large shelf-incising canyons. Krill hotspots and canyon dimensions displayed similar coherence as a function of latitude and indicate a potential regional habitat network. The latitudinal migration of many fish, seabirds and mammals may be enhanced by using this canyon-krill network to maintain foraging opportunities. Biogeographic assessments and predictions of krill and krill-predator distributions under climate change may be improved by accounting for canyons in habitat models.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25742-9",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-018-25742-9",
    openalex = "W2805280669",
    references = "doi101016jjmarsys200306006"
}

Since the resume in 2005 of the systematic geophysical and geo-ecological investigation of the Romanian offshore, over 13,400 km of gravity lines and over 48,000 km of magnetic lines have been acquired on the entire surface of the Romanian maritime space and over most of the Bulgarian one.Based on this data numerous maps of the gravity and magnetic anomalies, at scales ranging from regional to the highest detail, have been compiled. If prior to 1990, marine gravity and magnetic researches were exclusively used for the study of the Romanian continental shelf deep geological structure and for the assessment of its hydrocarbon potential, the latter researches has expanded the range of topics addressed: deciphering of also near surface structures, marine site characterization, geo-archaeology, environmental geophysics, detection of submerged objects, maritime space security. Mainly during the last years, an increasing involvement of marine magnetometry in projects dedicated to the study of the submarine cultural heritage and to enhancement of maritime space safety is noticed. The present results and findings due to marine magnetometry go far beyond all initial expectations.

@article{doi105281zenodo3607420,
    author = "Dimitriu, R.",
    title = "Main results of marine gravity and magnetic researches carried out at the National Research \& Development Institute for Marine Geology and Geoecology",
    year = "2020",
    publisher = "Zenodo",
    abstract = "Since the resume in 2005 of the systematic geophysical and geo-ecological investigation of the Romanian offshore, over 13,400 km of gravity lines and over 48,000 km of magnetic lines have been acquired on the entire surface of the Romanian maritime space and over most of the Bulgarian one.Based on this data numerous maps of the gravity and magnetic anomalies, at scales ranging from regional to the highest detail, have been compiled. If prior to 1990, marine gravity and magnetic researches were exclusively used for the study of the Romanian continental shelf deep geological structure and for the assessment of its hydrocarbon potential, the latter researches has expanded the range of topics addressed: deciphering of also near surface structures, marine site characterization, geo-archaeology, environmental geophysics, detection of submerged objects, maritime space security. Mainly during the last years, an increasing involvement of marine magnetometry in projects dedicated to the study of the submarine cultural heritage and to enhancement of maritime space safety is noticed. The present results and findings due to marine magnetometry go far beyond all initial expectations.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/c399d0c3ad956a9286dd43f5826420bf169f53dc",
    doi = "10.5281/ZENODO.3607420",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "1",
    semanticscholar_id = "c399d0c3ad956a9286dd43f5826420bf169f53dc"
}

@article{doi101016jmargeo2021106634,
    author = "Argnani, A.",
    title = "Comment on “New simulations and understanding of the 1908 Messina tsunami for a dual seismic and deep submarine mass failure source” by L. Schambach, S.T. Grilli, D.R. Tappin, M.D. Gangemi, G. Barbaro [Marine Geology 421 (2020) 106093]",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/3af73fc31f96e0948cfe30b16c9be81e0728132e",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2021.106634",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "106634",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "6",
    semanticscholar_id = "3af73fc31f96e0948cfe30b16c9be81e0728132e",
    volume = "442"
}

Abstract In this response, we address and refute the comments made by Argnani (2021) on our 1908 Messina tsunami paper (Schambach et al., 2020), regarding the poor geological constraints underpinning the numerical tsunami modeling. Earthquake mechanisms can be constructed from ‘geology’, but because ruptures are usually blind, seabed evidence may be absent. Alternatively, with small magnitude earthquakes, such as Messina 1908, the small vertical displacements may not be resolved on seismic or multibeam echosounder bathymetric records, because of the relatively low frequencies of the recording equipment. Hence, for earthquake tsunami, seismological data may be more appropriate as the basis for numerical modeling. With regard to submarine mass failure, when interpreting seismic and bathymetry data, the frequency content should again be carefully considered, because smaller features may not be resolved. Regarding the 1908 tsunami, the Mw 7.1 earthquake magnitude would not be expected to generate the recorded tsunami runups for the 5 sources we modeled, as is proved from our modeling; this would also be the case for the Barreca et al. (2021) source proposed in the discussion. Combined with any of these earthquake sources, the submarine mass failure we identified and mapped, however, in large part does. The evidence most critical to the age dating of our identified SMF, presented as too old in the discussion, is that: (i) it is at the location predicted by the inverse wave ray tracing based on tsunami arrival observations; and (ii) upon forward modeling, this tsunami mechanism generates the onland tsunami record.

@article{doi101016jmargeo2021106636,
    author = "Schambach, L. and Grilli, S. and Tappin, D. and Gangemi, M. and Barbaro, G.",
    title = "Response to: Comment on “New simulations and understanding of the 1908 Messina tsunami for a dual seismic and deep submarine mass failure source” by L. Schambach, S.T. Grilli, D.R. Tappin, M.D. Gangemi, G. Barbaro [Marine Geology 421 (2020) 106093]",
    year = "2021",
    journal = "Marine Geology",
    abstract = "Abstract In this response, we address and refute the comments made by Argnani (2021) on our 1908 Messina tsunami paper (Schambach et al., 2020), regarding the poor geological constraints underpinning the numerical tsunami modeling. Earthquake mechanisms can be constructed from ‘geology’, but because ruptures are usually blind, seabed evidence may be absent. Alternatively, with small magnitude earthquakes, such as Messina 1908, the small vertical displacements may not be resolved on seismic or multibeam echosounder bathymetric records, because of the relatively low frequencies of the recording equipment. Hence, for earthquake tsunami, seismological data may be more appropriate as the basis for numerical modeling. With regard to submarine mass failure, when interpreting seismic and bathymetry data, the frequency content should again be carefully considered, because smaller features may not be resolved. Regarding the 1908 tsunami, the Mw 7.1 earthquake magnitude would not be expected to generate the recorded tsunami runups for the 5 sources we modeled, as is proved from our modeling; this would also be the case for the Barreca et al. (2021) source proposed in the discussion. Combined with any of these earthquake sources, the submarine mass failure we identified and mapped, however, in large part does. The evidence most critical to the age dating of our identified SMF, presented as too old in the discussion, is that: (i) it is at the location predicted by the inverse wave ray tracing based on tsunami arrival observations; and (ii) upon forward modeling, this tsunami mechanism generates the onland tsunami record.",
    url = "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/am/pii/S0025322721002188",
    doi = "10.1016/j.margeo.2021.106636",
    is_oa = "true",
    pages = "106636",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "2",
    semanticscholar_id = "d78f5cf25b00698460cca87888bb1105be9b547d",
    volume = "442"
}

Observations from the modern seafloor that suggest turbidity currents tend to erode as they lose channel-levee confinement, rather than decelerating and depositing their sediment load, has driven investigations into sediment gravity flow behaviour at the mouth of submarine channels. Commonly, channel mouth settings coincide with areas of gradient change and play a vital role in the transfer of sediment through deep-water systems. Channel mouth settings are widely referred to as the submarine channel-lobe transition zone (CLTZ) where well-defined channel-levees are separated from well-defined lobes, and are associated with an assemblage of erosional and depositional bedforms (e.g., scours and scour fields, sediment waves, incipient channels). Motivated by recently published datasets, we reviewed modern seafloor studies, which suggest that a wide range of channel mouth configurations exist. These include traditional CLTZs, plunge pools, and distinctive long and flared tracts between channels and lobes, which we recognise with the new term channel mouth expansion zones (CMEZs). In order to understand the morphodynamic differences between types of channel mouth settings, we review insights from physical experiments that have focussed on understanding changes in process behaviour as flows exit channels. We integrate field observations and numerical modelling that offer insight into flow behaviours in channel mouth settings. From this analysis, we propose four types of channel mouth setting: 1) supercritical CMEZs on slopes; 2) plunge pools at steep slope breaks with high incoming supercritical Froude numbers; 3) CLTZs with arrays of hydraulic jumps at slope breaks with incoming supercritical Froude numbers closer to unity; and, 4) subcritical CLTZs associated with slope breaks and/or flow expansion. Identification of the stratigraphic record of channel mouth settings is complicated by the propagation, and avulsion, of channels. Nonetheless, recent studies from ancient outcrop and subsurface systems have highlighted the dynamic evolution of interpreted CLTZs, which range from composite erosion surfaces, to tens of metres thick stratigraphic records. We propose that some examples be reconsidered as exhumed CMEZs.

@article{doi103389feart2022790320,
    author = "Hodgson, David M. and Peakall, Jeff and Maier, K. L.",
    title = "Submarine Channel Mouth Settings: Processes, Geomorphology, and Deposits",
    year = "2022",
    journal = "Frontiers in Earth Science",
    abstract = "Observations from the modern seafloor that suggest turbidity currents tend to erode as they lose channel-levee confinement, rather than decelerating and depositing their sediment load, has driven investigations into sediment gravity flow behaviour at the mouth of submarine channels. Commonly, channel mouth settings coincide with areas of gradient change and play a vital role in the transfer of sediment through deep-water systems. Channel mouth settings are widely referred to as the submarine channel-lobe transition zone (CLTZ) where well-defined channel-levees are separated from well-defined lobes, and are associated with an assemblage of erosional and depositional bedforms (e.g., scours and scour fields, sediment waves, incipient channels). Motivated by recently published datasets, we reviewed modern seafloor studies, which suggest that a wide range of channel mouth configurations exist. These include traditional CLTZs, plunge pools, and distinctive long and flared tracts between channels and lobes, which we recognise with the new term channel mouth expansion zones (CMEZs). In order to understand the morphodynamic differences between types of channel mouth settings, we review insights from physical experiments that have focussed on understanding changes in process behaviour as flows exit channels. We integrate field observations and numerical modelling that offer insight into flow behaviours in channel mouth settings. From this analysis, we propose four types of channel mouth setting: 1) supercritical CMEZs on slopes; 2) plunge pools at steep slope breaks with high incoming supercritical Froude numbers; 3) CLTZs with arrays of hydraulic jumps at slope breaks with incoming supercritical Froude numbers closer to unity; and, 4) subcritical CLTZs associated with slope breaks and/or flow expansion. Identification of the stratigraphic record of channel mouth settings is complicated by the propagation, and avulsion, of channels. Nonetheless, recent studies from ancient outcrop and subsurface systems have highlighted the dynamic evolution of interpreted CLTZs, which range from composite erosion surfaces, to tens of metres thick stratigraphic records. We propose that some examples be reconsidered as exhumed CMEZs.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.790320",
    doi = "10.3389/feart.2022.790320",
    openalex = "W4211014296",
    references = "doi105194nhess138332013"
}

Submarine Groundwater Discharge (SGD) is a major pathway for the discharge of fresh and saline groundwater and associated dissolved compounds into marine environments. However, assessing SGD processes in coastal aquifers is challenging due to inaccessibility, dynamic conditions, complex subsurface geology, and the need for long-term monitoring to capture temporal and spatial variations in SGD rates accurately. This study employs marine continuous resistivity profiling (MCRP) as a main method to assess the presence of freshwater or brackish SGD offshore and to examine its potential seasonal variations. The method has been applied in the coastal alluvial aquifer of Maresme (Spain) and validated with other methods to trace SGD, including salinity profiles, Ra isotopes, and piezometric levels. Several MCRP transects of 700 m long, perpendicular to the coastline, were performed in a coastal marine area to obtain electrical resistivity data of the seabed covering an area of 3 km2. The data was acquired in two field campaigns with contrasting hydrological conditions (dry and wet seasons). The MCRP results allow the identification of areas of fresh SGD in marine sediments, with a clear seasonal variability that indicates a higher discharge of fresh groundwater in the wet season.

@article{doi101038s4159802475984z,
    author = "Tur-Piedra, Jose and Ledo, J. and Diego-Feliu, M. and Queralt, P. and Marcuello, Á. and Rodellas, V. and Folch, A.",
    title = "Spatial and seasonal fluctuations in fresh submarine groundwater discharge revealed by marine continuous resistivity profiling",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Scientific Reports",
    abstract = "Submarine Groundwater Discharge (SGD) is a major pathway for the discharge of fresh and saline groundwater and associated dissolved compounds into marine environments. However, assessing SGD processes in coastal aquifers is challenging due to inaccessibility, dynamic conditions, complex subsurface geology, and the need for long-term monitoring to capture temporal and spatial variations in SGD rates accurately. This study employs marine continuous resistivity profiling (MCRP) as a main method to assess the presence of freshwater or brackish SGD offshore and to examine its potential seasonal variations. The method has been applied in the coastal alluvial aquifer of Maresme (Spain) and validated with other methods to trace SGD, including salinity profiles, Ra isotopes, and piezometric levels. Several MCRP transects of 700 m long, perpendicular to the coastline, were performed in a coastal marine area to obtain electrical resistivity data of the seabed covering an area of 3 km2. The data was acquired in two field campaigns with contrasting hydrological conditions (dry and wet seasons). The MCRP results allow the identification of areas of fresh SGD in marine sediments, with a clear seasonal variability that indicates a higher discharge of fresh groundwater in the wet season.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-75984-z",
    doi = "10.1038/s41598-024-75984-z",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "4",
    semanticscholar_id = "4f2d188f76db4dcc0e93d92a7e143b4112b9f318",
    volume = "14"
}

Alongside turbidites and debrites, hybrid event beds are now recognized as a common occurrence in deep-marine environments. Yet, many variations in the standard H1–H5 facies model of Haughton et al. (2009, Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 26, p. 1900–1918) have been described since its introduction, with the role of transient-turbulent flows, i.e., flows that are transitional between fully turbulent turbidity currents and fully laminar debris flows, being particularly enigmatic. Based on a comprehensive dataset collected from the lobe fringe and distal fringe of a submarine fan (Silurian Aberystwyth Grits Group and Borth Mudstone Formation, West Wales, United Kingdom), transitional-flow signatures were integrated into the standard hybrid-event-bed model. These signatures include muddy sandstones and sandy mudstones with large ripples (formed by turbulence-enhanced transitional flows), low-amplitude bed waves and heterolithic lamination (formed by turbulence-attenuated transitional flows), and banding (formed by turbulence-enhanced to turbulence-attenuated transitional flows). The field data reveal that: (a) H1 divisions are generated by turbulent flows that form not only massive, structureless facies but also plane-parallel-laminated and ripple-cross-laminated facies; (b) H2 divisions are formed by transitional flows that form banded facies, but also facies with large ripples and low-amplitude bed waves, as well as heterolithic facies; (c) H3 divisions are formed by laminar debris flows of varied rheology; (d) H4 divisions can form from both tractional turbulent and transitional flows; and (e) H5 divisions can be hemipelagic, deposited from the dilute tail of the flow or originate from cohesive freezing of a late-stage muddy debris flow. Based on embedded Markov-chain analysis, the vertical stacking of facies in the five principal hybrid-event-bed divisions suggests a transformation from turbidity current via transitional flow to debris flow (H1 to H3), followed by a repetition of this transformation in the H4 and H5 divisions, but in overall finer-grained sediment. In addition to this complete extended facies model for hybrid event beds, three incomplete bed types could be defined: turbulent-flow-prone, transitional-flow-prone with an H3 division, and transitional-flow-prone without an H3 division. The sedimentary successions in the study area reveal a basinward change from predominantly turbidites and turbulent-flow-prone hybrid event beds via a mixture of turbulent-flow and transitional-flow signatures in hybrid events beds to H3 missing hybrid event beds with transitional-flow and muddy-debrite signatures. Hence, sediment gravity flows became increasingly muddy and cohesive from lobe fringe to lobe distal fringe.

@article{doi102110jsr2024023e,
    author = "Łapcik, Piotr and Baas, J.",
    title = "Integrating transitional-flow signatures into hybrid event beds: implications for hybrid-flow evolution on a submarine lobe fringe",
    year = "2024",
    journal = "Journal of Sedimentary Research",
    abstract = "Alongside turbidites and debrites, hybrid event beds are now recognized as a common occurrence in deep-marine environments. Yet, many variations in the standard H1–H5 facies model of Haughton et al. (2009, Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 26, p. 1900–1918) have been described since its introduction, with the role of transient-turbulent flows, i.e., flows that are transitional between fully turbulent turbidity currents and fully laminar debris flows, being particularly enigmatic. Based on a comprehensive dataset collected from the lobe fringe and distal fringe of a submarine fan (Silurian Aberystwyth Grits Group and Borth Mudstone Formation, West Wales, United Kingdom), transitional-flow signatures were integrated into the standard hybrid-event-bed model. These signatures include muddy sandstones and sandy mudstones with large ripples (formed by turbulence-enhanced transitional flows), low-amplitude bed waves and heterolithic lamination (formed by turbulence-attenuated transitional flows), and banding (formed by turbulence-enhanced to turbulence-attenuated transitional flows). The field data reveal that: (a) H1 divisions are generated by turbulent flows that form not only massive, structureless facies but also plane-parallel-laminated and ripple-cross-laminated facies; (b) H2 divisions are formed by transitional flows that form banded facies, but also facies with large ripples and low-amplitude bed waves, as well as heterolithic facies; (c) H3 divisions are formed by laminar debris flows of varied rheology; (d) H4 divisions can form from both tractional turbulent and transitional flows; and (e) H5 divisions can be hemipelagic, deposited from the dilute tail of the flow or originate from cohesive freezing of a late-stage muddy debris flow. Based on embedded Markov-chain analysis, the vertical stacking of facies in the five principal hybrid-event-bed divisions suggests a transformation from turbidity current via transitional flow to debris flow (H1 to H3), followed by a repetition of this transformation in the H4 and H5 divisions, but in overall finer-grained sediment. In addition to this complete extended facies model for hybrid event beds, three incomplete bed types could be defined: turbulent-flow-prone, transitional-flow-prone with an H3 division, and transitional-flow-prone without an H3 division. The sedimentary successions in the study area reveal a basinward change from predominantly turbidites and turbulent-flow-prone hybrid event beds via a mixture of turbulent-flow and transitional-flow signatures in hybrid events beds to H3 missing hybrid event beds with transitional-flow and muddy-debrite signatures. Hence, sediment gravity flows became increasingly muddy and cohesive from lobe fringe to lobe distal fringe.",
    url = "https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f3628c4955d723476d5a5bcac72ab25d11f92ecc",
    doi = "10.2110/jsr.2024.023e",
    is_oa = "true",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "3",
    semanticscholar_id = "f3628c4955d723476d5a5bcac72ab25d11f92ecc"
}

Systematic morphometric studies of submarine potential geohazard elements such as mud volcanism are still limited in the scientific literature. To fill this gap and contribute to the global geohazard databases, we present a comprehensive inventory of submarine mud volcanoes (MVs) considering their spatial location and characteristics. The “Global inventory of submarine mud volcanoes” database here presented includes a large dataset, providing an overview of the morphometric analyses we performed as well as the considerations that arose from them. These cover basic marine geological and applied geohazard aspects. We explored frequency-area distribution patterns within this dataset, as typical of other geoscientific branches. This effort is a first step towards a shared and open knowledge of MVs, through which the marine geology community would further investigate the genesis of such phenomena and contribute to society in making informed decisions on related submarine geohazards.

@article{doi101038s41597025047261,
    author = "Napoli, Simone and Spatola, Daniele and Casalbore, D. and Lombardo, Luigi and Tanyaș, H. and Chiocci, F.",
    title = "Comprehensive global inventory of submarine mud volcanoes",
    year = "2025",
    journal = "Scientific Data",
    abstract = "Systematic morphometric studies of submarine potential geohazard elements such as mud volcanism are still limited in the scientific literature. To fill this gap and contribute to the global geohazard databases, we present a comprehensive inventory of submarine mud volcanoes (MVs) considering their spatial location and characteristics. The “Global inventory of submarine mud volcanoes” database here presented includes a large dataset, providing an overview of the morphometric analyses we performed as well as the considerations that arose from them. These cover basic marine geological and applied geohazard aspects. We explored frequency-area distribution patterns within this dataset, as typical of other geoscientific branches. This effort is a first step towards a shared and open knowledge of MVs, through which the marine geology community would further investigate the genesis of such phenomena and contribute to society in making informed decisions on related submarine geohazards.",
    url = "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-025-04726-1",
    doi = "10.1038/s41597-025-04726-1",
    is_oa = "true",
    number = "1",
    semanticscholar_citation_count = "8",
    semanticscholar_id = "da0d9de571b5882964e8690844d21b38918b0c2a",
    volume = "12"
}